Health, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Methane Use in California
The Health, Safety and Environmental Hazards of Methane Use in California: A Literature Review
The 2010 San Bruno Gas Transmission Pipeline Explosion Killed 8 people, Injured 58 more people, Destroyed 38 homes, Damaged 70 more homes and yet PG&E gas pipeline safety inspections actually worsened after, and were illegally misreported tens of thousands of times between 2012 and 2017.1 (Image Source: KPCC, 2016)
1 https://www.sfchronicle.com/business/article/CPUC-to-investigate-potential-PG-E-natural-gas-13467821.php
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Health, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Methane Use in California
Prepared By: Redwood Energy
September 5th, 2018
Sean Armstrong, Lynn Brown, and Jeff Harkness
Contents
Abstract ...... 4 Introduction ...... 4 Methane Explosions, Fires, Storage Ruptures, and Cracked Pipes ...... 4 Earthquake Risk Assessment ...... 13 Post-Disaster Readiness and Fossil Fuels ...... 15 Indoor Air Quality- Cooking ...... 19 Formaldehyde ...... 21 Carbon Monoxide ...... 23 Nitrogen Oxides ...... 24 Furnaces, Dryers, and Water Heaters ...... 27 Cost Equivalence ...... 27 The Effect ofNatural Gas on Water Quality in California ...... 30 Global Warming ...... 32 Conclusion ...... 35 References ...... 36 Image References ...... 43 Appendix ...... 45
Redwood Energy Literature Review 2 Health, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Methane Use in California
Note: Many figures and tables cited from original sources may include the original figure and table numbers. Letters are used to denote figures and tables for clarity.
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Abstract
The following literature review addresses health-related and environmental hazards of using natural gas as a fuel source in California. Serious concerns from accidents and fires are reviewed. Earthquake-related hazards, and the environmental implications of gas use in California, are also documented. Detailed evidence shows that daily use of natural gas in a residence poses health risks from cooking on a gas-burning stovetop, using furnaces for heating, or using gas burning water heaters or gas clothes dryers. Safety risks and hazards of propane and gasoline production and use, and their performance in post-disaster conditions are outlined. Finally, the economics of residential electrification are reviewed, and it is demonstrated that fuel-switching is technically and economically feasible.
Introduction
Natural gas is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other trace gases. It is composed of 80-99% methane, 0.1-12% ethane, 0-5% propane, 0-1.5% n-butane, and 0-3% carbon dioxide (SoCalGas, 2018). While it is widely used as fuel due to its high energy content2 and ability to be stored for seasonal peak usage, it also causes severe health and environmental damages. A potentially catastrophic intersection of health-related impacts, climate change, damage to water and air quality, and infrastructural damage and losses necessitates fuel-switching to electricity powered with renewable energy sources. California homes were measured to have emissions of approximately 1 gram of methane per day and were measured to accumulate up to ten grams of methane per day from their residential natural gas appliances (Fischer, et. Al, 2018). Massive improvements to California’s gas infrastructure are needed to fix this source of California’s natural gas emissions accounting for 15 percent (Fischer, et. Al, 2018).
Using authoritative scientific assessments, expert and regulatory agency sources, and journalistic accounts, the following literature review documents the environmental hazards and human harms associated with methane use in California, and outlines concerns with respect to the production and use of propane and gasoline. The review concludes by exploring alternative energy options as a solution to California’s energy needs.
Methane Explosions, Fires, Storage Ruptures, and Cracked Pipes
Methane leaks of all sizes have harmed Californians with a bombardment of overlapping health, public safety, and environmental impacts. Gas line explosions are the most dramatic example of the hazards posed by natural gas. Natural gas explosions often result in the tragic loss of life and vast damages to life, safety, and environmental health.
2 A single cubic meter of natural gas at standard temperature and pressure contains 3.9 x 107 Joules of energy, equal to more than 20 pounds of TNT.
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Gas explosions in California. (Image sources listed in Image References).
The risk of explosions exists throughout the gas supply chain. In 2010, a gas transmission line ruptured in San Bruno, California. The rupture killed 8 people, injured many more, destroyed 38 homes, and damaged 70 other homes, releasing more than 870 metric tons of natural gas (NTSB 2011).3 Pacific Gas and Electric Company was later convicted of obstructing investigators and five counts of pipeline safety violations (LA Times, 2016). The utility paid fines and restitution in excess of $1.7 billion for the loss of life and vast damages (New York Times, 2016).
3 This is equal to 47.6 million standard cubic feet of natural gas.
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A major gas line rupture in San Bruno, California in 2010. The rupture killed 8 people, injured dozens, and destroyed 38 homes. (Image Source: KPCC, 2016)
Well ruptures and leaks such as Aliso Canyon also evidence this confluence of sickness, damage to personal and public property, and environmental catastrophe. Local communities in California were directly exposed to dangerous and toxic chemicals. These chemicals include:
• Acetone, which harms both male and female reproductive health (NHDES, 2013) • Diethyl phthalate, which damages developing fetuses (Kay, 2013) • Uranium-238, which increases the risk of lung cancer (Faroon, 2013). These dangers to public health were accompanied by the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in California for the time the leak spewed noxious chemicals into California’s air. The massive gaseous spill was global in impact and visible from outer space (Thompson, et. al. 2016). This amount of natural gas is equivalent to nearly 2.2 million metric tons of 4 CO2 equivalent emissions .
4 This figure results from a global warming potential (GWP) of 20. However, it is increasingly clear that the real GWP of methane is far higher. Realistically, therefore, the CO2 equivalent emissions are far higher.
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The Alison Canyon gas leak at Well SS-25 in 2015.
(Image Source: Environmental Defense Fund)
The Aliso Canyon natural gas storage tank rupture of October, 2015, lasted over 111 days, 24 days longer than the Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010 (CARB 2016, EPA 2017). It emitted over 109,000 metric tons of methane into the atmosphere, over 20 % of the state’s total methane emissions for the time it remained uncontrolled (CARB 2016). The blowout occurred when a 62-year-old steel production casing wall containing high-pressure gas ruptured, likely due to corrosion (Long PhD, Birkholzer PhD, Mace PhD, & Brady, PhD, 2018). Thousands of local citizens experienced health problems and reported hazardous air quality to the South Coast Air Quality District, which measured higher ambient methane levels while the well was leaking (SCAQMD 2018). Thousands of residents of Porter Ranch, a community near leaking Well SS-25, were evacuated as the leak spewed noxious chemical compounds. California Governor Edmund Brown declared a state of emergency on January 6th, 2016, over the chronic and uncontrolled hazard to public and environmental health (Ca. 2016). Figure A illustrates the proximity of oil and gas wells to local communities, assembled by the Natural Resources Defense Council.
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(Figure A. Image Source: Natural Resources Defense Council, 2014)
The Aliso Canyon incident illustrates the impacts of a natural gas spill on local communities. Over 45,000 people have joined lawsuits against SoCalGas to address the harms they suffered—permanent injuries to their bodies and loss of housing and business during the six-month evacuation from the methane spill area (LA Daily News, 2018). In Figure B, the location of well SS-25 is denoted by the red star. The outlined area is the nearby community of Porter Ranch (Leighton Consulting, Inc, 2016). A report submitted to the Los Angeles Department of Public Health by Leighton Consulting, Inc., analyzed air quality and surface contamination.
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Figure B: Porter Ranch Sample Area for the Community Indoor Sampling Plan during the Aliso Canyon Natural Gas Incident. The map verifies the correlation of reported symptoms in locations closest to, and downwind of, Well SS-25. (Image Source: Leighton Consulting, Inc.)
One method used to detect surface contamination by chemical compounds emitted by the Aliso Canyon leak is called a wipe sample test. Wipe sampling tests a surface for metals, total hydrocarbons and semi-volatile organic compounds. The wipe sampling and air sampling test results from the area surrounding the leak follow. Air samples from 17 of 58 residences had higher concentrations of pollutants, and 10 out of 17 residents were exposed to 10 times the amount of chemicals that harm human reproductive systems, fetuses, nervous systems and cause cancer. Table A lists the chemical compounds detected through air sample testing, and some of their known health effects or industrial uses.5
5 Compounds in Table A that were not greater than 10 times the average were found in higher concentrations in the methane spill area than comparison residences.
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Table A: Chemical Compounds Detected by Leighton Consulting, Inc. Compound Established Physiological Affects or Chemical Air Conc. <10 Chem. Effect Name Use Times the Avg. Info. Source Coughing, wheezing, skin and throat irritation; (NJDHSS, 1998); Acenaphthene No Present in gas exhaust and petrochemical effluents (NSCEP, 1987) 1,1 Difluoroethane Cardiac disorders Yes (NIH, 2016) Acetone Causes skin and throat irritation Yes (CCOHS, 2018) Acetonitrile Damages the central nervous system Yes (EPA, 2000) Highly toxic; poisonous by inhalation, ingestion, or Acrylonitrile No (ATSDR, 2014) skin contact; releases cyanide within the body 1,4- Carcinogen with no safe level of exposure No (NJDHSS, 2005) Dichlorobenzene Dichloro- Exposure to high concentrations No (NJDHSS, 2005) difluoromethane causes death. Di-n-butylphthalate Known toxin Yes (ATSDR, 2001) Diethylphthalate Used as a plasticizer for cellulose ester plastic Yes (WHO, 2003) Dimethylphthatlate Used in rocket propellant Yes (EPA, 2000) Ethyl Acetate Irritation of the nose, eyes, throat, and skin No (NJDHSS, 2002) 2-Hexanone Carcinogen and reproductive hazard No (NJDHSS, 2004) Isophorone Causes birth defects Yes (EPA, 2000) Isopropylbenzene Depresses the central nervous system Yes (EPA, 2000) (cumene) n-Propylbenzene Carcinogen and reproductive hazard No (NJDHSS, 2001) Phenanthrene Skin and respiratory tract irritation Yes (OSHA, 2006) Phenol Extremely toxic Yes (EPA, 2000)
Eight out of 9 samples contained higher concentrations of heavy metals than a comparison residence. Seven of the 8 wipe samples had heavy metal concentrations 10 times that of the comparison residence or were not detected in the comparison residence, including: • Aluminum • Barium • Iron • Manganese • Nickel • Vanadium (Leighton Consulting, Inc, 2016) Residents of the Porter Ranch community near the leak immediately began reporting suffering from health problems. Short-term health impacts from the Aliso Canyon incident include: • headaches • nasal congestion • sore throat
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• respiratory problems • nausea and vomiting • dizziness • skin rashes • severe and chronic nosebleeds (LA Dept. of Public Health 2016) While scientific assessments regarding the specific long-term health impacts of the leak are difficult6 due to the complexities of atmospheric chemistry, human variation, exposure pathways, lack of elapsed time, and synergistic effects, the exposure of local communities to extreme toxic compounds and known carcinogens is demonstrable (LA Dept. of Public Health, 2016, Leighton Consulting, Inc., 2016)7. At least one nearby resident was diagnosed with aplastic anemia, a rare cancer linked to toxic chemical exposure. The patient’s family believes the diagnosis to be the result of the Aliso Canyon leak (LA Daily News, 2017). Local healthcare professionals reported elevated concentrations of lithium, uranium, and carcinogenic chemicals in tested samples from patients after the incident, and a higher incidence of serious medical problems such as persistent nosebleeds among local residents (LA Daily News, 2017).
Members of the Porter Ranch community protest after the Aliso Canyon gas leak of 2015. (Image Source: Food and Water Watch.)
While it may seem convenient to characterize the Aliso Canyon incident as an isolated one, it represents one of many incidents in a persistent succession of natural gas accidents in recent decades. The state of California actually has a higher reported failure rate of underground storage facilities than the world average. On average, about 4 natural gas storage facility incidents are reported every year in California (Long PhD, Birkholzer PhD, Mace PhD, & Brady, PhD, 2018).
6 Many of the government regulatory documents describing the toxicity effects of chemicals listed in Table A cite insufficient data or lack of information concerning carcinogenicity. There exists significant uncertainty about the full extent of human health impacts of many of these chemicals. 7 The 4,700 page environmental analysis reports that 81% of sampled households reported symptoms believed to be related during the incident, and 63% of sampled households the month after the leak was sealed (Leighton Consulting, 2016).
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Without implementing needed updates for well integrity, there remains concern from federal officials that another natural gas tragedy will occur (United States Department of Energy, 2016). Hazards associated with natural gas wells include toxic air pollutants, underground breech of drinking water, natural gas fires, and explosions. For California residents, proximity and population density determine the severity of the hazard. While the Aliso Canyon methane leak of 2015 represents one of the worst methane leak incidents in United States history, methane leaks are a pervasive characteristic of the entire supply chain of natural gas (CARB 2018). Figure C locates methane leaks under major California cities documented by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF). The EDF reported in 2015 that 38% of the pipes in SoCalGas’s territory are more than half a century old, vastly increasing the likelihood of pipe failure due to age or infrastructural damage of any kind (2015).
Figure C: Methane leaks under city streets detected by the Environmental Defense Fund from August 2014-May 2015. (Image Source: https://www.edf.org/climate/methanemaps/city-snapshots/los-angeles-area)
Table B summarizes methane leakage sources from different components of the natural gas supply chain, as measured by the California Air Resources Board (2018). The acronym “MMscf” stands for million standard cubic feet. Methane infrastructure emits greenhouse gases regardless of whether it is used. When a citizen has a methane, fixture installed in their house, they assume many of the environmental, health, and safety risks associated with natural gas—even if they never install or use a gas appliance.
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(Table B: Image Source: California Air Resources Board, 2018.)
One study for the California Energy Commission obtained leakage measurements from 10 single-family houses and determined them to be about 0.2 % of annual consumption (Fischer et. al., 2016). Not only do these leaks represent a significant health, safety, and environmental hazard, they are also expensive to identify and repair. Testing a single residential or commercial structure for gas leaks can cost hundreds or even thousands of dollars.
Earthquake Risk Assessment
Due to California’s fault lines, earthquakes are often of great concern for infrastructure planning and maintenance. To meet current demand for natural gas, there are twelve underground wells throughout California. Gas is pumped in an unregulated manner atypical of water and oil well pumping regulations. Direct fault displacement, shaking, or indirect, earthquake-induced landslides damage natural gas infrastructure (Long PhD, Birkholzer PhD, Mace PhD, & Brady, PhD, 2018). The risk associated with earthquakes is particularly significant in California, due to the proximity of fault lines such as the San Andreas Fault to major urban centers such as Los Angeles and San Francisco. According to the United States Geological Survey, there is a 60 % probability of an earthquake of magnitude 6.7 in the Los Angeles area in the next 30 years, and a 72% probability of a 6.7 earthquake in the San Francisco area in the same time frame (USGS, 2016).8 Multiple agencies, including former employees of SoCalGas, have expressed concern about the proximity of the Santa Susana fault line to the Aliso Canyon facility (LA Daily News, 2017). While a probabilistic seismic hazard and fault displacement analysis is scheduled for submission to the Department of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOGGR) in June of 2018, this assessment is being conducted by consultants of, and employees for, SoCalGas, and is therefore not an independent risk assessment (Harris, et. al., 2017).
8For comparison, the Northridge earthquake registered 6.7 on the Richter scale. This earthquake caused over $25 billion in damages (Tucker, 1994). However, upper estimates for a major earthquake in Southern California (likely of higher magnitude) reach $300 billion (Daniels, 2017). Fuel-switching to would also reduce the number of utility shut-offs to access in the event of an emergency.
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An uncontrolled methane gas fire burns after the 1994 Northridge Earthquake in the San Fernando Valley Region of Los Angeles. (Image Source: The Atlantic) However, the risks of methane use during earthquakes extends beyond the infrastructure where it is produced or stored. Natural gas exacerbates existing fire hazards from earthquakes. According to data from the California Seismic Safety Commission, ruptured gas pipelines and infrastructure cause 20%-50% of all fires after earthquakes (Alquist, et. al. 2002). Table C lists repairs conducted by Southern California Gas Company after the Whittier Narrows earthquake of October 1st, 1987. This 5.9 magnitude earthquake resulted in 5,900 leaks being found in the gas distribution system, 2,000 of which were attributed to the earthquake (Alquist, et. al. 2002)9. Most of the damage after the earthquake was attributed to the distribution system and end-user gas appliances.
9 While the cited report does not specify the status of the other 3,900 leaks, presumably these were pre-existing. Widespread leakage is a known and persistent characteristic of the natural gas system.
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(Table C. Image Source: California Seismic Safety Commission.)
Post-Disaster Readiness and Fossil Fuels
Clearly, natural gas use increases risks and hazards during natural disasters such as earthquakes. These increased risks assume the form of fires, accidents and natural gas leaks. However, historical and contemporary accounts suggest that natural gas performs poorly after natural disaster events. Table D lists natural gas outages after earthquakes, and associated restoration times.
Table D: Outages and restoration times for major California earthquakes. (Image Source: Alquist, et. al. 2002). Non-renewable and volatile fossil fuels in general often encounter major problems in post-disaster conditions. More recently, Puerto Rico has faced a humanitarian disaster due to the lack of meaningful response after Hurricane Maria. A major component of Puerto Rico’s condition stems from chronic fuel shortages after the electricity grid infrastructure was destroyed. Gasoline shortages are pervasive in post-hurricane Puerto Rico (Wright, 2017). In California, propane tank accidents and explosions are surprisingly commonplace. There exists legitimate concern that as climate change increases the probability of extreme weather events and wildfires, the storage and transmission of high- energy-intensity fossil fuels increases the risk of tragedy and disaster. Given that extreme weather events are intensified by anthropogenic climate change, pursuing fuel-switching away from volatile and dangerous fossil fuels appears appropriate on multiple levels.
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Propane is sufficiently dangerous that even the propane industry itself expresses trepidation about consumers owning their own propane tanks (Myers, 2009). Accounts of wildfires in Santa Rosa in 2017 prominently include reports of repeated explosions from propane tanks exposed to rapidly spreading wildfires (New York Times, 2017).
Propane, like natural gas, is extremely flammable, and explodes when ignited by accident, wildfire, or extreme weather. (Image Sources listed in Image References). Propane is only one of many hydrocarbons that undermine health and safety, both causing climate change, and assuming greater risks when used in an unstable climate system. Many local communities in California are acutely aware of the constant risk of petrochemical refinery explosions, which threaten the lives of workers and send thousands of people to the hospital with severe respiratory illness. The dangers of reckless petrochemical corporations that ignore safety regulations, or are themselves under-regulated, is difficult to overstate. In 2015 in Torrance, California, an Exxon refinery explosion sent debris weighing thousands of pounds perilously close to multiple containers of hydrofluoric acid (HF)10. The U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board notes that vaporized concentrations of hydrofluoric acid as miniscule as 30 parts per million can be lethal (2017)11. If airborne explosion debris had punctured hydrofluoric acid tanks, it would have sent a lethal gas cloud
10 Hydrofluoric acid has a reputation among the chemistry community for its extreme danger. Hydrofluoric acid, when in contact with the human body, will continue reacting, eating through human flesh until it reaches bone. 11 For hydrogen fluoride gas to be lethal, it would have to constitute less than 1/100th of 1 % of the air you breathe.
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for miles across a densely populated area (USCHIB, 2017). Such an incident could have resembled the notorious Bhopal Gas leak of India, a massive and preventable tragedy that resulted in the death and injury of thousands of people. Exxon’s response to queries about their refinery’s safety mechanisms can only be characterized as a belligerent disregard for safety, leading to lawsuits in federal circuit court (USCHIB, 2017)12.
California petrochemical refinery explosions (Image Sources located in Image References) A massive refinery explosion in Richmond, California in 2012 sent over 15,000 local residents to the hospital with respiratory and other illnesses, nearly killing 19 employees (USCSHIB, 2015). The under-regulated refinery has existed for over a century, oozing poisonous hydrocarbons and contributing disproportionately to climate change. Chevron Corporation is one of the worst agents of climate disruption in world history, a fact that may affect future generations for centuries (CDP, 2017).13 Chevron has spread poison and environmental destruction across multiple regions of the world in pursuit of its billions, often fighting judgments against its criminal practices and belligerent disregard for human life and environmental health with vast cadres of attorneys (Watts, 2005; Weyler, 2018).14
12 The final report relates that ExxonMobil resisted requests for safety information on the release of hydrofluoric acid through explosion debris ruptures, and refused to give information on safeguards to prevent or mitigate the release of hydrofluoric acid (USCSHIB, 2017). 13 Chevron is one of the 25 companies, known as “carbon majors,” responsible for 51% of greenhouse gas emissions in the entire world over the last three decades (CDP, 2017). Only a fraction of these companies are investor-owned, the remainder being owned by nation-states such as China and Russia. 14Multiple campaigns exist to hold Chevron accountable for its damages to local communities and the environment (Choy and Orozco, 2009). The history of environmental devastation in Ecuador illustrates only one of its vast array of criminal transgressions on the international stage (see Wexler, 2018; and Watts, 2005). For background on Chevron’s implication in human rights abuses in the Niger Delta, see Watts, “Righteous Oil? Human Rights, the Oil Complex, and Corporate Social Responsibility.”
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Unsurprisingly, the safety report for the Richmond incident found that management willfully ignored recommendations to inspect or replace corroded pipes (USCSHIB, 2015). The California Division of Occupational Safety and Health (Cal/OSHA) cited Chevron for 17 safety and health violations after the explosion. Six of these were deemed serious, and 9 were deemed willful in nature (Ca. Dept. of Industrial Relations, 2017). Safety violations are recurrent and commonplace at the refinery even after the explosion (NBC, 2017). These facts evidence a reckless and belligerent industry and reinforce arguments that the world’s energy system should neither be reliant on unsustainable fossil fuels, nor left in the hands of profit-driven corporations. Thus, the record shows that even under historical conditions, fossil fuel infrastructure poses substantial health, safety, and environmental hazards.
Air Quality – Related Risks of Family Planning
The value in an awareness to the effects air pollution has on pregnancies and children is immeasurable, as indoor and outdoor air pollution increases infant mortality, childhood mortality and parent mortality, while decreasing health in non- fatal ways like asthma, autism, and diabetes. Precautions related to the indoor and outdoor air quality must be accounted for when trying to conceive, raise children and maintain the health of parents. Air pollution is associated with infertility, preventing a successful pregnancy from even beginning (Checa Viscaíno et al., 2016). Once pregnant, increased fetal death (miscarriages) comes with poor air quality. Air pollution’s effect on pregnancy loss was studied among 343 pregnant women, and couples had increased miscarriages when exposed to air pollution throughout the pregnancy (Ha, et al., 2018). Air pollution reduces the birth weight and health of infants. A real-world experiment on the impact of reducing air pollution on infants was conducted during the 2008 Olympics. In the years before and after the Olympics, people in Beijing suffered from some of the poorest air quality in the world. When Beijing hosted the 2008 Olympics the government’s efforts (e.g. reduced cars on the road, reduced manufacturing) decreased daily air pollution by 18-59%. The analysis of all the Beijing births showed that babies born during the 2008 Olympics weighed significantly more, an average of 0.8 ounces more, than the babies born from pregnancies with greater exposure to air pollution in 2007 and 2009 (Averett, 2015). Children exposed in utero to high levels of air pollution during the second trimester of pregnancy were at greater risk of developing asthma in early childhood (ATS, 2014). The full-term study followed children to age 7 years and their mothers, the study found that higher levels of pollution held a strong association with increased asthma onset among children (ATS, 2014). Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and air pollution were analyzed before, during and after pregnancy found that exposure to particulate matter during pregnancy increased the likelihood of ASD among families who remained in the same location before and after pregnancy (Raz, et al., 2015). The association of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder whose mothers were exposed to pollution during pregnancy within this study found a strong prevalence in boys while the limited number of girls with ADS was suspected to be a possible error (Raz, et al., 2015). The value in an awareness to the effects air pollution has on pregnancies and children is immeasurable. In addition ot what has been mentioned there are a multitude of studies studing the chromosomal damage caused by air pollution (Perera, Tang and Tu 2004). Ambient air pollution may be well regulated in the United States but indoor air quality is affected by cooking fuels and energy sources found in homes are expected to be regulated at resident’s discretion.
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Indoor Air Quality- Cooking
The air exchange rate in homes has decreased with improvements in building science and occupants now spend an alarming amount of time indoors. This exposes them to increased levels of pollutants sourced from gas combustion (Fuhlbrigge & Weiss 1997). For the United States and other developed countries respiratory infections are common and carry risk for susceptible individuals. A statistical attempt to represent the percentage of women with respiratory symptoms and the comparison to women who do not use gas stoves is seen in the table below (Fuhlbrigge & Weiss 1997). This study identifies a math model to cut through the inconsistent results from prior studies on gas stove pollutants (Fuhlbrigge & Weiss 1997).
Table Respiratory symptoms found in women who use gas stoves for cooking with the unadjusted frequency and the adjusted odds based on values. Sourced from (Fuhlbrigge & Weiss 1997 with reprint permission from Jarvis et al. 1996)
The mortality rate in the United States in 2016 attributed to indoor and outdoor air pollution was 13.3 per 100,000 capita, or approximately 42,850 deaths nation-wide in 2016 due to air pollution (World Health Organization 2016). 42,850 annual deaths of Americans from air pollution is on the scale of an American war—54,000 soldiers died each year in the Civil War, and the worst year of the Vietnam War, 1968, saw 1/3rd as many deaths--16,592 American military casualties (National Archives, 2018). However, indoor air pollution is a major global health concern shown in the graph below depicting. Around the world 3.8 million people die annually from illness attributable to the household air pollution: • 27% due to pneumonia, • 18% from stroke • 27% from ischaemic heart disease • 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) • 8% lung cancer (World Health Organization 2018)
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Below, the Graph of Household Air Pollution Attributable Deaths outlines the number of deaths per 100,000 capita by region of world in low and middle-income countries. The United States is categorized as a high-income country and the use of wood, dung and other inefficient cooking fuels around the world over shadow the limited number of attributable deaths that occur in United States (Global Health Observatory). A study of hazardous pollutants associated with natural gas as a cooking fuel was conducted based on Southern California homes. The study focused on more information about a common cooking fuel, natural gas, found in the United States (Singer, et al., 2017).
A Graph of Household Air Pollution Attributable Deaths (Image Source: Global Health Observatory)
Indoor air pollutants emitted by natural gas stove cooktops reach concentrations hazardous to human health. The number of meals prepared using natural gas increases the amount of pollutants found in homes that are not found in homes with electric cooking sources. Pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, benzene, formaldehyde and particulate matter, when released in an enclosed space, cause respiratory issues, cancer, and have adverse effects on child development (Singer, et al., 2017). Indoor concentrations of these pollutants exceed multiple ambient air quality standards, including: • National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) • California/EPA Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) • California Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAAQS) (Logue, et. al., 2014). In order to explore and understand the effects of natural gas on human health, studies have measured indoor chemical levels in relation to NAAQS, OEHHA, and CAAQS standards. These organizations set the pollutant standards for outdoor air quality but they are the only available standards that can be applied to indoor air quality. The effects from pollutants in an enclosed space are dramatically increased and prolonged compared to outdoor air quality. The results of these studies are discussed in the sections that follow.
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Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde, or HCHO, is known for acute and chronic toxicity, and causes multiple cancers. It causes rare cancers such as leukemia, and cancers of the nose and throat (Oldenburg, et. al., 2018). Too many heartbreaking stories illustrate the effects of carcinogenic and disease-causing compounds such as formaldehyde. Formaldehyde exposure in humans effect many processes in the body even in low concentrations. Exposure to low concentrations of formaldehyde observed in humans occur in eyes and mucous membranes. If ingested there are possible alimentary tract effects including headache, gastrointestinal damage and loss of consciousness (National Resource Council, 1981). The effects of airborne formaldehyde include: • olfactory system (ability to smell), • respiratory tract (nasal congestion), • upper airway irritation (dry throat or tingling nose in addition to tearing or pain in eyes), • lower airway irritation (cough, chest tightness and wheezing to accentuated Broncho vascular markings), • pulmonary effects (pulmonary edema, pneumonitis and death), • asthma (acts as an airway irritant and causes bronchial asthma), • skin (dermatitis), and • central nervous system (National Resource Council, 1981). Below is a table of reported health effects at various concentrations of formaldehyde.
1 Health Effects of Formaldehyde at Various Concentrations (Source: National Resource Council, 1981)
Scientific studies, such as a 2014 study published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives, link indoor formaldehyde levels to natural gas cooking (Logue, et. al., 2014). Graph HCHO Hour from this study compares indoor air pollutant concentrations from range hoods to outdoor ambient air. During the winter, formaldehyde concentrations exceed OEHHA standards in over 25% of cases where no range hoods are used. Previous studies have found that children in homes with formaldehyde levels above 41 parts per billion (ppb) are more often diagnosed with asthma and bronchitis (CARB 2005). During winter, cooking with gas and no range hood produces enough formaldehyde to cause eye and respiratory irritation (41 ppb), and increased incidence of child asthma over 25% of the time. In all seasons, the data show
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significantly higher exposure to formaldehyde in residences that use gas cooking ranges, with or without a properly functioning range hood.
(Graph HCHO Hour. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014).
The Graph HCHO chronic outlines the exposure rates of households where there is outdoor source on the left, and the right two graphs show the concentrations from Natural Gas Cooking Burners. The use of a range hood does not affect the formaldehyde concentration within the household. The dashed line defines the OEHHA threshold for chronic exposure to formaldehyde and the top whisker of the boxplot surpasses the level during winter months. The following figure shows the 1-week, time-averaged concentrations of carbon monoxide estimated by simulation modeling (Logue, et. al. 2014).15
Graph HCHO chronic. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014).
Formaldehyde is formed as an intermediate during the combustion of methane and is one of the potential causes of illness after the Aliso Canyon gas leak (Oldenburg, et. al., 2018).16 Indoor formaldehyde concentrations are almost always above recommended levels and represents the most common irritant present in indoor air in California (CARB 2015). Exposure increases with proximity to the source.
15 The term “time-averaged” means that the levels of carbon monoxide fluctuate over the course of the week, primarily with gas cooking times. The time-averaged graphs present the average pollutant level over the time interval. 16 In fact, Aliso Canyon is listed by the SCAQMD as the single largest source of formaldehyde emissions during normal operations, emitting over 6 metric tons (over 14,000 pounds) per year (Oldenburg, et. al., 2018).
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Because multiple potential exposure pathways of formaldehyde exist in the home, and energy efficiency measures decrease the unvented air exchange rate, eliminating formaldehyde production through methane use is an important step forward for insuring indoor air quality in California. Carbon Monoxide
As Figure C illustrates, carbon monoxide concentration (CO) standards are frequently exceeded during the winter, an astonishing fact given that carbon monoxide poisoning is potentially lethal. Newer models of motor vehicles were redesigned to limit carbon monoxide emissions because of its lethality as a health hazard, but residents are regularly exposed to this chemical when cooking with natural gas. The graph below shows estimated indoor pollutant concentrations for 6,634 Southern California homes after 1 hour. Carbon monoxide exposure concentrations are highest in the winter months when natural gas cooking burners (NGCBs) are used without a range hood. The highest concentrations shown on the graph only exceed CAAQS standards when a gas cooking burner is used.
(Graph CO Hour. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014)
The following figure shows the 1-week, time-averaged concentrations of carbon monoxide estimated by simulation modeling (Logue, et. al. 2014).17 The levels of CO in the winter time is consistently higher than summer time due to the assumption that colder weather means that windows and doors are kept closed in order to trap heat inside this reduces the amount of ventilation within the home allowing pollutants to remain. The first quadrant is an estimate of the amount of carbon monoxide that is outdoors, the second quadrant is the concentration of CO that finds its way into the house, the third quadrant is the concentration of CO sourced from outside and the Natural Gas Cooking Burners when a range hood is in use and, the last quadrant is the exposure concentration of the two sources without a range hood.
17 The term “time-averaged” means that the levels of carbon monoxide fluctuate over the course of the week, primarily with gas cooking times. The time-averaged graphs present the average pollutant level over the time interval.
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(Graph CO Chronic. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014) Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxide air quality standards are exceeded more than 50% of the time during the winter when range hoods are not used, and more than 25% of cases even when they are (see Graph NO2 Hour). Nitrogen oxides are the same class of chemical compounds that cause photochemical smog, and are associated with respiratory disease and asthma. Overall, indoor air represents a far more intense exposure pathway for nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, and carbon monoxide than outdoor air. Most of this exposure originates with natural gas cooking burners. The following graphs are from a study based on data from Southern California homes and the occupants’ cooking habits.18 It illustrates the household concentrations of NOx in a week. This is a week average of the Nitrogen Oxides in a four- person home that prepares three meals in a week, typically. Graph A isolates the indoor NO2 levels in a home; the white spikes are from indoor sources specifically during the hours and days that a family is cooking. Nitrogen oxide concentrations increase by approximately a factor of ten when natural gas cooking burners are in use.
(Graph A. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014).
18 This graph shows results from a 36-year-old, 1,125 ft.2 home during the winter.
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Graph B shows the NO2 levels of exposure to a child and an adult who is not preparing the meal. Graph B shows that the child is exposed to higher levels before the peak events, in addition to the spikes experienced by the adult. The effects on a developing body can cause respiratory issues like asthma or even cancers like leukemia.
(Graph B. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014).
Graph C illustrates the amount of Nitrogen Dioxides experienced by the person cooking with a child nearby. During use, the scale for exposure doubles for individuals near the cooktop. Although the exposure average of the child is the same as before, the adult cook is exposed to the highest average NO2.
(Graph C. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014).
The hourly NO2 graph demonstrates that cooking with gas stoves leads to exposure levels in excess of both NAAQS and CAAQS standards. The concentrations are the average over 1 hour, found through precise simulation modeling. The levels of exposure surpass the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and the California Ambient Air Quality standards in the simulation due to the Natural Gas Burning Cooktops with and without ranges as described in the middle quadrants. The fourth quadrant have lowered concentrations due to the 55% Capture Efficiency Range hoods used every time the cooktop is in use.
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(Graph NO2 Hour. Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014)
The last graph reinforces the consistent pattern visible in the data; pollutant concentrations are higher in homes with natural gas cooking burners, is the highest near a running stove, and represents a contaminant exposure pathway for people nearby, even if they aren’t cooking. The first quadrant is the Nitrogen Dioxide level outside the home this shows the variation between summer months and winter months. The second quadrant contains the concentration that infiltrates the household from the outdoor concentration, the grayscale boxplots have a less effective ventilation system resulting in higher amounts of NO2. The third and fourth quadrants include the concentrations from both outdoors and Natural Gas Cooking Burners with and without range hoods.
(Graph NO2 Chronic Image Source: Logue, et. al., 2014)
Due to the indoor air pollution hazards these chemicals pose, unvented natural gas appliances are not legal for sale in California. While the California building code requires direct exterior ventilation for all other natural gas appliances, gas cooktops only require exhaust ventilation. This design enables pollutants to increase indoors, even exceeding U.S. national and California ambient air quality standards (Singer, et. al. 2017).
A study measures the capture efficiency of range hoods due to the emission of indoor air pollutants. This image shows pressure-balanced flow hood measurement. (Image Source: Singer et. al., 2017)
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Studies also indicate that using a range hood exhaust fan lowers indoor nitrogen oxides and peak carbon monoxide levels, reducing pollutant concentrations that exceed health-based guidelines (Logue, et. al. 2014). Survey results suggest that many people do not use range hoods even when they are available and properly functioning (Mullen, et. al., 2015). This poses a health hazard, because indoor gas appliances regularly expose residents to toxic compounds. Indoor air quality standards are exceeded more frequently when range hoods are not used. These facts further support the idea that natural gas appliances present a hazard to indoor air quality and human health.
Furnaces, Dryers, and Water Heaters
Even when exhaust and ventilation for gas appliances are available, indoor air pollutants increase inside the home from appliances such as furnaces, dryers, and water heaters. Improperly designed or damaged ventilation systems cause pollutants to spill into the home’s interior (Mullen, et. al., 2015). Experts refer to this occurrence as combustion spillage. Pollutants also increase from back-drafting, which occurs when negative pressure inside the home overwhelms the capacity of exhaust systems to remove pollutants. Smaller homes with wall furnaces, or gas appliances with pilot burners such as water heaters, are especially prone to indoor pollution hazards (Mullen, et. al., 2015). Natural gas fireplaces also increase indoor combustion pollutants. Gas appliances emit toxic chemicals such as carbon monoxide and formaldehyde through incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion occurs due to the incomplete oxidation of carbon molecules, producing toxic chemicals such as carbon monoxide (Singer et. al. 2017). Whether through faulty system design or inadequate ventilation, toxic chemicals that remain indoors from natural gas combustion represent a serious hazard to occupant health.
Cost Equivalence
A common argument against fuel switching to electricity from gas contends that it is not cost effective. However, the cost of solar PV has declined dramatically in recent years. The average price of residential solar PV in the United States decreased by over 60 % from 2010-2017, while solar PV installations grew rapidly (NREL 2017). Under current net metering rates established by the California Public Utilities Commission, most solar PV systems installed in California will more than pay for themselves over the course of their life cycle, and many will pay for themselves in under 7 years (Aurora Inc., 2017). Net metering agreements often reduce utility bills to very little beyond non-bypassable charges. By sizing solar arrays to produce as much electricity as a residence consumes, citizens greatly reduce or eliminate monthly bills altogether, and pay a single “true up” statement annually for any difference between what the panels produced and the electricity used, instead of paying monthly bills.
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Figure E: Many of California’s small buildings have over 11,000 kilowatt hours per year in solar electricity production potential. (Image Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2016).
Additionally, energy efficiency gains in electric heat pumps and appliances reduce the lifecycle cost of all-electric fuel switching. Whereas natural gas appliances rely on combustion with a combustion efficiency ceiling, heat pumps are rated by a coefficient of performance, because they use energy to move heat, rather than generate the heat directly. For this reason, they are capable of higher efficiencies. Heat pumps can be used for heating and cooling (or both), and today achieve efficiencies of 3.5 or more, which is impossible with a conventional gas heater. Solar energy is inexpensive because it is an abundant and under-utilized energy source with no recurring fuel costs. A study conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory concludes that in many areas of Southern California, greater than 90% of small buildings are suitable for solar PV installation, and estimates that rooftop PV could have generated 74% of the electricity sold by utilities in 2013 (NREL 2016). While the intermittency of renewable energy is often cited as a reason for the necessity of methane use, compelling reasons suggest that natural gas should be phased out in California from an energy reliability perspective. The California Independent System Operator reports that energy reliability in Southern California is seriously challenged by gas outages on multiple pipelines and the operating constraints of the Aliso Canyon facility (CAISO 2018). Figure F synthesizes simulation results from the California Independent System Operator (2018). The minimum unloaded capacity margin (MUMC) is a metric of grid reliability.
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Figure F: Simulations showing the probability of capacity margin occurrences for 2018, by hour of the day. (Image Source: California Independent System Operator, 2018)
The simulation reflects a frequent topic in energy system analysis referred to as the “evening ramp.” The evening ramp occurs in the early evening hours, when the grid experiences an increase in demand compounded by declining solar energy due to sundown. While the evening ramp is often cited as reason for the necessity of natural gas, California can meet 100% of its energy needs through a combination of renewable energy and energy efficiency (Jacobson, et. al. 2014). Figure G gives an overview of the percentage of California’s surface area required to power the state with 100% renewable energy. One study concludes that by converting to 100% renewable energy by 2050, California would create a net 220,000 jobs, eliminate 12,500 premature fatalities, and reduce healthcare costs by $103 billion per year (Jacobson, 2014).
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Figure G: Potential composition for 100% renewable energy in California (Image Source: Jacobson, et. al., 2014)
The Effect of Natural Gas on Water Quality in California
The extraction of natural gas creates environmental hazards that affect water quality in profound ways, resulting in contamination of groundwater resources and rendering private water wells unusable (EPA 2016). However, a combination of historic drought and increases in hydraulic fracturing operations in recent years has increased the impact that natural gas use has on water resources in California. One recent study finds that 20% of fracking operations in California occur in underground freshwater sources (Kang 2016, as cited in Banerjee 2016). The authors note that while one billion-dollar desalination facility desalinates about 37 billion gallons of water per year, the volume of fresh groundwater underneath California is close to 2,700 cubic
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Health, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Methane Use in California kilometers, or over 700 trillion gallons (Kang 2016). At its current rate of production, the Carlsbad desalination plant would take over 19,000 years to produce this amount of water, which requires less desalination than seawater. While this underground water could potentially serve as a resource for California, it is vulnerable to contamination by gas fracking operations. "Freshwater zones," the authors note, "in some locations may be vulnerable to contamination caused by oil and gas development" (Kang 2016).
Table E: Percentage of oil and gas activities that occur in freshwater zones in California counties. The acronym USDW stands for "underground source of drinking water." This water type has a modestly higher total dissolved solids (TDS) content than typical freshwater, but far less than seawater, making it a potential drinking water source. (Image Source: Kang and Jackson, 2016). However, the practice of fracking itself is water intensive, and the process contaminates water, rendering it unusable for human consumption. A single fracking well in California consumes as much as 285,000 gallons of water or more (EPA 2016). This water (called "produced water") is often laced with extremely toxic, carcinogenic, or hazardous chemicals such as benzene, toluene, and radioactive radium (EPA 2016). One study of fracking fluids identified 67 different chemicals with a current or proposed federal water quality standard due to known or suspected toxicity (Elliott et al., 2017). For this reason, SB 4 was passed in California, which legally requires the disclosure of chemicals used in the fracking process (Banerjee 2016, Ca. Legislature 2013). This water from fracking operations is often transported to on-site pits, where it contaminates groundwater or surface water resources if it is not properly controlled (EPA 2016). One study found that 18% of produced water spills in California over a five-year period impacted waterways (CCST 2015, as cited in EPA 2016). While other states have phased out the practice of disposing of contaminated fracking water in unlined pits, California continues to allow this practice. Because percolation pits are designed to leach water into the ground, they disperse toxic contaminants into groundwater. Over 900 disposal pits exist in California (CCST 2015). Independent scientific assessments have found evidence of groundwater contamination from percolation pits in California, for which there exists no centralized reporting or tracking resource (CCST 2015). Most fracking in California occurs in the San Joaquin valley, a drought-stressed area in the Central Valley, where farmers and communities depend upon imported water. Most unlined, contaminated percolation ponds are also found in the San Joaquin valley, although Monterey and Santa Barbara also contain active percolation pits (CCST 2015).
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Global Warming
While methane is thought to have lower climate effects than energy sources such as coal, this conclusion highly depends upon the leakage rates of the natural gas system. Uncertainty surrounds the greenhouse gas benefits of methane.19 In fact, methane has a global warming potential (GWP) 86 times higher than carbon dioxide over a 20-year span (CARB, 2018). Due to the higher GWP and higher molecular weight of methane (CH4) compared to carbon dioxide (CO2), leakage rates above 3.2% negate any climate benefit from using natural gas rather than dirtier fuels such as coal (Fischer, et. al. 2016). Figure H displays emissions maps, by sector, for natural gas in California. While methane leakage due to production is concentrated in the central portion of California, emissions from distribution extends throughout the entire state.
While natural gas is often cited as a bridge fuel, its climate benefits are highly questionable. (Image source: dailymail.co.uk)
19 A recent study published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters indicates higher methane emissions in California than the official greenhouse gas inventory (Jeong, et. al. 2017).
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Figure H (Image Source: Fischer, et. al. 2016)
Figure I shows natural gas pipelines, by size, and their associated emissions in California. Gas infrastructure delivers methane emissions across the state’s expanse in tandem with energy services. Whereas pipelines carrying drinking water operate on the principle of positive pressure, which keeps drinking water safe by controlling its exposure to contaminant
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pathways and, if leaks occur, spilling a comparatively harmless substance, highly pressurized methane gas leaks flammable toxins capable of leveling an entire city block, if a line rupture20 is ignited.
Figure I (Image Source: Fischer, et. al. 2016) When considering all-electric fuel switching, it is important to understand that the largest single major fuel source for electricity is natural gas. Figure J quantifies electricity generation in California, by fuel source. California generates roughly half of its electricity from natural gas (EIA, 2018). In order to achieve a de-carbonized energy system, these natural gas plants will eventually have to be phased out entirely, and replaced with clean, renewable energy sources such as solar PV, wind, and other sources. In February 2018, non-hydroelectric renewables constituted nearly one-third of electricity generation in California, demonstrating that non-hydroelectric renewables are a major component of California’s energy grid, even during the winter months (EIA, 2018).
20 Leaking methane from a pipe can ignite at concentrations that vary by temperature. The ignition threshold is called the lower explosive limit. At 20 °C (68 °F), the lower explosive limit for natural gas is approximately 5.1 % of the total concentration in the air (Neuscamman, et. al., 2013).
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Figure J: California electricity generation, by source. (Image Source: EIA, 2018) Conclusion
The history, conditions, and realities surrounding natural gas in California imply an ethical imperative for fuel-switching to renewable energy technologies in the near future. Due to the lifecycle financial commitment to replacing aging fossil fuel infrastructure, policymakers and the public should be informed of the present risks and hazards associated with natural gas use. The sources and information gathered in this review evidence the health and environmental risks of natural gas use in California, and lend support to the economic and technical feasibility of residential electrification. This literature review has documented the safety hazards of natural gas for consumers, utility workers, natural disaster victims, the economy, and the environment. Fuel switching to renewable energy technologies opens a pathway to a safer society, and environmentally sound future.
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https://www.dailynews.com/2017/07/23/ex-socalgas-employee-warned-regulators-of-potential-catastrophic-loss- of-life-at-aliso-canyon/ Los Angeles Times (2016). “Porter Ranch’s future after massive gas leak is in the eye of the beholder.” News article. Accessed May 25, 2018, from: http://www.latimes.com/local/la-me-porter-ranch-20160629-snap-story.html Ibid. (2016). “PG & E is found guilty of obstructing investigators after deadly 2010 pipeline blast.” Accessed May 26, 2018, from: http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-pge-san-bruno-pipeline-blast-20160809-snap-story.html Mullen, N.A., Li, J, Russell, M.L., Spears, M., Less, B.D., and Singer, B.C. (2015). “Results of the California Healthy Homes Indoor Air Quality Study of 2011-2013: impact of natural gas appliances on air pollutant concentrations.” Indoor Air 2016; 26: 231-245. Myers, Daniel (2009). “Propane Container Filling Laws and Standards: The Safety Reasons Supporting Accountability.” White paper prepared for the National Propane Gas Association. Accessed June 16, 2018, from: https://calpsc.org/mobius/cpsc-content/uploads/2015/03/NPGA_Container_Law_White_Paper_July_2009.pdf National Research Council. (1981). Indoor Pollutants. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/1711. National Transportation Safety Board (2011). “Pacific Gas and Electric Company Natural Gas Transmission Pipeline Rupture and Fire, San Bruno, California, September 9, 2010.” Pipeline Accident Report NTSB/PAR-11/01. Washington, DC. Neuscamman, S., Price, G., and Glascoe, L. (2013). “California Natural Gas Pipelines: A Brief Guide.” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services (2005). Hazardous Substances Fact Sheets. 1,4-dichlorobenzene. Accessed June 20, 2018, from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/1-4-dichlorobenzene.pdf Acenaphthene. Accessed June 20, 2018, from: http://www.nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/2958.pdf dichlorodifluoromethane. Accessed June 20, 2018, from: http://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/0649.pdf Ethyl acetate. Accessed June 20, 2018, from: http://www.nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/0841.pdf 2-hexanon: Accessed June 20, 2018, from: http://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/1280.pdf propyl benzene. Accessed June 20, 2018, from: http://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/1607.pdf New York Times (2017). “The Fire is Roaring over the Ridge. It’s time to go.” By Johnson, Kirk, and Fuller, Thomas. Published online Oct. 14, 2017. Accessed June 16, 2018, from: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/14/us/cailfornia-wildfires-survivors.html Ibid. (2016). “California Utility Found Guilty of Violations in 2010 Gas Explosion that Killed 8.” By Fuller, Thomas. Accessed June 20, 2018, from:
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https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/10/us/california-utility-found-guilty-of-violations-in-2010-gas-explosion-that- killed-8.html Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2006). “Phenanthrene.” Website. Accessed June 1, 2018, from: https://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_261000.html Oldenburg, et. al. (2018). “What risks do California’s underground gas storage facilities pose to health, safety, environment, and infrastructure?” California Council of Science and Technology study, Chapter 1. January 2018. Accessed June 12, 2018, from: http://ccst.us/publications/2017/chapter-1.pdf California Office of the Governor (2016). “Governor Brown Issues Order on Aliso Canyon Gas Leak.” Official website. Accessed June 8, 2018, from: https://www.gov.ca.gov/2016/01/06/news19263/ CDP (2017). “The Carbon Majors Database: CDP Carbon Majors Report 2017.” Accessed June 24, 2018, from: https://www.cdp.net/en/articles/media/new-report-shows-just-100-companies-are-source-of-over-70-of-emissions New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (2013). “Acetone: Health Information Summary.” Fact Sheet. Downloaded June 1, 2018, from: https://www.des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/factsheets/ard/documents/ard-ehp-7.pdf National Institute of Health (2016). “1,1, difluoroethane.” Toxicology Data Network Website. Accessed June 1, 2018, from: https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+5205 National Service Center for Environmental Publications (1987). “Health Effects Assessment for Acenaphthene.” Accessed June 20, 2018, from: https://nepis.epa.gov/ NBC Bay Area (2017). “Years after massive fire, Chevron refinery still being cited for safety violations.” News article. Accessed July 12, 2018, from: https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/Years-After-Massive-Fire-Chevron-Refinery-Still-Being-Cited-for- Safety-Violations-438419713.html Nordella, Dr. Jeffrey (2017). Aliso Canyon Slide Presentation (untitled). Accessed May, 2018. Perera F, Tang D, Tu Y, Biomarkers in Maternal and Newborn Blood Indicate Heightened Fetal Susceptibility to Procarcinogenic DNA Damage. Environ Health Persp Vol 112 Number 10 July 2004 Raz, R., Roberts, A. L., Lyall, K., Hart, J. E., Just, A. C., Laden, F., Weisskopf, M. G., (March 2015), “Autism Spectrum Disorder and Particulate Matter Air Pollution before, during and after Pregnancy: A Nested Case-Control Analysis within the Nurses’ Health Study II Cohort”, Environmental Health Perspectives, 123(3) Singer, B. C., Delp, W. W., Less, B. D., Lorenzetti, D. M., Maddalena, R. L., Mullen, N. A., & Rapp, V. H. (2017). “Emission, Indoor Air Quality Impacts, and Mitigation of Air Pollutants from Natural Gas Appliances”. California Energy Comission. SoCalGas (2018). “Safety Data Sheet for Natural Gas.” Publicly available fact sheet. Downloaded June 8, 2018, from: https://www.socalgas.com/documents/safety/safety-data-sheet-natural-gas.pdf
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South Coast Air Quality Management District (2018). "Aliso Canyon Gas Leak: Air Monitoring Results." Final Report: January 2018. Accessed May 20, 2018. Srebotnjak, Tanja, and Rotkin-Ellman, Miriam (2014). “Drilling in California: Who’s at Risk?” Natural Resources Defense Council report R-14-09-A. Accessed June 8, 2018, from: https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/california-fracking-risks-report.pdf
Thompson, et. al. (2016). Space-based remote imaging spectroscopy of the Aliso Canyon CH4 Superemitter. Geophysical Research Letters. 28 May 2016 https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069079. Accessed June 1, 2018, from: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2016GL069079 Tucker, Carol (1995). “The Real Cost of a Quake.” Web-based article. Accessed June 19, 2018, from: https://news.usc.edu/22040/The-real-cost-of-a-quake/ U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (2017). “ExxonMobil Torrance Refinery Electrostatic Precipitator Explosion: Torrance, California.” Accessed June 23, 2018, from: https://www.csb.gov/file.aspx?DocumentId=6023 Ibid. (2015). “Final Investigation Report: Chevron Richmond Refinery Pipe Rupture and Fire.” January, 2015. Report No. 2012-03-I-CA. Accessed June 24, 2018, from: https://www.csb.gov/chevron-refinery-fire/ United States Department of Energy. (2016). Ensuring Safe and Reliable Underground Natural Gas Storage. United States Geological Survey (2016). "3D likelihood California earthquake in the next 30 years." USGS website. Accessed May 21, 2018, from: https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/3d-likelihood-california-earthquake-next-30-years Weyler, Rex (2018). “Chevron’s SLAPP Suit against Ecuardorians: corporate intimidation.” Greenpeace International Blog. Accessed July 13, 2018, from: https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/16448/chevrons-slapp-suit-against-ecuadorians-corporate-intimidation/ Wright, Pam (2017). “Logistics Nightmare drives fuel panic in Puerto Rico.” Accessed June 14, 2018, from: https://weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/puerto-rico-fuel-gas-shortages-hurricane-maria World Health Organization (2003). “Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 52.” Geneva. Accessed June 1, 2018, from: http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/cicad/en/cicad52.pdf World Health Organization Air Pollution (2016) “Mortality due to air pollution” July 16,2018 from: http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.sdg.3-9-viz-1?lang=en World Health Organization (2018) “Household Air Pollution and Health” July 16, 2018 from: http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health
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Image References
California gas explosion montage image sources (Page 5). Accessed June 14, 2018, from the following websites. Carmel: https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/PG-amp-E-Carmel-home-explosion-blamed-on-bad-5316064.php Newberry Springs: https://www.pe.com/2017/10/04/cause-of-newberry-springs-natural-gas-pipeline-explosion-under-investigation/ Bakersfield: https://www.chem.info/news/2015/11/1-dead-2-injured-california-gas-line-explosion Fresno: https://www.newsday.com/news/nation/pacific-gas-electric-co-pipe-explosion-injures-11-in-fresno-authorities- say-1.10292097 San Bruno: http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/09/10/california.fire/index.html Polar bears on ice image. Accessed June 14th, 2018, from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1254862/All-sea--polar-bear-cub-drift-shrinking-ice-12-miles-land- expert-says-survived.html California propane tank explosion montage (Page 14). Accessed June 16, 2018, from the following websites. Lower Lake County: https://www.turnto23.com/news/local-news/119-kern-county-firefighters-at-fires-across-the-state Sonoma: http://www.sonomanews.com/news/8401698-181/fire-causes-evacuations-near-schelville Sun Valley: https://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/RV-Fire-Near-Propane-Tank-Rages-420032954.html Fresno: http://kvpr.org/post/propane-tank-explosion-injures-3-fresno-christian-high-school Chatsworth: http://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2017/07/04/fire-destroys-at-least-2-condo-units-in-chatsworth/
California gas refinery explosion montage.
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Chevron explosion in Richmond, California, 2012: https://www.democracynow.org/2013/8/6/chevron_to_pay_2_million_for Chevron explosion in El Segundo, California, 2017: https://www.dailybreeze.com/2017/10/17/firefighters-battle-explosion-fire-at-chevron-refinery-in-el- segundo/ Exxon explosion in Torrance, California, 2015: https://www.dailybreeze.com/2017/02/21/class-action-lawsuit-accuses-torrance-refinery-owners-of- placing-profit-above-public-safety/
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Appendix
Table AA: This image reproduces the original air sampling results from Leighton Consulting, Inc., report, “Summary Report: Time Critical Residential Sampling, Aliso Canyon Natural Gas Incident, Porter Ranch Community, Los Angeles, California.”
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Figure AA shows earthquake data supporting the figure of 50% for the incidence of post-earthquake fires caused by natural gas.
Figure: AA: The image shows that taken as the average, roughly 50% or more of post-earthquake fires are caused by natural gas. (Image Source: Alquist, et. al, 2002.)
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