The Contribution of Remote Sensing to Alpine Tourism in Protected Landscapes

The Contribution of Remote Sensing to Alpine Tourism in Protected Landscapes. The Example of the Altai Mountains

N. Prechtel & M. F. Buchroithner

Abstract The present paper reports on a project between the Institute for Cartography of Dresden University of Technology and the Geographical Faculty of Altai State University, Barnaul (Si- beria). The joint activities, beginning in 1995, are ranked around state-of-the-art geodata capture and GIS generation for an ecological management and development of protected landscapes in the Katoon Range of the Central Altai. It can be demonstrated that even under a very restrictive geo-information policy of and difficult access conditions within Russia, numerous material has been compiled (not at least during four extensive field trips between 1995 and 1999) and carefully processed to arrive at a sound and reliable data base; remote sensing imagery plays an essential role. After a brief geographic introduction to the study area featuring especially the specific ecological and socio-economic background, the completed and envisaged contents of the GIS are presented. The subsequent chapters deal with several applications of the geo-data base for Alpine Tourism. The primacy of ecological geo- information contents are to a high degree in accordance with the demands of Alpine Tourism. In particular, if a strengthening of ecotourism is desired, which has to start from a very low present level, the reported activities might indirectly be helpful to improve the overall living conditions of the indigenous population; without their broad acceptance and participation all concepts will remain just paper work.

1. Short Account of Altai Geography

1.1 Nature The Russian Altai-Mountains, an area of approximately 100,000 km², are situated between 51° and 49° northern latitude and 82° and 90° eastern longitude, bordering Kazakhstan, China and Mongolia. Elevations range from 500 m to 4,500 m. A complex geological structure has emerged from Baikalian, Caledonian and Hercynian folding, intrusions since Paleo- zoic times and fracture tectonics with active faulting until present (W.P. NECHOROSCHEW, 1966; M.F. BUCHROITHNER, 1985). These processes are, i.a., nuclei for highly variable land forms and mineral compositions of the crust. Entering from the North, one first passes gentle mountain ranges below 1,200 m altitude with a (mostly) centrifugal drainage pattern. Towards the centre of the Altai Mountains, peak altitudes are gradually increasing and lead- ing to high-mountain relief. Here, the main ridges and valleys are predominantly following tectonic lines in a WNW-ESE direction. Though ice caps, which were confined to the central parts, and ice streams of the alpine type did both not reach the margins and lowlands during the ice ages, the major valleys are wide and form openings and access ways towards the lowlands (V.V. BUTWILIOWSKI, 1993). Fluvial erosion displayed its highest efficiency when hitting tectonically stressed rock. During the last de-glaciation phase further forming took place by giant outbursts of glacier-dammed melt-water lakes (V.V. BUTWILIOWSKI, 1993; V.V. BUTWILIOWSKI and N. PRECHTEL, 2000). Typical for the central part are spacious intramontane basins as a subdividing element of late Tertiary origin, increasing in size and elevation towards the Mongolian territory in the East. High-altitude plains are also frequent, especially at a level of 1,500 - 2,000 m. They indicate long denudation phases. For the core zones of the Pleistocene and recent glaciation along the main culmination of the Altai in the Katoon-Range, the Northern and Southern Chouja- and the Southern Altai-Range, however, a rugged erosional relief is characteristic. A recent compilation of literature on the Altai landscape structure is given by Bussemer (S. BUSSEMER, 1999). The diversity of the relief is also reflected by the climate. During typical thermal inversions of the wintertime in high basins, temperature extremes of –60°C are measured, whereas this season is rather moderate e.g. along the shores of Lake Telezkoje. In favourable parts, summer temperatures compare well to Mid-European conditions. The annual precipitation has its limits at arid 200 mm in the eastern basins and fully humid 2,000 mm in the central- western ranges at the other end. All water discharges to the North; sources and headwaters of Irtysh and Katoon, a main tributary to the Ob, are located in the Altai. The Altai flora contains more than 3,000 species. Tree growth is limited by minimum temperature means of +10° C in the warmest month (July) and a minimum of precipitation during the vegetative season. The tight interlocking of diverse natural environments is also visible in the fauna. A basic dividing line accounts for inhabitants of the open landscape of the Tundra and the mountain forests (taiga). The latter climb to approximately 2,400 m, but are also edaphically limited (dryness). A prominent red-list species of the Central-Altai is the snow leopard (Panthera uncia uncia), which can also be found in parts of the Tien Shan (Zaiiliski Alatau, cf. Y.I. EIDINOW, 1998), and in parts of the central and eastern Gobi-Altai. The food chains can still be regarded as relatively undisturbed by human interference. At their end we find populations of carnivorous mammals like wolf and brown bear.

K h o

Figure 1: Physical overview map of the Altai Republic - part of the Russian Federation - with project area in the Katoon Range (light red rectangle). Map produced from selected small- scale GIS data as referenced in Chapter 4 at a scale of approximately 1:3,000,000. 1.2 Population and Land Use The Altai is an old cultural landscape. Three nomadic epochs beginning with pre-historic times can be distinguished. The recent population is of multi-ethnic composition, and con- sists of European Slavs, Mongolians and Turks. The Russian immigration started in the 18th century. Typical for the rural Altai is a cultural dominance of rather the Russian or the indigenous Altai population in a community. In the south-eastern Kosh-Agach County, also a Ka- zakhian minority is present. Physical parameters greatly determine land use. Comparatively friendly conditions in the northern Altai including the pre-mountain ranges are corresponding with a relatively (!) high population density and a more intense use. For the whole Russian Altai, however, the density is in the range of 2 inhabitants per square kilometre. This becomes even less, if one ex- cludes the capital of Gorno-Altaisk with around 50,000 inhabitants. Looking at the central parts, only the basins are inhabited, with the majority of these regions being rather totally untouched or only temporarily used as grazing land. Timber extraction takes place around the villages in the remote areas and serves only for fuel supply and construction of houses and bridges. Tourism is marginal and restricted to a few spots, which are either comparatively well connected to the West-Siberian Plain (Lake Telezkoje) or spectacular for alpinism like the area around Mount Bjeloukha, the second highest peak of Russia (4,506 m). Some explanations for the discrepancy between the high tourism potential and its de-facto mani- festation will be given in Chapter 3 and 7. The mentioned factors have contributed to a wide preservation of a natural physical environment, which is, nevertheless, partly endangered. Poverty and a lack of perspectives for the future call for sensible development strategies. The collapse of centralised structures in agriculture has led to systems, which are more or less focused on subsistence. The political change and the associated change of global trade conditions have also affected mining and forestry. This must be seen in connection with high maintenance expenditures for the infrastructure (roads, electrical power, telecommunication) in a remote mountainous region. Loss of the young dynamic population and a slow interior concentration of the population is a logical consequence and can be observed. Associated to this problem, one can anticipate a high possibility for a loss of cultural landscapes in the near future.

1.3 Threats Substantial disturbances of the physical environment at a regional scale (but spatially scattered) are related to: S recent and historic mining activities, S fallout from the Semipalatinsk nuclear test plant, S intended crash landings of rocket boosters at selected sites. Equally problematic, but hard to rate in terms of relevance are: S trophy hunting, and S forest fires, spread out over the whole area (often caused by camp fires). The first topic is e.g. critically reviewed on the homepage of the Bavarian Ecological Hunting Association (ÖJV, 1999): The popularity of trophy hunting abroad, preferably in under- developed areas, is exemplified by a proportion of 33% of German hunters, who spend an average of DM 4000.- per year for this 'hobby', often completely disregarding national and international regulations on protected species. Russia is one of the preferred destinations. The Altai Mountains, in particular, are present with hunting offers hunting on brown bear, maral, elk or wolf, all presented in a leaflet entitled 'The Altai, hunting, fishing and experienc- ing in an unspoiled nature'. If large-scale reservoirs and hydro-power stations, which have already passed the planning stage, will at all be realised under the present economic conditions in Russia, is uncertain. A net import of electrical energy and its distribution through a poorly maintained, weak network is a matter of fact. Undisputed is, that the above developments would mean a massive ecological impact.

2. Definitions An Alpine character of the environment is determined by a a strong local relief and a substantial spatial extent, externally acting as a barrier and internally forming heterogeneous compartments with a distinct character, a tendency to genetic isolation and a comparatively high cultural independence on the human side. It comprises an elevation range, large enough to imply a clearly dominant vertical zoning of most biotic and abiotic processes and, at the same time, reaches into the belt of perennial ice and snow. The high individuality of the ecological compartments imposes serious problems to all efforts for a quantitative char- acterisation which mostly contrasts to an insufficient empirical base. The particular natural conditions are strongly affecting the human activities of the indigenous and the temporary population like tourists. In the given context, we are – from a visitor's viewpoint - defining (active) Alpine tourism as a super-category for non-commercial outdoor activities in an Alpine environment, heading for recreation, sports and nature experience. For the Central Altai, the target area of the present study, we can concentrate on hiking, trekking, mountaineering and rafting. Fishing and hunting, though not an integral part of Alpine tourism, have also to be mentioned. The latter have a tradition among the indigenous population, but are also highlighted as major tourist attrac- tions in PR material on the Altai Mountains. All other activities, which are requiring more than just basic infrastructure (downhill skiing, paragliding, etc.), are presently out of sight and probably also in a near future. It has, however, to be noted, that so far no concrete consid- erations into the direction of ski mountaineering have been made. The relatively high latitude, the dry snow consistency and the late snow depletion in the higher parts would in this respect represent ideal preconditions.

3. Nature Protection and Economy A large proportion (nearly 25%) of the Altai Republic (areawise more or less identical with the Russian Altai Mountains) is classified as protected area (cf. U. KAISER and B. KÖNIG, 1998). This figure has, however, to be qualified by a high proportion of Zakazniks, areas with a relatively low protection level, administered by the forestry agencies without specially dedicated staff. There exist two so-called Zapovedniks, a particular Russian category of protected land, which has been roughly correlated to the a Strict Nature Reserve (IUCN Cateogory 1) by U. KAISER and B. KÖNIG, 1998. All the following information, if associated with the term 'study area', refers to the 1991 established Katoon Zapovednik, an area of 2000 km2 (with buffer zones included) in the equally named mountain range, and its vicinity. The area is of outstanding value for all nature protection efforts and shall, therefore, be imbedded into a larger Katoon National Park, which has, however, not yet passed the planning stage (in spite of intensive research back-up mainly from the Altai State University - V.V. RUDSKY, 1999). Furthermore, the study area comprises major parts of one of three UNESCO world nature heritage areas of the Altai Mountains (all dedicated in 1998), which is named Katoon headwater area and situated around Mt. Beloukha (G. GERSTER, 2000). The IUCN Guidelines for national parks (IUC, 1994) define – within the primacy of environmental protection and the integrity of wildlife – further general objectives, which have to be balanced in order not to compete with the overall purpose, namely limited access for visitors arriving for tourist purposes, education and scientific research, and a stable, preferably traditional use of the natural resources through and for the sake of the indigenous population. The Rio Earth Summit 1992 defined within its chapter 13 of Agenda 21 the materialisation of sustainable development as one of the issues of major priority. Worldwide, governments and NGOs are supposed to focus on (E. SÈNE and D. McGUIRE, 1997; J. IVES, B. MESSERLI, and R.E. RHOADES, 1997): S protecting natural resources ... (Task 2 of Chapter 13), S strengthening country capacity to improve planning, implementation, and monitoring of sustainable mountain development programmes and activities (e.g. national parks; Task 4), and S combating poverty through the promotion of sustainable income-generating activities and improvement of infrastructure ... (Task 5). The situation and, implicitly, the choice for suitable individual measures are obviously depending on the economic background and the political stability as well as on skills and management capabilities at a central and local level. We have to face a totally different situation, when we compare national parks in a remote area of Southern Siberia and in the wealthy western world. Several adverse influences of crowded areas are fortunately irrelevant, like strong segmentation and isolation by transport networks, local pollution sources, or pressure on protected land by exploitative forms of land use (with the exemptions of some mining activities mainly along the western margins of the Altai, also called 'Ore Altai') and mass tourism. On the other hand, serious problems in the Altai have their roots in: S the poverty of the area, S frictions between the Altai Republic and central Russian governmental bodies responsi- ble for the environment, S access limitations and dispersed archiving of geo-data, and S a low attraction of the area for skilled staff in all respects. Thus, we face serious problems on the management side like: S lack of efficient local authorities, S low inclination, to hand-over competence from the Altai Republic to Moscow-based central authorities, S weak in-field monitoring of the protected area by irregularly and under-paid rangers, S lack of an operational geo-data base for eco-monitoring, planning and management, S lack of effective restrictions banning or at least steering trophy-hunting. The 'tension field' of a protected area management has been sketched in Figure 2 in a highly generalised way, herewith also showing the importance of modern techniques, which have proved to be suitable to derive and handle the essential geo-information. Drivers Players Pressure ecolo- natio- inter- e.g. e.g. social nal (e.g. national politics NGOs gical legis- (e.g. IUCN lation) guidel.) NP Management Actions

Geo Information

Remote Sensing GIS

Figure 2: The interaction between environmental driving forces, the national park management and its information demands.

We can predict, that the natural conditions and the terms of trade will not allow much more than subsistence farming, also in future. At the altitude of the Uimon Basin (around 1,000 m) with a short vegetation period and young soils on alluvial deposits, crop yields can only serve a limited local demand or be used as complementary fodder for life-stock. The inherited So- viet farm structures and machinery are incompatible with an intensive and flexible land management by individual farmers. A restructuring does not take place, major investments would be needed. The prevailing goat- and sheep-, as well as the horse- and cattle-breading are neither export-oriented anymore. Timber harvesting is and will be more profitable in the lower ranges of the Northern Altai with dense forest cover, better access roads and less distances to industries. Rudsky and Lyssenkowa (V.V. RUDSKY and S. LYSSENKOWA, 2000) sum- marise the situation as follows: 'Industry has practically been ruined, agriculture has been wrecked. Rise in fuel prices make the products in distant regions incompetitive'. Hence, an economic concept quite obviously converges to a better exploitation of the tourist potential. This has well been understood and addressed in development concepts, which try to stimulate economy ('Free Economy Zone' status with reduced federal taxation and pro- grams by the Republic). In an ideal case, a larger part of the locals could be involved. Popu- lation amounts to roughly 18,000 for the District (Rayon) of Ust-Koksa (V.V. RUDSKY and S. LYSSENKOWA, 2000) and approximately 10,000 for the closer vicinity of the Katoon nature protection zone (Zapovednik, planned national park). A tourism-based increase of the living standard might also lead to a spreading acceptance of nature protection, while, on the other hand, quick money from guiding hunting parties or the hunting for the home-demand might become less tempting. Increased interest in conservation and more available money would probably also help the management side. Therefore, all ecological activities have to be carefully embedded into a wider concept: a master plan to improve access, to extend facilities, to promote the area, to lift the overall wealth, and to reduce all careless behaviour in the nature.

4. Geo-Information: Reflections on Needs and Contents All planned development needs reliable, up-to-date and extensive geo-data. Since 1995, the Institute for Cartography of Dresden University of Technology is co-operating with the Geo- graphical Institute of the Altai State University, Barnaul, to take an active part in the generation of an Altai GIS with a focus on data capture, data integration and GIS technology for the Katoon National Park area (N. PRECHTEL, 1998; V. RUDSKY, M. BUCHROITHNER, A. WOLODTSCHENKO and N. PRECHTEL, 1999). Less in the centre of the Dresden activities are detailed development concepts, which should rather be left to local working groups and population. Here, we can refer to experiences in similarly structured areas like the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Territory (T. HARDER, 1998), but also in the Tibetan Qmolangma National Park, where the locally recruited park management has been actively involved in the definition of the national park boundaries, in first applied research activities and in the mapping and in- ventory of natural resources and the anthropogenous context (M.F. BUCHROITHNER, 1995). The importance of reliable geo-information is similarly highlighted in reports on an- other German-Russian co-operation project in Siberia at Lake Baikal, which has mainly been supported by the German Technical Aid Agency (GTZ): Here, steps towards a reconciliation of ecological and very diverse human land use demands originating from agriculture and recreation to industrial production could only be undertaken, after a detailed geo-data base - structured according to land use categories (A. ANTIPOV, 2001) and their interaction with the natural resources – had been established (B. RAUSCHELBACH, 2001). Certain expenses (travel costs) of the present project have been supported by German WTZ from 1997 to 1999, and will be supported by a Collaborative Linkage Grant of the NATO Sci- entific Affairs Division from now on until 2002. In the beginning, the objectives and later-on uses had to be sorted, to create a long-term stable architecture. The geo-data base has to be multi-purpose to assist (ordered according to priority): S bodies concerned with environmental protection and general planning, S the scientific community interested in high-mountain research, S Alpine tourism of various kinds, S a sensible promotion of the area inside Russia and internationally. In spite of emphasising concrete applications, topics of more academic interest have been included, for example research on geodynamic and geomorphological effects of catastrophic processes in the last deglaciation phase (A. RICHTER, 1998; V.V. BUTWILIOWSKI and N. PRECHTEL, 2000). Specific subtasks can be summarised as follows: S Integration of existing, mostly Russian information sources (scientific literature and data), S intensive support by fieldwork for data capture, referencing and verification, S development of suitable data models and software tools for data optimisation and quality control, S interdisciplinary work with task-dependent partners and integration of students. It is quite obvious, that an efficient realisation had to be S flexible for all extensions and up-dates through complete GIS integration and documentation by structured metadata, S clearly thematically focussed following a combination of user- and availability-oriented priority list (cf. left column of Table 1), S based on multi-source input with emphasis on remote sensing, S multi-scale with a higher level of detail, i.e. medium scale (1:100,000) for the focus area and a lower level of detail, i.e. small scale (1:1,000,000) for the whole mountain system. Consequently, the Dresden team had to start with a topographic data base, the backbone of all work within a GIS and also with remote sensing imagery (rectification). After having almost completed the topographic parts by the middle of 2000, thematic extensions have been set up. Contents, scales, information sources and the state of work of the actual phase are summarised in Table 1: Points 1 to 8 mark the topographic elements, points 9 to 11 refer to ongoing or envisaged thematic extensions. No image data have been included in this table. Satellite images (cf. Table 2, Chapter 6), are mainly seen as primary information to derive or improve thematically structured geo-information. Moreover, in this context it should be men tioned, that numerous landscape photographs have been archived, which have been integrated into the GIS through storage of data-take points (anchor points) and view direction. Key aspects and also a major issue concerning the working time are the use of appropriate scales and, correspondingly, levels of detail and consistency of the data sets. The decision for a two-scale approach accounts for the necessity of: S a maximum of detail in the study area (protected zones and neighbourhood, together approx. 9,000 km2) for ecological modelling as well as for orientation in derived digital and analogue maps (target must be seen with respect to the limitations of the 'open' geo- information sources) S a data base of reduced scale for the whole Altai Mountains (cf. Figure 1), to allow modelling with low resolution input (e.g. meteorological, geological, administrative, population, travelling time data, etc.) and to transport knowledge about the setting of the area to the 'non-experts' (e.g. "marketing" of the area).

KATOON NATIONAL PARK GIS

PROJECTION: TRANSVERSE MERCATOR, CENTRAL MERIDIAN: 87 E, KRASSOVSKY SPHEROID, PULKOWO DATUM O O O O BOUNDARIES 49 40' N – 50 20' N, 85 30' E – 87 00' E Category Nr. Info Layer For- Gene- Primary Source(s) Status / Prior- (selected mat ration ity (if not attributes in completed) brackets) [1] Relief 1.1 lines and 3D 1 (a) Topographic Maps 1:200,000 (sev- completed points: vector eral sheets), contours, spot (b) mass points from stereoscopic heights, measurements of MK4 stereopairs breaklines, structure lines 1.2 DEM 100 / 17 raster 2 interpolation from approx. 600,000 initial completed points (from 1.1), resolution 100m (DEM 100) and 16.667 m (DEM 17) 1.3 hill shading – raster 3 analytical generation (from 1.2) completed elevation tints

[2] Drain- 2.1 lines, poly- 3D 1 TopoMap 1:200,000 (several sheets) completed age gons: rivers, vector lake contours (names) 2.2 lines: 3D 1 geo-referenced high-resolution satellite medium rivers and vector imagery plus information from 2.1 lake contours (higher accuracy of imagery) (as for 2.1) 2.3 polygons 2D 2 analytical generation using DEM (1.2) in preparation (attributed): vector and drainage network (2.1, 2.2) catchment units and hydrological character [3] Trans- 3.1 lines: 2D 1 TopoMap 1:200,000 (several sheets) completed portation roads and vector trails (classified) [4] Settle- 4.1 polygons: 2D 1 TopoMaps 1:200,000 (several sheets) completed ments settlements vector (names, population) [5] Forest 5.1 polygons 2D 1 TopoMaps 1:200,000 (several sheets) completed Cover (unclassified) vector 5.2 classified: raster 1 MK4 and IRS-1C satellite imagery in completed deciduous, connection with field survey coniferous, (TopoMaps 1:200,000 for spots where mixed forest image info not classifiable) [6] Gla- 6.1 polygons: 2D 1 all available satellite imagery in connec- in preparation ciers glacier extent and tion with field survey (names, dat- 3D (in the first instance only outlines) ing) vector [7] Other 7.1 polygons 2D 1 MK4 and IRS-1C satellite imagery in medium Land (classified): vector connection with field survey Cover natural land (augmenting [2], [5] and [6]) cover 7.2 polygons 2D 1 MK4 and IRS-1C satellite imagery in medium (classified): vector connection with field survey man-made (augmenting [4]) land cover [8] Ad- 8.1 polygons 2D 1 (a) TopoMaps 1:200,000, high mini- (classified): vector (b) several documents, showing the stration administrative protected zones units, protected zones [9] Snow 9.1 seasonal time raster 1 basically from AVHRR data in preparation Cover series of snow cover 9.2 (iso-)lines: 2D 2 interpolation using classification of high snow duration vector AVHRR data (from 9.1) (9.3) (iso-)lines: raster / 2 interpolation from meteorological records medium link to sea- 2D (digital data set covering 15 stations in sonal tem- vector the Altai Mountains) perature regime [10] Mor- 10.1 TINs and 3D 1 (2) (a) classified DEM in preparation phology polygons: vector (b) additional measurements in MK4 morpho- stereopairs graphic units 10.2 polygons: 2D 2 (a) morphography (comp. 10.1) field work com- geomor- vector (b) classified high-resolution satellite pleted, in phology imagery preparation (c) field measurements [11] Im- 11.1 points (classi- 2D 1 diverse documents and field survey field work '95 portant fied): national vector completed, facilities park facilities, update neces- accommo- sary, medium dation, camp sites, services relevant for visitors Table 1: Contents of Katoon National Park GIS.

The difficult and time-consuming task of securing consistency in complex geo-data from various sources can be exemplified with the information layers 'DEM' and 'Drainage'. Obviously they have to be harmonised: All drainage requires continuous slopes along stream. Relief depressions shall appear as lakes on compact bedrock and in a humid climate. The water table of a lake must appear as a horizontal plain in the DEM. The highly structured input data and the carefully adjusted weights in the DEM interpolation helped to minimise inconsistencies, which can never be fully avoided, because of: S small residual errors in the registration or rectification of the original data layers, S generalisation of contour lines in steep terrain, S smoothing of relief edges in the DEM interpolation. DEM 2D/3D- Orthoimages Drainage zxy xyz xy xy

Drainage Profile Drainage Profile using DEM-de- using elevations, Drainage Course Drainage Course rived elevations interpolated from from maps from image data for each vertex map relief elements

Comparison of Comparison of z-inconsistencies xy-inconsistencies

Lokal improvement (Local) improvement of DEM-quality of horiz. accuracy

Improved Improved DEM Drainage

River catchment calculation

Figure 3: Steps to harmonise DEM and Drainage Network.

A full completion of the missing contents, as specified in Table 1, can be envisaged for the middle of 2002. The biotic components are still sort of a weak spot, and an integrative concept should envisage to make use of the respective observations of the Barnaul colleagues. We are convinced, that this state will then form a solid base for many GIS-based modelling tasks. A few examples shall be given: S interrelations between selected climate elements (insolation, temperature), snow- and natural land cover, S habitat modelling for endangered species, S natural resources, accessibility and revision or updating of the hierarchical zoning of the protected landscape, etc.

5. Specific Information Demands Related to Alpine Tourism It has been stressed, that a strengthening of Alpine tourism could promote an economic re- covery of the area. The attraction of more tourists requires, among others, good quality geo- information, to S create attention (marketing), S allow a preliminary planning of various outdoor activities, S help in assessing the physical and logistic requirements of the planned activities, S provide a reliable orientation during all out-door activities, S inform about possible vehicle access (start and recollection points), S prevent the entering of hazardous or strictly protected zones. Apart from aspects directly relevant to the individuals, others are beneficial in a more indirect sense. With respect to a highly vulnerable protected landscape this means to supervise the streams of tourism and, eventually, to redirect or ban them from certain areas. Also, emer- gency actions should be planned. Most crucial in terms of geo-information are: S support of mountain rescue, S forest fire watch (camp fires !), S control of waste disposal and fuel wood capture along tracks. In any case, we should be able to link task lists to geo-data specifications. Doubtless, most of the contents of Table 1 can already form a backbone. Comparing the actual collection with the demands, the subsequent step had to be the choice of an efficient information source and processing technology. It can be anticipated that remote sensing will play a central role (cf. Figure 4).

Tourists National Park Managers at home at destination in-field attracted by need information for need information for Tourism Activity Outdoor Rescue Impact Marketing Planning Orientation Planning Control

making use of making use of making use of making use of topographic selected full, detailed full, detailed selected overview, topographic topographic topographic topographic access map information information information information partlypartly partly partly partly

combined statistical pocket GPS synthetic heli- state and image-line physio-geogra- navigation copter views change of ve- (CIL) maps phic information getation info essentially partly essentially essentially partly

photorealistic on-line mountain land cover forest fire de- landscape meteorological hazard maps and aircraft tection and models (spots) situation landing cond. impact control essentiallystrongly partly strongly strongly are serving are serving are serving low resol., high resol., ultra-high re- Non-imag- small scale large scale sol. and scale ing (GPS)

Imaging Sensors of c N. Prechtel 2001

Figure 4: Satellite Information serving Alpine Tourism: Basic relations between actors, tasks, geo-information and spaceborne remote sensing technique. Linestyle of boxes in the geo- information field indicates most suitable geometric sensor properties.

6. Examples for the Contribution of Remote Sensing

6.1 Availability of Geo-Data Official topographic maps of a remote area in the Russian territory like the Altai are: S mostly hard to access with no reliable civilian distribution system being established, S strictly classified for scales larger than 1:200,000 (even stricter for international border regions), S for civilian use often printed without co-ordinates and even legends (even in the small scales), and S also without data on the actuality of the map elements (primary map production, map revision, etc.). During the present project, we have been able to acquire 1:200,000 topomaps showing about three quarters of the Russian Altai, partly in the original layout, partly as county (rayon) maps with minor alterations in the standard symbolisation. Larger scales, though theoretically existing up to the 1:25,000 (!) scale, are only at hand in the form of a few isolated xerox-copies. A lot of thematic maps and geo-statistical material could be collected through the help of the partner institute. Aerial photographs can form an excellent data source for protected areas (M. SEGER and H. HARTL, 1987), especially where access is difficult like for most of our area and the information extraction requires large-scale detection and interpretation. For the Russian territory, and especially for the border areas, such image material is strictly classified. Therefore, remote sensing depends completely on spaceborne data. For our study area (analogue to the whole Altai) and operational optical systems we find as the result of intensive data mining: S very few digitally archived data of the Landsat MSS sensor with cloud cover below 20%: from 1975 to 1982 41 in total, 16 with complete area coverage, only 10 of them recorded during the vegetation period, S no LANDSAT4/5-TM data (out of reach of ground segments, no on-board recording), but better situation since the successful launch of LANDSAT-7 with on-board recording facilities in 1999, S nearly no archived SPOT and IRS-1C data (same situation as for LANDSAT-TM) S but numerous mostly analogue data from Russian space sensors (the most interesting from the MK-4 and KFA-1000 cameras). For the present project, the satellite images of Table 2 have been acquired and processed. The big benefit of the MK-4 images (Y.P. KIENKO, I. NENASHEV and Y. BELOUS, 1991; Y.P. KIENKO, 1996; K.H. MAREK, 1991) is the combination of high geometric resolution (around 12 m) and stereo-capability (60% overlap along track).

SYSTEM DATE AREA COVERED PROCESSING STAGE MK-4 08/30/1995 Film: 1073 Multi-spectral orthoimages (processed at (3 Scenes) Image-No.: 0425/0426/0427 Institut for Cartography) Study area (planimetric resolution after geometric processing 16.667m x 16.667m) IRS-1C 06/16/1997 Path/Row: 097/033 Multi-spectral orthoimages (processed at LISS-3 Study area (planimetric resolution after geo- Institut for Cartography) metric processing 16.667m x 16.667m) Corona KH- 09/14/1971 Study area Black&White Positives (to be ortho- 4B Images Entity-ID: DS1115-1055DA071 rectified) Mission Entity-ID: DS1115-1055DA072 1115-1 Entity-ID: DS1115-1055DA073 Entity-ID: DS1115-1055DA074 Entity-ID: DS1115-1055DA075 (estimated planimetric resolution 6m x 6m) Corona KH4 06/28/1962 Study area Black&White Positives (to be ortho- Images Entity-ID: DS009038046AA024 rectified) Mission Entity-ID: DS009038046AA025 9038 Entity-ID: DS009038046AA026 Entity-ID: DS009038046AA027 Entity-ID: DS009038046AA028 (estimated planimetric resolution 10m x 10m) Landsat 05/11/1975/ Entity-ID: LM2156025007513190 Multi-spectral orthoimages (processed at MSS 07/05/1975 Entity-ID: LM2157025007518690 Institut for Cartography) (3 Scenes) 08/16/1979 Entity-ID: LM3157025007922890 (planimetric resolution after geometric processing 50m x 50m)

Table 2: Satellite data of the project area.

6.2 DEM Generation The DEM generation was a basic step in the GIS concept. The benefits are manifold, thus allowing: S to form a standardised, homogenous and quantitative relief model, S to rectify all satellite imagery in high precision with a parametric approach (prerequisite for all later-on thematic exploitation), S to generate perspective views, S to analytically derive morphographic features (like slope, aspect, curvature, etc.), and S to create value-added map products including hill shading and/or altitude tints. DEM generation for an area of 9,000 km2 takes quite some effort. Field experience with the Russian Topographic Map 1:200,000 showed a quite good relief depiction. It was decided, to use these maps as principal source material. The technique used was conventional digitising from film enlargements 1:40,000 in a highly structured way. It allows element-specific weighting, efficient error detection and tracing, and an appropriate cartographic symbolisation. The following drawbacks of the material can be named: S change of contour interval from 40 m north of 50° N to 80 m south of 50° N, S some inaccurately trimmed contours at the sheet edges, S some numbering errors, S areas without quantitative relief information (rock drawing). For the latter areas, the analogue MK4 stereo-model (original scale 1:790,000) came into the game. Approximately 15% (located in about 60 scattered patches) have been covered by point measurements in an analytical plotter ZEISS-PLANICOMP P3 (M. STEINIGER, 1998), flatter relief sections were scanned in a profile mode, the steepest in a morphographic mode. Theoretical assessments (cf. R. KOSTKA, 1987) and empirical tests showed a satisfying correspondence of the accuracy of map-derived and image-derived spot heights. The input totalled in some 530,000 points from maps and 60,000 from the images. Several refinements were applied to the original points, to homogenise the 'digitising style' of individual operators, to eliminate errors, and to optimise the point distribution for the interpolation step. The multi- source approach (cf. N. PRECHTEL, 1998; K. HABERMANN, 2000), furthermore, required a statistic optimisation of the part results, to account for the relatively weak absolute orientation of the images: this was achieved by a residual minimisation using overlaps in data capture from map and images. An idea of the input data structure before and within the interpolation is given by Table 3.

LAYER USED TO GEOMETRIC DEM-RELEVANT ELEMENT STORAGE OF Z-COORDINATES CODE ENTITY CALC. CHECK Bk y y 3D polyline breakline for known spots, else 0 to be interpolated by program SCOPFORM Fl y y 3D polyline river for known spots, else 0 to be interpolated by program SCOPFORM Su y y 2D polyline, shoreline constant closed Sp n y point spot height in lake corresponding to surrounding element Su Gr y y 3D polyline, glacier contour for known spots, else 0 to be interpo- closed lated by program SCOPFORM Gh y y 2D polyline contour line on glacier constant from map Hl y y 2D polyline contour line constant from map Hp y y Point spot height from map Pa y y Point spot height in excluded area from map Rh y 2D polyline re-interpolated contour line from re-interpolation from SCOP Rz y 2D polyline re-interpolated numbered from re-interpolation contour line from SCOP Hz y text elevation text for layer Rz automatic generation Tr n n point triangulation points for densi- from SCOP.TRI fication by SCOP-TRI Gl y y 3D polyline ridge lines from Planicomp measurements Mp y y point mass points from photo- from Planicomp measurements grammetry Ai y y 3D polyline, boundary of excluded area for known spots, else 0 to be interpo- closed (no map data inside) lated by program SCOPFORM Aa y y 3D polyline, boundary of excluded area for known spots, else 0 to be interpo- closed (no map data outside) lated by program SCOPFORM Is n n 2D polyline, outside boundary of photo- 0 closed grammetric point cloud Os n n 2D polyline, inside boundary of photo- 0 closed grammetric point cloud Gi y line coordinate hair crosses 0 Ka y y 2D polyline, boundary of DEM area 0 closed Table 3: Data Structure for DEM generation (modified after K. HABERMANN, 2000).

The following software packages have been used for DEM generation: S AutoCad 14 for data capture and data structuring from the maps, S PHOCUS for data capture with the analytical plotter, S SCOP ENVIRONMENT TOOLS: in-house software for data conversion, error detection and data homogenisation, S SCOP for DEM interpolation, S ERDAS Imagine 8.3 for DEM storage and visualisation. Figure 5 gives an impression of the resulting DEM. The product has been created using a combination of analytical shading and colour-coding of the elevation, following a method developed by N. PRECHTEL, 2000(a). Figure 5: Katoon Range and Uimon Basin 1:700,000. Hill shading combined with continuous elevation tints. Colour assignment by second-order polynomials in RGB-colour space. Geodetic grid indicating Gauß-Kruger coordinates in the system of the official Russian topographic maps.

A first practical test of the DEM was its use in the parametric rectification of the satellite images. The performance was convincing, since a mutual fit with discrepancies in the sub-pixel range (using images with a very different sensor geometry) could be achieved.

6.3 Perspective Views The digital generation of perspective views and flight simulations by means of DEMs and draped orthoimages are well supported by GIS- and image processing software. Apart from a use as a gadget or mere 'eye catcher', such products can be very useful to: S detect geometric inconsistencies of DEM and/or image, S assist the detection of correlations between surface features and patterns and the relief, S augment a written landscape description by semi-realistic helicopter or jet views (not at least for the marketing of an area), S add easily perceivable views (synthetic camera perspectives) to conventional maps (e.g. on their backside) to direct attention to certain features or to facilitate the orientation. While steep look angles from quite a distance (helicopter views) can be created with the available imagery (cf. Table 2), a realistic horizontal view - for the latter case - must be based upon data with a horizontal resolution of around 1 m. If not, minor errors and blunders of the DEM will become very conspicious, and the texture appears very blurred in the foreground. At the same time, we should better switch to a digital surface model, to account for all (also not relief-related) sorts of view sheds. A further, more practical use of synthetic perspective views can be a selection of potential landing sites for a helicopter in rescue operations, because important properties of the surface cover and the relief are displayed. To improve fitness for such use, however, additional information about micro-relief properties and stability of the ground (e.g. an indication of un- stable wetland soil) would be appreciated. Figure 6: Perspective view created from our DEM and ortho-rectified MK4 data: look to the north over the Bjeloukha Massif and its glacier system.

6.4 Forest Cover Forest edges are a very prominent features for orientation, especially in a mountainous terrain with an almost total lack of man-made objects (roads, buildings, etc.). The available maps show, due to their scale of 1:200,000, forests only in a highly generalised form. From the official map production guide lines (standardised for the whole former Warsaw Treaty Countries) it can be seen, that a forest stand has to exceed a size of 1,600 m2, to be de- picted in the map (ACD, 1977). Numerous openings of a typical primary mountain forest (avalanche strips, wind damages, etc.) and a gradual thinning of the stands towards the upper tree line will unavoidably lead to a to some degree subjective manual delineation. Moreo- ver, in the given environment, change over time is typical and much more intense compared to cultivated lowland forests. Thus, we could easily prove, that the completed new forest layer, this time from quite actual remote sensing images (MK-4 and IRS-1, cf. Table 2), showed superior shape and location features compared to the map-derived layer. The processing could be divided into the following steps, starting after completion of all geometric corrections: S training site definition and description during field-work 1997, S radiometric image correction (topographic and atmospheric, the latter only being possible for the scanner data), S stratified classification applied to the two individual scenes plus a synthetic band - NDVI difference - revealing typical seasonal phenological differences, S combination of the individual results for maximum reliability and coverage. A detailed explanation is given by S. MANNHEIM, 2001, a comparison between the map- derived and image-derived forest through Figure 7.

Figure 7: Comparison of two GIS forest layers (enlargement of a small section of the study area): Coloured background depicts classification results (yellow: deciduous, light green: mixed, dark green coniferous forest), red polygons the official topographic map delineation.

6.7 Sudden Changes of Landscape Features Under steady-state physical conditions, lowland land cover patterns are changing by reacting on slow, often long-lasting processes (e.g. in a delta succession from wetland vegetation to a closed forest stand in phase with soil development and increase of distance between surface and ground water table) (N. PRECHTEL, 2000b). For the high-mountain environment, spatially selective, high-energy short-term impacts are as well influential (e.g. mass movements, breakdown of forest stands, shifts of drainage channels). From a tourist's point of view, this means that within a short, mostly unpredictable time span important orientation elements can change in shape and pattern, tracks and river crossings (fords or bridges) may become blocked or destroyed. It is virtually impossible for a map provider to keep in pace with all relevant changes, which might some times be detected only years after an event, if a wilder- ness area is affected. For changes of major extent, however, remote sensing imagery can reveal changes and accelerate the up-dating of a geo-data base. We can present an example of shifting drainage channels of the Katoon River into which all the water discharge of the Katoon Range is directed. The exemplary section of Figure 8 is characterised by a low gradient of below 2 per mill along the axis of the Uimon Basin and ongoing aggradation of a young, wide flood plain by a braided stream. The young alluvial plain is set up from the basin floor by one (West) or two (East) terrain steps. The gravel banks are carrying an open birch forest. With the maximum run-off from cumulated snow- melt in the tributaries happening at the end of May, the possibility of drainage channel shifts becomes very high. This is documented by a synthetic image, created from two LANDSAT MSS scenes of 1975 and 1979 (Figure 8). White sections indicate a correspondence of the drainage, green ones varying width of the water body, and blue and magenta sections individual situations of 1975 and 1979. The other available images would show again differing situations. Figure 8: Displacement of drainage channels of River Katoon in a section with braided stream pattern from 1975 to 1979 by digital image analysis: highly saturated colours indicate changes, low saturated colours no major change.

6.8 Glacier Cover Some effort has been directed into the clarification of the actual glacier extents in the area during the present project (K. HABERMANN, 2000). The Katoon Range bears a glaciation with an estimated total extent of 308 km2 (W.E. AREFJEW and R.M. MOUCHAME- TOW, 1996). Figures in older literature (W.S. REVJAKIN, 1971) are significantly lower. In total, this accounts for around 30% of the total glacier extent of the Russian Altai. Visual comparisons with the 1:200,000 maps during the expeditions have re- vealed, that many small glaciers are missing (e.g. at the upper end of the Moulta catchment), while, on the other hand, those being indicated have mostly retreated since the survey, on which the map is based. The indicative character of glacier behaviour in the global change research is undisputed. But also the relevance of a precise knowledge about glacier extents for the Alpine tourism is evident. Depending on surface character, seasonal snow pack and visibility of crevasses, glaciers might form an efficient and comparatively easy or a complicated and dangerous part of a tour. Thus, they determine tour planning and equipment. A contact with glaciers is hardly avoidable, when a tour in the Ka- toon Range is laid out to cross the main ridge, passes being located in an altitude between 2,600 m and 3,000 m plus. Our first attempts to measure the actual ice fronts were based on traditional terrestrial surveying with theodolite and stadia rod, to serve as ground truth for high-resolution satellite image interpretation (K. HABERMANN, 2000): Various studies have shown the potential of optical remote sensing (cf. N. PRECHTEL 1998). Major problems result from a difficult transport of bulky geodetic equipment over steep and pathless moraines and second, from the lack of triangulated fix points for an absolute orientation. Further activities will therefore basically apply GPS measurements. For the mapping of glacier termini with up-to-date optical satellite imagery a minimum snow cover, a cloud-free peak zone, high atmospheric transpar- ency and a relatively high sun elevation (providing some image dynamics in cast shadow zones) are favourable. This is conflicting with the climatic situation, namely a maximum of convective cloudiness during summer, and a late retreat of the snowline. It will therefore be necessary to mosaik the information from a puzzle of individual images, which implies the drawbacks of non-synchronicity of the information. On the other hand, we might be able to get indications about the long-term behaviour of the glaciers, when including the historic CORONA and MSS-data (cf. Table 2). 6.9 Snow Cover A last example of many more is given by a recent study of snow cover. Distinct seasonal and even daily dynamics make it virtually impossible, to create a consistent image of this element at large scale and high resolution. In contrast to the other geo-objects, which have been covered, we therefore aim at statistical properties. A regional snow cover model shall describe the average time of the year, when a closed snow cover builds up and melts down, and this in relation to macro- and meso-relief properties and altitude (snow deposition). For the given task meteorological satellite data from the AVHRR sensor (A.P. CRACKNELL, 1997) form the empirical base. As for glacier monitoring, several approaches (e.g. J.J. SIMPSON, J.R. STITT and M. SIENKO, 1998; S. VOIGT, M. KOCH and M.F. BAUMGARTNER, 1999) have been published. They might, however, need some adjustments for the highly continental climatic setting with low snow surface temperatures in the cold basins. Obviously, modelling of seasonal snow cover can profit from a good knowledge about the glacier extent and distribution (Chapter 6.8). Their coarse geometric resolution is a serious drawback of the AVHRR data, if comparatively small areas are studied. A standard rectification approach using a large number of ground control points is critical for their low resolution-dependent positional accuracy and also not feasible for high-frequency time series. At present, our working group is testing a new strategy, which makes use of seasonally stable landmarks in connection with a stratified image correlation. A successful mutual geometric registration in such a first step would then allow, to absolutely rectify a whole image stack instead of individual scenes in a subsequent step, and promise a significant increase of absolute geometric accuracy. Multi-temporal image processing needs an optimised image geometry. Only then, the primary resolution might to some degree be overcome by a down-scaling concept, which assumes rather stable snowline elevations under similar geomorphic settings and a comparable short-wave radiation budget of a raster cell. However, for the time being the validity of the concept has still to be proved. For a lack of actual meteorological data (only one mountain station in the Altai is still operational) and regular stream gauging, we will – at least in this stage – not try to build-up a complete hydrological model. We are convinced, that apart from a basic role of snow cover for vegetation and all food chains in the wildlife, the planning of outdoor activities can profit as well.

7. Conclusion The preceding chapters attempted to demonstrate, that even the basic modules of the generation of a Katoon National Park GIS requires, under the given circumstances, quite some effort and experience. While a maximum homogeneity of the input data would normally lead to least effort, best consistency and highest modelling potential, this path is definitely not vi- able in the present project (Table 4). Practical work must not be guided by theoretical solutions requiring 'unlimited' access to data and high-tech but rather by clever solutions which make the best of what is at hand.

TASK IDEAL CASE DE-FACTO SOLUTION Generation of acquired from central provider of a consis- individual information layers extracted from Topographic Data tent digital topographic data base with se- multi-source primary data Base cured continuous updates and extensive in an analogue form, meta-information (semantic description, in various geodetic reference systems, specified actuality, processing history) often without sufficient meta-information Thematic Data well-structured archive of geo-data with: Base (Eco-Data high level of detail and geometric accuracy, Base) established data capture standards, long history Data Homogeni- low effort high effort sation Temporal Con- high varying sistency Modelling Poten- from large to small scales from medium to small scales tial Support of Alpine good strongly improved compared to the prior situa- Tourism tion Demand for GIS moderate high Activities

Table 4: Ecological GIS-Data Base: theory versus feasibility.

It became very clear within our practical work during the last years, that especially where geo-data from maps are insufficient or inaccessible, remote sensing plays a dominant role, and often even becomes a prerequisite, when an operational GIS shall be established. It can fortunately be guaranteed, that demands of ecological documentation and monitoring – which is and will remain the primary focus – and those of Alpine tourism are highly conver- gent, when the geo-data base is concerned. Both applications can easily profit from the same source. On demand, surveying of certain focus areas within the rather spacious study area could be densified and intensified by means of imagery of the latest ultra-high resolution sensors; this might be envisaged especially for the glacier areas where, furthermore, a spot- wise comparison seems possible with the situation back to the 1960s (Corona data, cf. Table 2). In an ideal case, a 'soft' Alpine tourism ('ecotoursim') in accordance with the needs of environmental protection could alleviate the serious economic situation. It has been worked out clearly by U. KAISER and B. KÖNIG, 1998, that existing structures would very well fit into this tourism philosophy: small-scale facilities (to be established comparatively easy), genuine interest in and respect for the social and physical environment, and openness to adapt to the local lifestyle. Its general cultural and ecological impact is certainly lower, since it appears less as a mass phenomenon, but rather as a loose grouping of individualists. We are quite aware, that this is not a unique solution for an under-developed mountain area, which forms basically an attraction for 'civilisation fugitives', but maybe an effective one: In the Bolivian Chapare Region of the Andean Cordillera Oriental five national parks have been defined with the aid of NGOs just for the establishment of an ecologically oriented tourism and, thus, a new income source for the former indigenous coca growers (P. REGALSKY, 1995). With the collapse of the Soviet Union, most of the organised old-style tourism stopped as well. The Katoon Range clearly suffered from that decline (from 44,000 visitors in 1988 to 17,000 visitors in 1991 (W.E. AREFJEW and A.W. Tshoudow, 1994). Offers of young travel enterprises which emerged in the 1990s could hardly compensate for these losses. They basically aim at wealthy clients but their facilities serve only a small number of tourists below 1,000 per year in total (U. KAISER and B. KÖNIG, 1998). It is undoubted, that, especially for ecotourism, the potential of the area is totally underused. Reasons can easily be found: S long access to the area (minimum one day bus travel from next major town, even longer from next airport), S only few basic accommodations and a total lack of support of an individual tailoring of a stay (tourist information), S more or less established programmes only for hiking, climbing and rafting, S bureaucratic nuisances (e.g. special visa requirements for the Altai Republic, immigration fees, frequent controls and money-rising by highway patrols), deterring at least individual travellers. In a near future, we will be able to support Alpine ecotourism in the Altai with partly revised and value-added map products derived from a digital data base. We are convinced, that the analogue map will remain a most essential outdoor document. They will be by far more than just digitised copies of conventional material. Even without a consideration of new information layers, a significant quality improvement through numerous steps of error removal and homogenisation in combinations of primary material for a GIS data base has already been materialised.

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