tension among the Great Powers as they jockeyed formal peace treaty was signed in May 1871. The for the most advantageous position to benefit from peace treaty forced France to recognize German the ’s weakness. It also proved to be unification and to cede two regions of mixed French an important reason why Turkey entered the war on and German population (Alsace and Lorraine) to the side of the on October 28, 1914.16 Germany. The desire to recover these territories was a constant concern for France. By the late Many German-speaking princedoms and states unit- 1880s, it became apparent to France and ed to form a single, powerful German state in 1871. that Germany’s industrial and military strength was By that time, Britain, France, Spain, the , outpacing that of either country. Neither France nor and Portugal had built large overseas empires over Russia stood a chance alone in a fight with Germany. the preceding centuries. When Britain and France Russia probably had more to fear than France, given became the primary competitors in a race for addi- the widely discussed designs that Germany had on tional colonies in the 1880s, Germany lacked the conquering territories within the . naval power and existing overseas empire to join the Moreover, in early 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary, competition in a major way, but it did acquire several and signed the Triple Alliance, pledging mutual colonies in Africa and in the Pacific during the 1880s. support in the event of an attack on any of the three In the three decades prior to 1914, Germany’s indus- countries. trial economy and population both grew rapidly, and Germany increasingly became the most power- Russia and France signed the Franco-Russian ful economy in Europe. Vocal nationalist groups in Alliance in 1892, despite huge differences between Germany complained that it was unfair that such a them—Russia was an absolute monarchy and France powerful country had such a relatively small over- was a democratic republic. The alliance obligated seas empire. Powerful lobbies such as the German each power to go to war if attacked by a member of Naval League and elected officials in the Reichstag the Triple Alliance. Its aim was to create a balance (parliament) pushed the government to build a navy of power sufficient to deter Germany from attacking that could compete with Britain and enable Germany either France or Russia. A key provision of the alli- to become more of a global imperial power. The ance required both France and Russia to mobilize emperor and government’s focus on a naval buildup their armies and reserves as rapidly as possible and created sharp tensions with Great Britain, though deploy them immediately in order to force Germany Germany’s efforts were not enough to really chal- to fight a two-front war. lenge British naval dominance. Realizing that the These alliances created a rough balance of power in race for colonies was already over and that the path continental Europe. The one Great Power that could to empire overseas was unrealistic, German strate- tip the balance was Great Britain. A long history of gists and publicists who wanted Germany to become tensions with France and Russia over imperial ques- a greater empire concluded that the better path to tions ranging from Egypt to the Russian foreign conquest was by land.17 and Central Asia kept Germany hopeful that Britain The German right wrote about building a great land would either join the Triple Alliance or would at least empire by conquering Slavic lands to the East. The remain neutral during a war. But Britain resolved “Pan-German League” published many pamphlets many of its outstanding differences over colonial and articles claiming that there were substantial issues with France and signed the Entente Cordiale numbers of Germans living in Poland, Ukraine, and of 1904. This was not a firm alliance, but it greatly Russia and that the Slavic peoples of those regions improved relations with France. Only two years could be conquered and pushed further to the East later, military staff from France and Great Britain to create living space for the growing German popu- began to meet to discuss potential strategies for lation. Such views were far from universally held in cooperation in case of war. British suspicion of alli- Germany. Many of the mainstream parties opposed ance with autocratic Russia was tempered when the idea of a war of conquest. But expansionist views Russia’s 1905 Revolution brought about Russia’s first were loudly supported in some of the popular press, elected national parliament (the Duma) and intro- and the basic idea that Germany’s path to imperial duced many elements of the rule of law. In August conquest and world power status lay in the conquest 1907, Britain and Russia signed an agreement settling of Slavic lands in Europe strongly influenced German the most hotly disputed issues of contention on the borders of their two empires in Afghanistan, Persia, strategic thinkers.18 and Tibet.19 THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM AND While relations improved markedly between Britain Germany’s potential expansion also influenced other and the Entente, British relations with Germany Great Powers in Europe. France tried to stop German deteriorated. Germany chose to continue building unification in 1870, but in only seven weeks up its navy and used it twice to challenge France in III and his army were captured; fell in January Morocco, spurring the Moroccan Crises of 1905 and 1871, only six months after the war began, and the 1911. Britain read this increasing assertiveness and

16 ACADEMIC DECATHLON ® SOCIAL SCIENCE RESOURCE GUIDE *REVISED PAGE 2013–2014 Map depicting the expansion of the from 1862–71. By the late 1880s, Germany’s industrial and military strength was outpacing that of France and Russia, and neither France nor Russia alone stood a chance in a fight with Germany. naval build-up as evidence that Germany was becom- entire army and reserves and deliver them to the ing the greatest threat to its global empire. Moreover, front. The Russian railway network was rudimentary as the German Army continued to modernize with and not nearly as efficient as the German rail system. some of the best technological, industrial, and preci- Schlieffen’s plan called for throwing nearly all sion machine industries on the planet, Britain began German forces against France in a massive offensive to realize that if it did not support France and Russia, that would force France to surrender by the forty- the balance of power in Europe would tip inexorably second day of the war. Immediately after victory in 20 toward the Central Powers. the West, the bulk of German forces would then be The rapidly transported to the Eastern Front by train to fight a single-front war with the Russian Empire. The and German Strategic Thinking schedule was crucial because eventually the Russian From the time the Franco-Russian Military Convention Army would be mobilized. If German troops took too was signed in 1892, German war planners faced the long to win the war in the West, a Russian offensive difficult prospect of a two-front war. In 1904, the could force the transfer of too many troops from German Kaiser Wilhelm II (Kaiser is the German the West to the East, and the war would hopelessly word for emperor) asked the Chief of the German descend into an extended two-front battle. General Staff, , to compose a war The Schlieffen Plan played a huge role as a cause plan for a two-front war. While he was composing the of war. There was enormous deference in Germany plan, the Russian Army was losing a humiliating war to the expertise of the German General Staff. It had against Japan. Schlieffen concluded that the Russian introduced modern principles of warfare and won a Army had many problems and, most important, that remarkable series of wars from 1861–70 during the the vast distances of the Russian Empire meant that drive to unify Germany. Its prestige made it difficult it would take weeks for the country to mobilize its for civilian officials to question military authorities.

2013–2014 ACADEMIC DECATHLON ® SOCIAL SCIENCE RESOURCE GUIDE *REVISED PAGE 17 Map depicting the Schlieffen Plan. Chief of the German General Staff, Alfred von Schlieffen, developed a plan of attack that called for throwing nearly all German forces against France in a massive offensive that would force France to surrender by the forty-second day of the war.

Because any hesitation could mean losing a valuable a full-scale within thirty days, thus mak- day in the Schlieffen schedule, military leaders on ing the Schlieffen Plan obsolete. By 1914, the German both sides began to see the announcement of the General Staff was aware that its strategy could only mobilization of troops as nearly tantamount to a work if it was attempted very soon. declaration of war. If one side mobilized even par- tially, it could undermine the entire plan. This was an While there was a certain logic to German strategic important part of the dynamic of the July 1914 crisis, thinking (if there is to be a war, better sooner than during which military leaders in Russia, Germany, later), there were several major flaws in the logic. and Austria constantly reminded civilians that any Perhaps the most important was a miscalculation delay could give decisive strategic advantage to the about the involvement of Great Britain and Italy. other side. Italy was a full member of the Central Powers, and France and Russia did everything in their power to German planners assumed at least some sort of con- undermine the prospects for the Schlieffen Plan’s tribution from this major European power. But better success. France built up formidable defenses along relations between Britain and France left Italy, with its borders with Germany and gave huge loans to its long coastline, feeling vulnerable to the possibil- Russia, which were especially targeted toward the ity of fighting against the two strongest navies in the building of a better railway network and for weap- Mediterranean. Territorial disputes led Italy to spend ons. In 1908, Russia launched its “Great Program” to as much time preparing for war with its ally Austria- rapidly build up and modernize its military and trans- Hungary as for war with France. When war broke portation networks. This coincided with a booming economy to bring rapid change, both increasing the out, Italy declared its neutrality, and then on May firepower of the army, and, crucially, bringing the 23, 1915, it joined the Entente. In addition, Romania, number of days required to fully mobilize the army which had confirmed its alliance with the Central and reserves down. German military strategists pre- Powers in February 1914, decided to remain neutral dicted that by 1916, Russia would be able to complete when war broke out.

18 ACADEMIC DECATHLON ® SOCIAL SCIENCE RESOURCE GUIDE *REVISED PAGE 2013–2014 standard, and created many of the problems The Schlieffen Plan did not consider the possibility that would lead to the Great Depression. of a large British military force in France. But for the reasons we have discussed, especially German The immediate cause of was the cri- naval build-up, Britain entered the war, and historian * sis in the Balkans that began with the assassina- Niall Ferguson argues that the deployment of the tion of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the British Expeditionary Force was decisive in saving Habsburg throne. Austria responded by gaining France from defeat within the time constraints of German support and then issuing an ultimatum the Schlieffen Plan.21 As historian James Joll puts it: to Serbia, which led to war. Russia responded by “strategic planning for a war against Russia should ordering partial mobilization, which led Germany have been accompanied by a foreign policy aimed at to mobilize and declare war on Russia. securing at least the neutrality of Britain.”22 Britain’s The structural, or long-run causes of the war industrial might was comparable to Germany’s, and * include: its entry tipped the scales decisively to the Allies by the spread of mass politics and a mass press, almost every measure. However, one thing Britain • which led emperors and governments to use did not have in was a large trained army. aggressive imperial and foreign policies to bol- Britain did not have universal , so it also ster their popularity with the masses did not have a large number of reserves ready to mobilize and deploy to the front. • imperial rivalries, which were important in convincing British leaders to enter the war Section I Summary: on the side of the Entente; imperial dreams Origins of the First World War also pushed Russian leaders to be aggres- sive in the Balkans and toward the Ottoman * World War I was arguably the most important Empire. Desire for a great empire to match its event of the twentieth century. Its impacts were economic might became an important factor enormous. in German foreign policy and was a primary • Nine million soldiers were killed and at least reason why Germany was willing to risk war in six million civilians died as a direct result of 1914. the war. • the alliance system, which locked Germany • The great multi-ethnic continental empires between two powerful enemies and led to the (the Ottoman, Habsburg, Russian, and German creation of the Schlieffen Plan as the predomi- Empires) collapsed as a result of the war. Many nant German war strategy. The Schlieffen Plan new states were created in the wake of these ensured that Germany would bring France into imperial collapses. any war with Russia. By signing entente agree- • The war was the most important cause of the ments, Britain gave France and Russia hope communist revolution in the Russian Empire, that it would join them in the event of war. But the first communist revolution in world history. Britain also gave Germany hope that it might stay neutral by refraining from joining an alli- • Fascist movements and dictatorships resulted, ance that obligated Britain to defend France to a substantial degree, from WWI. or Russia if those countries were attacked. By • The war broke down the globalized world entering the war, Britain prevented a quick economy, led to hyperinflation, massive shifts German victory, but did not provide enough in relative economic power, ended the gold troops to win the war quickly for the Allies.

2013–2014 ACADEMIC DECATHLON ® SOCIAL SCIENCE RESOURCE GUIDE *REVISED PAGE 19 An early model British Mark I “male” tank, named C-15, near Thiepval, 25 September 1916. Tanks were marginally effective, but they suffered mechanical failures, fell to artillery, and lacked sufficient armor to be a decisive factor. Photo by Ernest Brooks. enjoyed by the defender. As a result, the casualty fig- no match for the battle-tested Austrian-German, ures show a huge imbalance in favor of the defense. Bulgarian,124 and Turkish forces that quickly overran The French offensive operations on the Somme Romania. The occupation regime proceeded to req- were better coordinated and executed by the battle- uisition vast quantities of resources—over a million seasoned French troops and commanders, but the tons of oil per year, two million tons of grain, and French still lost 194,500 casualties, many more than large quantities of meat and timber. British historian the Germans they attacked.121 It was a defeat for the Norman Stone even claims that Romanian entry into French, but a calamity for the British. According to the war ended up helping the Central Powers more British military historian John Keegan, “it was and than it hurt them since it brought Bulgaria into more would remain their greatest military tragedy of the active participation in the war, gave the Central twentieth century, indeed of their national mili- Powers a rich base of key natural resources, and tary history.”122 Britain suffered 432,000 casualties, forced Russia to defend a broad new front.125 According roughly 150,000 of which were killed and another to Dowling, Romania’s entry into the war marked 100,000 too seriously wounded to ever fight again. In the end of Russian offensives on the Eastern Front contrast, the Germans suffered 230,000 casualties, because Russia was forced to deploy twenty-seven almost half as many as the British.123 The Battle of divisions along the new 270-kilometer enemy front.126 the Somme goes down in history as a testament to On the whole, the Brusilov campaign was hugely the futility of the offensive in the technological con- important because it ended the Austrian offensive ditions of WWI. in Italy and forced Germany to send reinforcements Brusilov’s success convinced Romania to enter the from the Western Front. The Austrian army teetered war on the side of the Allies, who promised Romania on the brink of ruin, and meekly accepted German extensive territories from Hungary at the end of command and control over all operations on the the war. But the 620,000-man Romanian army was Eastern Front; according to historian Holger Herwig,

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