THE MIXING of ENGLISH and THAI in THAI TELEVISION PROGRAMS Prathana Kannaovakun1 Albert C. Gunther2 Abstract

THE MIXING OF Results suggest that code-mixing serves ENGLISH AND THAI IN more than a simple utilitarian purpose: the majority of code-mixing displayed THAI TELEVISION neither an emphatic function nor a PROGRAMS linguistic need function. It may instead fall into other functional categories, such Prathana Kannaovakun1 as a prestige motive or expressive 2 functions observed in earlier studies of Albert C. Gunther code-mixing of Eng! ish in other languages. Many of the English words Abstract embedded into the Thai language have undergone modification: truncation, hybridization, conversion, semantic shift, This study set out to systematically reduplication, or syntactical change. observe and describe the mixing of These processes of nativization of English with Thai-based discourse, often English words into Thai discourse termed code-mixing, in Thai television appeared similar to those reported in programs. Data came from 100 hours other parts of the world. ofprogramming randomly sampled from five genres of Thai television programs - Thai drama, talk or variety shows, Introduction academic or hard talk shows, game shows and sports programs. English is neither a national language nor an official language in Thailand; Findings showed that code-mixing is however, it is certainly considered the common, with sports programs most important foreign language. The producing the most. A great number of prestigious status of English is reflected code-mixing were single nouns. English in the emphasis that the education mixes occurred even when Thai system and the job market place on equivalents existed. A few were used English. A good knowledge of English for emphasis or clarification, but most is required for many well-paid job were not. Celebrities produced the most positions. English is recognized as an code-mixing, followed by experts and important language in international trade, authorities. Most of the code-mixing diplomacy and tourism. It is also essential in the fields of science, technology and came from program hosts. medicine. English is symbolic of education, sophistication, and prestige. It seems that anyone who can use this language will be associated with people 1 Ph.D., Lecturer, Department of Western who have prestige and good education. Languages, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Prince of Songkla English first came in contact with Thai University, Pattani, Thailand under the reign ofKing Rama ill. During the reigns of King Ramas IV and V the 2 Ph.D., Professor, Department of Life English language was almost exclusively Sciences Communication, University of used by the royals and the elites Wisconsin-Madison, U.S.A. (Prasithrathsint, 2002). Later thanks to the expansion in education and economic

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development, many have acquired a 2) specifying the addressee or excluding knowledge of English. Moreover, within someone from a conversation, 3) the past decade, Thai society has begun changing the role of the speaker or the to experience globalization in almost all speaker's involvement, 4) emphasizing aspects of life. Globalization has been group identity or quoting someone, and accompanied by the use of English as a 5) qualifying a message or conveying means of communication. It is the emotions. Thus, switching from or practical need for English which has mixing one language with the other(s) given it an important role. The domain in a speech community embodies the of English has gradually expanded to assumption that use of one particular daily interactions among Thai people. As language is more appropriate in a special in other parts of the world, such as social context than another. And Germany, Brazil, Taiwan and Hong because of the importance of English Kong, new patterns of behavior, such as a world language in science and as the desire to use English in some daily technology, as well as in international life activities, listening to and watching trade and commerce, the use of English foreign media, and pursuing higher for discussing such topics will always studies in the West, have been observed give an impression of authority, in Thailand. This facilitates the increase credibility and authenticity. It is not in use of Thai-English code-mixing or surprising that this language is popular the insertion of English words, phrases, and often mixed in the mass media and sentences in Thai. because of the positive attributes associated with English. Masavisut et Generally defined, code-mixing involves al. ( 1986) have found that in Thailand, intrasentential switching, and code• English is very often used in switching intersentential switching. advertisements placed in magazines. Code-switching, involving linguistic units Even a glance at Thai advertising above the clause level, is rare in nowadays shows how ingrained English Thailand, hence the term 'code-mixing' has become. is used in this study ( cf. Chen, 1996). Research on the functions of code• Foreign words are present m any mixing and code-switching has shown language, and often for good reasons. that employing these strategies aims at However, there has been a sense of fear conveying linguistic and semantic in many countries where the people information. (e.g., Gumperz, 1971; perceive that their language(s) are being Hoffman, 1971; Gal, 1979; and Scotton, influenced by English. In Brazil, for 1976). Furthermore, the use of code• example, Mr. Rebelo, a member of mixing underlines speakers' intentions. Congress, was alarmed by the use of It functions as 'a conversational strategy English-language terms in business and used to establish, cross, or destroy group technology when "there are perfectly boundaries; to create, evoke or change adequate Portuguese-language interpersonal relations with the substitutes."3 (New York Times accompanying rights and obligations' International, Tuesday 15 May 2001) (Gal, 1988: 247). Grosjean (1982) Another example comes from Germany summarized the functions of using the where many young people mix their communicative strategy as follows: 1) language with English so freely that their filling a linguistic need for lexical items, speech has acquired a name; Denglish

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(Deutsch and English). For fear of language, but in English. This is the German being infected by English, phenomenon that has been labelled Hermann Dieter, leader of the 'nativization' ofEnglish. The discussion Association of German Language, is in this study deals with nativization, since fighting a war against English there is no available study on the words.4(USA TODAY, May 2001) These nativization of English in Thailand. are only some examples to show the fear of the use of unchecked English in one's N ativization of English language. To date there have been many studies In many languages that have come in done on the processes of nativization of contact with the English language, English in various parts of the world, for researchers have found several example, Bobda (1994); Cheshire common characteristics of language (1991);Kachru (1982, 1986);andShim change. One phenomenon of language (1994). The researchers have found change due to the influence of English several common characteristics of the has been termed Englishization. This is phenomenon. Some of them are a phenomenon in which the local described below: language undergoes linguistic 1. Truncation. The process occurs assimilation with features ofthe English when an English word is borrowed language. The other phenomenon of and truncated to a shorter form. For language change occurs, not in the local instance, in Korean the word 'super' is shortened from an English word 'supermarket' (Shim, 1994). 'Bath' in Cameroon English refers 3 Mr. Rebelo was sponsoring legislation that to 'bathroom' and 'spare' to 'spare would outlaw the use of foreign words in Brazil. The proposal was approved by the tyre' in English. Thai people uses .lower house ofCongress on March 29, 200 I. the word 'com' when referring to Business and advertising groups were the word 'computer' in English. lobbying intensely to defeat it in the Senate. 2. Hybridization. Shim (1994) refers to (Rohter, Larry. English Is Spoken Here .. . the hybridized forms when English Too Much, Some Say, New York Times nouns and adjectives are joined with International, Tuesday 15 May 2001) the Korean predicative -hata, adjectival - han, and adverbial - 4 Mr. Hermann Dieter and his groups of hake. The word 'liberal' in English, for example. When it is used with• 8,500 Germans have vowed to actively monitor and protect their mother tongue. hata (libolol-hata), it means 'to be He warned that if the trend of using Denglish liberal'; with -han (libolol-han) was unabated, German would be ruined or meaning '(x) who is liberal' and die. He suggested Germany should appoint with -hake (libolol-hake) meaning an expert panel to develop appropriate 'liberally'. German words, similar to what is being done 3. Conversion. This occurs when a in France, a country that in 1635 established word changing from one class to specifically to protect the purity of the another. For example, a noun 'a French language. (Komarow, Steven. Some chairman' is converted into a verb Germans fear language is being infected by 'to chairman', or an adjective English. USA TODAY, 16May2001).

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'pregnant' into a verb 'to employ both languages in TV shows, pregnant' advertising, popular songs, and 4. Semantic shift. Many English words newspapers. Moreover, like in many are brought into other languages countries such as Germany, Brazil, with a semantic shift. For example, French, there has been a sense of fear 'condominium' or /khontol in among the Thais that the use of English Korean refers to membership has brought new cultural ideas and housing at resorts; 'vila' or /pi/a/ in western norms and deteriorated the Thai Korean refers to privately owned language. Strong criticism has often apartment (Shim, 1994). The word been made against the mixing ofEnglish 'deadline' is replaced by 'date line' in the mass communication in. Thailand in Cameroon English (Bobda, 1994). for fear that the spread of Thai-English 5. Reduplication. This refers to code-mixing has had an effect on the repeating a word consecutively. The attitudes, behavior and thoughts ofThai word categories such as numerals, people, their language, culture and intensifiers, and quantifiers generally national identity (Khanitthanan, 1983; undergo this process (Bobda, 1994). Mantrasutra, 1982; Sangpolsitha, 1981 ). Here are some examples from Cameroon English: Thus, the present study is an attempt to Your team played very very well. determine the extent to which Thai• There are many many English code-mixing is used in Thai Cameroonians who can no television programs. In other words, it longer make ends meet. is to describe the phenomenon of mixing English in Thai-based discourse While the process of nativization is a observed from television programs. In natural phenomenon of language addition, the processes of nativized contact, it is unwelcome to Singaporean features of English mixed in the Thai government, which most of its people language are observed as well. from all walks of life speak Singlish, a term for the English language spoken Methodology with the Chinese grammar. The evidence is revealed from the fact that Data for the study came from 100 hours Singapore restricted young people under of programming randomly sampled from the age of seventeen to viewing the five genres ofThai television programs movie: Talking Cock, which is a comedy film without violent or pornographic content. The 15-second 5 According to Prime Minister Goh Chok spot for the movie was also banned. The Tong, Singlish has spoiled Singapore's reason for the restriction and the banning image as a country of international trade was due to the use of Singlish in the and financial center. Speaking Singlish movie.5 (Krungthep Thurakit, 30 July makes Singoreans look less smart and less 2002) sophisticated. As a result, the govenunent initiated a campaign, Speak Good English Movement (SGEM) as one of its measures It is a common perception that the trend to encourage the use of standard English of inserting English words in Thai-based among Singaporeans. (Singlish Singapore: interactions, as in any language, has been Image or Language Deterioration, reinforced by the mass media which Krungthep Thurakit, 30 July 2002)

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- Thai drama, talk or variety shows, 3.2 compound noun academic or hard talk shows, game 3.3 verb shows and sports programs. Each genre 3.4 adjective consisted of 20 hours of television 3.5 adverb programs. Since the length of each 3.6 others program episode varied, the number of the program episodes for each genre 4. Nativized feature of code-mixed was not equal. The total of the sample items: was 123 program episodes which were 4.1 hybridization distributed as follows: 1) 21 drama 4.2 conversion episodes, 2) 26 talk show or variety 4.3 semantic shift show program episodes, 3) 26 hard talk 4.4 reduplication program episodes, 4) 23 game show 4.5 word order episodes, and 5) 27 sports program 4.6 truncation episodes. 5. Existence in Thai dictionaries: Before the coding was conducted, a 5.1 No (not appearing m the coding scheme had been developed dictionaries) based on several related studies (e.g. 5.2 Yes (appearing in the dictionaries) Chen, 1996; Gibbons, 1987; Grosjean, 1982; Li, 2000; Yau, 1993). The coding To code the variable, the coders needed scheme consists of eight variables to look up whether the mixed codes needed for the data coding. They appeared in four standard Thai include: dictionaries. The titles are listed in the coding manual provided in the I. Level ofmixing: appendice. 1.1 word 1.2 phrase 6.. Thai equivalence: 1.3 clause/sentence 6.1 No (without any equivalent) 1.4 abbreviation 6.2 Yes (with Thai equivalent) 1.5 expression (i.e. hi, hello, thanks, Oh, my god). The coders looked up the meaning of the English mix in a New Model 2. Function of code-mixed items: English-Thai Dictionary compiled by 2.1 emphasis or clarification (referring So Sethaputra to determine whether the to when a speaker speaks a Thai mixed code has any equivalent meaning word followed by an equivalent in Thai. Only precise meanings in Thai English word or vice versa were accepted as equivalents . 2.2 jargon (referring to a technical Paraphrasing was disregarded. The term) interceder reliability among the coders 2.3 both emphasis/clarification and (English graduate students and the first Jargon author) ranged from 94%-97% which 2.4 quotation deemed very high. This ensured that the 2.5 none of the above. judgements among the coders were highly consistent. 3. Grammatical category: 3.1 noun 7. Speaker's role:

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7.1 Program host (3.0%), idiomatic expressions (1.6%) 7.2 Guest or program participant and clauses (0.3%) respectively (see Table 2). 8. Speaker's gender: 8.1 Male Table 1 Number of occurrences of 8.2 Female code mixed items Program Number of Percentage Proper names such as product brand type occurrences names, companies, organizations or Drama 306 4.0 other places were not considered code• Talk.show 990 13.0 mixing. Thus they were omitted from Academic 1,560 20.4 !hard talk the coding. A coding scheme and more Game show 1,157 15.2 details for coding are provided in the Sports 3,622 47.4 appendice. program

Four graduate students were hired to Total 7,635 100.0 assist in coding. All of them had been trained to use the coding scheme before Table 2 Number of occurrences of code the actual coding. The coding manual mixed items categorized by and procedures were provided and levels of mixing explained to the coders. To ensure high interceder reliability, all the coders met Level of Number of Percentage mixing occurrences with the first author at the end of each Word 6,722 88.0 week for the first two weeks after the Phrase 540 7.1 coding to discuss and resolve certain Clause/ 22 0.3 questions or issues that were sentence encountering during the coding. Thus, Abbreviation 229 3.0 the interceder reliability was satisfactory, Expression 122 1.6 Total ranging from 94%-97%. Incidents of 7,635 100.0 disagreement among the coders were subsequently resolved via discussion. The examination of the distribution of Results the code-mixed elements by grammatical category revealed that the majority of The analysis of the data showed that the the code-mixing in the data were at the sports programs tended to use Thai• level of single nouns. That is, 77.4% of English code-mixing more often than the total number of occurrences of code• other genres. The study found that mixed items were single nouns (e.g. 47..4% ofcod e-mixing came from sports, ' course', ' trainer ', ' dinner'); 8.1% 20.4% from academic talk or hard talk verbs (e.g. 'support', ' cancel', programs, 15.2% from game shows, 'promote'); 4.9% compound nouns (e.g. 13.0% from talk shows or variety shows 'matching fund', ' love scene', ' mini and 4.0% from Thai drama (see Table series'); 5.1 % adjectives (e.g. 'crazy', 1) . The magnitude oflexical mixing was ' serious', 'special'). It also revealed that evident. That is, 88.0% of the code• expressions & others (e.g. ' alright', mixing involved single words, followed 'bye', 'of course') and single adverbs by phrases (7 .1 %), abbreviations (e.g. 'exactly' , 'sincerely') showed a

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very low tendency for mixing, at 4.3% As regards the function of the code• and 0.1% respectively (see Table 3). mixing, Table 6 revealed that 9.8% involved jargon or terms in scientific, Table 3 Number of occurrences of academic, and technical registers. A code mixed items categorized number of jargon words had no Thai by grammatical categories equivalents (e.g. ' mouse', 'internet', 'web' in computer technology; and 'birdy', 'touchdown' in sports). Although Gramm atical Number of Percentage category occurrences a few of them had Thai equivalents (e.g. N oun 5,9 10 77 .4 'cut', 'scene' in filming; and 'copy', C ompound 376 4.9 'click', 'save' in computer usage), these no un Verb 61 9 8.1 were the terms with which speakers Adjective 392 5.1 were more familiar in English than in Ad verb 9 0.1 Thai. The use of jargon was motivated Expression 329 4.3 by a linguistic need for lexical items or & othe rs T otal 7,635 100.0 a 'need-filling motive' (Hockett, 1958:405). Speakers used embedded English jargon in Thai-based The study found that the English mixed conversation to express ideas, concepts, in Thai discourse took place even when or objects to which they had had much equivalents in Thai existed with 64.3% exposure through English books, mass of the total number of occurrences (e.g. communication, or the speech of others. 'balance', 'designer', 'confirm') and 4 7.3 % of them appeared in Thai Table 6 Number of occurrences of dictionaries as loanwords (e.g. 'gas', code mixed items categorized 'film', ' microphone') (see Tables 4 and by functions 5). Table 4 Number of occ:>urrences of Function Number of Percentage code mixed items with Thai occurrences Emphasis or 306 4.0 equivalents clarification Jargon 750 9.8 Thai Number of Percentage Both 31 0.4 equi valent occurrences Quotation 25 0.3 No 2,726 35.7 Others 6,523 85.4 Yes 4,909 64.3 Total 7,635 100.0 T otal 7,63 5 100.0

In addition, only 4.0% of the total Table 5 Number of occurrences of number of occurrences of code-mixing code mixed items existing m was used for emphasis or clarification. Thai dictionaries Some examples are illustrated below:

Existing in Number of Percentage extra phi se:t Thai occurrences discount suan lot d ictionaries N o 4,024 52.7 du: Ire: take care Yes 3,611 47.3 thank you kh ; :p khun Total 7,63 5 100.0

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9.8% was considered jargon. However, shorter forms ( 4.0%): com(puter), the majority of the occurrences of code• stu( dio ), air( conditioner). mixing were identified as serving neither 2. Hybridization. The hybridized emphatic/clarificatory functions nor words took English words (noun/ linguistic need fi.mctions (jargon). Those adjective) and joined them with a a Thai items could possibly fall into other prefix or noun (2.8%), for instance, functions such as the prestige motive, 'ka:n'-, 'nak'-, 'khwa:m'-. Some or the expressive function observed in examples are as follows: 'ka:nba:la:n' some earlier studies of code-mixing of (=balance), 'nak-k6:p' (=golf player), English in other languages (Grosjean, 'khwa:msinsia' (= sincerity), 'samut 1982; Chen 1996). This type of n6:t' (=notebook), 'th5:ka:t' (= gas description was beyond the scope ofthis pipeline), 'fi:m kr::>:I) sre:IJ' (= sun• study. Yet, it has already explored in filtering tape). another study by the same authors. The 3. Conversion. Conversion study found that the language mixing refers to a word changing from one class between Thai and English was to another (one part of speech to motivated by pragmatic reasons such as another)(Bobda, 1994). Only 1.3% of filling lexical gaps, expediencies, and the the samples observed this feature. principle oflinguistic economy as well Miscellaneous cases of conversion are as by ulterior motives such as satisfying illustrated below: certain psychological needs relating to such as prestige and image making. (Kannaovakun and Gunther, 2002).

Under closer examination, the study revealed that the sports programs tended to use more jargon than other genres (78.7%), followed by academic talk or hard talk programs (10.4%), talk show or variety shows (5.7%), game shows (4.9%), and Thai dramas (0.3%) (see Table 7).

The processes ofnativization of English words mixed into Thai discourse were in many ways similar to the processes of nativization that had been reported in other parts ofthe world(e.g. Shim, 1994; Bobda, 1994). The localized characteristics of English words mixed to Thai-based conversation are reported below. The percentage of occurrences of each feature is shown in Table 8.

1. Truncation. The English words in the study were truncated to

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...., C/) ...., a ;:t> tJ ....,""0 3.1 Noun - -> Verb . 0 '0 !>) 0 !>) ...., 0 !>) !>) 0 to success : as in e. .;:l. 3(1) 0.. - (1) ~ 3 . ~ !>) !>) !>)< I tha: rau sakses/ .. . 3 :::!. 3 c=;· (1) = If we success ... ::? !>) -< ~ ...., C/l (1) to action: as in 0.. ::r 0 frau rekchan di:/ !>) - ~ = We action well. ~

w \0 ~ ...... Vl 00 0 0 00 0 00 ,..-.., Q 3.2 Verb -> Noun 0\ ,...... ,...... N ,..-.., N !>) ,...... N ...... ,...... ;:l...... \..>.) 0\ nominate: as in \0 Vl \0 ::n 0 w 'cf?. 0 0 ~ ~ 0 !>) /th;}: pen m:mine:t/. 'cf?. w '-" ...... 'cf?. "-' 'cf?. c; · '-" '-" 'cf?. '-"'*- = She is nominate. "-' ::s 0...., (Note that in Thai there (1) is no article in front of 3 '0::r a noun). !>) C/l (i;' 3.3 Noun-> Adjective

-....) Vl w -....) ~ N '--< happiness : as in Vl \0 -....) 00 w ,...... !>)...., 0 0 ,..-.., ,..-.., ,...... 0 /chan ru:swk hrepines/ ,..-.., ,..-.., ~ Vl ...... -....) w ~ \0 -0 -....) ::s = I feel happiness. 0 00 ~ 'cf?. 0 ~ 'cf?. 'cf?. "-' 'cf?. '-" 'cf?. "-' '"r1 '-" 'cf?. "-' '-" ::sc 4 Semantic shift. Some English 0 \..>.) ::t. words mixed to Thai conversation with ...... N w N N I t:rJ 0 ~ ,...... ,...... ,...... 0 ::s ,...... ,...... \0 0\ 0\ a semantic shift ( 1.2%). Some examples ...... -....) 0 Vl s- ...... , 0 -....) 0\ Vl are as follows: ":::'( 0 0 ~ 'cf?. 0 'cf?. "-' '-" "-' 0 queue: as in 'cf?. 'cf?. 0.. ~· "-' "-' (1) I 3 /mi: khiu/ 3 C/l ~ · I I I =having an appointment, not N N N (1) Vl w ,0 ,...... c 0.. available ....--...... --... 00 0 \0 ...... ~· -0 N 'cf?. !>) mouth: /maul "-' ...... 0 c;· 3 'cf?. "-''*- C/l =talk "-' ::l checkbill: /chek bin/ = bill, please. 0\ ,.IV ...... 00 N 0 Vl 00 0 w 00 \0 ..... N \0 0\ -....) Vl 0\ ::r act: as in lkh1:rek/ ,...... (1) w Vl \0 00 ,..-..,...... , ....--... ,..-.., ....--... ,...... ~ C/l =arrogant ...... N w Vo -0 t 0\ ...... lock: as in /khau 16kl 0 'cf?. ~ ~ ...... '-" 'cf?. 'cf?. 'cf?. 'cf?. "-'"''*- = as expected, as planned '-" '-" '-" ......

-.} w ...... \0 \..>.) ...., 5. Reduplication. Reduplication 0\ "v...... v. \0 0 0 0 \0 Vo 0\ 0 0\ refers to the repetition of a word 0\ \0 ...... 0 ,..-..,...... --...... -!::. ,...... ,...... ,...... ,.-... consecutively (Bobda, 1994). The ...... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 category of words whic h generally 0 0 0 0 'cf?. 'cf?. 'cf?. 'cf?. 'cf?. "-' ...... undergoes this kind of process is an "-' '-" ...... "-''*- adjective and the duplication suggests emphasis. The data found only 0.8% of reduplications. Some examples are: lkhau h6t h6t!

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= He is hot hot. The study showed that 44.3% of the /chan ha1 khun fri: fri: I code-mixing speakers were celebrities, =I give you this free free. 12.8% experts, and 3.5% authorities. /an nl: phiaw phiaw I 74.0% of the total mixing came from = This is pure pure. program hosts, and 26.0% from program /t:>huak khau blk blk blkl guests or participants. 77.4% was = They are big big. produced by male speakers and 22.6% by female speakers. The study does not 6. Word order shift. Another suggest the results in a comparative area of nativization of English is a manner since each speaker was not syntactical change or a change in word given the same amount of time for talk. order. In Thai, the modifier comes after The figures here are meant simply to the noun it modifies whereas in English, reflect the demographics of the code• the modifier comes before. The results mixing speakers in the study. showed that when some English compounds were mixed to Thai, the Conclusion modifiers came right after the nouns they modified (0.7%). Some examples This study was to understand the are as follows: phenomenon of the mix of English with tour concert = concert tour Thai. The data of the study came from team football = football team the Thai-based conversation in 100 tapevideo = videotape. hours of television programs. Code• mixing is a natural impact of language Table 8 Number of occurrences of contact. There have been numerous code-mixing by nativized features studies of the mix ofEnglish with other languages around the world. Thai, like

Nativized Number of Percentage any language, has come in contact with feature occurrences English for over a very long period. Thai• Hybridization 210 2.8 English code-mixing should be Conversion 96 1.3 Semantic shift 88 1.2 systematically observed in order to Repetition 60 0.8 understand the scope of the influence Word order 57 0.7 of English on Thai both in terms of Truncation 3 14 4.0 quantity, characteristics of mixing, None of the 6,810 89.1 above functions, situations and speakers' Total 7,635 100.0 profiles as well as the nativized features of English mixed items.

The findings showed that sports The majority of the occurrences of programs used code-mixing the most and code-mixing found in the study did not Thai drama the least. This may reflect show that the English items had the popularity of western sports among undergone any lexical changes in order Thai audience and its impact on the to be assimilated into Thai. In other language used for sports in the Thai words, the Thai speakers mixed the language. Furthermore, most of the English items in their conversation mixes were loanwords and jargon easy without modifying their original features. to understand and familiar among Thai sports fans. On the contrary, the target

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audience for the Thai drama, most of English words used in high-technology which were soap operas, was wider than fields and in the electronic world. To use a group of sports fans and consisted of the word 'computer,' for example, is people from all walks oflife. The use of better than using a Thai word Thai w~s probably the most accessible 'samongkon' or wasting a whole line to the greatest number of audience. giving its definition as "an automatic and electronic machine used for solving Most of the occurrences of English simple and complicated problems by mixed items were at the level of single mathematical procedures". This is the word. They were more nouns than definition appearing in the 1982 Thai verbs, adjectives or other grammatical Royal Academy. However, using the categories. The result is consistent with word 'computer' is more practical the findings in Mustafa and Al-Khatib, because almost everybody in Thailand 1994; and Yau, 1993. The most obvious understands the English word. One explanation could probably be derived cannot deny that there are not good Thai from the fact that as a society has to equivalents for "home page" or "e• keep pace with the advance of mail". technology, more new objects rather than actions or attributes are created and The results also demonstrated nativized introduced into our daily life activities. features of English when mixed into Thai The Thai language also has a constant conversation. The process ofnativization need for new words for those objects, of the English words into Thai discourse in part to accommodate technology and appeared similar to those reported in other innovations introduced over the other parts of the world. From the data, past centuries. Using English words as Thai people have proven creative in a source for new words is very adapting English into their own needs. convenient because much exposure to It would not be surprising if native innovations or new objects is through speakers of English are baffled by the English books and mass usages they encounter in Thailand. communications and most people in the Although the nativization of English may world understand English words. not be damaging when used to communicate among Thai people, As regards the function of the code• learners or users of English with mixing, a few number of occurrences foreigners should be conscious of the of code-mixing were used for emphasis adaptations and avoid using them for or clarification, but most were not. The effective communication. findings also revealed that English mixes occurred even when Thai equivalents Any language is a living organism that existed. The evidence suggested that is evolving: What we need to do is not code-mixing served more than a simple to control the evolution of the language, utilitarian purpose or a linguistic need for but to avoid abuses. The Thai language lexical items, but may rather serve has shown the capacity to accept the expressive functions such as prestige foreign words it wants and to reject the motive. ones it does not want. Whether the Thai-English code-mixing is the However, one could wonder whether ruination of the Thai language is a Thai equivalents could compete with

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question of great complexity and should English: The Spread, Functions be a matter for public debate. and Models of Non-native Englishes. Oxford: Pergamon Press. References Kannaovakun, Prathana and Gunther, AlbertC. 2002. The mixing of Bobda, Augustin S. 1994. Lexical irulovation English and Thai in Thai processes in Cameroon English, television programs: World Englilshes 13.2:245-260. characterisitcs, attitudes, Chen, Su-Chao. 1996. Code-switching as a perceptions, and motivations. verbal strategy among Chinese in Paper presented at the a campus setting in Taiwan. World conference of the Media, Englishes 15.3:267-280. Performance and Identity Cheshire, Jenny. (ed.). 1991. English Research Circle oflnternational around the World: Siciolinguistic Institute of University of Perspectives. Cambridge: Wisconsin-Madison, March 14- Cambridge University Press. 17,2002. Gal, Susan. 1979. Language Shift. Khanitthanan, Wilaiwan. 1983. Influences New York: Academic Press . of Foreign Languages on Thai, a ----. 1988. The political economy of seminar report on Thai Usage. code choice. In Code-Switching: National Research Committee on Anthropological and Philosophy, and National Sociolinguistic Perspectives, ed. Research Committee Office, by Monica Heller. Berlin: Mouton Ministry of Science, Technology De Gruyter. pp. 245-264. and Energy. Gibbons, John. 1987. Code-Mixing and Li, David C. S. 2000. Cantonese-English codeChoice: A Hong Kong case code-switching research in Hong study. Clevedon: Multilingual Kong: a Y2K review. World Matters Ltd. Englishes 19.3:305-322. Grosjean, Francois. 1982. Life with Two Mantrasutra, Somporn. 1982. Seminar on Languages: An Introduction to Current Thai Usage. Bangkok: B~lingualism. Cambridge, M.A.: Odean Store Press. Harvard University Press. Masavisut, Nitaya, Sukwiwat, Mayuri and Gumperz, John. 1971. Language in Social Wongmontha, Seri. 1986. The Groups. Stanford: Stanford power of the English language in University Press. Thai media. World Englishes 5: Hockett, Charles F. 1958. A Course in 197-207. Modern Linguistics. New York: Mustafa, Zahra, and Al-Khatib,Mahmoud. The Macmillan Company. 1994. Code-mixing of Arabic and Hoffman, John. 1971. Puetro Ricans in English in teaching science. NewYork : a language-related World Englishes, 13.2:215-224. ethnographic summary. In Prasithrathsint, Amara. 1999. Language in Bilingualism in the Barrio, ed. Thai Society: Diversity, Change, by J. Fishman, R. Cooper and R. and Development. Bangkok: Ma. Bloomington: Indiana Chulaongkorn University. University Press. Sangpolsitha, Wichitra. 1981 . Knowledge Kachru, Braj B. 1982. The Other Tongue: of Foreign Languages in Thai. English Across Cultures. Bangkok: Odeon Store Press. Urbana: University oflllinois Scotton, Carol Myers. 1976. Strategies of Press . neutrality: language choice in -----. 1986. The Alchemy of uncertain situations, Language 52.4:919-941.

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 11:59:22AM via free access Coding scheme for the analysis of Thai/English code-mixing in Thai-based conversation in television programs 'Genre ...... Tape no ...... Program title ...... Coder's name ......

~ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 .~ Code- Level Role Status Gender Function Grammatical Existence Thai Nativized -e mixed of category in Thai equivalence features ~= Q. item m1xmg dictionaries Q. ~

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Coding Mannual 6Genderrefers to the speaker's sex. Use the numbers below for coding: 'Genre refers to the type of a program. 1 =male Use the following numbers for coding: 2 = female 1 = drama 2 = talk show or variety show 7Function of code-mixed items refers to 3 =academic talk or hard talk program the speaker's underlining intention of 4 =game show using the Thai/English code-mixing. 5 = sports program Details for coding the functions are described below. · Use the following numbers for coding each function. 2Code-mixed item refers to the mix of 1 =emphasis or clarification (referring English and Thai in conversation. When to when a speaker speaks a Thai encountering a code-mixed item, write word followed by an English down the item in the first column. equivalent or vice versa. 2 = jargon (referring to a technical 3Leve1 of mixing refers to the English term used in special fields for language item mixed in Thai. Use the example 'cut' in filming, 'backhand' following numbers for coding: in tennis or other racket sports, 1 =word 'scoop' in newspapers) 2 =phrase 3 =both emphasis/clarification and 2 = clause/sentence prgon 3 =abbreviation 4 = quotation (referring to when a 4 =expression (i.e. ' hi', 'hello', speaker quotes Thai/English mixed 'thanks', 'Oh, my god', 'wow!'). item from other speakers) 5 = others (when a speaker does not 4Role refers to the role of the speaker appear to use the mixed item for any ofThai/English code-mixed items. Use of the above functions) these numbers for coding: 1 = program host 8Grammatical category refers to the 2 =guest or program participant English granunatical categories. Use the following numbers for coding: 5Status refers to the status of the 1 =noun speaker of Thai/English code-mixed 2 = compound noun items. Use these numbers for coding: 3 =verb 1 = celebrities (referring to famous 4 =adjective people in entertainment or media · 5 =adverb business, i.e. movie stars, singers, 6 = expressions and others (referring . models) to 2 = experts (including scholars, the expressions such as ' wow!', university faculties, activists, elites, etc.) 'hello', 'hi', 'thanks',oranyofthe 3 = authorities (referring those combination from 1 to 5 such as carrying authoritative roles regarding the adjective+ noun/compound noun, topic of the conversation, i.e. adverb, verb+ adjective/adverb, government authorities, officials or adjective+ adverb, noun+ verb, politicians) and others) 4 = others

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9Existence in Thai dictionaries refers to 'nak'-, 'khwam'- as in 'khanbalance', the borrowed words from English. Most 'nakgolf', 'khwamsincere') of these loanwords have been 2 = conversion (occurring when an assimilated into Thai and appeared in English mixed item changes its original many Thai Language dictionaries. Use part of speech in English to another: i.e. these numbers for coding: use a noun 'success' as a verb, or a 0 =no (not appearing in the dictionaries) verb 'nominate' as a noun) 1 =yes (appearing in the dictionaries) 3 = semantic shift (occurring when an English item mixed to Thai carries a new To code the variable, the coders need meaning: 'mouth'= 'talk') to look up whether the mixed codes 4 = reduplication (referring to the appear in the following four standard repetition of an English word Thai dictionaries: consecutively: 'free free', 'pure pure') The 1982 Thai Royal 5 = word order shift (referring to the Academy's Dictionary (61h ed.: 1996) use of an English compound noun The King Bhumibol 's Royal with a shift in word order, that is, a Jubilee Thai Dictionary (1 Qth ed. : 1991) modifier comes after the noun it The Thai Royal Academy's modifies: i.e. 'tour concert' not Dictionary for Computer, Revised 'concert tour,' or' team football' not Edition (5th ed. : 2000) 'football team') The Thai Royal Academy's 6 = truncation (occurring when an Dictionary for Information Science (1st English item is cut into a shorter ed.: 1999) form such as 'com' for 'computer' or 'stu' for 'studio') 10Thai equivalent refers to the equivalent meaning of the English mix in Thai. Use these numbers: Proper names such as product brand names, companies, organizations or 0 =no (without any equivalent) places were not considered code-mix• 1 = yes (with Thai equivalent) ing. Thus, they were omitted from the coding The coders look up the meaning of the English mix in a widely used dictionary for Thai students, New Model English• Thai Dictionary compiled by So Sethaputra to determine whether the mixed code has any equivalent meaning in Thai. Only precise meanings in Thai were accepted as equivalents. Paraphrasing was disregarded.

11Nativized features of code-mixed items refer the characteristics described below. Use the following numbers for coding: 1 = hybridization (occurring when a speaker joins an English word with a Thai word or a prefix: i.e. 'khan'-,

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