A PROPELLING PURPOSE A LOOK AT THE MOTIVES BEHIND GROUP SUPPLYING AID TO RENAMO

Emily Bolton

After the decolonization of founder of RENAMO, served as Africa, many countries tackled Chief of the Rhodesian Intelligence problems they had never before Service and constructed his group faced. While freedom felt liberating, out of soldiers from Portugal, it also brought hardships that , and . While differed in nature from previous still an active political party today, trials. Citizens sought to rebuild in 1975 the primary purpose of nations on their own, often with this organization was to gather many differing beliefs, and they information on the whereabouts of fought for leadership. Internal members of the African conflicts did not come as a shock. In National Union, or ZANU, as one such case, civil war broke out for well as to protect the Rhodesian- nearly sixteen years in Mozambique Mozambique border from guerilla because two different parties fought warriors, such as FRELIMO for control of the government.1 members.2 FRELIMO, while not The Mozambican people rid their the main topic of this analysis, was country of the Portuguese in 1975, crucial to the country of Mozambique only to be wrecked internally by the and RENAMO itself. FRELIMO, nationalist groups FRELIMO, the the nationalist organization Frente de Libertação de Moçambique, that liberated Mozambique and RENAMO, the Resistência from Portuguese rule, began to Nacional Moçambicana.After establish the first foundations of a Mozambique gained freedom, both government. While both parties RENAMO and FRELIMO began to sought a free Mozambique, strong establish a following. Ken Flower, ideological differences separated FRELIMO and RENAMO. 1. Bjorn Enge Bertelsen, “War, Peace and Development in Mozambique: A critical 2. ZANU was a nationalist group led by assessment,” (paper presented to a ‘peace . Historical Dictionary Of building and post-war aid’ workshop CMI, Mozambique, 1991 ed., s.v. “Resistencia University of Bergen, Norway, June 2005). Nacional Mocambicana (RENAMO).” 31

A PROPELLING PURPOSE

Ideologically, RENAMO was captivatingly testified that, “there a firmly anti-communist group, is always fighting [in Mozambique,] while FRELIMO was fiercely and we do not know the difference communist.3 Given this vast between the sides. They all wear the difference in political principles, same uniform and carry the same it is not surprising that they weapons. They all demand food espoused quite different opinions even though we have none ourselves, of how they believed their country and they all punish us if we feed should be governed. Ideological the ‘enemy’ only difference is that differences, along with FRELIMO at least RENAMO does not stop cutting off communication and us worshipping God and teaching closing its borders to its neighboring the Gospel.”7 His claims about white ruled countries, marked RENAMO comes from a report the beginning of the civil war titled, “Eyewitness Testimonies in Mozambique.4 Because of of Persecution and Atrocities,” FRELIMO’s communist roots and published in September of 1986. the concomitant threats presented to While the pastors’ name is not given, their own governments, neighboring this statement infers the notion countries, such as Rhodesia, began that the nationalist organization to take precautionary measures RENAMO was in some way and provided material support to linked with and sympathetic to the RENAMO. By 1977, RENAMO organized Christianity. Throughout focused on overthrowing FRELIMO the history of this group, various and ZANLA, the Zimbabwe religious organizations, such as African National Liberation Frontline Fellowship and religious Army.5 During the civil war, a leaders, such as Peter Hammond, majority of RENAMO’s support came into contact with RENAMO came from Protestant religious and provided support for their institutions.6 While it is intriguing operations in Mozambique. While that RENAMO had relations with Western countries considered religious institutions, one must ask RENAMO a terrorist organization why religious organizations were because of their actions committed in alliance with the group at all? against the Mozambican population One pastor, who was located in during the civil war, in reality, the Angonia district of Mozambique both RENAMO and FRELIMO during the time of the civil war, committed atrocities for their own personal gain.8 Although the United 3. Some members of the FRELIMO party came over to RENAMO because of FRELIMO’s States sided with the FRELIMO and communist views. Historical Dictionary portrayed RENAMO as terrorists, Of Mozambique, 1991 ed., s.v. “Resistencia other conservative groups in the Nacional Mocambicana (RENAMO).” United States saw RENAMO as 4. Bertelsen, “War, Peace and Development.” 5. ZANLA is a military branch of ZANU. Alex a group fighting for a democracy. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique Ultimately, each side used (York, England: Centre for Southern African Studies, 1991), 16. 7. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, 6. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, 102. 106. 8. Bertelsen, “War, Peace and Development.” 32 BOLTON horrendous tactics, and one group and extend the Western power. cannot be called terrorist any more RENAMO, being sympathetic to than the other. Since the majority Christians and fighting against of Western countries labeled communism, managed to establish RENAMO as a terrorist group, it a great foundation for support appears odd that RENAMO received that came flowing into their these Christian resources at all, and organization from Western nations. the question still remains: why were Although the secondary Christian organizations involved? literature focusing on RENAMO The idea of Christian is thin, most works recognize organizations backing RENAMO the religious connections of marks an important contradiction the movement and conclude within the Christianity was used by RENAMO because, according to Prexy Nesbitt, in their workings as an organization. it displays an example of Western In comparison, FRELIMO failed involvement in Mozambique to adhere to a certain religion and after decolonization.9 Western even attacked religious customs or “Western-like” nations such and practices.12 Ogbu Kalu argues as, South Africa, Rhodesia, and that RENAMO had Christian Portugal wanted to rid Mozambique support in their fight against of the communist FRELIMO leaders FRELIMO.13 Glenda Morgan adds and place into power a Mozambican to Kalu’s argument, highlighting government that would submit to a that RENAMO actually utilized Western agenda.10 Thus, a significant FRELIMO’s resistance to religion amount of support flowed into by “exploiting” the support that RENAMO from these countries came from religious institutions and Christian organizations within for their own benefit.14 Christianity these nations. Steve Askin expands was, she argues, a way that on the idea that Westerners used RENAMO, as a group, could religion as a way to exercise control gain “legitimacy and support” over nations, such as Mozambique. from external organizations.15 He describes how Christian groups From the available sources, such as Frontline Fellowship from one can see that the help given South Africa, employed the church to RENAMO stemmed from a as a means for “white domination.”11 variety of places with differing Thus, some scholars believe that 12. Glenda Morgan, “Violence in Mozambique: western nations used religion as Towards an Understanding of RENAMO,” Journal of Modern African Studies 28, no. 4 a way to manipulate RENAMO (1990): 603-619. 9. Prexy Nesbitt, “Terminators, Crusaders 13. Ogbu Kalu, “Decolonization of Nigerian and Gladiators: Western (Private & Public) Churches: The Nigerian Experience, 1955- Support for RENAMO & Unita,” Review of 1975,” Nigerian Heritage: Journal of the National African Political Economy, 43 (1988): 111-124. Commission for Museums and Monuments 10 10. Nesbitt, “Terminators, Crusaders and (2001): 35-59. Gladiators: Western (Private & Public) 14. Morgan, “Violence in Mozambique: Support for RENAMO & Unita,” 119. Towards an Understanding of RENAMO,” 11. Steve Askin, “Mission to RENAMO: The 603-619. Militarization of the Religious Right,” Issue: A 15. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, Journal of Opinion 18, no. 2 (1990): 29-38. 109. 33 A PROPELLING PURPOSE

views and beliefs. Throughout that RENAMO could and would this study, readers will see that help them spread their own ideas internal problems and motives to what Westerners considered ultimately formed the backbone of a “corrupted” African Nation. support coming into RENAMO. All the supporters of RENAMO Consequently, through assorted can be seen as fighting for their newspaper articles, memoirs, own needs, and the key question and the public propaganda of assessed in each section is what international organizations involved did each group have to gain from with RENAMO, this article argues their support of RENAMO? that the external organizations contributing to RENAMO had THE CREATION OF RENAMO an agenda of their own. Outside When Ken Flower initially benefactors supported RENAMO created RENAMO in 1975, he because they knew they were gaining sought to establish a fighting force support for their own respective to counter a hostile nation whose causes and gaining something internal stability was in turmoil. from their contribution. Analysis Thus, when RENAMO was first of Western donor motivations for developed for the Rhodesian Special supporting RENAMO illustrates Branch of the army, the gains the the symbiotic relationship between founders sought to receive were RENAMO and its supporters. quite obvious: security and inside Without sponsors from other information. In his memoir, Serving countries, RENAMO would not Secretly: An Intelligence Chief on have been able to operate within Record, Rhodesia into Zimbabwe 1964 to the confines of Mozambique and 1981, Flower discusses the creation of would have dissolved. Yet, as this RENAMO and how it was to benefit article demonstrates, RENAMO’s Rhodesia. In a diary entry from continued existence was intimately March 26, 1974, Flower describes linked to the rhetorical purposes of how he “managed to get agreement its respective donor organizations. from the DGS (Direccao Geral de As a result, this analysis presents Segurança) [Portuguese Intelligence], a move away from examining to form ‘Flechas’ for trans-border RENAMO’s key beliefs into a more operations in Mozambique where detailed examination of the core the security situation continues 16 ideologies of the groups actually to deteriorate.” The Flechas were supporting RENAMO. Throughout “airborne commando-trained this paper, I examine three different units established in 1973, by the supporters of RENAMO, focusing Portuguese secret police on the on their motives and goals they Rhodesian frontier to combat wished to achieve. In the end, national insurgency” and to the overall assistance given to 16. Ken Flower, Serving Secretly: An Intelligence RENAMO stemmed from a diverse Chief on Record, Rhodesia into Zimbabwe, 1964- collection of benefactors that 1981 (London: John Murray, 1987), 140. In believed helping RENAMO would Flower’s memoir, the note states, “Top Secret Note on ‘Flechas and the formation of the change its nationalist ideology and Mozambique National Resistance,’ April 1974.” 34 BOLTON monitor FRELIMO activities within their economic survival.20 After Mozambique.17 Embedded within the closure of this 800-mile border, the establishment of the Flechas Rhodesia and Mozambique were “on was the origins of the RENAMO a war footing.”21 As a result of the nationalist group. Flower formed closure, between 25 and 40 percent RENAMO to construct a security of Rhodesia’s trade had been cut buffer against a violent Mozambique. off from Mozambique.22 As a result, Thus, in his formation of RENAMO, a war broke out between Rhodesia Flower demonstrated that his reason and Mozambique. As Machel for supporting the group was the stationed “3,000 black nationalist protection of his own country and guerillas...on the western border the government within Mozambique. for attacks inside Rhodesia,” Ian After the original groundwork Smith, the President of Rhodesia, for the group was laid in 1973, and Flower fought back.23 After through the Flechas, RENAMO the border closing, the Rhodesian began to grow and flourish. In 1974, government continued to supply middle-ranking officers displaced RENAMO with “logistical, military, the Portuguese government in and financial assistance.”24 To an Lisbon in a military coup.18 Yet extent, RENAMO was Rhodesia’s while the Portuguese presence in way of protecting themselves from Mozambique waned, Rhodesia’s Mozambican warriors, as well as hold on the Mozambique border gaining inside information into the was also weakening. With the internal affairs for Mozambique. threat of the guerrilla war in The main goal of RENAMO was Mozambique growing, Flower to “gather information on FRELIMO once again utilized RENAMO as a and Zanla operations.”25 Flower medium of protection.19 Flower had expanded on this idea in his memoir a duty to his people and their safety as he describes how the “CIO within Rhodesia. RENAMO was (Central Intelligence Organization) a precaution Flower used against was in a position to offer invaluable a country that he believed could help through elements of the MNR not control its own state affairs (or RENAMO) who had been our and its incipient guerrilla war. ‘eyes and ears’ in these areas for The rebel fighters in 20. Flower, Serving Secretly, 163. Mozambique were having an 21. “Mozambique closes border with effect on the economic situation Rhodesia,” The Spokesman Review, March in Rhodesia. Samora Machel, the 4, 1976, 38, accessed April 17, 2012, http:// news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1314& President of Mozambique, had dat=19760304&id=gc4RAAAAIBAJ&sjid closed the border of Mozambique =de0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6861,1256649. to Rhodesia, causing Rhodesia to 22. “Mozambique closes border with Rhodesia,” rely entirely on South Africa for 38. 23. “Mozambique closes border with Rhodesia,” 38. 24. Historical Dictionary Of Mozambique, 1991 17. Historical Dictionary Of Mozambique, 1991 ed., s.v. “Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana ed., s.v. “Flecha(s).” (RENAMO).” 18. Flower, Serving Secretly, xvi. 25. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, 19. Flower, Serving Secretly, xvi. 15. 35 A PROPELLING PURPOSE

more than five years and could assist FRONTLINE FELLOWSHIP the officers of Special Branch and In South Africa, Frontline Military Intelligence employed on Fellowship is a missionary group those operations.”26 This operation, dedicated to serving persecuted called “Operation Dingo,” was to churches in Africa and evangelizing be Rhodesia’s largest raid yet into in war zones. In their report, Mozambique. To help maintain the “Eyewitness Testimonies of element of surprise, Rhodesia used Persecution and Atrocities,” RENAMO as their group behind Frontline shows its support for enemy lines. RENAMO had not RENAMO in the way they describe only been fighting against the group and its members, as well FRELIMO, but also had been able to as how they characterize FRELIMO. spy on them. They also were assisting In 1986, Peter Hammond, the with raids and seriously affecting Founder and Director of Frontline Machel, “whose country was now Fellowship published an article suffering from extreme problems describing the outrageous acts caused by damaged communications of violence committed against and food shortages” from the organization by FRELIMO. RENAMO.27 While RENAMO One statement from the report was acting as a spy for Rhodesia and describes the brutality committed bringing harm to the Mozambican against the ministry by FRELIMO: government, support continued to flow in from the Rhodesian FRELIMO persecuted the government because they proved Church in our district very to be a vital asset in advancing severely: ‘Anyone we find Rhodesia’s goals. Without them, worshipping God is an enemy the inner workings of FRELIMO, of the People.’ They would as well as ZANLA within arrest or kill anyone who they Mozambique, would be a mystery. found praying and preaching. Thus, through the creation and ‘In this country there is no placement of RENAMO into God except Samora Machel,’ Mozambique, one can see how the they told us. During all these 8 motives behind Rhodesia were years we had to meet secretly at of their own accord and political night to worship. Then, in 1982, plan, and ultimately served their RENAMO chased FRELIMO own neocolonial goals. Behind away and for the first time we had freedom to preach the Rhodesia’s motives, one can see 28 cultural, political, and economic Gospel and gather for worship. reasons for wanting to extend Frontline Fellowship’s an arm of power over Mozambique. relationship to RENAMO was However, the army in Rhodesia was clearly based on religion. RENAMO not the only support RENAMO 28. Peter Hammond, “Eyewitness Testimonies was receiving from within Africa. of Persecution and Atrocities,” Frontline Fellowship, accessed March 20, 2012, http:// www.frontline.org.za/news/September1986/ 26. Flower, Serving Secretly, 192. EyeWitnessTestimoniesPersecutionAtrocities. 27. Flower, Serving Secretly, 248. htm. 36 BOLTON extended their sympathies to them, Mozambique was that they were letting them preach and gather for portrayed as fully contributing to worship in the areas they controlled. an organization that believed in the Frontline Fellowship was a same ideas they did. RENAMO was Christian ministry that had access seen as an anti-Marxist, Christian to support and resources to give organization. Consequently, RENAMO. David Robinson argues Frontline was able to portray their in his dissertation that while official organization as backing a group support to RENAMO from South that stood for what many white, Africa was cut of by the N’komati Christian, South Africans believed Accord in 1984, a few of RENAMO’s in. Frontline thought they were supporters within South Africa’s providing “spiritual warfare” against Reconnaissance Commandos, a “communism,” in the nations they special forces unit of the South went out to.32 Bearing in mind African National Defense Force, that many white Africans viewed joined Frontline Fellowship.29 He communism as “irreconcilable with describes how the “former Special Christian beliefs,” their support for Forces [of South Africa,] provided RENAMO should not be surprising.33 RENAMO with what assistance Peter Hammond of Frontline they could independently of the Fellowship also described the Apartheid state, and even personally account of missionaries going into advised Dhlakama at his Gorongosa Mozambique: “‘we preached to the headquarters on a number of [RENAMO] commander and saw occasions.”30 Further, Steve Askin him and his friend take off their articulates how the main form of aid hats and kneel in the dust accepting from Frontline “involved sending Jesus.’ This leader, they said, ‘missionaries’ to work alongside… declared, ‘we need God’ and granted Renamo…and internationally Shekinah ‘freedom to preach in any disseminating quasi-religious area they control.’”34 Hammond’s propaganda against governments and tales of his interaction with the movements that had been targeted RENAMO leader likely caused for attack and destabilization by the white Christians of South the South African military.”31 With Africa to see Hammond as making RENAMO receiving help, however, a difference, fighting for the faith. Frontline got something in return. By describing the actions of For Frontline, the reason for supporting a movement within 32. Askin, “Mission to RENAMO: The Militarization of the Religious Right,” 29. 29. David Alexander Robinson, “Curse on 33. Wessel Visser, “Afrikaner Anti-Communist the Land: A History of the Mozambique Civil History Production in South African War,” (PhD diss., University of Western Historiography,” History Making and Present Australia, 2006): 222. Day Politics, The Meaning of Collective Memory in 30. This quote comes from “a conversation with South Africa, (2007): 308. a former member of the Rhodesian SAS and 34. Peter Hammond, “We Are at War,” a SADF Reconnaissance Commando, April Frontline Fellowship Newsletter 1(1989) quoted 2003, KwaZulu-Natal,” quoted from Robinson, in Steve Askin, “Mission to RENAMO: The “Curse on the Land,” 222. Militarization of the Religious Right,” Issue: 31. Askin, “Mission of RENAMO: The A Journal of Opinion, 18, no. 2 (Summer, 1990): Militarization of the Religious Right,” 35. 29-38. 37 A PROPELLING PURPOSE

FRELIMO in the “Eyewitness National Party,” from 1948 to 1994.37 Testimonies” as ferocious acts The Apartheid regime wanted to committed against Christianity position themselves alongside the and democracy, Hammond, in turn, Western nations and prevent black garnered more support for their nationalist uprisings within the organization as well as RENAMO. country. While black nationalists Christians in South Africa reading began to align themselves with the this article were likely appalled by Communist party, the government the atrocities. Thus, they would decided to pass the Suppression turn against FRELIMO, and support of Communism Act in 1950, which RENAMO, which would lead to their outlawed the Communist Party support for Frontline Fellowship. of South Africa. As a result, C. R. Steve Askin addresses Frontline’s Swart, the Minister of Justice in involvement, emphasizing that 1948, held a dictatorial power over Hammond viewed the “Pretoria’s communism and those associated apartheid regime as a Christian with it.38 Considering that the bulwark against communism and South African government “defined atheism.”35 Since Hammond had nearly all opposition to their cause a desire to fight communism and as communism,” many blacks and atheism, RENAMO proved to be anti-apartheid advocates found the perfect group to support. Once themselves persecuted.39 Swart again, by Frontline supporting had sweeping powers. As a result, RENAMO, they were not only he kept dissidents from publishing prosthelytizing, but they were also documents, making speeches, gaining support from Christians attending meetings or “exist[ing] in within the country and around any meaningful way.”40 Thus, anyone the world who shared their goals. who spoke out against apartheid Apartheid was a potent force in and the South African government South Africa, and as Saul Dubow could be branded a communist and conveys, Christian-nationalism become a pariah in society. Swart’s provided “intellectually coherent power was used to not only define justification for apartheid.”36 Thus, communism as a Marxist-Leninist the Christians of Frontline that ideology, but any “doctrine [which agreed with Apartheid saw it as a fight brought about]…political, industrial, against communism and atheism. social or economic change within Throughout the history of the Union by the promotion Apartheid, the threat of communism of disturbances or disorder.”41 against the Apartheid principles is According to Wessel Visser, a evident. Apartheid was a “system 37. Roger B. Beck, The History Of South Africa of racial discrimination and white (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000), 125. political domination adopted by the 38. Rodney Davenport and Christopher Saunders, South Africa: A Modern History, 5th ed. 35. Askin, “Mission to RENAMO: The (New York: St. Martin’s Press Inc., 2000), 384. Militarization of the Religious Right,” 29. 39. Beck, The History Of South Africa, 129. 36. Saul Dubow, “Afrikaner Nationalism, 40. Beck, The History Of South Africa,129. Apartheid and the Conceptualization of Race,” 41. Davenport and Saunders, South Africa: A Journal of African History 33 (1992): 209. Modern History, 385. 38 BOLTON history professor at Stellenbosch Afrikaner churches…[thus,] the University, “in South Africa the church would act as a vanguard to communists…aimed at destroying shield the Afrikaner people from religion, confiscating private the ‘Red Peril’ [of communism] and property, overthrowing the state its offshoots.”45 RENAMO can be and creating a black republic where seen as a fight against communism blacks and Coloureds ‘would be and atheism and for the notions boss and govern’.”42 He goes on to of democracy and Christianity in explain how, “Christian-nationalist Mozambique. While most likely not alternatives to ‘communist’ trade all Christians within South Africa unions” began to spring up because believed that Apartheid, atheism, of the prejudice “against the ‘threat’ and communism overlapped, of non-racialism propagated by sources show that white South the communists.”43 Frontline African Christians of this time Fellowship can be seen as an supported Apartheid and RENAMO example of a Christian-nationalist because they believed it was keeping union that rose up to fight the out communism and atheism. concepts of communism, and RENAMO was just one front in a THREAT OF COMMUNISM larger war. Frontline battled against Western nations also supported the spread of communism through RENAMO. For reasons similar to their support of RENAMO because Frontline, Western governments the teachings of Christianity portrayed RENAMO as an during Apartheid threatened organization of fellow Christians that communism and atheism fighting communism. In his article, would lead to an upending of the Prexy Nesbitt quotes Michael current racial and political order. Howard the President of Shekinah While often people try to Ministries, from a letter he wrote separate the idea of religion and in 1985 stating, “Mozambique is politics, the two cannot be separated under control of an anti-Christian in South Africa.44 The idea of government…the RENAMO atheism was associated with the are fighting communism [and…] idea of communism, and the idea we believe that it won’t be long of Christianity was attached to before RENAMO is one in 46 democracy. Visser describes how, full control of Mozambique.” “the avowed atheism of international Prexy Nesbitt states that communism understandably his main goal is to demonstrate touched a raw nerve in the Christian- the “preoccupation of Western nationalist ethos of the traditional governments, especially the USA, with finding ways to terminate 42. Visser, “Afrikaner Anti-Communist or, at the very least, to manage History,” 309. national liberation movements 43. Visser, “Afrikaner Anti-Communist History,” 308. 44. Tristan Anne Borer, Challenging the State: 45. Visser, “Afrikaner Anti-Communist Churches as Political Actors in South Africa 1980- History,” 308. 1994 (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 46. Nesbitt, “Terminators, Crusaders and 1998), 16. Gladiators,” 119. 39 A PROPELLING PURPOSE

or the crises they create.”47 This Union. However, as time went was certainly the case within on, Mozambique became more Mozambique as America through non-aligned, and from 1983 onwards its support behind RENAMO. In the State department’s relations the December 2, 1988, issue of Africa with Mozambique’s FRELIMO Confidential, Nesbitt describes government improved. However, America’s support to RENAMO: major support for RENAMO began when Samora Machel The United States government planned his visit to Washington in appears to be sponsoring not 1985.49 Upon the announcement one but two covert operations that he was coming to the U.S., in support of the Mozambique right-wing conservatives began National Resistance (RENAMO lobbying against his visit. Right- or MNR). Of the two US wing Americans saw him as a networks operating in support “ruthless pro-Soviet, anti-American, of RENAMO today, one seems Marxist dictator,” and found his visit to be sponsored by elements in to America offensive.50 As a result, the Defence Intelligence Agency a campaign called “Conservative (DIA), US military intelligence Caucus,” organized to try and – working through civilian stop his visit. When they failed contacts. The second operation to stop his visit, they instead bears the CIA hallmark. initiated “a series of anti-Machel Serving US officials say that the meetings.”51 In attendance DIA and CIA have differing was RENAMO’s Secretary 48 views on Mozambique.” of Foreign Affairs, who portrayed the organization as During the Cold War, the a victim of Samora’s communist United States led a global campaign reign, thus gathering commiseration to rid the world of communism. from right-wing American And Africa proved to be just another organizations, Senators and part of a worldwide struggle. As Congressmen, as well as putting FRELIMO established a communist RENAMO on Americans’ government in Mozambique, radar.52 Machel sparked American American support for its rival RENAMO was symbiotic. Money 49. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, flowed, covertly and then overtly, 43. to RENAMO as long as there 50. See the Heritage Foundation, “National Security Record. A Report on the Congress were willing to fight communism. and National Security Affairs,” 92 (June At first, the United States 1986), quoted in Vines, RENAMO Terrorism in stayed out of providing support Mozambique, 43. 51. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, for Mozambique because of the 43. FRELIMO party and Samora 52. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, Machel’s relations with the Soviet 43. Quoted in Vines Notes, “Organizations that have in the past shown sympathy for 47. Nesbitt, “Terminators, Crusaders and RENAMO in the USA not named in the Gladiators,” 111. text include: About My Father’s business, 48. Nesbitt, “Terminators, Crusaders and Inc, KY; American Enterprise Institute, DC; Gladiators,” 119. Americans Freedom International, DC; 40 BOLTON conservatives’ international aid Throughout his time in office, to RENAMO, because Americans Reagan supported governments that saw communism coming too aligned with the democratic policies close to home. RENAMO was preferred by the United States. the institution fighting against However, support for Samora Machel communism in Machel’s own and his relations to the FRELIMO country, thus Americans saw party were not typical of American RENAMO as an outlet to fight policy. McManus pointed out that communism on a global level in relation to Mozambique, “the and make a statement to Machel. United States is supporting a Soviet- Another aspect of Machel’s visit backed Marxist dictatorship against that sparked conservative protests a pro-Western rebellion.”54 Reagan’s was the relationship between reasoning for this support was Samora Machel and President because he believed Mozambique was Reagan. Doyle McManus argued, veering away from the influence of in an article in the LA Times that: the Soviet government and towards a more neutral stance. However, Conservative Republicans Howard Phillips, chairman of the complain that aid for Conservative Caucus argued that, Mozambique is inconsistent with “The President is engaging in what Reagan’s policies in Nicaragua, seems an ultimate act of hypocrisy by Afghanistan and Cambodia, extending official honors to Samora where the Administration Machel… The only evidence that has been aiding rebels against Mozambique is tilting toward the leftist regimes. They called West is that they are willing to take on the President to aid the our money… We hope the President rightist Mozambican National comes to his senses on this.”55 The Resistance, known as Renamo, article goes on to explain how which has been fighting to the United States was “supplying 53 overthrow Machel’s regime. Machel’s regime with $40 million in 56 Americans for Tax Reform, DC; Bashore economic aid this year.” Senator International, DC; Citizens for America, Jesse Helms claimed that, “the DC; Coalitions for America, DC; Cuban American National Foundation, FL; Free Mozambique government… would Congress and Educational Foundation, inevitably collapse without Western DC; Fund for Africa’s Future, DC; Good sustenance…[and] we question News Communications, GA; High Frontier, DC; Open Doors Mission, Restore A More whether it is in America’s strategic Benevolent Order Coalition (RAMBOC), interest to prevent the inevitable CA; RUFFPAC, DC; Selous Foundation, DC; toppling of a pro-Soviet, dedicated The Believers Church, CA; The Freedom League, DC; United States Global Strategy Marxist government which has Foundation, DC; Vigeries Association, DC; ruthlessly suppressed its people World Missionary Assistance Plan (World MAP), CA. Senators Malcolm Wallop, Gordon Humphrey, Paul Tribble, and 54. McManus, “Mozambican’s U.S. Visit Irks Congressmen Dan Burton, Robert Dornan Conservatives.” participated in pro-RENAMO rally.” 55. McManus, “Mozambican’s U.S. Visit Irks 53. Doyle McManus, “Mozambican’s U.S. Visit Conservatives.” Irks Conservatives.” LA Times, September 18, 56. McManus, “Mozambican’s U.S. Visit Irks 1985. Conservatives.” 41 A PROPELLING PURPOSE

and bankrupted its economy.”57 “mission is to formulate and promote Conservatives believed the funds conservative public policies based Reagan bestowed upon the FRELIMO on the principles of free enterprise, government were the main reasons limited government, individual as to why Machel was claiming freedom, traditional American to change his governing policies. values, and a strong national Without help from the United States, defense.” William Pascoe, a policy Machel’s government would fail and analyst, describes RENAMO in his therefore, right-wing Americans article for the Heritage Foundation believed that Machel was playing with as “pro-western Freedom Fighters” America to receive their support. who by 1987 “controlled 80% of Because of Reagan’s unusual stance, the countryside” in Mozambique.59 senators, businessmen, and many The Heritage Foundation also others took it into their own hands stated that RENAMO was a to portray democratic American “popularly supported resistance” values using RENAMO as an outlet. that was “establishing a provisional In the minds of conservatives, government in the large area of RENAMO was an example of a Mozambique in which the resistance “pro-Western rebellion.” Therefore, movement operates freely.”60 they began funding support for their The Heritage Foundation, as a actions. As Reagan was propping supporter of limited government, up a communist regime by uniting saw a chance to promote their with Machel, conservatives such views in the US and Mozambique as Howard Phillips, Senator Jesse through their support of RENAMO. Helms, and many others began Pascoe also believed that the supplying aid to RENAMO to Reagan administration should show their opposition to the spread consider supporting RENAMO of communism and supporting because of their democratic values. communists. Right-wing Americans Pascoe wrote, “if the Chissano regime believed that the President was refuses to negotiate with RENAMO, being foolish in his sympathies the U.S. should signal strongly its to Machel and that he should not break with the communists and negotiate with such a government. place itself squarely on the side of The Heritage Foundation also the democratic resistance forces. endorsed RENAMO because of their Such action, in the context of U.S. anti-communist views. The Heritage assistance to the UNITA freedom Foundation is a “right-wing, think- fighters in Angola, would restore tank [who was] influential with the consistency to U.S. policy in Reagan Administration that actively southern Africa.”61 The Heritage lobbied for closer ties between the 58 59. William Pascoe, “Mozambique Merits the United States and RENAMO.” Its Reagan Doctrine,” Backgrounder, no. 572, The Heritage Foundation, March 31, 1987. 57. McManus, “Mozambican’s U.S. Visit Irks 60. “The Resistance can Win In Mozambique,” Conservatives.” National Security Record, no. 92, The Heritage 58. Karl Maier, Conspicuous Destruction: War, Foundation, June, 1986, quoted by Maier, Famine and the Reform Process in Mozambique Conspicuous Destruction, 187. (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1992), 187. 61. William Pascoe, “Mozambique Merits the 42 BOLTON

Foundation wanted to provide However, throughout RENAMO’s RENAMO with resources because rebel reign, the international they firmly believed in fighting support RENAMO received had against communism. Supporting little to do with the state of affairs RENAMO was a public statement in Mozambique and more to do of their beliefs and another example with the domestic situations in the of how American supporters tried countries from which the aid was to promote anti-communist views coming. Through its Rhodesian in America and around the world. roots, its connections to the Frontline Fellowship, and the anti- CONCLUSION communist image conservatives Today, RENAMO is no longer in America sought to portray, a guerilla movement within RENAMO provides a great example Mozambique. Instead, they act as of the influence that other nations a conservative political party to can have on others internal affairs. try and bring about their notions RENAMO, after all, was not just a of change. Funding for their rebel group of “armed bandits” acting of movements began to die down their own accord, but a legitimate in different areas for a variety of “military-based organization” that reasons. Rhodesia’s transition into had a significant impact of the Zimbabwe caused Ken Flower to economy and society of Mozambique turn over power of RENAMO from thanks to its supporters.64 While Rhodesia into the hands of South RENAMO had similar views to the Africa. After a few years of South countries and organizations that African control, the N’komati gave it support, the aid that was Accord on “Non-Aggression and given to them was directly linked Good Neighbourliness” was signed to how RENAMO’s ideologies in 1984, halting South African supported the domestic agendas of 62 resources. In America, horrific the governments and organizations accounts of RENAMO’s atrocities that were giving it support. In a against civilians, such as William way, RENAMO’s relationship to its Minters “Inside RENAMO as supporters can be seen as an aspect of Described by Ex-participants” and neocolonialism within Mozambique Robert Gersony’s “Summary of in the sense that donors extended Mozambican Refugee Accounts their economic resources and of Principally Conflict-Related exerted their influence primarily Experience in Mozambique,” caused for their own gain. As a whole, funding to stop because RENAMO we can see how outside alliances had “extraordinary high [levels had an effect on RENAMO’s 63 of violence]” against civilians. efforts within Mozambique and Reagan Doctrine.” how crucial the outsiders were 62. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, to RENAMO’s operations. 21. 63. U.S. State Department’s Bureau for Refugee Programs, “Summary of Mozambican Refugee Accounts of Principally Conflict-Related Gersony, (April, 1988). Experience in Mozambique,” by Robert 64. Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique, 3. 43