特集：世界の中の憲法９条

Japan’s “Peace Constitution” and South Korea

Nozomi Akizuki (PRIME Member)

In the South Korean media, the term “Peace of the Japanese government and the moves of soci- Constitution” is often used to refer to the current ety, leading to deepening suspicion among South Japanese Constitution. However, this does not nec- Koreans toward Japan. In the process of normaliz- essarily signify a positive appreciation for Japan’s ing diplomatic relations between the two countries, stance for peace. Of course, there is positive appre- starting in 1952, the representatives of Japan openly ciation for the fact that Japan, which until 1945 gave positive views on their country’s past aggres- was an imperialist power, and invaded many other sions against the Korean Peninsula without express- countries, declared the denunciation of war and ing any sense of remorse for its colonization of the non-maintenance of armed forces and made the em- Peninsula in the prewar period. Since then, some peror, who was once considered a deity, into a Japanese politicians, bureaucrats, businesspeople and mere “symbol.” However, South Korean society critics have intermittently affirmed the war or justi- still holds deep-rooted suspicions that the Constitu- fied the invasions. Therefore, Japan’s “Peace Con- tion did not result from or does not reflect Japan’s stitution” is seen as nominal and cosmetic rather heartfelt remorse over its mistakes and invasions than as something real. This is the view of many committed until 1945. Some South Koreans are South Koreans on Japan and its Constitution. also aware with the fact that Japan’s Constitution At the same time, the Constitution appears to was “imposed by the victorious powers as punish- also address the military in a purely nominal way. ment,” a view that has some commonality with that During the Cold War, not only the government but held by Japanese conservatives hoping to revise the also the people of South Korea showed a certain Constitution, that it “was not formulated under understanding on the existence of Japan’s Self De- Japan’s own initiative.” However, no matter how fense Forces based on the “confrontation between it was enacted, South Koreans do positively North and South Korea” and “anti-communism.” appreciate it as the “Peace Constitution” that has On the other hand, however, they were always anx- prevented a revival of militarism in Japan or ious and fearful of Japan’s militarization. It is expansionist ambitions by Japan. widely known among South Koreans that Japan’s The “Peace Constitution” has been valued as Constitution renounces war and abandons the main- such a brake, but considerable discrepancies have tenance of armed forces. Nevertheless, Japan pos- often appeared between it and the actual behavior sesses the Self Defense Forces, which are

―97― Japan’s “Peace Constitution” and South Korea equivalent to a military force in terms of equipment contributions considering its economic power.” and the exercise of force, and Koreans have often They complained that Japan was acting as a “free pointed out the contradiction and inconsistency, rider” on security. Their frustration was directed at leading to distrust and negative views toward Japan’s enjoyment of economic growth without Japan, mixed with anti-Japanese sentiments, such as making military contributions, under the name of “That’s why the Japanese...” or “That’s why the “Peace Constitution,” while South Korea was Japan...” obliged to have a large military budget. A typical In South Korea, it is common for moral and example of this line of thinking can be seen by the ethical claims to be brought to the forefront in the demand, at the beginning of the 1980s, by the enactment or revision of laws. This is due to the Chun Doo Hwan administration that Tokyo grant it strong tendency to use ethics and morals as a basis a loan of ten billion dollars in economic coopera- for revising laws when there is a gap between the tion as compensation for its failure to make mili- law and reality. On the same grounds, there have tary contributions, leading to serious tensions been calls for the renegotiation of the normalization between the two nations. treaty between Tokyo and Seoul and other treaties. Also with regard to Japan’s war responsibility Of course, the criteria for such ethics and morals and colonial rule, South Korea often perceived the are not constant, and an “ideal situation” cannot “Peace Constitution” as a form of evasion or ex- materialize overnight with the formulation or revi- cuse. There were strong calls for an apology from sion of a law. However, the dominant view in the Japanese emperor, as Japan’s aggressions and South Korean society is that actual phenomena war were carried out in his name. However, Japan should be evaluated based on ethical and moral shifted to the system that sees the emperor as a standards and that laws and treaties should be en- symbol of the state, as stipulated in Article 4 of acted or revised accordingly. Therefore, from a Ko- the Constitution, which states, “The Emperor... shall rean point of view, the Japanese stance of using not have powers related to government.” Therefore, “interpretations” to leave the gap between the arti- Tokyo made it clear that a direct apology from the cles of its Constitution and reality untouched is emperor would be unlikely. In 1984, Emperor seen as being “halfway” and “dishonest.” Hirohito stated, at a dinner reception for Chun Doo Such negative images of Japan and its Consti- Hwan, the first South Korean president to visit tution have clearly been reflected into concrete Japan, that “an unfortunate past existed between South Korean policies and views on Japan when- both countries.” But this was merely an objective ever Tokyo-Seoul relations became tense and recognition of the situation. Then, during the visit strained. of Chun’s successor, President Roh Tae Woo to In the Cold War era, during times of rising Japan in May 1990, Emperor Akihito referred to military tensions between North and South Korea the Japanese occupation of Korea more clearly, and arguments about security in East Asia, South saying that he felt “deep regret” toward “this mis- Korean politicians and media complained vocifer- fortune brought about by our country.” Japan has ously about “Japan’s inadequate military maintained that this is the maximum apology possi-

―98― Japan’s “Peace Constitution” and South Korea ble under the current constitution, but many Kor- tutional revision and the enactment by the Diet of eans still see the responsibility of the Japanese em- the National Referendum Law in preparation for peror as remaining vague. constitutional revision. Although the tone is some- Some forces in Japan have taken advantage of what restrained as it is a political issue in another this Korean perspective on the “Peace Constitution” country, South Korea has strong concerns that to criticize that country, “Does South Korea want Japan’s current right-leaning administration may Japan to have armed forces” or “Do they want us accelerate its militarization and expansionism policy to reinstate the Emperor System?” without referring by changing the facet of its constitution that has to Japan’s war responsibility and the inadequacy of been highly valued by Koreans. Major media in compensation for its invasions. This sometimes South Korea have reported the fact although the leads to anti-Korean sentiments, and to fanning the percentage of Japanese supporting constitutional flames of constitutional revision. revision is increasing, many still oppose the revision However, people in South Korea do not hope of the article on the renunciation of war and refusal for the amendment of the Japanese Constitution, as to have armed forces, while suggesting the need they appreciate the role that the current “Peace to amend the Constitution in accordance with new Constitution” plays in halting a revival of Japanese circumstances, such as the environmental issues. militarism and restraining expansionism. In addi- Meanwhile, many Koreans welcomed the fact tion, it is unrealistic to expect that Japan will that only a small number of schools decided to use achieve “ethics” and “morals” through a voluntary the controversial history textbook published by revision of its Constitution, which would be seen Fuso Publishing as a sign of conscience among the from a South Korean perspective as the “correct” Japanese people. Now that the National Referen- route for healing the wounds of the war and the dum Law has been enacted, moreover, South colonial occupation. Koreans also have high interest in how this The South Korean media has shown high in- “conscience” will be expressed in the coming pro- terest in the Abe administration’s efforts for consti- cess of constitutional revision.

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The Treasure of Our Country: The Pride We Can Hand Down to the Next Generations

Mika Tsutsumi (Journalist)

“What do you think is the biggest difference and equipment has skyrocketed in the United between you and I?” asked Alan Reed as he States. looked straight into my eyes. As a result, veterans are now forced to wait It was January 2007 and freezing cold in New for a year on average to receive medical treatment York. The temperature was minus 10 degrees Cel- after returning from service. While on the waiting sius. No wonder heavily-dressed people were walk- list, the majority, wrestling with serious ing quickly outside the window, spotted with drops posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or suffering of water. However, Alan was wearing only jeans from atomic aftereffects, find themselves unable to and a shabby sweater. rehabilitate and end up homeless. 23-year-old Alan As I pondered his question, he took a sip of is no exception. His home has been Brooklyn Park his cafe latte and smiled. He said he craved for since October 2006 when he returned from Iraq, coffee when he was in Iraq. where he spent 18 months in service. “In Iraq,” he says, “I was given water in a “People often ask me whether I went to Iraq one-liter bottle. That was supposed to last me for out of love for the country or for moral reasons. a week. I had to restrain my impulse to gulp it But those motivated by patriotism or a sense of down at one go. I always felt so thirsty that I justice are a tiny minority. The majority goes out could collapse. You know what my senior officer of poverty, indifferent to politics. They go to get told me? He said, ’Bite the bullet. You can drink free medical care and a college education,” Alan as much coffee as you want when you get home.’ explained. He was telling me a half truth and a half lie. I However, the cost of being ignorant was way mean, I can drink coffee now, but I’ve lost my too high for the young man. He was ordered to home.” shoot anything moving and soon found himself ex- Since the Iraq War began in 2003, the U.S. hausted physically and mentally by the non-stop government has cut back the military medical tension of remaining alert to enemies. Nobody budget by 100 million dollars every year. The knew why he/she was in Iraq. The meaningless number of military hospitals has been forced to killings threatened the nerves even in sleep. At close down because they could not hire enough night, he heard soldiers screaming from tents all doctors and nurses, and lacked adequate medicine around him.

― 101 ― The Treasure of Our Country: The Pride We Can Hand Down to the Next Generations

“The nightmare continued even after I returned poor, they can easily engage in war without resort- to my country: I was thrown out without care. Peo- ing to military conscription. ple who know nothing about veterans pass us by. “I was not the only one angry,” Alan contin- We who could not return to normal life, lost our ued. “Homeless veterans began to talk with each homes, and ended up in this park. Do you know other and to stand up together. I cannot bear the what is written on the pink stickers attached to the idea of dying without speaking out. I want to do bumpers of their cars?” something that I can be proud of myself while I’ I nodded, recalling the enormous gap between m alive; something I could never feel when I was the truth and what is reported in the United States, in Iraq. That’s why we go to the high schools we where the media is dominated by big capital. The graduated from behind the military’s back and tell pink letters that are everywhere since 2003 read: the students, ’War isn’t cool like how you see it “We support our troops fighting in Iraq.” on television and in the movies. Don’t be like me. Alan said he developed an interest in the news If you want to be a hero, protect yourself. Strike after settling in the park. One day, he was attracted down the enemy to protect your children and your to what was written on a piece of an old newspa- grandchildren.’” per he had picked up from the garbage to light a “Who do you mean by the enemy?” I asked. fire. As he read about oil companies that have Alan gave me a big nod. made a fortune thanks to the war, he realized that “I found out in Iraq that there was no enemy he and his friends had been simply pawns in their there that the government was talking about. The game. enemy that we should fight existed much closer.” He found that the war was being sustained by I asked if he was referring to the government, cornering the poor in the country and by forcing the press, or the big companies that profit from the them to kill weaker people overseas. He learned war. He shook his head to all of them. that bills peppered with smooth words like “privat “It’s our apathy,” he replied. ization” and “free competition” were actually help- Alan said he believed that, despite the refusal ing to widen the gap between the rich and the of the mass media to cover their activities, their ef- poor. forts to tell the truth had helped turn public opin- When I was a child, my grandparents told me ion, leading to the Democrat victory in the 2006 stories about the war they had experienced; about by-election. men disappearing from towns, about women going And then, he took me by surprise. “Do you to factories to work, and about eating pumpkins know what the soldiers in Iraq long for? It’s Arti- and sweet potatoes instead of rice. Now, the words cle 9 of the constitution of Japan.” of this young veteran opened my eyes to another I looked at his face in astonishment. I won- striking reality. dered how many times I had heard a similar state- Nations do not become poor by engaging in ment in the past few years. It was echoed by war. If nations widen the gap between the rich and doctors in Palestine and Iraq, by children living in the poor in order to increase the numbers of the poverty-stricken areas of India, by Africans

― 102 ― The Treasure of Our Country: The Pride We Can Hand Down to the Next Generations suffering from continuous civil war, and by South “What do you think you and I have in common?” American leaders who have started to say no to I told him that we, in now-peaceful Japan, U.S. exploitation. have an enemy to fight just like he does. When people grow tired of one war after an- Alan grinned. “I will tell my friends what you other and attempt to draw a picture of a better fu- told me. You tell your friends that we wish them ture for the next generation, the philosophy good luck.” He waved his hands and walked away embedded in Article 9 appears to emerge regardless under the cold sky. of religion, color, or nationality. My country has a “treasure” that is admired “Even if we experience hell, even if we learn by the majority of the veterans I interviewed and is the truth, we will keep on fighting because we are longed for in many parts of the world. Americans. Last week, the military ordered me to However, it is so fragile that if we remain go to Iraq again. I must go. If I refuse, I will have apathy to its value, it will quietly slip through our to face a court-martial. If only I was born in a fingers. country like yours! A country with a constitution Why is Article 9 praised in various parts of that abandons war! That is the biggest difference the world? What future do we want to give to our between you and I. It is completely crazy to throw children? that away in order to be able to engage in war; in The imagination necessary to reconsider Arti- order to become a strong country. Look at my cle 9 by placing it on the vertical axis of world country; it boasts the world’s strongest military view and the horizontal axis of future outlook is a power, but it’s obvious that you cannot win peace way, stronger than any weapon, to strike at the by military force.” enemy called apathy. It will inevitably help nurture Our interview was over. We were standing by a beautiful country that we can proudly bestow on a subway entrance. Before saying goodbye to Alan, the next generation. I decided to pose him a last question.

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Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution: A Hidden Asset of Diplomacy and its Significance in World History

Naghizadeh Mohammad (PRIME Member)

I am very happy to have been able to listen to some criticism, it has in general drawn attention as the various opinions on the movement to make war a respected country. unconstitutional, the international character of Arti- However, Japan needs to carefully consider cle 9 of the Japanese Constitution and pacifism, what will happen if its peace constitution is “re- and one-country pacifism in general from the view- vised.” First, the revision will seriously affect its point of international law and its history. I am not friendly relations with many countries. Although a an expert on constitutional law, but I would like to handful of nations or persons will welcome the say a few words from the perspectives of inter- emergence of the “Japanese military,” the majority national friendliness toward Japan, Japan’s economic of countries around the world will likely down- growth, and international cooperation. This sympo- grade their images of Japan. sium focuses on the situation in Northeast Asia, but It is normal for countries to quickly react to I would like to take up Article 9 from the perspec- critical views from overseas. Many Japanese seem tive of the opposite side of Asia, that is, the West to have been surprised at the results of an inter- Asian region, also known as the Middle East. national survey conducted by the BBC, released in In the processes of the formation of modern January 2007. In a questionnaire given to 28,000 states and the growth of the capitalist economy, respondents in 27 countries, Japan was seen as the there have been frequent acts of war between eth- friendliest nation in the world, along with Canada. nic groups since the 17th and 18th centuries. In a This survey result reflects Japan’s images held by sense, these inhuman acts have become a built-in citizens, not those with a special interest in the part of each country in international society. country or intellectuals. This shows that Japan has However, following World War II, this built-in an enormously valuable hidden asset, of being seen tendency was rejected in an epoch-making manner as the “friendliest country in the world.” in Japan. Japan achieved high economic growth Japanese people need to understand the back- based on its anti-militaristic peace constitution, and ground for this. The country toward which respon- within just 23 years became the second largest econ- dents to the BBC survey felt least friendly was omic power in the capitalist world. Japan has in Israel. The reason is clearly its negative image in actuality maintained friendly relations with coun- West Asia, stemming from its excessive depen- tries around the world. Although it has invited dence on the military and its being the source of

― 105 ― Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution international tension and conflicts. By contrast, the In the last four years, 3,270 US soldiers and reasons for Japan’s friendly image seem obvious. It some 60,000 Iraqi citizens have been killed. With steers clear of hard power used by a military super- this, Japan is losing the diplomatic assets it has ac- power and contributes to international society cumulated in West Asia for more than a century, through soft power such as Article 9, the economy, namely the values of its Article 9 and pacifism. technology and culture, all of which represent Fortunately, there have been no deaths among Japan’s hidden assets of pacifism. Of the respon- Japan’s SDF personnel in Iraq. Why? A professor dents, 54% said that Japan had a “positive influ- of Baghdad University with whom I talked in ence on the world,” though the majority of those in August 2006, stated that it was for the following South Korea and China said, “Japan is having a reason: “There were no casualties among the per- negative impact.” The latter answer seems to reflect sonnel thanks to Article 9 of the Japanese Constitu- Japan’s militarism before World War II. The cur- tion despite the fact that all the Iraqi people have rent United States is dependent on its military, like opposed the dispatch of the SDF.” prewar Japan. In addition, in the BBC survey, only It will be difficult for the US to establish a 29% of the respondents answered that the US was relationship of mutual trust in West Asia due to having a “positive influence on the world.” This deep-rooted distrust toward it for its overthrow of figure was down from 36% in the previous year’s the Iranian government in 1953, its unconditional survey and 40% in the one conducted two years support for Israel including in the area of nuclear ago. development, and its invasion of Iraq that began in In the meantime, how has Japan dealt with the 2003. current chaos in Iraq? Instead of using the hidden What will Japan possibly gain from the nega- assets it has accumulated in West Asia over the tive revision of Article 9, transfer of the head- past hundred years, it chose without much thought quarters of the 1st Corps of the US Army to Camp to dispatch its Self Defense Forces to Iraq. It con- Zama in Japan, and the enlarged interpretation of tinues to provide transport to US troops and weap- the coverage of the Japan-US Security Treaty to ons, under the pretext of rebuilding Iraq. Needless the West Asian region and the Persian Gulf, all in to say, this is a part of military activities. Due to the name of counterterrorism? Unfortunately, the the intervention of foreign countries, Iraq is not yet dispatch of the SDF to Iraq has created an image in the reconstruction phase. of Japan as a puppet of the US, not only by Iraqi Former U.S. presidential advisor Zbigniew people but by those of neighboring countries as Brzezinski has written, “The US is unilateral and well. extreme in many ways. It has taken measures that Thanks to Article 9, Japan has more “hidden may destroy its trust in international society.” For assets” than any other country in the world. Its the people of West Asia, Japan, by siding with the contribution to West Asia is not limited to the pro- neocons, seems to have deviated from its pacifism vision of funds to relevant persons or inviting peo- and international cooperation, which are the pillars ple to Tokyo. Rather, Japan’s real contribution will of its diplomacy. be to preserve Article 9, establish diplomatic

― 106 ― Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution relations based on trust, without depending on the omic assistance, taking advantage of the diplomatic force, and to put these ideas forward in a way that assets of trust, accumulated based on Article 9,that is visible to the people in the region. As long as it possesses as a pacifist nation with no military its contributions are accompanied by military mus- ambitions. This is something meaningful that Japan cle, Japan will be seen as no more than a puppet can do in the context of world history, not only for of the US, no matter how much money it offers. people in West Asia who are friendly to Japan, but Japan needs to focus on humanitarian and econ- also for peace-loving around the world.

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Japan and the Global Stability：Viewed by an Overseas Vietnamese

My Doan Takasaki (PRIME Research Fellow)

“The cold war was over and the next war the world its rear-area logistic support to U.S, the would be more severe, not bloody but very pains- war making country. While admiring the skills of taking, that is a war of economic competition; high-tech construction, emergency and evacuation Japan is a small country but it will conquer the aids by the Japanese experts of the troops, Iraqis whole world by its power of technology and eco- likely refuse and unwelcome any one who enters nomic development”.., that was what I first heard their country with weapons. Now the Japanese from a Canadian elite, a western scholar who vis- troops are going to be on the way to return home ited Dalat University by early 1990, a year after but the fears of Iraqis of any armed men never the Soviet and East European blocks collapsed and ended. It seems to us the Japanese SDF did a good Vietnam just emerged from Doi Moi policy. I job but still they receive very less or no mercy have kept in mind since then the feelings of from Iraqi civilians for the role of Japan’s global admirations and respects to Japan, a country in stability; the mission of humanitarian aid in Iraq re- Asia but so far away that its neighbors and the rest mains a question mark; more than 4 millions of of the world could not easily reach it in terms of Iraqis have fled to neighbor countries to save their an economically outstanding model. lives in these ４ years due to fears of deaths and Obviously when the US concentrated on the destructions since the war started in 2003 .Asa Vietnam War since 1956, Japan centered on its victim of a war- stricken country, Vietnam, I be- economic development thanks to the article 9 of lieve that Iraqis rather prefer money, food, medical the constitution which guarantees and excuses for and medications, reconstruction aids given by Japan Japan to stay away from committing war after the to its more than 500 troops with weapons in their WWII. Unfortunately, while some of allied nations mission locally situated in Samawa, side by side of NATO have kept their restrictions not to deploy with other allied troops in other parts of Iraq. The troops to Afghanistan and Iraq after 11/9 terror severe violence has been continuing because of the such as France and Italy etc.., Japan did send its presence of US troops and its power in the Middle SDF to Iraq as a movement of constitution violated East via Israel. Looking at the fact that more than from both domestic and global views. Even 1/3 of Iraqis (26 million people) are living under though merely engaged in humanitarian and recon- poverty, 5% of Iraqis are extremely poor and the struction aid missions in Iraq, Tokyo has showed Palestinians are dying of the Israel’s actual

― 109 ― Japan and the Global Stability：Viewed by an Overseas Vietnamese genocide policy, who can say there exits any de- the US history as the worst failure in its foreign mocracy or stability in Middle East? The US’s affairs so far as Americans admitted recently. Why mission there is just for the “regional stability” but Tokyo leaders do not take the experience to keep with a closer look it would show us “the stability” peace? or chaos brought by huge amount of “made in Ignoring Tokyo with its domestic concern of America” weapons; the market of US weapons in Japanese kidnapped problems caused by Pyongyang, Middle East reaches 6 times higher than that of the US via the negotiation of G6 was successful Russia and the area’s oil products mainly marketed over an energy exchange program to North Korea’s by US companies. nuclear threat in an initial step by last month, and For these 60 years, article 9 of constitution South Korea restarted support program to North has made Japan outstanding from its developed Korea. The Asian region and world could breathe counterpart. The identity of Japan is peace and in relief. It is the time to prove that negotiations wealth. Costa Rica is another country having the would bring safety and stability while troops and same constitution as Japan to abolish war since weapons would bring only destructions, deaths and 1949. Even with the moderately economic success regrets. That experiences from many war lessons, so far, Costa Rican are happy and have full civil especially from Vietnam and the current Middle and human rights in a highly democratic and East countries; more than 60% of US citizens op- peaceful environment. By contrast, the situation of posed the war and Bush’s policy so far as they did Japan is changing to a negative direction; Japanese with the Vietnam-US war. Demonstrations against people are in dilemma after the missile testing Iraq war all over the US by thousands of peace threat by North Korea. More than 60%ofthe loving people prove that the region stability needs people from a large scale survey, which conducted not to be involved by outsiders. last October 2006,agreedtorevisethesection2 of While the Americans regret that the people article 9, especially the Okinawa residents who lost the goodness of the power because they have suffered from US bases occupied since 1945. brought only fears to other countries, the goodness It will be a real disaster for the region and the of power of Japan was degraded by the upgrade of whole world if Japan looses its “no war ID card” the Defense Agency into the Ministry of Defense. to deal with its own problems in the mainland as The development has made it possible for Japan’s well as Okinawa and foreign affairs in term of in- defense policy to change from a defense-only pos- ternational stability. The revise of Article 9 can ture to an international proactive one. The move- allow Japan to produce nuclear weapons in a ment also proves as the first step of changing the “small amount” for self defense as the Minister of constitution to boost “national pride”, and creating Foreign Affairs Taro Aso stated the potential to do a bigger global role for the nation to the inter- it. The US and allied nations as well as Japan are national security and stability by using arm forces. trying to prove the war against terrorism to have It is very dangerous if Japan does so. It is the time got its goodness. Obviously the Iraq invasion has to prove that article 9 is a truly valuable peace made the situation worst and the war goes down to message. Global activities of NGOs such as GPACs

― 110 ― Japan and the Global Stability：Viewed by an Overseas Vietnamese of Peace Boat activated the article 9 as Japan’s peaceful consolidation of Japanese companies and treasure and property; article 9’s message is very the hard working people which have led this coun- welcome even in North Korea and China. It is the try to peace, prosperity and wealth. Japan has done time to prove that the goodness of power could be a very major role in the region especially to the supportive via trust building for peace. ASEAN and other parts of Asia to bring the stabil- Many Americans are wondering whether their ity in terms of educational and economic develop- life styles with violent behaviors of youngsters and ment; Japan has supported Vietnam alone 10 billion bad media would hurt the religious conventions and USD via ODA fund so far, valued 1/6 of its GDP. cause hostility to America from the Islam world or In order to boost the economic competition to not recently, there are more people studying Arabs’ WTO, we need a regional and international stability languages in the US. There also has a worldwide with high technology and quality products without tendency to develop curriculum of peace education any forces or threats. We need Japan’s and other at schools moving ahead in order to prevent war in developed countries’ leadership of economic devel- the future. opment but we surely refuse any help or support Media would play a critical role in giving fact with weapons and armed forces from foreigners as information and it has a power to improve the con- our history proves. flict situations resulted in negotiations to have kept While waiting for the referendum on constitu- global security and stability efficiently. tion in the next three years, we hope Japanese peo- I myself have realized that there is no need ple would choose not to upend war-renouncing for other countries to create “an economical compe- Article 9 to sooth the war-torn countries and to tition war” against Japan as I heard because of its maintain peace for the whole world.

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The Significance of Article 9 in the Era of Globalization

J.P. Mukengeshayi Matata (Oriens Institute for Religious Research)

1. The Flexible Constitution the people any grounds to associate this with con- Recently there has been much discussion con- stitutional reform. The current arguments concern- cerning Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, and ing Article 9 are conducted from the viewpoint of many organizations including The Article 9 Associ- the interests of the developed nations, which are ation have been established in Japan to defend pursued through international politics and the capi- the war-renouncing article. Soon after the introduc- talist economic system. tion of the constitution, the National Police Reserve was established in 1950 in response to the escala- 2. The National Emergency Bill tion of the Cold War between the forces of East Some people who are considering constitu- and West and the outbreak of the Korean War. De- tional revision see it as an opportunity to think spite Article 9, the reserve was strengthened and its about the best possible military support on the inter- name subsequently changed to the Police Reserve national level as described above. In Japan, the na- Forces, later to become the Self Defense Forces. tional emergency bill, whose aim was to dispatch Thus, Japan has been in virtual possession of a the Self Defense Forces to Iraq, was passed in the military force since then and its strength has been Diet after 9/11. The legislation not only recognizes built up. In addition, Japan has approved the exis- the existence of military forces constitutionally, but tence of foreign military forces on its territory also permits the use of the right to collective de- since its conclusion of the Security Treaty with the fense and specifies the people’s duty to cooperate United States. All of these actions were generated for national defense. by the defense policies of the Japanese government At that time, the intermediate report released as reactions to the changes in international politics, by Minshuto(Democratic Party of Japan), the big- and they have always threatened the pacifism based gest opposition party, approved “the limited right to on Article 9.(１) self-defense in terms of the United Nations Charter.” Japan’s Prime Minister Abe Shinzo often cites, This did not constitute a denial of the use of the as a reason to reform the Constitution, the dramatic right to collective defense. Though the report does changes in the global situation since its formula- not refer to the people’s obligations for national de- tion. However, he has neither explained clearly or fense, the difference in stance between Minshuto specifically what has changed, nor has he shown and Jiminto (Liberal Democratic Party), Japan’s

― 113 ― The Significance of Article 9 in the Era of Globalization major party, is trivial in terms of this issue, judg- the global society in order to maintain social order ing from the fact that the former approved the na- and security.(４) Accordingly, President Bush singled tional emergency legislation.(２) Given that one of out Iran, Iraq and North Korea as an “axis of evil” the aims of constitutional revision is to impose the and visited Asian countries to strengthen the alli- duty to cooperate for national defense on the peo- ance against terrorism in February 2002. However, ple, it is certain that their human rights will be his wish to protect US national interests and secu- considerably limited once Article 9 is amended.(３) rity and to win international support was frustrated The biggest problem concerning the revision of when China failed to comply with it. It is impor- Article 9 is this threat to basic human rights and tant to stress global communication based on re- freedoms. spect for human rights even in the face of Congresspersons who insist on the revision of continual violence and conflict, so that people can Article 9 have striven to have Japan accepted as a live safely and peacefully. For Mr. Ota Hikari(５) permanent member of the UN Security Council, and Mr. Mushakoji Kinhide, former vice-rector of and likewise, the Japanese government has per- the United Nations University, who stands for the suaded the people to accept the necessity of partici- viewpoint of citizens, Article 9 is the only basis on pating aggressively in multinational forces and which Japan can continue to avoid war, and it peacekeeping operations that include the use of should be recommended as a world heritage in armed might in order to fulfill the responsibilities terms of the quest for peace. If the article is lost, of a permanent member. a spiritual stronghold will have been surrendered. From the viewpoint of the international stage, Unlike Japan’s public opinion, the world sees Article 9 permits Japan to pursue war renunciation its security as being maintained by the US through and pacifism on a global scale. The article is based the war on terrorism. on the “right to peace,” which means the abolition of colonial policies that were practiced all over the The US policies are global colonialism and the world at the time of the promulgation of the Con- war on terror. Peace is maintained by beating stitution. However, there has been a conflict of villains through national security strategies and political opinion, reported in the Japanese and inter- suppressing rogue nations and terrorists before national media, over the interpretation of Article 9 - they have weapons of mass destruction some insisting on its revision to enable Japan to (WMDs), although war between countries has possess military forces and others insisting that disappeared in the world. The US advocates Japan should maintain its principle of unarmed the deterrence of rogue states, preemptive at- neutrality and work to realize this principle in fact. tack and surveillance through US-centered military power by global control of the collec- 3. The Real Basis of Security tive security system to survey terrorism.(６) Since September 11, the Bush administration has focused on the war on terror as a global issue The direction of the current economy, centered and has aggressively sought military support from on the free capitalist system, is rooted in the idea

― 114 ― The Significance of Article 9 in the Era of Globalization that world prosperity leads to world peace. Re- Japan also play its role. In other words, it will be cently, Samuel Huntington and some other critics questioned as to how far its pacifist ideal of “land, have insisted that global prosperity is very likely to sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, bring global peace so that there is no necessity to will never be maintained” is to be upheld. make war as a nation. According to him, this Referring to the African Continent, the Demo- means that “demographics undoubtedly plays an cratic Republic of the Congo, where I was brought important role to decide whether a nation can co- up, has been in a state of conflict until recently. exist with others peacefully. Its role is a key ele- All that the popular movements that ousted the ment in associating economic exchange with peace Mobutu Sese Seko regime in the 1990sandthede- and prosperity.”(７) Unfortunately, looking back mocracy movement in the Kabila administration upon world history since the Industrial Revolution, have brought about for the people of the DRC is we see that modernized society has linked its val- a tragic reality - war. As a result, the country has ues and culture to the nation it belongs to, glorify- suffered from numerous problems, such as the ing its successes, and projecting national identity plunder of its natural resources, especially mineral ever more strongly. resources including diamonds, which have been a Human security has to be maintained not with cause of conflict involving child soldiers, increasing help of the superpower but through empowerment numbers of refugees, and violence against women, of the people, especially those in unstable situations children and elders. Besides the Congo, these prob- such as those of conflict survivors and dislocated lems will affect Japan more directly once it be- people. The world is facing the challenge of over- comes constitutional to dispatch its forces to coming poverty as well as tackling education, troubled regions. health and environmental problems, so that we are free from fear and want and can live in peace.(８) 5. A Threat to Human Rights If Article 9 is revised in the current situation where According to a telephone opinion survey Japan’s growing military power is already feared, conducted by the Asahi Shimbun, a national paper, it will cause tensions to rise in Asia rather than on April 14 and 15, 2007 about the 60th anniver- promote peace and stability. sary of the Japanese Constitution, 78%ofthe respondents answered that Article 9 “contributes 4. Poverty and Conflict to peace.” On the other hand, 58%said, While the global capitalist economy advances, “Constitutional revision is necessary for new rights.” war and conflict have continued all around the It has been confirmed in this survey that, while the world. On a global scale, 11 countries in the majority, 58%, feel it is “necessary” to amend the Middle East, 12 in Africa, 13 in Asia, 5 in South constitution, the revision of Article 9 is supported America and 7 in Europe were in conflict in 2005.(９) by 33% and opposed by a larger proportion, There are a great many challenges for the world to 49%.(10) The latter fear that the constitutional address in order to solve the conflicts. To this end, amendment would lead to the infringement of the international community will be requesting that “basic human rights” protected by Articles 12, 13

― 115 ― The Significance of Article 9 in the Era of Globalization and 22, which are related to Article 9, in the name monokokka” to aratana senso (“Rogue States” of patriotism stressed by some politicians, in addi- and New War). Trans. Tsukada Kozo. tion to the revision of the war-renouncing article. Tokyo: Aratake Shuppan, 2002; also Samuel Some think that saluting Hinomaru, Japan’s na- Huntington, Hikisakareru sekai (The Big tional flag, and the singing of Kimigayo, Japan’s Picture). Trans. Yamamoto Eiko. Tokyo: national anthem, have already become standards for Diamond Inc., 2002, pp.126‒130. evaluation in the “patriotism” column of school re- (５) Hikari, Ota and Shinichi, Nakazawa. Kenpo port cards in some places, and the criteria will pos- 9jyowo sekai isan ni (Article 9 for World sibly be expanded to include visits to Yasukuni Heritage). Tokyo: Shueisha Shinsho, 2006, Shrine or participation in memorial services at a p.78. Gokoku Jinja shrine designated as a place of wor- (６) Kinhide, Mushakoji. “International Society is ship for those who died in the war.(11) Our discus- Waiting for the Japanese Constitution.” sion of what should be done in the future must http://worldpeace7.jp/; take account of current questions such as the coer- (７) Huntington, op. cit., p.149. cion to salute the flag and sing the anthem, (８) Mushakoji, op cit. the revised Basic Law of Education, the govern- (９) Jean-Marc Balencie et Arnaud de La ment visits to Yasukuni Shrine, and the textbook Grange, Nouveaux Mondes rebelles,ed. issue.(12) As Roberto Zamora pointed it out, the Michalon, 2005. magnificent constitutional development of Article 9 (10) Asahi Shimbun, May 2, 2007,p.1. exists, and yet the Japanese people will have to (11) Episcopal Commission for Social Issues, choose between war, death, destruction, Hiroshima Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Japan. Ed. and Nagasaki; or peace, life, and the benefits of Shinkyonojiyuto seikyobunri (Freedom of living in a country which until some years ago, religion and separation of Government and wasn’t wasting so much money on the nonsense of Religion). 2007,p.37. an army.(13) (12) Nobutaka, Inoue. “’Shukyobunka kyoiku’ toiu hasso” (Idea of “Religious and Cultural (１) See Kenpokyoiku shidokenkyukai. Kenpo Education”). Shukyoto gendai ga wakaru no kaisetsu shintei ban (Explanation of the hon (Religion and Modern World).Ed. Constitution, new edition). Tokyo: Hitotsu- Naoki, Watanabe. Tokyo: Heibonsha Lim- bashi Shuppan, 1993, pp.16‒22; Tomatsu, ited, Publishers, 2007,p.93. Hidenori. KenpoConstitution). Tokyo: Kobun- (13) Cf.World Peace Forum -Vancouver 2006. dopublishers, 1989,p.10. “Roberto, Zamora’sHandout.The legal simili- (２) Yamauchi, Toshihiro, tude between the Costa Rican constitutional http:www.jicl.jp/hitokoto/backnumber/20041025.html system and the Japanese Constitution.” (３) Ibid. http://www.article-9.org/en/vancouver/roberto. (４) See the analysis of Noam Chomsky, “Narazu html

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Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa

Masahiro Takasaku (Ryukyu University)

Introduction pacifism manifested by Article 9 of the Constitu- 1. Purposes of the Paper tion can be justified by the very fact that the logic This paper has two objectives. One is to de- of the military, when pushed to its end, proves un- nounce the shortcomings of the “realistic” view of tenable. constitutional pacifism from the standpoint of the “reality” of Okinawa. “Realism” here means a per- 2. The History and Experiences of Okinawa spective that emphasizes the importance of estab- The special characteristic of this paper is ex- lishing behavioral norms based on the premise of amines these questions by situating them against the existence of Japan’s Self-Defense Forces the backdrop of the history and experiences of (SDFs) and the Japan-U.S Security Treaty. One Okinawa. There are several merits to reassessing purpose of this paper, then, is to critically examine constitutional pacifism by drawing insights from the this “realism” by looking at it through the prism of history and experiences of Okinawa. the hard fact that the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty First, it makes it possible for us to ask, based system is built upon the anxieties felt by, dangers on real experience, “What if Japan did not have the faced by, and damage suffered by Okinawans. In pacifist Constitution ...?” Okinawa was placed other words, this paper attempts to portray the real- under direct U.S. military rule, and excluded from ity of politics as seen from the perspective of the the constitutional order for 25 years. Consequently, reality of Okinawa. it is in a situation to most accurately assess the Another objective is to attempt to justify the value of the Constitution.(１) A review of the his- war-renouncing Article 9 of the Japanese Constitu- tory of Okinawa can give us a glimpse into what tion from the standpoint of “consequentialism,” actually took place in the absence of Article 9 of which refers to a posture under which, in making the Constitution as part of the legal system at work a value judgement or choosing a course of action under the military rule, and thereby can enable us with regard to a certain matter, one makes the de- to gain a proper understanding of the significance cision not on the basis of the value of the matter of Article 9. itself, but rather by deliberating on what choice is Second, the history and experiences of likely to bring about the best consequence. This Okinawa can show convincingly how the ideal of paper tries to demonstrate that the absolute Article 9 is interlocked with other major principles

― 117 ― Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa upheld by the Constitution, such as the respect for “constitutional patriotism”(Verfassungspatriotismus).(４) human rights and democracy. Although this linkage Fourth, the peace movement in Okinawa is immediately clear from a historical review of the means not only a refusal to become war “victims,” U.S. military rule mentioned above,(２) paying atten- but also to become “aggressors.” Underlying this tion to the value of Article 9 of the Constitution aspiration is a genuine wish to prevent the U.S. that underpins the guarantee of human rights and forces stationed in Okinawa from making sorties democracy has the merit of opening our eyes to a from the bases in Okinawa to places such as Viet- number of present-day political issues, and making nam, Afghanistan, and Iraq. This way of thinking us aware of the enormous contemporary signifi- is an effective refutation of the argument against cance of the pacifist Constitution. Indeed given the Article 9 of the Constitution for advocating “one- political reality under which the pacifist constitu- country pacifism.” The aspiration to put the pacifist tional clause is endangered by developments such clause into effect has great significance because it as the rising call for constitutional revision and the is oriented toward securing peace not only for ongoing realignment of U.S. forces in Japan, which Japan but also for other countries of the world. will be discussed at greater length shortly, Japanese With the foregoing objectives and perspective in society now faces various problems related to mind, we will establish the legitimacy of Article 9 human rights and democracy.(３) By demonstrating of the Constitution by examining it in the context that the crisis of pacifism lies at the root of these of the realignment of U.S. forces in Japan and the social problems, it seems possible to come to grips Law for the Protection of Citizens in Armed Attack with the essential features of constitutional paci- Situations. fism. Third, a review of the Okinawan reversion Ⅰ. The Military Logic That Dictates the U.S. movement may possibly shed new light on what Forces Realignment Plan Okinawan people tried to identify themselves with. 1. The Realignment of U.S. Forces in Japan An especially important point concerning the rever- Let us begin by pointing out the problems sion movement is that the people involved in it inherent in the “realism” that provides the logical strived not for a “reversion to the Japanese state,” justification for the realignment of U.S. forces in but for a “reversion to the Constitution of Japan,” Japan.(５) First, the purpose of the realignment of and, in particular, to “Article 9.” As such, the re- U.S. forces in Japan is to reexamine the bilateral version movement was a collective manifestation of division of roles, missions, and capabilities between Okinawan people’s willingness and determination to Japan and the United States, while realigning the choose for themselves a constitution of their own posture of the U.S. forces in Japan.(６) The end goal liking, inspired by their sense of attachment to the of the plan is to unify the armed forces of the two values manifested by the Japanese Constitution. In countries, or in other words, to unify the military this respect, the reversion movement can be seen as activities of the two countries to such an extent as an effort to put into practice an ideal very similar to make it possible for them to jointly exercise the to that advocated in Germany under the name of “right of collective self-defense.”

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Collective self-defense refers to the right of a asked to exercise this right for the sake of the country to use force to prevent an armed attack United States, it is possible that the two govern- against its close ally, even when the country itself ments will conceive this right in a different way. has not yet been directly attacked. This right is Recall, for instance, that in the wake of the terror- based on the United Nations Charter, which stipu- ist attacks on its embassies in Kenya and Tanzania lates as a matter of general principle that all mem- in August 1998, the United States launched missiles ber states must refrain from the “threat or use of into Sudan and Afghanistan, based on the pretext force against the territorial integrity or political in- that the two countries were playing hosts to the dependence of any state” (Paragraph 4 of its Arti- terrorist groups that had attacked the American em- cle 2), but allows an exception for the exercise of bassies. But the retaliatory attacks seemed to place the “right of individual or collective self-defense” the United States at odds with the official Japanese (Article 51). The Japanese government has taken government’s interpretation of the right of collec- the official position that the exercise of the right of tive self-defense. The United States may resort to collective self-defense is not allowed under the ex- the “right of self-defense as conventionally defined isting Constitution, and that to make such exercise in customary law,” in order to evade the restraints constitutional, the Constitution itself ought to be re- imposed by the U.N. Charter’s on the use of forces vised.(７) as a matter of principle. It should also be kept in mind that the United States did try to justify its as- 2. The Problem with the Right of Collective saults on Iraq by invoking a concept, “preemptive Self-Defense self-defense,” which is not accepted internationally. Is there anything wrong with admitting the A question remains as to how Japan should act if right of collective self-defense? Some argue that, it is asked to exercise its right of collective self- given the fact that the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty is defense in a situation that does not fall within the already in existence and has fulfilled a certain limits of its interpretation. function, the most realistic choice for Japan in A second problem is that Japan may find itself order to ensure its security is to work in coopera- obliged to exercise this right for the sake of a third tion with the United States. It is not appropriate, country other than the United States. It should be however, to easily go along with this argument kept in mind in this connection, however, that the without first considering what sort of “reality” we right of collective self-defense is used as a justifi- will head toward once we revise Article 9, which cation for the use of force by a country upon being is ostensibly “unrealistic” according to this view. asked for help by another country, regardless of Rather, we will be able to see essential problems whether the two countries are allied or not. Japan with the right of collective self-defense for what cannot simply assume that it will be asked to exer- they are by pondering about the type of “reality” cise its right of collective self-defense only in sup- thatislikelytobeinstoreforusonceweapprove port of the United States. Judging from its official of this right. view on the right of collective self-defense, how- One problem is that when, for example, Japan is ever, the Japanese government seems to believe

― 119 ― Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa that this right applies only to bilateral relationships therefore, without allowing the free will of the peo- with Japanese allies. It is very unclear whether the ple to be duly reflected in politics. It has also been Japanese government will be able to maintain this implemented even at the cost of deceiving the interpretation even after it recognizes of the right Okinawan people and local municipal governments. of collective self-defense. Let us comment specifically on the latter aspect of A third problem is the expected effect of the the realignment plan. change on the relationship between the realignment The October 2005 Interim Report on the re- of U.S. forces in Japan and the Japanese SDF’s alignment of U.S. forces in Japan notes that “[t]hese role under the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty. Given its measures are designed to enhance the alliance’s ca- strategy to deploy its armed forces in a more effi- pability to meet new threats and diverse contingen- cient way, the United States seems to be very cies and, as a whole, will reduce the burden on eager to execute the realignment plan in a way that local communities,” and also that “[b]oth sides re- (1) cuts back on its forces stationed in Japan, (2) viewed the posture of U.S. forces in Japan and re- allows the Japanese SDF to fill in the blanks by lated SDF forces, in light of their shared shouldering a much greater burden, and furthermore commitment to maintain deterrence and capabilities (3) integrates the SDF with, and place it under the while reducing burdens on local communities, in- command of, the U.S. forces. If Japan recognizes cluding those in Okinawa.” On the surface, this of the right of collective self-defense at such a seems to be a claim that part of the aim of the juncture, the SDF will certainly be brought under plan for realignment of the U.S. forces is to reduce the command of the U.S. forces, and will begin to the burdens born by local districts and municipali- engage in military operations around the world in ties that are hosts to U.S. forces in Japan. It ap- perfect unison with U.S. forces. This is the reality pears undeniable, however, that the plan is not for that is certain to result from constitutional revision. the sake of Okinawa or Okinawans, but is meant to strengthen the functions of U.S. bases in Okinawa, 3. Problems Arising from the Realignment of and as such is certain to end up increasing, rather U.S. Forces than reducing, the burdens. It can be said that while proponents of consti- This assessment seems valid in the light of the tutional revision are attempting to rewrite the text fact that U.S. military bases in Okinawa are actually of the Constitution in a way that explicitly incorpo- used in very problematic ways. Let us cite three rates the right of collective self-defense, the U.S. concrete examples that seem to indicate that the forces’ realignment plan is aimed at accumulating a functions of the U.S. bases are actually being rein- number of faits accomplis without waiting for an forced rather than reduced. One serious develop- explicit rewriting of the Japanese Constitution. ment is the deployment of PAC-3 surface-to-air These moves, which represent a crisis for pacifism, missiles to Okinawa. These missiles, intended to in- contain a number of contradictions. Concretely, it tercept aircraft and missiles, were deployed to was carried out in an undemocratic manner without Kadena Air Base and Kadena Munitions Dept. over winning the consent of the Okinawan people, and, strong opposition from Okinawan people.

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A second concerns the imposition of para- legislation for emergencies in the areas surrounding chute-drop training. Despite the joint Japan-U.S. Japan that were presented to the Diet on March 9, agreement reached in the 1996 Final Report of the 2004 and enacted on June 14, and is an important Special Action Committee on Okinawa (SACO) on building block of the emergency legislation. The the relocation of the sites for parachute-drop exer- establishment of the law was preceded by the es- cises to Iejima Auxiliary Air Base, a series of such tablishment in June 2003 of the “Law for Peace exercises were carried out in military facilities lo- and Independence of Japan and Maintenance of the cated in densely-populated areas: (1) U.S. units Nation and the People’s Security in Armed Attack stationed in Kadena Air Base carried out training Situations, etc.” (known as the “Armed Attack inside the base on January 26, 2007; (2) units sta- Situation Response Law”), which called, in one of tioned in Kadena Air Base also conducted similar its clauses, for the establishment of a “law concern- training exercises on the same day in the waters ing concrete measures for responding to armed at- off Tsukenjima Island in Uruma City; and (3) Ma- tack situations, etc.,” and also laid out the basic rine Corps units stationed in Okinawa carried out principles and contents of such a law. The Law for exercises in the waters of Ôura Bay across Marine the Protection of Citizens can therefore be regarded Corps Camp Schwab in Nago City. as having been enacted in accordance with, and in A third cause for concern is the announced de- order to concretize, what the 2006 law stipulated. ployment of state-of-the-art stealth F-22 fighter jets The Armed Attack Situation Response Law from the U.S. Air Force, to Kadena Air Base for stipulates two types of measures to be used in a six-month period. The speculated motives behind order to protect the public under such situations the deployment include: (1) that it will have the (Paragraph 7, Article 2). The first time are meant effect of stepping up deterrence against North for protecting the lives, bodies, and property of the Korea and China; and (2) given the Japanese Air people, and include the issuance of warnings, SDF’s plan to purchase F-22 fighter jets, it seems evacuation of affected residents, rescue of victims, intended to pave the way for joint operations by and emergency relief activities. Measures of the fighter jets by U.S forces and Japan’s Air SDF.(８) second type are meant for stabilizing the people’s livelihoods, and more concretely, include measures Ⅱ. The Military Logic in the Law for the Pro- for stabilizing prices and securing essential necessi- tection of Citizens ties of life. In line with these stipulations, the Law 1. The Structure of the Law for the Protection of for the Protection of Citizens sets out provisions in Citizens greater details and on more concrete terms. Let us turn next to the questions of the “con- sequences” and problems that the operation and im- 2. Problems with the Law for the Protection of plementation of the “Law for the Protection of Cit- Citizens, (1): Declaration of War Emergen- izens” is likely to bring about. cies Ahead of Reality The Law for the Protection of Citizens is one However, the Civil Protection Law gives rise of the seven laws and three treaties related to to serious problems. Here, we will examine the

― 121 ― Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa way in which the law goes into effect. First, it ending war footing. should be noted that the Armed Attack Situation The excessively broad concept of an “emergen- Response Law does not state that emergency legis- cy response situation” is also problematic. In the lation will only be used after an armed attack has Basic Guidelines for Protection of the People, been made on Japan. Rather, it provides for meas- emergency response situations are classified both by ures to be taken in response to the emergence of “type of targeted facility” and by “type of means an “anticipated armed attack situation” (buryoku of attack.” (10) However, in some situations included kôgeki yosoku jitai; defined in Paragraph 3, Article among the examples in the “type of means of 2), without waiting for the emergence of a “situat attack,” it seems rather difficult to pin down the ion of armed attack” (buryoku kôgeki jitai; defined causes immediately after the situation’s emergency. in Paragraph 2, Article 2). It seems only with the passage of some time that Second, it is also necessary to keep in mind the true causes for such situations become identifi- that the emergence of an “emergency response situ able. In addition, the examples listed by “type of ation” (kinkyû taisho jitai; defined in Paragraph 1, targeted facility” include some that can be caused Article 25) can also satisfy the necessary require- by accidents or natural disasters. In such situations, ment for invoking the Law for the Protection of too, it is impossible to gauge whether they really Citizens. The government’s Basic Guidelines for constitute “emergencies” before their true causes Protection of the People (Kokumin no Hogo ni become identifiable. After all, there is the danger kansuru Kihon Shishin) state, “an emergency re- that the concept of “emergency response situation” sponse situation is expected to require response can lead to a blurring of the line between a “war measures similar to those required in a situation of emergency” and an “accident” or “natural disaster.” armed attack to respond to armed attacks by guer- Third, judging on the basis of their potential rillas, special operation forces, and the like.” (９) It causes, “anticipated armed attack situations” can be is clear that an “emergency response situation” is triggered by contingencies in areas surrounding different from a “situation of armed attack.” How- Japan as defined by the Law Concerning Situations ever, the Armed Attack Situation Response Law, in in Areas Surrounding Japan (Shûhen Jitaihô) as Paragraph 1,Article25, defines an armed attack well as by preemptive attacks launched by the situation as including “situations that may be later United States. Let us assume that in a situation recognized by the government in its basic response with no bearing upon Japan’s own security, U.S. plan as constituting armed attack situations.” The forces in Japan have launched a preemptive attack appropriateness of the law’s definition of war emer- against a third country. Under the terms of the gencies to include even situations which are not Japan-U.S. alliance, Japan’s SDF forces go into ac- certain to be recognized in the future as armed at- tion to provide logistic support to the U.S. forces. tacks is open to question. There is a danger that Japan will be regarded as an enemy country, with the law, by expanding the definition of war contin- the result that an “armed attack situation” will gencies or by putting the emergency law into effect emerge with the country itself and/or its SDF being ahead of reality, can put the country on a never- attacked in retaliation. This is by no means

― 122 ― Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa fanciful, as attested to by a government official’s forces in Okinawa. As evident from the parliamen- reply in the Diet. In response to the question, “Am tary deliberation in April 2004 referred to below, I correct to understand that in the event of an under the provisions of the “Law for Supporting armed attack on SDF warships deployed in the Per- U.S. Forces in Japan” (Beigun Shienhô),itseems sian Gulf, for example, according to the current highly likely that the Japanese government will be legislation, such a situation would be officially rec- obliged to give the utmost priority to supporting ognized as an armed attack situation?” (11) Shigeru the activities of U.S. forces. When questioned about Ishiba, then Director General of the Self-Defense the relationship of command between Japan’s Self- Agency, stated that “Yes, such an attack would cer- Defense Forces and U.S. forces in Japan, Self- tainly constitute an attack on our country.” We see Defense Agency Director General Shigeru Ishiba here a clear example of how a war contingency conceded that such a probability did exist, by situation may be declared before such a situation pointing out as follows(14) : “There is no arrange- actually takes place.(12) ment as to which side will take command. All that is agreed upon is that both parties will take joint 3. Problems with the Law for the Protection of responses, in such a way that a mechanism of co- Citizens (2): The Mechanism by Which the ordination will work effectively.... The question of Law for the Protection of Citizens Fails to which side should take precedence over the other, “Protect” the People in our understanding, will be decided in accordance Another serious problem with the Law for the with the concrete needs of each situation.” As for Protection of Citizens is that it does not protect the the probability for U.S. forces to take precedence people. First, it cannot protect the people because over Japan’s SDFs, Ishiba stated, “I will not deny of several problems inherent in it. If a situation such a probability.” This means that the need to arises in which the protection of the civilian popu- safeguard the interests of Okinawan people may be lation and the execution of a military operation are easily trumped by the need to ensure effective mili- incompatible with each other, the odds are high tary operations of Japan’s SDF and the U.S. forces that the latter will take precedence. What is more, in Japan. evacuating people is a time-consuming operation.(13) The serious shortcomings of the Law for the It is thus plausible to assume that the law will per- Protection of Citizens are also apparent in the “Ci form very poorly on the count of protecting the ci- vil Protection Plans” drawn up by municipal vilian population, but will work perfectly well on authorities. “Okinawa Prefecture’s Civil Protection the count of mobilizing ordinary citizens for mili- Plan” is especially revealing of such shortcomings.(15) tary purposes. Consequently, it might as well be First, it fails to give adequate consideration to, or characterized as one that puts military rationality intentionally belittles, the fact that Okinawa is an before all else, despite its hollow commitment to island prefecture. Admittedly, it does make mention protecting the people. of a number of pertinent facts, such as the fact that Second, the law is also problematic when Okinawa is an island prefecture made up of a looked at in the context of the activities of U.S. number of small islets, that U.S. bases are heavily

― 123 ― Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa concentrated there, and that given the sizes of civil work closely with an array of other organizations. airport and port facilities, there is a limit to what Commenting on this point, the Plan points out, the Plan can do to protect the prefecture’s citizens. “the prefecture should regularly make efforts to One serious problem with the Plan, however, is build up and improve systems of mutual coopera- that it discusses procedures for evacuating citizens tion with the national government, local municipali- of Okinawa within or outside the prefecture without ties, designated public organizations and designated first examining whether such procedures are physi- local public organizations” (Section (4), Chapter 2, cally viable. Having been drawn up without this Part I). However, the U.S. forces are not included discussion, the plan cannot but be regarded as an in the list of organizations. This gives rise to a se- impractical plan on paper that will do nothing to ries of questions: Is the prefectural government safeguard the civilian population of Okinawa. maintaining any solid channel for communication In Okinawa, a prefecture composed of many and mutual understanding with the U.S. forces? Isn’t remote islands, a critical issue in times of the Prefecture’s Civil Protection Plan meaningless emergencies is securing means to evacuate a total if it is not supported by cooperation from U.S. of 1.36 million people not only by land, but forces? Even if U.S. forces have agreed to cooper- also by sea and air. A simulation conducted by the ate with the prefectural government, isn’t it plausi- local Okinawa Times poses doubts about the feasi- ble to assume that once an emergency arises, their bility of such an operation.(16) Specifically, the activities will be dictated by the military logic, and simulation’s findings show: (1) that if Boeing 747s they will not emphasize to protect the citizens of with the capacity to carry 569 passengers each are Okinawa? used, they will have to make a total of 2,390 Even so, the Prefecture’s Civil Protection Plan flights to evacuate the entire civilian population of does make some mention of cooperation with U.S. Okinawa by air; and (2) if both ships (capable of forces. Specifically, it mentions the importance of transporting 8,872 people per day) and aircraft (ca- strengthening communication with U.S. forces in pable of transporting 23,857 people a day) are Okinawa, building and improving arrangements for used, it will take 41.5 days to evacuate all cooperation with them, making necessary arrange- Okinawans. Given the memories of the Battle of ments for disseminating important pieces of infor- Okinawa, where ships carrying evacuees were at- mation, including warnings to Japanese employees tacked and sunk, there is no guarantee that these and Japanese civilian subcontractors working within planes and ships will not come under attack. This U.S. bases in Okinawa, devising measures neces- possibility, coupled with the long time needed for sary for evacuating residents in the vicinity of U.S. the execution of the plan, makes an evacuation bases and Japanese employees working in U.S. seem extremely unrealistic. bases, and devising arrangement for cooperation to Second, the prefectural government of smoothly carry out rescue operations when damages Okinawa must always remain conscious of the are caused by armed attacks. presence of U.S. forces. In executing its Civil However, these remarks include the following Protection Plan, the prefectural government must caveat: “On the questions of how prefectural gov-

― 124 ― Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa ernments hosting U.S. bases should coordinate with other words, that the military logic itself is un U.S. forces on necessary matters, as well as how tenable, and this fact seems to give legitimacy to the they should promote collaboration with U.S. forces, philosophy of absolute pacifism manifested by Arti- deliberations are now underway among the respon- cle 9 of the Japanese Constitution. It seems, there- sible ministerial offices of the national government. fore, worthwhile to conclude this paper by noting When the results of such deliberations at the na- how this idea of absolute pacifism can serve as a tional government level are in order, information countervailing power. about them is scheduled to be supplied to the per- First, pacifist philosophy serves as a counter- tinent prefectures in the future.” This means there weight to the assertion that “it is necessary to is still uncertainty whether cooperation with the prepare for war emergencies.” The gist of the U.S. forces will be possible or not. Given this state Article’s implication is that the emergence of any of affairs, it seems impossible to cast aside the sus- war emergency is the end of everything, and there- picion that, as pointed out above, the U.S. forces fore that war emergencies must be prevented, by will be so fully and desperately occupied with as- all means, from taking place. Given the fact that sessing the damage suffered by their units and res- Japan has failed to properly carry out postwar set- cuing the victims among their own ranks, that they tlements and still faces the issue of war indemnity, will not be able to cooperate in the protection of new attempts at preparing itself for war contingen- local Japanese civilians. In fact, this doubt was al- cies are certain to be interpreted by its neighbors ready substantiated by the crash of a large U.S. as a sign that Japan is now transforming itself into Marine transport helicopter on the campus of a a country in need of “preparations” for emergen- local university in Okinawa in August 2004.(17) If cies. It should be duly kept in mind that the cur- the Prefecture’s Civil Protection Plan is based on rent attempt at constitutional revision, in succession the assumption that cooperation with the U.S. to the establishment of the emergency legislation, forces will work well, in disregard of this fact, it will end up giving Japan’s neighbors the erroneous is undeniable that the Plan, built on the mistaken message that Japan is undergoing a qualitative assumption, is untenable. transformation away from a pacifist country. Second, pacifism can serve as a counter to the Concluding Remarks: The Countervailing Power government’s practice of implementing de facto of Pacifism constitutional revision through expanded interpreta- We have seen above that the plan for realign- tions of the Constitution and its effort to explicitly ment of U.S. forces and the Law for the Protection rewrite the Constitution. The government itself has of Citizens are problematic in the sense that their moved away from Article 9 by interpreting it in a implementation will lead to various social strains, way that constitutes de facto constitutional revision, which is an undeniable reality, and that they are and it is now trying to break away from the Article also problematic in terms of their consequences, in by explicitly rewriting the text of the Constitution. the sense that their implementation cannot accom- Given this state of affairs, it is imperative for local plish their proclaimed objectives. This suggests, in municipalities to devise schemes for building up a

― 125 ― Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and Okinawa power that can replace and neutralize military logic. day of the U.S. landing on Okinawa. Admi- Municipalities must muster the rights at their dis- ral Chester W. Nimitz, both Commander in posal ― such as the right to carry out diplomacy, Chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet (CINCPAC) to interpret laws and regulations, and to establish and Commander in Chief of the Pacific local ordinances and regulations ― to counter the Ocean Areas (CINCPOA), issued a decree military logic of the national government. In this upon landing on Okinawa, declaring a regard, several local municipalities in Okinawa suspension of Japan’s administrative and have carried out experiments that seem full of sug- judiciary powers over the islands. The gestions for other municipalities across the country. exclusive U.S. control over Okinawa was One is the Ishigaki City Council’s adoption of an subsequently given official approval by the “Ordinance Declaring the City’s Port Facilities to San Francisco Peace Treaty with Japan that be Nuclear Free,” and another Taketomi Town’s took effect on April 28, 1952. For treatises adoption of a “Bill for an Ordinance Declaring the on the legal system in Okinawa under U.S. Township as an Area of Peace and Demilitarization.” military rule and problems inherent in the Third, pacifism can counter the assertion that Ar- system, see, for example, Yoshiaki Yoshida ticle 9 is “unrealistic.” As pointed out in the fore- et al., KenpôtoOkinawa(The Constitution going discussion, the plan for realignment of U.S. and Okinawa; Keibundô, 1971), and Yoshio forces and the “Law for the Protection of Citizens” Hagino, Okinawa ni okeru Jinken no are based on the “realistic” view that peace can Yokuatsu to Hatten (The Suppression and only be secured by means of military might. This the Development of Human Rights in view regards the philosophy of absolute pacifism as Okinawa; Seibundô, 1973). “unrealistic.” But is such a view really justifiable? (２) For a further discussion on this point, see The military logic, if left unchecked, is bound to Tetsumi Takara, “Beigun Tôchika no bring about “destruction” that should never be al- Okinawa ni okeru Heiwa Kenpô-shi” (The lowed to happen. We must remember that it is pre- History of the Pacifist Constitution in cisely the “lofty ideals” proclaimed by the Okinawa Under U.S. Military Rule), Ryûda Preamble of the Japanese Constitution, stating that i Hôgaku (Ryûdai Law Review),no.67 we should never again be visited with such horrors (2002),p.3ff. and destruction, that Article 9 is trying to put into (３) For a critical analysis of the present state effect. The problem facing Japan today, therefore, of Japanese society from the perspective is that the country has moved far away from Arti- of Okinawa, see Masahiro Takasaku, cle 9 of its Constitution. The challenge Japan ought “’Okinawa no Shiten’ kara ‘Kenpô Mondai’ to tackle is to fully liven up Article 9 that has o Kangaeru” (Considering “Constitutional been reduced to a virtual dead letter. Issues” from the Standpoint of “Okinawa”), Gendai no Riron,no.8 (2006),p.164ff. (１) The United States began to place Okinawa (４) Jurgen Habermas, Die nachholende Revolu- under its military rule on April 1, 1945,the tion (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1990),

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partially translated into Japanese by Ken’ichi (９) “Kokumin no Hogo ni kansuru Kihon Mishima et al under the title Okurebase no Shishin” (Basic Guidelines for Protection of Kakumei (Iwanami Shoten, 1992),p.72.See the People),p.72. The complete text is also Kôji Aikyô, Kaiken Mondai (The Issue posted on the following website: of Constitutional Revision; Chikuma Shobô, http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/hogohousei/ 2006),p.236. hourei/050325shishin.pdf (５) I would like to point out that my discussion (10) “Kokumin no Hogo ni kansuru Kihon here partially duplicates the contentions Shishin,” ibid., p.72ff. made in my earlier publications: “Kobetsuteki (11) The question was raised by Nobutaka oyobi Shûdanteki Jieiken: Nichibei Ryôseifu Tsutsui, a member of the House of Repre- no Omowaku to Genjitsu” (The Rights of sentatives, at the 156th Session of the House Individual and Collective Self-Defense: Mo- of Representatives’ Special Committee on tives of the Japanese and U.S. Governments Responses to Armed Attack Situations. and Realities), in Zenkoku Kenpo Kenkyûkai, (12) Motofumi Asai, Sensô o Suru Kuni Shinai ed. Hôritsu Jihô Zôkan: Kenpô Kaisei Kuni: Sengo Hoshuseiji to Heiwa-Kenpô no Mondai (Special Issue of Hôritsu Jihô: Kiki (A War-Waging Country and a War- Questions of Constitutional Revision; Nihon Denouncing Country: Postwar Conservative Hyôron-sha, 2005),p.126ff; and “Beigun Politics and the Crisis of the Pacifist Consti- Saihen to Heiwashugi” (The Realignment of tution; Aoki Shoten, 2004),p.189ff. U.S. Forces in Japan and Pacifism), Hôritsu (13) Take, for instance, a simulation of the Jihô,vol.78,no.6 (2006),p.35ff. evacuation of local residents that was con- (６) Two countries agreed upon the plan for re- ducted by the prefectural government of alignment of U.S. forces in Japan by signing Tottori. The result of the simulation showed two documents: “The Japan-U.S. Alliance: that it would take 11 days to evacuate a Transformation and Realignment for the total 26,000 residents in the eastern part of Future” (also known as the “Interim Report”) the prefecture to Hyogo Prefecture, trans- that was signed on October 29, 2005,and porting them on land by bus. “Japan-U.S. Roadmap for Realignment (14) Then Self-Defense Agency Director General Implementation” (also known as the “Final Shigeru Ishiba’s statement at the House of Report”) that was signed on May 1, 2006. Representatives’ Special Committee on Re- (７) See statement by Director-General of the sponses to Armed Attack Situations etc., on Cabinet Legislation Bureau Reijirô Tsunoda April 14, 2004. at the February 22, 1983 meeting of the (15) For details of the “Okinawa Prefecture’s House of Representative’s Standing Commit- Civil Protection Plan,” visit the following teeonBudget. website: (８) Okinawa Times, January 11, 2007, morning http://www3.pref.okinawa.jp/site/view/cateview. edition. jsp?cateid=66

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(16) Okinawa Times,May6, 2005, morning edi- Status of Forces Agreement: An Analysis of tion. the Agreement in Connection with the Plan (17) See Masahiro Takasau, “Nichibei Chii for Relocation of the U.S. Marine Corps Kyôtei to Jichitai: Futenma Hikôjô Henkan Futenma Air Station), Ryûdai Hôgaku,no. Mondai ni Kanrenshite” (The Japan-U.S. 73 (2005),p.7ff.

― 128 ― 特集：世界の中の憲法９条

Does Living Near an SDF Base Make One Safe?

Isao Yoshihara (PRIME Member)

“I feel safe because I live close to a Self De- relationship and we have determined to preserve fense Forces base.” “Really? I envy you.” our security and existence, trusting in the justice This was a conversation between two young and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world.” women who seemed to be in their thirties. They The “determination” described in the preamble were speaking clearly, and I had no problem over- is something I have treasured since my high school hearing their conversation on a subway train. I days, although I do not know the reason why. It found it hard to believe, but I am sure that it what appears that I learned its essence naturally in post- they said. war democracy through our teachers, films like It was astonishing for me to learn that for “Himeyuri no To” (Himeyuri Lily Tower) and these women, even Hiroshima, Nagasaki and “Gembaku no Ko” (Children of Hiroshima),and Okinawa were simply sightseeing spots, and I was radio programs. Although I did not understand the unable to sleep well that night. I wondered if such significance of the establishment of the National feelings had become commonplace among modern Police Reserve in 1950, I remember, as a child in Japanese. 1954, being anxious about its transformation into I do not think so. The Article 9 Association, the Self Defense Forces (SDF), with its functions which started with nine members including Kato strengthened. I remembered that Japan was not sup- Shuichi, Inoue Hisashi and Sawachi Hisae, has posed to have armed forces. spread nationwide, and more than six thousand af- At that time, one could find many urchins and filiated groups have been formed. In addition, the beggars in underground malls in the Ikebukuro and majority of people surveyed by newspapers around Shinjuku districts of central Tokyo. There were the time of Constitution Day in 2007 answered that many people with burnt faces, who simply had they appreciated Article 9 as having contributed to holes for ears and noses. I was shocked by the peace, and believed the article did not need to be stench, by their outstretched hands, and by their changed. strange stares. Most of the disabled veterans who walked back and forth on trains, with offering The preamble reads, in part, “We, the Japanese boxes hanging around their necks, had white people, desire peace for all time and are deeply clothes and missing limbs. I recently heard that conscious of the high ideals controlling human many of them had been drafted from the Korean

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Peninsula and were not eligible for military pen- beside the entrance to the village hall. Articles 9 sions. This postwar “war experience” of mine ap- and 99 were clearly written on a piece of plywood parently gave me an interest in the Constitution covered with white paper. The signboard had been when I first heard about it, probably from a made by the youth group of the Yomitan munici- teacher. pality workers’ union. Pupils and junior high school students were walking in front of the board. The Yamauchi Tokushin, a former mayor of scene was like a dream. Yomitan Village, Okinawa Prefecture, remembers The articles were also displayed in the reading the Constitution for the first time in 1951 mayor’s office. Yamauchi calmly and fatherly per- when he was a high school student. Yamauchi, suaded employees of the Defense Facilities Admini- who was never acquainted with “democracy” in stration Agency, who were eager to strengthen the Okinawa under US occupation, has recounted to functions of the military base. “Look at what is young people his memories of his encounter with written behind me,” he stated. “It says, ‘The Em- the postwar constitution as follows. peror or the Regent as well as Ministers of State, members of the Diet, judges, and all other public In prewar Japan, sovereignty resided with the officials have the obligation to respect and uphold Emperor, not the people. The new constitution this Constitution’. You are officials of the national states that sovereignty resides with the people government. I am also a public servant performing and that basic human rights must be respected. special service. Both have the obligation to respect I learned about Article 9, which advocates and uphold this Constitution. Therefore, any new pacifism. It specifies, ‘Land, sea, and air ammunition depot to support the war efforts of the forces, as well as other war potential, will US Army must be prevented. Please relay this to never be maintained. The right of belligerency your director-general and bosses” (Page 270 of the of the state will not be recognized.’ That is above-mentioned book). Yomitan Village is famous wonderful. I had classmates and schoolmates for having its village office on the premises of the who lost their lives in the war. My encounter US base, and furthermore, Articles 9 and 99 are with these three pillars of the new constitution still displayed proudly in the mayor’s office in the was impressive and exciting to me, who had renovated village hall. managed to survive and enter high school. At the end of the Pacific War, Okinawa be- (Kenpo wo jissen suru mura, Okinawa came the scene of ground battles involving local yomitan soncho funtoki (Yomitan Village in residents. Particularly brutal were the “mass Okinawa Where the Constitution is Practiced - suicides” that took place in various parts of the is- Struggle of the Mayor), published by Akashi land, including Chibichirigama in Yomitan Village, Shoten, pp.29‒30). where the US Forces landed. Most of the villagers were elders, children and their mothers, as most When I first visited Yomitan, I was pleasantly men had been drafted. As the children were unable surprised by a large signboard in a parking lot to commit suicide, their mothers killed them. Some

― 130 ― Does Living Near an SDF Base Make One Safe? grandfathers terminated the lives of their families However, this history was distorted under the and relatives. The Japanese military gave two gre- authorization of high school Japanese history text- nades to each resident, one to use against the books in March 2007. Under the “screening” by “American devils” and the other to “kill them- the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science selves.” When the grenades failed to explode or and Technology (MEXT), descriptions such as could not be delivered, people used farm supplies “Some residents were sent out of shelters or forced to such as sickles or asphyxiated themselves by burning commit suicide by the military” and “‘Mass suicides’ blankets. were coerced by the military” were judged “in- Surprisingly, the people in Okinawa were very appropriate as they are likely to invite misunderstand- cooperative with the military, according to records ing about the reality of the battles in Okinawa” and of the battles fought on the island. They abandoned were modified to “Some residents were sent out of everything for the military that had suddenly taken shelters by the military or committed suicide” and over their lives but was supposed to be their guard- “They were obliged to ‘commit mass suicide.’” In ian. One of the results was the “mass suicide.” The other words, the involvement of the Japanese mili- Army was obviously responsible for the brutality, tary in the “mass suicides” was denied or obscured as “mass suicides” never took places in places in almost all textbooks. where the military was not stationed even if some In June 2005, the “Association for Advance- residents became prisoners of war of the US. ment of Unbiased View of History” held an assem- Under militarism, Japanese people were taught, to bly in Tokyo and adopted a resolution demanding “loyally and courageously support the fortunes of that MEXT delete the description of “forced mass the Imperial Family in the event of an emergency,” suicides” from textbooks. In August 2005, a group as stated in the Imperial Rescript of Education, of veterans and bereaved families who were appar- Cardinal Principles of the National Polity, and The ently involved in the association launched a lawsuit Path of Subjects, to “recognize that death is lighter against novelist Oe Kenzaburo and Iwanami Shoten than a feather,” as stated in the Imperial Instruc- Publishers in Osaka District Court. The plaintiffs tions for Soldiers, and to “not suffer the shame of have named this the “Lawsuit against False Accu- being taken alive,” as written in the Field Service sations of Mass Suicide in Okinawa,” and it is Code. Under such circumstances, residents in obvious that the review of the textbooks was made Okinawa were always forced to believe that men in conjunction with such moves, judging from would be brutally killed and women would be MEXT’s suggestion that the ongoing “lawsuit” was raped if they became POWs. Some have testified a reason for the modification order. that soldiers taunted the residents, “Bite your According to Okinawa International University tongue and die” or “Why are you still alive? Professor Ishihara Masaie, in the 1960s, the Japa- Shame on you.” nese government and the National Defense Agency As represented by the “mass suicides,” the have defined “mass suicides” of residents in Okinawan people were not only neglected but also Okinawa as “killing themselves in order not to forced to die or directly killed by the military. annoy combatants with their noble spirit of self-

― 131 ― Does Living Near an SDF Base Make One Safe? sacrifice.” In other words, “mass suicide” was a periphery of society. Currently, various grassroots “noble and glorious” act of cooperation with the organizations and individuals are involved in military, so those who committed suicide were cov- preparations for a large-scale campaign called the ered by the “Law to Support the War Injured, Sick “Global Article 9 Conference to Abolish War,” and Dead and War-Bereaved Families” and were whose activities will partially overlap with those of enshrined in the Yasukuni war shrine. The latest the association. The members of this new move- textbook authorization followed this definition, but ment are trying to spread Article 9 around the is a distortion of the historical truth. Apparently, world, along with things achievable under the arti- the government wants to change the perception that cle and its principle, through lectures, symposiums, “the military does not protect the people” in view workshops, concerts and theatrical performances in- of the constitutional “revision” that is scheduled to volving tens of thousands of people. take place in three years. The preamble of the Japanese Constitution in- In Okinawa, 97% of mayors have protested the cludes, along with the above-mentioned phrase, textbook screening, and even the governor, who “We desire to occupy an honored place in an inter- was elected with the support of the ruling party national society striving for the preservation of coalition, has had no choice but to express his op- peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, position. However, on the mainland, the issue is oppression and intolerance for all time from the hardly ever discussed and the media rarely reports earth.” I wonder what the Japanese government has it. The same is true for the realignment of US really done in accordance with this declaration for bases and the strengthening of the Self Defense a little more than sixty years since the end of Forces in Okinawa. Due to the lack of necessary World War II. It seems to have the misunderstand- information, the “Law to Protect Nationals” has ing that an “honored place” cannot be gained in been accepted among the people without any ques- the absence of “military contributions.” The spirit tioning of its nature. Therefore, it seems that the of the “Global Article 9 Conference to Abolish majority of Japanese share the ideas expressed by War” will be that if the government fails to do the two women in the conversation I introduced at what it should do, the people must do it. We will the beginning of this paper. However, the move- do what we can for the success of the “campaign,” ment of the “Article 9 Association” has spread with the dream that someday, the signboard de- even in such a situation. “Postwar democracy” scribing Articles 9 and 99 will stand naturally on seems to have disappeared from mainstream cul- streets and will be displayed in all mayor’s offices ture, but it is still alive and kicking at the and even in the prime minister’s office.

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Why Look at Article 9 in a Global Context? From the Experience of Peace Boat

Tatsuya Yoshioka (Peace Boat)

Why Look at Article 9 from a Global View- breaking out. This clearly shares something in com- point? mon with the ideal of Article 9. We tend to see Article 9 as a domestic issue, From around 2000, Article 9 began to be since the Constitution is part of domestic law. Con- taken up at different international conferences. In sidering the essence of Article 9, however, it is Japan, however, this fact has been completely dis- clear that ultimately, its ideal and goals cannot be regarded by the media. Ultimately, the negative at- achieved by Japan alone. In other words, it is im- titude of the Japanese government toward Article 9 possible to achieve Article 9 in its original sense has had ill effects in various places. When visiting unless we start from a vision of how to build Japanese embassies abroad, one can see how Arti- world peace and what kind of world we want to cle 9 is ignored. Even if there are different views build. in Japan, it is inexcusable for civil servants to From this perspective it is vital to examine make light of it, considering that it is an article of how the world looks at Article 9 and how the era the current Constitution, the highest law of Japan. we are living affects that. In reality, however, many national public employ- For example, what does Article 9 look like in ees, starting from Prime Minister Abe, are leading the context of the Iraq War? the efforts to make Article 9 into a mere document In New York, there is a peace group called on paper. Peaceful Tomorrows, which was formed by rela- Despite this attitude by the Japanese govern- tives of people who died during 9/11. The mem- ment, however, recognition of the importance of bers of the group repeat over and over that they do Article 9 is steadily growing worldwide. not condone terrorism but also refuse to condone the killing of citizens of Afghanistan and Iraq using Article 9 in the United Nations, the death of their relatives as an excuse. This United States, and International Civil Society stands in marked contrast to the Japanese move- As one example, the first of the “ten funda- ment organized by relatives of the people abducted mental principles for a just world order” adopted at by North Korea. The family members who organ- the 1999 Hague Appeal for Peace and Justice for ized Peaceful Tomorrows are trying to sever the the 21st Century stipulated that “Every Parliament chain of hatred and to stop new wars from should adopt a resolution prohibiting their

― 133 ― Why Look at Article 9 in a Global Context? From the Experience of Peace Boat government from going to war, like the Japanese Somalia, whose civil war has recently article number nine.” Thus, Article 9 has become intensified as a result of the rise of fundamentalist an important milestone toward the “abolition of war” groups and the intervention of the Ethiopian army, and has had a large impact on citizens’ movements was nearly abandoned by international society after around the world. US forces were dealt a severe blow during the Also, Article 9 was given a very positive PKO activities in the mid 1990s. As a result, it has evaluation as a mechanism for conflict prevention been engulfed in a civil war for more than 10 within the Global Action Agenda adopted at the years without any hope for solution in sight. 2005 New York Global Conference of the Global In other words, the term “from Reaction to Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict Prevention” can be seen as a reflection of the fact (GPPAC), which my organization, Peace Boat, has that the world has begun to realize that it is nearly participated in as a member of the international impossible to solve armed conflicts through the use steering committee. of arms. GPPAC, a worldwide network, was formed in And then, soon after the establishment of response to a call by former UN Secretary General GPPAC, the Iraq War began. Kofi Annan, who, based on the recognition that it American people, who once burned with the is now difficult to solve armed conflicts with arms, desire to avenge 9/11, have now begun to feel that issued the idea of “from Reaction to Prevention,” “enough is enough” in the face of the fact that from the conclusion that we must work to prevent more than 3,000 of their soldiers have perished, armed conflicts from happening rather than to react with innocent civilians in Iraq being killed on a to them after the fact. Annan suggested that three scale rising into the hundreds every day. I suspect parties ― the NGOs of the world, governments, and that American people are starting to wonder the United Nations ― should think about what whether peace can really be built with arms. Con- should be done concretely for that purpose. sidering this situation, I feel that we need to forge What is important here is, what led former direct links with the citizens of the US. People in Secretary General Annan to come to the conclusion the financial world and politicians from Japan and of “from Reaction to Prevention.”? The reality is the US have long held close connections with each that throughout the 1990s, interventions carried out other. Today, citizens and NGOs should also form under the PKO and by superpowers failed again a strong solidarity, equal to theirs, centering on Ar- and again, being unable in most cases to bring ticle 9. about any solution to conflicts. As one example of the potential of such ac- For example, in Kosovo, NATO conducted tivities, a women’s organization from Philadelphia many aerial bombings and occupied nearly the en- called Women’s International League for Peace and tire territory, but a complete solution has not been Freedom voluntarily staged a signature collection achieved, leaving a chaotic situation where Kosovo campaign in support of Article 9. They collected has been left as neither a nation nor an autono- around 300 signatures, and sent them to Japan. mous state. Such things have started to happen.

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Outside of the US, at the World Social Forum regional consultative conference at Kumgansan, the held in January in Nairobi, the “Global Article 9 site of a joint tourist project between North and Campaign,” with Peace Boat at is core, carried out South Korea, which is also a symbol of the unifi- activities with the aim of spreading the existence cation of the Korean Peninsula. We confirmed the and ideals of Article 9 to the rest of the world. importance of the internationalization of Article 9 Around 1,000 signatures were collected. In the face with NGO representatives from, various parts of of this trend, it is no exaggeration to say that even Northeast Asia. though the ideal of Article 9 is not the mainstream The Global Article 9 Campaign staged events yet, global civil society has begun to move in its at the World Peace Forum held in June 2006 in direction. Vancouver and the World Social Forum held in January 2007 in Nairobi with the participation of GPPAC and the Global Article 9 Campaign Nobel Peace Prize laureates. We held workshops Next, I will report on the international appeal and distributed Article 9 pamphlets and fans, col- on Article 9 in which Peace Boat has been en- lecting many signatures in support. At the World gaged. Peace Forum, the importance of Article 9 was in- The campaign began with the GPPAC North- corporated into the final document. east Asia regional conference, held at the United We have also staged, in addition to the activi- Nations University in Tokyo in February 2005. ties at international conferences and forums, a cam- Here again, the participants confirmed that Article paign to cooperate with NGOs and citizen groups 9 has functioned as a mechanism for conflict pre- around the world to place simultaneous opinion ads vention in Asia. supporting Article 9 in newspapers of their respec- In July of the same year, at the opening event tive countries, as a part of the Global Article 9 of the GPPAC Global Conference in New York, Campaign. So far, we have succeeded in placing which adopted the Global Action Agenda empha- ads in newspapers in a total of 21 countries includ- sizing the importance of Article 9, we staged an ing Switzerland, Canada, South Africa, and Costa event to appeal the significance of Article 9 in the Rica, in addition to Asian countries such as South UN General Assembly Hall and held a workshop Korea, China, Taiwan, Russia, Mongolia, and the to explore the usefulness of Article 9 for conflict Philippines. prevention. In November of the same year, we staged a Why Does the World Need Article 9 Now? joint Japan-Korea action, in Seoul and Japan, to As we have seen, it is an unmistakable fact support Article 9 and oppose the emergence of that people feel, to a greater or lesser extent, that Japan as a military power. This is becoming a something along the basic lines of Article 9 is regular event. I myself keenly felt, through this ac- needed in international civil society. Here, I would tion, the importance of solidarity with Asian peo- like to cite six main reasons why Article 9 itself or ple. something along the lines of Article 9 is needed, In March 2006, we again held a GPPAC and would like to introduce some voices from

― 135 ― Why Look at Article 9 in a Global Context? From the Experience of Peace Boat abroad that I heard directly relating to these points. water?” (Public hygiene doctor in Iraq)

(1) Concern about Japan’s expansion as a military Concerning (1), we seem to lack the self- power awareness that Japan has an enormous “army,” ob- “Japan should envisage how it would look to jectively speaking, and we are too nonchalant about neighbors that were once invaded if it, with the how this looks to neighboring countries, in particu- fourth largest military in the world, were to discard lar to people in countries that were invaded by Article 9” (University professor from Taiwan) Japan. For example, in TV debates, many discuss- (2) Limit to the ability of military power to ants nod in assent at the suggestion that “even if achieve security Article 9 is discarded, we had such a tragic experi- “With the Iraq war dragging on, it has become ence in the past war that the Japanese do not in- clear that even the world’s strongest military force tend to make invasions anymore.” I agree that there cannot maintain peace and order in a medium-sized are few people today who intend to invade other city.” (Security office at the European Commission countries in the near future. There is no objective headquarters) guarantee, however, that such actions will never be (3) Links with Article 26 of the UN Charter and repeated. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of those the UN Millennium Development Goals who were subjected to invasion in the past, and “What we need is neither AK-47s nor tanks, whose relatives were forced to be military comfort but education for children, economic independence women or forced laborers, it is highly doubtful that for widowed women, and support for the local statements regarding the “feeling of the Japanese” NGOs that support them.” (NGO activist from will be persuasive. It seems more reasonable to feel Sierra Leone) anxiety that “Japan, which has become a major (4) The need for a non-American type model power, might repeat such actions if Article 9 is case “We need a model for our children to show away.” This anxiety among neighboring countries that we can become affluent through peaceful ef- opens the possibility for their military expansion. forts, not through military force like the US.” On (2), the reality is that even the world’s (Conflict prevention specialist from Kenya) strongest military force, the US military, cannot (5) Increasing international need for non-military maintain peace and order in a medium sized city, disaster relief activities Baghdad. In other words, the limitation of military “Which have saved more lives, military actions power in achieving security is a reality of the 21st or disaster relief activities? The answer is clear.” century made apparent by the Iraq War, and is a (NGO activist from Sri Lanka) proof that the world has entered an age where (6) The trust and security generated by being un- peace cannot be built with arms. It seems some- armed in international cooperation what natural that Article 9, which calls for non- “People who come from abroad with guns and militarization, is a focus of attention in such an tanks are seen as foreign military forces, not as our age. friends. Are guns and tanks necessary for getting Statement (3) refers to the need to reduce

― 136 ― Why Look at Article 9 in a Global Context? From the Experience of Peace Boat military spending and spend more money and re- Within this situation, she told me that Japan sources on the realization of a sustainable world in- was a precious case that could show children how cluding through the eradication of poverty, conquest a country could become affluent through peace. De- of HIV/AIDS, and prevention of global warming, spite having a Constitution that forbids the mainte- and thus shares the ideal of Article 9. nance of military forces, Japan in the postwar Incidentally, Article 26 of the UN Charter is a period was able to recover from the devastation of stipulation requiring member countries to make ef- Hiroshima and Nagasaki and become affluent with- forts toward disarmament. The UN Millennium De- out using force to invade other countries. Of course velopment Goals (MDGs) are numerical targets to there are many things about today’s Japan that be achieved by 2015 on eight items including should not be emulated by others. It is a fact, how- eradication of poverty and conquest of HIV/AIDS. ever, that Article 9 can have a positive impact on They were adopted at the 2000 UN Millennium African people who are working hard to rebuild Conference. The MDGs are now the highest prior- their own countries. ity tasks of the UN. An example regarding (5) is the fact that The MDGs and Article 26 of the UN Charter 200,000 people or more fell victim to the 2005 In- are linked. This linkage of sustainable development dian Ocean Earthquake. By contrast, the number of and disarmament should be seen, surely, as an ex- Iraq citizens killed since the beginning of the Iraq ample of the realization of the ideal of Article 9. War has risen to more than 500,000.IftheUS This is likely why the International Peace Bureau ― forces had not invaded Iraq, but concentrated in- a Nobel-Peace Prize-winning organization ― which stead on rescuing victims of the tsunami in Suma- was quick to call for a linkage between the MDGs tra, how many deaths could have been prevented in and Article 26 of the UN Charter, is now speaking Iraq and Sumatra? This kind of thinking is impor- in support of Article 9. tant now, and I think it is very important, as an The appeal, “Let’s use Article 9 for the eradi- actual implementation of the ideal of Article 9,to cation of poverty and conquest of HIV/AIDS” convert military forces into disaster relief units and seems a key concept for appealing to the world build a society that could concretely save more about Article 9. Don’t we need to connect “what lives from disasters. Article 9 could do” to what the world is paying at- What (6) signifies is that it is illogical to go tention to? to a foreign country with dangerous items, whether The comment in (4) was made by an NGO they be AK-47s or handguns, and to offer assis- activist working in Kibera in Kenya, the largest tance. If people clad in camouflage, carrying weap- slum in Africa. The children she met are in desper- ons, and without any knowledge of your language ate circumstances due to poverty and are influenced were to come to your country and say, “we will by the model of “America” shown on TV, namely give you water,” the response would likely be the model of becoming a militarily strong country “Who do you think you are?” It is very significant and gaining affluence by exercising control over in international cooperation to have Article 9, other countries. which demands disarmament.

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Article 9’s Nine Functions in the World will be a more dangerous one with rapidly rising (1) Article 9 can be a deterrent against Japan be- nationalism and an arms race sparked. coming a military power. On (3), regional coalitions of demilitarized (2) Article 9 is a mechanism for conflict preven- nations are a new possible peace-building mecha- tion in East Asia. nism for demilitarizing areas such as the Great (3) Article 9 can act as a peace building mecha- Lake area around Lake Victoria, including Rwanda, nism in conflict areas by leading to a creation of which experienced a massacre and the Horn of Af- “coalitions of demilitarized nations.” rica, including Somalia, where a civil war drags on. (4) Article 9 is a principle for realizing human se- There are African specialists who say that in Soma- curity without relying on arms. lia, which is mostly composed of a single ethnic (5) Article 9 canbeamodelforalegalnormto group, language, and religion, it should be suffi- encourage governments to reduce military expenses cient to have a police force for maintaining peace and increase expenditures for sustainable develop- and order, and that the principle of Article 9 ment, preventing global warming, and mitigating should be incorporated into the new constitution. I poverty. would like to encourage scholars to consider this (6) Article 9 is a principle for a non-American issue of the practical use of Article 9-type mecha- model of economic development through non- nisms in conflict areas. military industries, as opposed to the American As for (4), human security, which is also seen style model of a military-industrial complex. as one of the pillars of Japanese diplomacy by the (7) Article 9 is a legal norm that encourages fur- Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, is a non- ther efforts for non-military international contribu- military form of international contribution, and it tions such as disaster relief activities and goes without saying that its fundamental ideal humanitarian relief activities, as sought by people should again be Article 9. throughout the world. As for (5), “white bands” are selling like (8) Article 9 is a principle for a peace policy that hotcakes, and increasing numbers of people are no- can be spread to countries of the world, such as ticing the poverty of Africa. In addition, the movie the three non-nuclear principles and the three prin- “An Inconvenient Truth” won an Academy Award. ciples controlling arms exports. At such a time, this function of Article 9 should be (9) Article 9 can have symbolic meaning for the advocated around the world. achievement of a sustainable and peaceful global In order to explain (8), I once told people in society. a peace group in the US about what would happen were Article 9 to be abandoned, with a practical By considering (2), we can see the potential example. When I said “Japanese companies will importance of Article 9 as a measure for conflict begin producing and exporting arms and heaps of prevention, considering the reaction that citizens of Sony missiles and Toyota tanks,” there was a huge China and South Korea might have if Article 9 reaction, with many people saying to me, “Now I were abandoned. An East Asia without Article 9 understand the significance of Article 9.”

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Can Peace Truly Be Built without Arms? and religious conflicts intensify rapidly, and their What I learned clearly from witnessing the solution becomes extremely difficult. What is im- conflicts in former Yugoslavia and Palestine is that portant, however, is that there is a point prior to in each situation, there are people who intentionally the beginning of any conflict where it is still possi- ignited the conflict and people who intentionally ble to prevent it in a non-militaristic way. In other continue it. Logically speaking, a conflict cannot words, there are plenty of things that international start or be maintained unless there are people who society can do in a non-militaristic way before the intentionally start it and keep it going. If such peo- eruption of an armed conflict. The problem is that ple desire peace, a conflict will not start and a international society fails to do so. The UN moves continuing conflict will cease. But that does not slowly as well. Why? Ultimately, those who make happen. The reason is that those who stand to money by selling arms are not Palestinians, Soma- profit from conflict, namely those who make and lis, Iraqis, or Afghans but are mainly permanent sell arms, will lose their business if peace arrives. members of the UN Security Council, which are As an example of this, the United States has the world’s superpowers, led by the US. given Israel military assistance amounting to 17 bil- As a citizen of the nation with Article 9,I lion dollars during the past ten years. If this aid think that it is high time that we think seriously were stopped, peace between Israel and Palestine about what we could do in a non-militaristic, non- might be realized at any moment. The US, how- violent way to create a world where armed con- ever, will never stop this assistance, the reason flicts will not erupt. It may not be a realistic goal being that Israel purchased about 10 billion dollars to stop all the killing in the world immediately worth of weapons during the last ten years, making through non-militaristic, non-violent means. It is it the largest importer of US weapons. In the final quite possible, however, to prevent killings before- analysis, the Israel-Palestine conflict is the best hand through non-militaristic, non-violent means. business for the US military industry, second only to the Iraq War. Toward a Global Article 9 Conference The conflict in former Yugoslavia is also one I believe that realizing the ideal of Article 9 that could have been prevented. For more than a also means realizing the prevention of conflict. For decade prior to the actual outbreak of the conflict, that, however, it is necessary to involve the entire international political experts fully understood the world, and as one concrete action in this regard, danger of Kosovo, and it was almost common we are preparing for a Global Article 9 Conference knowledge that the independence of Croatia would to be held in May (4-6) 2008. We will invite peo- create a serious situation. International society, or ple from all over the world who support Article 9, at least the UN Security Council, left the situation including famous peace activists and conflict pre- untouched. It is easy to imagine that many politi- vention experts such as Jody Williams, who re- cians and business people benefited from the arms ceived the Nobel Peace Prize for her work on the trade related to the former Yugoslavia conflict. Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention (Ottawa Of course, once killing starts, ethnic hatred Treaty) and NGO activists from conflict areas such

― 139 ― Why Look at Article 9 in a Global Context? From the Experience of Peace Boat as Iraq, Palestine, and Somalia, to hold a global gather at various places, to issue concrete images conference with around 10,000 participants. about an “Article 9-like world” from various an- In the final analysis, protecting Article 9 and gles, whether they be “an Article 9 for World realizing the ideal of Article 9 should be more than Heritage” or “Self-Defense Forces as International simply chanting the slogan of Article 9. One good Land Mine Removal Units,” and to forge links approach, step-by-step, to the realization of the with people around the world for its realization and ideal of Article 9 seems to be for various people to begin concrete actions.

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Global Peace and NGOs Working in the Field of International Cooperation

Michiya Kumaoka (PRIME Research Fellow)

Roles of Civil Society and NGOs Working in domestic and international ones for descriptive pur- the Field of International Cooperation poses, they have certain common themes, namely Society is composed of three sectors that stand that these activities essentially transcend national in opposition to one another: the government sector boundaries. that carries out administration, the private sector that works in the pursuit of profits and, although Post-war Japanese Society and NGOs Working the concept is somewhat vague, the civil society in the Field of International Cooperation sector, which acts independently of the government The Japanese Constitution, like the Charter of or companies in the pursuit of “the public good” the United Nations, was drafted based on a strong and “coexistence.” This structure exists in local desire to avoid a repetition of World War II, which communities, nations and the global community. resulted in huge casualties among both combatants Here, citizens are defined as individuals who pay and noncombatants, and it received overwhelming attention to the public good and coexistence. There- support among the people. The causes of war are, fore, both government workers and company em- although they are difficult to simply identify, gener- ployees are citizens in this sense. They think and ally speaking, struggles for resources between na- act as citizens, not only outside but also during tions, conflicts rooted in extreme economic gaps, their working hours, although they inevitably face and ethnic and/or religious intolerance. The phrase various restrictions and pressures in the latter case. in the Constitution, “resolved that never again shall Today, ideas, behaviors and rules on social respon- we be visited with the horrors of war through the sibility have become the subject of increasing action of government” shows that, needless to say, focus, not only in the government sector but among the Constitution lays out the obligations of the gov- corporations as well. ernment, not of the people, and that the Asian Pa- The civil society sector is composed of many cific War broke out due to wrong choices and individuals, groups and activities addressing a mul- decisions by the Japanese government and political titude of issues, such as the protection of human system at that time. rights, environmental problems, community develop- The part reading, “We recognize that all peo- ment, welfare, conflict resolution and peace. Al- ples of the world have the right to live in the though these issues are sometimes divided into peace, free from fear and want” indicates not only

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Japan’s goal “to be free from fear and want” but simply rely on the Constitution and insist “Save the also an intention to expand the ideal globally. This peace Constitution.” Unless we participate in assis- can be seen in principles for many forms of non- tance in our own communities and give support to military international cooperation. Immediately after aid activities that transcend national borders in a its defeat in World War II, Japan had very little concrete manner, our Constitution and pacifism will ability left for anything but its own reconstruction. become worthless. But today, there are over 400 NGOs in this coun- The pacifist principle of the Constitution has try, which has achieved economic recovery, carry- protected Japanese diplomats, businesspersons and ing out international cooperation. tourists directly or indirectly. The ideal has also Since the end of the War, various foreign aid created a safe base and environment enabling NGO activities have been carried out by Japan, including activists to work safely anywhere in the world. humanitarian assistance and international coopera- However, this safety seems to have been dete- tion. The Japan Volunteer Center (JVC),towhich riorating since 9/11 and the subsequent wars by the I belong, was established in 1980, first to provide US in Afghanistan (starting from October 2001) assistance to refugees from Cambodia and the rest and Iraq (from March 2003), which the Japanese of Indochina. In the 1970s, Japanese groups began government supported, especially by dispatching the to work with Indochinese refugees. The movement Self Defense Forces (SDF). Sentiments toward led to a campaign to fight starvation and hunger in Japan in West Asian countries including Iraq, Ethiopia and other parts of Africa in the middle of which used to feel friendliness - occasionally ex- the 1980s and to humanitarian assistance in Iraq, cessive - in consideration of Japan’s recovery from Palestine and Afghanistan after the 1990s. the damage caused by World War II, including the atomic bombings, and its economic and cultural co- Article 9 Symbolizes Japan’s Pacifism (or could operation toward them, seems to be rapidly deterio- be like the “headband” on the Monkey King in rating today. No matter how eagerly the Japanese Journey to the West) government insists that its action constitute “human- Japan’s postwar “pacifism” may have been im- itarian and reconstruction assistance,” the activities perfect, considering its alliance with the United of the SDF, who carry weapons and are dressed in States and its place under the US nuclear umbrella, military uniforms, are taken as support for the US but as this pacifism took root in Japanese society, military in the context of the situation in Iraq dur- along with internationalism, peace diplomacy, the ing the past two years. defense-only policy and humanitarianism, it was In addition, it seems that Japan’s dispatch of gaining respect throughout Asia and the rest of the the SDF has narrowed its ability to act as a media- world. In particular, international cooperation was tor not only in West Asia but also on the Palestin- highly valued, as it involves individual citizens ian-Israeli issue and the Iraq problem, which are communicating and joining hands together, and is the sources of the sense of unfairness that prevails thus a proactive and concrete expression of paci- around the world. The US military invasion of Iraq fism. Therefore, Japanese citizens cannot afford to was a major mistake, and has destroyed the

― 142 ― Global Peace and NGOs Working in the Field of International Cooperation country, making the world including the US itself debate in the National Diet, cabinet meetings, and even more dangerous. In this context, it is obvious major party lawmakers, the lack of any effective that the Koizumi Administration’s support for the “brake” against hasty and dangerous moves, the war on Iraq and dispatch of the SDF were not immature democracy, and a public opinion that is really done for the sake of Iraq but for the current easily dominated by emotional reactions. When it administration of the US. was a military superpower, Japan brought devasta- What Japan needs to do now is not to change tion to Asian countries and itself, and it is still into a “nation that can wage war” through the “re- strong militarily and could become a powerful and vision” of its Constitution, but to review its poli- terrible nation with potential to develop nuclear cies on peace diplomacy, international cooperation weapons, although many Japanese people are not and humanitarianism, which have been insufficient aware of this fact. In this sense, we will continue so far, and demonstrate improved ones to Asia and to need Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, the world. Japan’s advantage lies in economic and which will act as a “headband*” on this country. I cultural activities and international cooperation and think we should only remove that “headband” when exchange led by NGOs and the private sector. The thorough and careful discussions can be made to global trend is to take a fresh look at “soft power,” decide Japan’s path in a calm, not emotional man- such as international partnership and humanitarian- ner. ism, instead of emphasizing military strength. Japan’s dispatch of the “army” and “fighting along- Source: Nihonkoku kenpo no takakuteki kensho Kenpo side the US” will decisively undermine Japan’s “kaisei” no Doko wo fumaete (Multifaceted Exami- own security. nation of the Japanese Constitution - In View of An ideal option may be to recognize the SDF the Trend toward “Revision”). Edited by Japan In- as the military and carry out “clear civilian control.” stitute of Constitutional Law, Tokyo: Nippon However, in recent years, it appears, unfortunately, Hyoronsha, 2006. that any constitutional amendment or revision will lead directly to the creation of Japan as a “nation * In the old Chinese tale, Journey to the West, the that can wage war,” particularly in view of the Monkey King was given great powers, but was Koizumi Administration’s dogmatism toward the made to wear a headband that could be tightened strengthening of the Japan-US alliance, the lack of to prevent him from misbehaving.

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“Article 9” in the Hands of the Multitude

Hitoshi Sakurai (PRIME Research Fellow)

“Article 9,” the new reality on its attack based on the UN Council Resolution When every law of war had been ignored and 1441 which warned Iraq that if Hussein violated every possible atrocity had been let loose in the the agreement on the dismantling of weapons of Second World War, humankind decided to do away mass destruction and the UN inspections, it would with the word “war” in writing the UN Charter. face “serious consequences.” However, prior to the For that reason, Article 4-2 of the Charter states: attack, in order to gain a “secure cause,” the U.S. “All members shall refrain in their international submitted a new resolution to the Security Council relations from the threat or use of force,” uphold- that recognized the use of force against Iraq. When ing the illegality of war. The exception is that the U.S. foresaw that it would not pass, the resolu- since the premise of the UN, the union of nations, tion was withdrawn by the U.S. and Resolution is national sovereignty, the minimal right of indi- 1441 revived in order to stage an attack. This fact vidual or collective self-defense is recognized in is not well known. Thus, unilateralism based on de- Article 51. However, it is limited “until the fiance of the UN has come to face ubiquitous Security Council has taken measures necessary to downfalls. maintain international peace and security”. Embedded in the unilateral globalization of Immediately after 9.11, President Bush an- U.S. militarism and economy, the world is being nounced “Infinite Justice” and initiated the “war dragged into the “war on terror” with no end in against terror” as if the UN Charter did not exist. sight. The state of war represses human rights The word “infinite” suggests an infinite being, without exception. In the world in a “state of war,” which is God, invoking nightmares of the Crusades the security of people is constantly under threat, in the Islamic world. It was immediately with- and there is no freedom from fear. What we have drawn. in front of us, is a distorted world of an impaired A month later, on October 7th, Bush alleged UN and the declining viability of the sovereignty that Osama bin Laden was the mastermind behind of the nation-state. the 9.11 attacks and started bombing Afghanistan. At this moment in time, the pacifism of the Was this within the acceptable range of minimum Japanese Constitution becomes realistic for two rea- defense? In the subsequent attack on Iraq, the U.S. sons. One is that the aspiration for peace in Article continued to disregard the UN. The U.S. embarked 9 comes as a warning towards the UN-recognized

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“right to collective self-defense” that infests easy under threat. military alliances. Another is the existing possibility The following describes the various rights. for the crowd of Japanese people who have gath- Article 13: right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of ered around “Article 9” to emerge at the forefront happiness. Article 14: equality under the law. Arti- of the world citizenry. cle 15: the right to vote and hold office, and na- tional referenda. Article 18: freedom from any kind “Article 9” goes beyond Japan of bondage. Article 19: freedom of thought and The subject of Article 9 of the constitution in conscience. Article 20: freedom of religion, separa- its original wording is “We, the Japanese people.” tion of church and the state. Article 21: freedom of This clause has incorporated the “nation” frame- assembly and association as well as speech, press work as convention and the “people” is assumed. and all other forms of expression. Censorship ban However, do the people who have gathered around and the secrecy of all means of communication. “Article 9” still exist as the “people of the nation- Article 22: freedom to choose and change one’s state” stated here? Could it not be that its essence residence and to choose one’s occupation. Article is undergoing change? The people who have gath- 23: academic freedom. Article 24: equality of the ered around “Article 9” are not the Japanese people sexes. Article 25: the right to maintain minimum in the old sense, those who built the nation on the standards of wholesome and cultured living. Article wave of the economic recovery following the 26: the right to receive an equal education. Article defeat in the Second World War, but the people 27: basic labor rights. Article 29: the right to own who were excluded from this kind of post-war or to hold property. Article 34: freedom from un- national consciousness, or the crowd of people who lawful arrest and detention. Article 36: forbidden had always been hurled out of the public domain. infliction of torture by any public officer and cruel Currently, the “Article 9 Association” counts punishments, and so on. more than 6,000 groups across Japan in its member- The “Article 9 Association” established catego- ship, and is increasing at the rate of 200 a month. ries to accord with these, as follows. Atomic Each of these groups, in how they came about, the bombsites, pollution sources, U.S. military bases, different circumstances of localities, and the diverse persons with disabilities, care workers, lawyers, for- layers of people, gives rise to the premonition that mer school principals, religious leaders, filmmakers, a new kind of citizenry is being born. They have playwrights, poets, Haiku-poets, musicians, journal- gathered to protect “Article 9,” but moreover, these ists, librarians, scientists, academics, women, medi- people have come to realize that they need to be cal personnel, construction workers, business protected by “Article 9.” Chapter Three of the owners, firms, and so on. Recently, such categories constitution is known as a “catalogue of human as part time workers, NEETs, reclusive young peo- rights,” and the various rights starting from Article ple, have been added, creating new networks. 11’s fundamental human rights through Article 40, It should suffice to call this movement that are their cornerstone, but at the same time these possesses the public domain whilst maintaining its peoplehavecometofeelthattheserightsare marginality the “Article 9 phenomenon.” The

― 146 ― “Article 9” in the Hands of the Multitude starting point of this movement is reflective of Indeed, the degeneration of the Multitude is Japan’s negative history, the history of the invasion the masses, and its 21st century regeneration is the of the Asia-Pacific region. Responsibility for the “people who voice themselves,” freed from what is war is a “national” issue and at the same time, an “national” - therefore, “UN” and of course “Amer- issue of the “individuals” of that community. Re- ican.” The perception is that the workers who had sponsibility, which is the responsibility for the war, been silent under the system of Fordism emerge as is being carried out by a collective of individuals the linguistic beings of the “loquacious factory” who have defined themselves as beings that surpass (Hardt and Negri, Multitude). the concept of nation. In other words, “Article 9” The habitat of the Multitude is in the reitera- itself carries the momentum to overcome the na- tion of the transnational. In today’s world, its form tion. Only by coming out through this article, will can also be seen in things “Muslim.” They are a Japanese citizens be liberated from the constraints type of nomads who move anywhere, having the of “nation” and “people” and attain their potential Koran, mosques and Arabic as their grounds, not for transformation into the Multitude, the open and interpreting Nation as something supreme. In the diverse people. sense of crossing nations, Caribbean people who do not have the birth-myth of a nation, because of “Article 9” merging into the Multitude Creolization, are the same, and refugees who TheauthorsoftheEmpire, Hardt and Negri possess tools of communication also fall under this posit the Multitude as the antagonistic existence of category. Generations of Maghreb immigrants Democracy inhibiting the process of the world residing in the outskirts of Paris would also be becoming the “Empire”. In other words, the qualified. Hordes of people who cannot be Multitude that resists “Empire” is diverse people categorized under the existing social movements are that “gains the power to affirm its autonomy, wandering all over the world today. “The labor traveling and expressing itself through an apparatus process is [...] loquacious. ’Communicative action’ of widespread, transversal territorial reappropriation.” [...] the dialogical word is seated at the very heart (p.398) of capitalistic production.” (Ibid.) It could be said, Let us look at the potentiality of this Multi- at a stretch, that this is beginning to appear within tude. Paolo Virno, criticizing Negri and Hardt, con- the people gathered around the “Article 9 Association.” structively defines Multitude as follows. Movements across Japan are invigorated with “Article 9” as their highest common factor. This Multitude signifies: plurality ― literally: be- phenomenon could be understood as the threads of ing-many ― as a lasting form of social and diverse movements by the Multitude irritably political existence, as opposed to the cohe- sensing today’s socioeconomic disparity and the sive unity of the people. Thus, multitude fast-growing conservatism. They all utter “for an consists of a network of individuals;the alternative” with one accord. Everybody speaks many are a singularity. (A Grammar of the about different things in different terms loqua- Multitude) ciously. This may be the emerging possibility of

― 147 ― “Article 9” in the Hands of the Multitude a new language. different times coexist as hybrid constructs in the It should be noted that the “Empire” itself re- Japanese archipelago. Over the years, these have lies on the power of the Multitude. In looking at become Japanized in their unique ways. “Article 9,” it becomes the node of resistance against authority through free exchange between In the spiritual transformation that emanated people, and at the same time, by encouraging the in the process of post-war Democratization, renunciation of the right to collective self-defense despite the forces of backlash after that tran- in the infinite state of “war against terrorism,” it sition, there was something in it that would contributes to the obliteration in advance of the not swing back easily. It is the conscious- consumption of energy for “chaos management” on ness of the Japanese as a human being that the part of the authority. The authorities must know would not turn, and it is not on the level of the cost of renouncing “Article 9” will be greater having imported Western culture as if graft- than maintaining the status quo. Because the “war ing on branches. What is crucial is extract- against terrorism” asserts infinite justice, it antago- ing whatever possible from it, or taking the nizes all kinds of Multitude and permanently delays process of acquiring this consciousness far- the restoration of order. Thus, if the Multitude ther against the forces of backlash. arises on the political arena, the authority is doomed to take on the endless project of “chaos It is worth noting the time when this “hybrid- management.” ity of culture” was written. 1955 was the year in which the Liberal Party and the Japan Democratic The Japanese Constitution is “hybrid” Party merged in a conservative consolidation. One of the inaugural members of the “Article Hatoyama Ichiro and Kishi Nobusuke joined hands, 9 Association,” Kato Shuichi, has written an article the year they started out by holding up the possi- called “Hybridity of Japanese Culture” in 1955. bility of Constitutional revision and the year the so The characteristic trait of Japanese Culture is its called 1955 regime started. In such troubled times, hybridity. A straightforward example: On his way from the Korean War (1950-1953) to the strength- home from studying in France, by looking at the ening of the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty (1960),by architecture and the ports as he left Marseille and setting the “hybridity of culture” over and against passed through the Indian Ocean, he perceived tan- the attack on the Constitution, it could be seen that gible indications of each Colonial power in them. Kato Shuichi tried to protect it with the very When he arrived in Kobe, he realized that the strength of its own attribution (hybridity). western mansion he saw there had been “Japanized.” The fundamental elements of the Constitution He then went on to Kyoto. It was a mistake to are the fundamental human rights which are de- have thought that he could find the origin of Japa- scribed in English as the “fruits of the age-old nese culture there. What he noticed were mixtures struggle of man to be free; they have survived the of Chinese and Korean cultures. Things that have many exacting tests for durability.” These have come to Japan through various paths and at been delivered to the Japanese people over ordeals

― 148 ― “Article 9” in the Hands of the Multitude of time and places, and for that, placing “Article administration is forging ahead on its own path to 9” at its premise, the “hybridity of culture” could isolation. The act of opening up “Article 9” to the be understood all the more so to be the agent of world is a realistic initiative aimed at avoiding cultural resistance in the face of the revision of makingthistrendadejavu. The people who have “Article 9.” gathered around the “Article 9 Association” are It was in 1993 that the so called 1955 regime those who have responded to its appeal: “in order collapsed, and in the following 15 years, many to join hands with all peace-seeking citizens of the things have occurred. Kosovo air strikes in 1999, globe, we feel that we must strive to shine the 9.11 terror in 2001, the waging of war against Iraq light of Article 9 upon this turbulent world.” in 2003, the recent sudden resurfacing of the Con- If “Article 9” is going to be strangled to death stitutional revision debate, and, as its precursor, the in Japan, let it seek asylum in the world by the revision of the Fundamental Law of Education and hands of the networked Multitude. Or better, it the Constitution Referendum Bill. After only 15 should be exported more aggressively. By doing so, years of absence, the so-called 1955 regime is Article 9 will attain stronger hybridism and the day making a resurgence with a greater might. Let us should come when they themselves re-import it. keep in mind that the Constitution revisionists are Then, no one can dare say that it has been “forced the grandsons of the leaders of the era of the con- upon” us. servative consolidation. Without a doubt, this

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What Appeal Should We Make to the World?

The Resolution of Postwar Japan and the Significance of Pacifism and Disarmament

Shigetake Maruyama (Professor, Kanto Gakuin University)

My Experiences in Africa after the other; “Because of the cost of armaments, In January 2007, at the World Social Forum Africa lags behind in healthcare and education,” held in Nairobi, Kenya, there was a workshop on and “Africa is a huge market for weapons.” Actu- the “Global Campaign for Article 9 of the Japanese ally, it was their statements that encouraged me to Constitution.” At this workshop, I suddenly found speak out. myself raising my hand and starting to ad-lib some I therefore shared a story about the adoption words. I had not prepared for the moment and was of Article 9 in Japan. It seemed necessary to dis- not even expecting to speak. Although it was cuss why we had decided to adopt Article 9, against the rules, I spoke in Japanese. Akira Kawa- through which the Japanese people resolved to re- saki, from Peace Boat, interpreted my words into nounce war, eliminate the military, and have no English. conflicts with other countries. I stated, “Since arriving here, I have come to - Japan caused the deaths or injuries of tens of understand that Article 9 of the Japanese Constitu- millions of Asian people during World War II. tion, which guarantees the renunciation of war and Japan itself was devastated by the war, with three disarmament, can have particular significance for million Japanese being killed. For these reasons, we Africa. This is because ‘another Africa’ should be decided we never wanted to experience war again. ‘an Africa without weapons or war,’ just as ‘an- - Kijuro Shidehara, a former diplomat, was the other world’ should be ‘a world without weapons prime minister of Japan at the time. He had been or war.’” a diplomat when the Kellogg-Briand Pact was rati- There were two workshops at the forum for fied in 1928, and had emphasized cooperation with this campaign regarding Article 9 of the Japanese the U.S. and Britain. After witnessing Japan’s situa- Constitution. At the first, the participants seemed to tion after its loss in WWII, he vowed to renounce be confused, asking questions such as, “Why does weapons and eliminate war, and Article 9 was cre- a Japanese domestic issue have to be dealt with ated through his discussions with General Douglas here?” “This must be just part of the movement in MacArthur. He said to MacArthur “This may seem Japan to preserve Article 9,” and “Given the fact unthinkable within the context of commonsense up that Japan has an army, what are you talking to now, but don’t you agree it is insane for us to about?” Participants from Africa also spoke, one maintain militaries and kill one another?”

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- In fact, at present, Japan possesses the Self- “Ideal” versus “Reality” Defense Force (SDF). Although the SDF has been Debate over Article 9 always reaches the point dispatched to Iraq, it cannot engage in battles there. where it confronts the issue of whether we are dis- This is because the right of belligerency of the cussing an “ideal” or “reality.” state is not recognized, based on Article 9. I would People often argue that “it would be ideal to like to carry on this decision of our forebears, and eliminate armaments from the Earth and resolve all protect and spread the idea of Article 9, which re- issues peacefully, but in reality, it is impossible. nounces war and eliminates the military. “Another For hundreds of thousands of years, human history Japan” should be “a Japan without armed forces” has been a history of wars.” and “a country without war.” In the same way, At first glance, this argument seems logical in “another Africa” could be “a land which does not the world in which we live. After all, our world is require armed forces” and “a land without conflicts.” dominated by the U.S., a single superpower, which That was a summary of my remarks at the frequently ends up resorting to war. In Africa, a workshop. continent covered with conflicts, advocating “disar I was already aware of some efforts to spread mament and the total abolition of weapons” must Article 9 internationally, such as those of Dr. Charles seem nearly unthinkable. Overby, the appeals made at the Hague Peace Con- However, if we can modify our mind-set, the ferences, the resolution of the International Associa- issue becomes surprisingly simple. tion of Democratic Lawyers, and the affirmation by If we go back to the basic principles and look the Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed squarely at “the reality,” we find ourselves ques- Conflict (GPPAC). However, I could not help tioning the conventional wisdom that “it is normal raising my hand during the workshop, because it to maintain armed forces.” Also, we come to rec- seemed that the actual meaning of the renunciation ognize how ludicrous and sad this commonsense of war and disarmament in Article 9 was being re- really is. examined. I felt that I needed to tell the partici- In the case of Africa, people are suffering pants why we consider Article 9 to be so from inhumane poverty, and find themselves in a important. situation where they must kill each other even At the workshop, participants from the Repub- among members of the same ethnic group, due to lic of Costa Rica reported that their country had the interests and ideologies imposed by the former been able to spend more money on education and colonial power. People have come to realize that healthcare thanks to the elimination of armaments. conflicts constitute a major cause of poverty, and There was also a report from Germany, which that armaments and wars represent an enormous maintains a military and belongs to NATO in spite waste for the region. They have begun to ask ques- of a rule banning wars of aggression. Indeed, these tions such as, “Why do other countries intervene reports also spurred more in-depth discussion on militarily in conflicts in Africa?” and “Why do the issue of Article 9. they sell our country weapons?” Iraq was invaded with massive military force, under pretexts such as

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“the possession of weapons of mass destruction” armaments.” In addition, from the perspective of a and “removal of a dictator,” and many people have nation that suffered from attacks with atomic been killed and wounded. bombs, Japanese came to believe that wars in the For the people, “Stop conflicts!” is a precious future would be developed with a focus on “nucle- wish, and should not be dismissed as “idealism.” ar weapons,” and imagined a world with no life Approaching this issue rationally, it became in- left after a nuclear war, after having stared directly creasingly commonsense in international society at the horror of war. throughout the 20th century to consider the use of Inaveryrealsense,thisisinfactlookingat force to settle conflicts as being illegal. Wars for “reality.” supremacy between nations can no longer be justi- fied. The Words of Kijuro Shidehara Moreover, in a world where nuclear weapons Former Prime Minister Kijuro Shidehara made have been developed and widely proliferated, once a very impressive statement to one of his confi- a war begins, even if by mistake, it is obvious that dants, Saburo Hirano (See “Interview with Mr. the global environment as well as the environment Shidehara about the circumstances surrounding the of the particular countries and regions involved in birth of the war-renouncing article of the Constitu- the conflict would be in jeopardy. Such a war tion, written by Saburo Hirano,” (in Japanese),The could even endanger the survival of the human Cabinet Research Commission on the Constitution, race. In international society, the “reality” is that in February, 1964). “nuclear weapons cannot be used.” Certainly, an He stated as follows: accidental nuclear war is still a terrible threat. “It may seem strange from the current com- However, considering the probable aftermath of a monsense, but we have to consider the fact that the nuclear war, nuclear weapons should be recognized existence of atomic bombs has led to a radical as “weapons that cannot be used, even if they are change in world affairs. Atomic bombs will be fur- retained.” ther developed in the future, and, in the next war, After all, it seems to me that it depends on cities both large and small of the combatant nations whether people consider security and peace from will be rapidly burned to the ground. Thus, the conventional ideas or whether they go to the root world must think seriously of stopping war. The of the problem as they consider their own ways of best way to stop fighting is to not retain weap- life and their countries. ons.... Unless the whole world agrees to eliminate These two thoughts must have been behind war, it will be impossible to ensure true peace in Japan’s choice to incorporate Article 9, proclaiming this world. In practice, however, it is unrealistic to pacifism and disarmament. In other words, Japan expect this to happen.... An arms race creates an had been devastated by the war and its people unending vicious cycle. This is reminiscent of the were physically and mentally exhausted, leading to scene, from the Pied Piper of Hamelin, where the the conclusion that “we never want to experience rats know they are marching toward mass suicide, war again” and “we can no longer rely on but cannot stop themselves from walking forward.

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In other words, universal disarmament is impossible “The justice I am talking about must not be at present, and there is only one way to make it some dogmatic idea of Japan alone, but justice possible. The way is to have the whole world backed by the impartial public opinion of the eliminate armaments all at once. This is, of course, world. I am convinced that such a public opinion impossible. Once I came to that point, the idea of can be developed on an international basis. This is Article 9 came up to my mind. ‘Well, if some because it is necessary to maintain the global order. country were to voluntarily give up its weapons...’ If a certain country tries to invade Japan, then This declaration of disarmament would be consid- other nations, which are also threatened by this ac- ered an act of madness, seen from the common- tion, will not merely give silent consent to the in- sense on this issue. However, is the declaration of vasion. They will make efforts to guarantee the armament a sane idea? That is actually the act of security of Japan, regardless of whether there is a madness. At least, that is my conclusion. The point treaty between Japan and themselves. That means is that the world requires one lunatic. Unless we that we can maintain the security of our country voluntarily become the madman, the world will through the leverage of diplomacy, based on an in- never be able to get itself out of the quagmire ternational perspective. Therefore, there is ‘a way known as the arms race. We will become a ‘great’ out of an impossible situation.’” madman. The madman will open new doors in In Shidehara’s statement, one clearly feels his world history. Japan will carry out this historic strong resolve and confidence in the people of the mission.” world. This reconfirmed by belief that this resolve is necessary for maintaining peace in the world. The wish of humanity to banish war from the Last fall, a lecture of the Committee of Seven world may have become most realistic, as a result for World Peace Appeal was held at Meiji Gakuin of the birth of the ultimate weapon. It seems to me University. Prof. Kinhide Mushakoji, former vice- that the Japanese people, who have the Constitution rector of United Nations University, pointed out, of Japan, must convey this thought to the world “In the first half of the twentieth century, the U.S. with certainty. and Japan joined in the competition to acquire In the above-cited discussion between Prime colonies and fought in two massive wars. The Con- Minister Shidehara and his confidant, the confidant stitution of Japan is ‘a reflective constitution for stated, “This issue should be discussed and decided anti-colonialism’ born out of a reflection on the ex- between the big powers. Even if a defeated country periences of these wars. The Japanese Constitution like Japan makes such grand statements, nothing is by no means insignificant, as it is the world’s will change.” Shidehara answered by saying, “It is first anti-colonial constitution.” possible for Japan, precisely because Japan is a de- From this standpoint of “an anti-colonial con- feated country.” He also flatly stated that “Our na- stitution,” the full weight of the preamble of the tional self-defense must be based on the power of Constitution can be understood. It states “We desire justice in every respect.” to occupy an honored place in an international so- Shidehara further said: ciety striving for the preservation of peace, and the

― 154 ― What Appeal Should We Make to the World? banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression, and Advocates of constitutional revision make vari- intolerance for all time from the earth. We recog- ous arguments, such as “We need to create clear nize that all peoples of the world have the right to stipulations for the SDF” and “We need to make live in peace, free from fear and want.” This pre- clear the country’s right to self-defense if Japan is cisely signifies that we must stay away from colo- attacked,” but the fact is that “constitutional revi- nialism and guarantee to all people the right to live sion” is necessary only in order to “allow the SDF in peace. These can represent the expression of to participate in conflicts anywhere in the world.” “another world.” Article 9 provides a premise for For instance, considering missile defense, if this. North Korea launches a missile against Japan, it will reach Japan within 8 or 10 minutes. It seems The Aim of “Constitutional Revision” unlikely that it would be possible to shoot down While studying and debating the issue of con- the missile on the way. Therefore, some people stitutional revision, I have come to keenly feel that argue that it should be possible to attack a military the sole aim of “revision” is the elimination of the base if a missile is aimed toward Japan and begins “abolition of war potential” and “negation of the to be fueled. However, this still means that Japan right of belligerency of the state” expressed in the would start a war. It all comes down to the fact second paragraph of Article 9. So, this claim is that Japan make efforts to ensure that no country deny the principle of the Japanese Constitution, and ever directs missiles toward Japan and begins to this claim is not “Constitution Revision”, but fuel them. “establishment of a new constitution”. It is the same for the issue of “nuclear weap- In other words, the first paragraph of Article ons.” Although it is big news that North Korea has 9 states “the Japanese people forever renounce war said it possesses nuclear weapons, the fact is that as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or both China and the U.S. retain them as well. Actu- use of force as means of settling international dis ally, some people argue that Japan itself should ac- putes,” and similar stipulations are included in con- quire nuclear arms and confront North Korea along stitutions of many other countries. Indeed, this is with those countries. However, it is more effective not necessarily a rejection of belligerency under the for Japan to not have nuclear weapons, and to name of “self-defense.” However, the following pressure other countries not to use nuclear weapons paragraph; “In order to accomplish the aim of the toward it. Even if Japan holds different opinions preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as from other countries, the job of the government well as other war potential, will never be main- should be to settle international disputes without tained. The right of aggression of the state will not using force. This must be the basic principle of its be recognized,” shows clearly that Japan can only diplomacy. The idea of constitutional revision is fight when it is attacked. It does not allow the in- nothing more than “preparation” for weakening terpretation that Japanese troops can be sent abroad government efforts for peace. to fight along with the U.S. toward the “realization I believe that we ourselves need to embody in of justice.” earnest the spirit of “pacifism and disarmament” of

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Article 9, and to disseminate this spirit across the world.” It seems to me that the spirit of this Con- world. stitution is becoming more and more important for The Constitution of Japan declares, “We, the the people of the world, if we are to live together Japanese people, ... resolved that never again shall in harmony, and is becoming a real possibility on we be visited with the horrors of war through the our shrinking but only earth. action of government, ... have determined to pre- Japanese people have the potential to spread serve our security and existence, trusting in the jus- this spirit to the world, and that is a responsibility tice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the for Japanese people living in the 21st century.

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From the Perspective of the History of International Law

Sun Zhan Kun (PRIME Member)

As I have indicated in the handout, the pur- that “the Japanese people forever renounce war as pose of my presentation is to reassess the inter- a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or national-historical significance of Article 9 of the use of force as means of settling international dis- Japanese Constitution, as seen from the perspective putes.” The second paragraph of the article then of the history of international law, or in other goes on to pledge that, in order to accomplish this words, the historical process through which modern aim, “land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war international law has developed. The merits of potential, will never be maintained. The right of looking at the Constitution from such a perspective, belligerency of the state will not be recognized.” in my view, are as follows. When looked at from the perspective of inter- The emergence of modern international law is national law, these provisions squarely address the usually traced back to the mid-17th century. With most crucial concern of international law, namely, the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, which how to regulate wars and the use of force. brought an end to the Thirty Years’ War and Now, then, have wars and the use of force marked the beginning of the international system of been dealt with by international law? In this con- sovereign nation-states, modern international law nection, scholars of international law often refer to made its appearance as a system of laws regulating the idea of “just war.” In the period from the me- the relationships among nation-states. During the dieval ages to the early modern times, when Chris- Thirty Years’ War, Hugo Grotius, a jurist from the tian dualism, with its inclination to distinguish Dutch Republic, authored a book entitled De jure between good and evil, was influential, it was cus- belli ac pacis libri tres (On the Laws of War and tomary to classify wars into just and unjust ones. Peace), one of the great classical works of inter- Wars were considered just if they had just causes national law, for which he has been acclaimed as or grounds for both of the belligerent parties; other- the “father of international law.” It can be said that wise, they were regarded as unjust. Emer de Vattel the question of how to legally regulate wars and and other scholars of international law of the mid- the use of force has continued to be the most impor- 18th century, placed an increasingly heavy emphasis tant concern of international law since its formative on equality among sovereign nation-states and their years nearly four centuries ago. The Constitution of liberty, and began to question the appropriateness Japan declares in the first paragraph of Article 9 of differentiating between just and unjust wars in

― 157 ― From the Perspective of the History of International Law an international community with no transcendental important branch of international law. The other ap- judge. Critical rethinking of the practice of differ- proach was to formulate legal rules to put a brake entiating between just and unjust wars led to the more directly on wars and the use of force. The formulation of a new view of wars under which, first fruit of this approach was the “Convention Re- given the absence of a supreme being who stands specting the Limitation of the Employment of above nation-states and can judge whether a certain Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts” signed war is just or unjust, it is senseless to attempt to at the Second Peace Conference in The Hague in determine whether a specific war is legally justifi- 1907. While as many as 13 conventions were able or not. Even if wars are unfortunate occur- signed at the Hague Conference, with many of rences which cause many kinds of misery, them dealing with matters concerning international international law has no way to determine whether humanitarian law, this convention alone tried to put they are legal or illegal. At the beginning of the a brake on the use of force, albeit to a limited ex- 19th century, this view of wars held sway under the tent, and as such, drew much attention as the first increasingly strong German insistence on the impor- agreement of its kind. This convention is still in- tance of respecting the sovereignty of nation-states. cluded in most collections of treaties compiled and Beginning in the mid-19th century, when this published annually in Japan today. view of war held sway, however, a series of disas- The main contents of this convention are as trous wars in the United States and European con- follows. Paragraph 1 of Article 1 stipulates: “The tinent, including the American Civil War, the War Contracting Powers agree not to have recourse to for Risorgimento in Italy, and the Crimean War, armed force for the recovery of contract debts also gave rise to an awareness that the international claimed from the Government of one country by community perhaps needed to exercise some control the Government of another country as being due to over wars and the use of force. The need to con- its nationals.” The convention was established in trol wars was pursued under two approaches. One response to a strong request by Latin American emphasized that, setting aside the question of the countries. Having gained independence in the first propriety of staging wars, it was imperative to en- half of the 19th century, these developing countries sure the humanitarian treatment of prisoners of war of the time were often shaken by internal political and the sick and wounded who were actually pro- instability and found themselves unable to repay duced by wars. This approach culminated in the es- their debts to the advanced countries of Europe. In tablishment of the International Committee of the demanding the repayment of the loans, the Euro- Red Cross (ICRC), coupled with the signing of a pean countries sometimes used or threatened to use set of legal rules underpinning it, including the Ge- force. Having worked jointly for years to prevent neva Conventions, which consisted of several trea- such outright violations of their sovereignty, the ties on the Red Cross, and the Hague Conventions Latin American countries finally managed to win that were concluded sometime later. These legal the passage of this convention at the Second Hague rules have grown into what we know today as in- Conference. As revealed by its title, the convention ternational humanitarian law, which forms one by no means banned warfare or the use of force in

― 158 ― From the Perspective of the History of International Law general, but merely prohibited the “recourse to members of the League were obliged to not resort armed force” in the very limited circumstance of to war against any party to the dispute which was “recovery of contract debts.” Furthermore, the “re- complying with any award or decision rendered by course to armed force” was not prohibited uncondi- the Permanent Court of International Justice or with tionally, because in the words of Paragraph 2 of the recommendation made by the Council in its re- Article 1, the obligation to refrain from using force port on the dispute (Paragraph 4 of Article 13,and “is, however, not applicable when the debtor State Paragraph 6 of Article 15). As evident from these refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbitra- stipulations, the League of Nations Charter was not tion, or, after accepting the offer, prevents any in any way a ban on wars in general. There is no compromise from being agreed on, or, after the ar- denying, nonetheless, that its Charter as a general bitration, fails to submit to the award.” Though se- treaty of international community prohibited wars riously limited in its applicability and attached with under certain circumstances, and in this respect very strict conditions, this convention marked the may be regarded as constituting a significant im- first step in the history of international law toward provement over the Hague Convention of 1907 the banning of wars and the use of force. mentioned above. The fruit of the international community’s ef- The international community’s effort to restrain fort to ban wars and armed conflicts that was at- wars continued subsequently, leading to the conclu- tained subsequent to the Hague Convention took sion in 1928 of the Treaty for the Renunciation of the form of the League of Nations Charter, as War (or the Kellogg-Briand Pact). The signatories agreed upon after the First World War. Under this to this treaty solemnly declared in the name of Charter, the members of the League pledged to their respective peoples that they “condemn[ed] re- “undertake to respect and preserve as against exter- course to war for the solution of international con- nal aggression the territorial integrity and existing troversies,” thereby renouncing war as an instru- political independence of all Members of the League” ment of national policy in their relations with one (Article 10). It further stipulated in Article 12: another (Article 1). In other words, this became “The Members of the League agree that, if there the first international treaty to unconditionally con- should arise between them any dispute likely to demn and renounce wars in general as illegal. De- lead to a rupture they will submit the matter either nying recourse to war for the solution of to arbitration or judicial settlement or to enquiry by international controversies logically implied that the Council, and they agree in no case to resort to once an international dispute erupted, it would have war until three months after the award by the arbi- to be solved by peaceful means. The signatories to trators or the judicial decision, or the report by the the Treaty, therefore, agreed to the following in Ar- Council.” In other words, if any dispute arose be- ticle 2: “the settlement or solution of all disputes tween them, the members of the League were or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever ori- obliged first to try to solve the dispute peacefully, gin they may be, which may arise among them, either by political or diplomatic means. And upon shall never be sought except by pacific means.” It the expiration of the initial three-month period, the should be kept in mind, however, that upon signing

― 159 ― From the Perspective of the History of International Law the treaty, several countries, including the United inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Na- States and Germany, added a reservation that the tions.” At present, the fundamental premise for treaty must not infringe upon their right of self- international relations is that war or the use of defense, and that they were not obliged to enforce force is prohibited. the treaty when taking action against those which Under this premise, international community violated it. admits of several “exceptions” to its general ban on To recapitulate the foregoing observations, the the recourse to war or force. First, an “exception” international community continued to strive starting is made in cases when the Security Council of the at the beginning of the twentieth century to some- United Nations invokes military measures (under how put restraints on the very act of war, and the Article 42 of the Charter) against parties that are symbolic accomplishment of this effort was the endangering or destroying the maintenance of inter- conclusion of the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which for- national peace and security, or carrying out aggres- bid wars in general well in advance of the outbreak sion. Another exception is made in cases where a of the Second World War. For sure, the Kellogg- member of the United Nations, in response to an Briand Pact had one serious weakness, namely, its armed attack against it, exercises its inherent right failure to set forth concrete procedures for peace- of individual or collective self-defense (as provided fully solving international disputes. Nonetheless, for in Article 51 of the U.N. Charter). In addition, scholars of international law speak very highly of there is another exception, not based on the Char- the Pact, concluding that, with its straightforward ter, but which was later established in the form of denunciation of the recourse to war as a means of U.N. General Assembly Resolution 377 of Novem- resolving international disputes, it brought about a ber 1950, also known as the “Uniting for Peace” paradigm shift in international law. What is espe- Resolution. It states that if an international dispute cially remarkable is that the conclusion of the emerges and the U.N. Security Council, paralyzed Kellogg-Briand Pact ushered in an understanding by conflict among its permanent members, is ren- that from the standpoint of international law, wars dered incapable of exercising the strong authority are illegal. vested in it to maintain international peace and se- It is clear, of course, that the League of Na- curity, the General Assembly can exercise instead tions and the Kellogg-Briand Pact were unable to the strong authority, including the use of force prevent the outbreak of the Second World War. if necessary, in order to maintain or restore And yet, the normative consciousness that con- international peace and security. In actuality, how- demns wars as illegal was carried on by the post- ever, though emergency special sessions of the war international community, manifesting itself in General Assembly were convened on the basis of Article 2, Paragraph 4 of the United Nations Char- this resolution, resulting in the launching of ter, as follows: “Members shall refrain in their in- peacekeeping operations, the General Assembly has ternational relations from the threat or use of force not yet exercised the strong authority defined by against the territorial integrity or political independ- the resolution. Thus, the third exception to the gen- ence of any state, or in any other manner eral principle banning wars remains theoretical.

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The three foregoing exceptions to the general fact that the United Nations system admits of sev- principle against war can be seen as “internal to eral exceptions to the ban on war or the use of the United Nations system,” in the sense that, de- force, it is undeniable that international relations spite the difference between the first two, which are premised on the very fact that wars and the use are “rooted in the Charter,” and the third, which is of force are basically regarded as illegal, and that not, they are all approved by the United Nations. the recourse to them as a means for solving inter- Can any other exceptions be made to the general national disputes is strictly prohibited. It was ap- principle, independently from the existing United proximately one century ago that international law Nations system? On this question, some individuals began to move in the direction of making the re- or countries may assert, very polemically, that an course to war and the use of force illegal and exception to the ban against war or the use of illegitimate. The normative consciousness that force should also be made in cases of “humanitari- condemns wars as illegal was already established an intervention.” A good example of this took well in advance of the outbreak of the Second place several years ago, when countries of the World War. We must conclude, therefore, that, West tried to justify their involvement in the when seen in the light of the history of inter- Kosovo Conflict and their armed attacks on Yugo- national law, or in the light of the trend of world slav targets. history, the ideal upheld by Article 9 of the Leaving aside the question of whether the use Constitution of Japan is in perfect agreement with of armed force for the sake of “humanitarian inter- what the international community has been pursuing vention” can be justified or not, and despite the for years.

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The “Universal” Nature of the Pacifism Expressed in the Constitution of Japan

Nobuhiro Okada (Hokkaido University)

Introduction Constitution, and the pacifism of the Japanese Con- Those advocating the preservation of Article 9 stitution, has a “universalism.” At the symposium I of the Constitution face an extremely difficult situa- spoke based on this position. The following is a tion today, and one of the reasons for this harsh brief summary. environment or atmosphere is the criticism of “one- country pacifism,” shown by arguments such as the 1. The Right to Peace in the Context of Inter- following. “Having undergone the experience of national Society (the United Nations) losing the war, Japan adopted the stance of what (1) Historical background can be described as an idealistic one-country paci- It was only in the latter half of the 1970sthat fism as indicated in Article 9 until this day. How- the concept of the “right to peace” emerged in a ever, I have become keenly aware that this idea visible way in international society. One of the key has become anachronistic” (Takeo Nishioka). I be- reasons for its emergence was the arms race under lieve that this kind of argument should be ques- the Cold War and the sense of crisis accompanying tioned. If it is accepted without any disagreement, the build-up, but what played the decisive role was I fear that the image of the Constitution that will the increased participation in the UN, in the 1960s spread will be one far removed from the true paci- onward, of Third World countries who called for a fism expressed in this constitution, with its rich new approach toward human rights. Under this new “universalism,” as I will argue later. approach, the interdependence of the three princi- The Constitution states, in the preface that “[w]e ples of “human rights, peace, development” had recognize that all peoples of the world have the been underscored. These assertions made by the de- right to live in peace, free from fear and want.” veloping countries, combined with the interests of What is referred to here as the “right to [live in] the socialist countries at the time, led to the adop- peace” can be seen as the “foundation” of the paci- tion by the UN General Assembly and the UN fism of the Japanese Constitution, and my under- Commission on Human Rights, in the latter half of standing is that this is not simply limited to that 1970s, of documents, including General Assembly document. The same argument holds in interna- resolutions, developing the concept of the “right to tional society. In this sense, my perception is that peace.” the “right to peace” stated in the Japanese

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(2) “Sources of the Law” (form of the existence The basic characteristic of the right to peace is of law) clearly summed up in this type of argument. The first resolution adopted by a UN agency As clearly reflected in the wording of the expressly referring to the right to peace was Reso- 1978 “Declaration on the Preparation of Societies lution 5 of the UN Commission on Human Rights, for Life in Peace” and the 1984 “Declaration on adopted in 1976. It declared, “all members of the the Right of Peoples to Peace,” the right to peace human family have the right to live in conditions applies both to individuals (“all human beings”) of international peace and security and fully to and collectively (“all nations” or “peoples”).This enjoy civil and political rights, as well as eco- should be noted because it is one of the critical nomic, social and cultural rights.” In 1978,the point for making a comparison with the right to General Assembly adopted a resolution entitled peace expressed in the Japanese Constitution. “Declaration on the Preparation of Societies for Life in Peace” (Resolution 33/73) which declared 2. The Universalism of the Pacifism (Right to that “[e]very nation and every human being, regard- Peace) Articulated in the Japanese Consti- less of race, conscience, language or sex, has the tution inherent right to life in peace.” Furthermore, in the (1) Active binding relationship 1984 resolution “Declaration on the Right of Peo- In comparing the idea of the right to peace in ples to Peace,” (Resolution 39/11) it “solemnly” international society and that in the Japanese Con- declared “the preservation of the right of peoples to stitution, it should be pointed out that there is an peace.” active binding relationship between the two. The (3) Contents Japanese Constitution states, in its preamble, “[w]e The right to peace in the context of interna- desire to occupy an honored place in an interna- tional society has been strongly affected by the tional society striving for the preservation of peace, new approach to human rights as shown above. and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppres- Thus, this right has acquired an existence as the sion and intolerance for all time from the earth. node of “human rights, peace, development” or as We recognize that all peoples of the world have a synthesis of the three. In other words, it has the right to live in peace, free from fear and come to be understood as the following. “Inter- want.” What is clearly referred to here is not only national peace and security will be maintained a “passive peace” but also the philosophy for an through the guarantee of basic human rights includ- “active peace,” meaning the eradication of institu- ing the right to life, and respect for and advance- tional violence. Further, the “right to live in peace” ment of fundamental liberties, as well as the can be understood as something that unifies these achievement of the new international economic two “peaces” and guarantees their implementation. order, and conversely, only in a state of interna- In other words, the right to peace in both interna- tional peace and security will economic and social tional society and the Japanese Constitution are at development come forth and will basic human the node of “human rights, peace, development,” rights and liberty be achieved” (Kazuko Hirose). and in that sense, both concepts of the right to

― 164 ― The “Universal” Nature of the Pacifism Expressed in the Constitution of Japan peace are led by the same ideal and point in the to peace in Japan is not at all isolated in the same direction. international society. The idea of the right to peace (2) Passive binding relationship is not unique to the Japanese Constitution, and is There are also considerable differences be- “universal” in the sense that it has been debated in tween the right to peace of the Japanese Constitu- other countries or at least at the level of interna- tion and that expressed in international society. tional organizations. Second, it is “universal” in the First, the subjects they apply to are different. As sense that the right to peace expressed in the Japa- shown above, the subjects of the right to peace of nese Constitution shares the basic values (“human international society include both the individual and rights, peace, and development”) of international the collective, but the collective subject is seen as law, which has been the impetus for the formation more important, and it appears that insufficient con- of right to peace in international society. Lastly, sideration has given to how it relates to individuals another “universal” element derives in fact from the or to the specifics of individual aspects. By con- difference that exists between the right to peace of trast, the right to peace in the Japanese constitution the Japanese Constitution and that in international has been primarily seen as promoting individual society. As stated above, there is clearly a consid- rights as its legal character and specific wording, erable divergence between the right to peace of the although the right has sometimes been used to sup- Japanese Constitution, which does not tolerate war, port ethnic rights, which are collective. and that under the framework of the UN Charter, The second, and more important difference re- which resorts to war to oppose war. The issue here lates to matters involving war or the preparation for is how to evaluate this divergence. In order to do war. Although the right to peace of international so there is a need to carefully analyze the struc- society legally implies disarmament, its intention is tural changes in international society that have not to eradicate all wars or war capability. In fact, greatly influenced the state of law, while pursuing the framework of the UN Charter can be seen as ideal international relations basing on that analysis. giving an affirmation to war and war capability If so, is it not possible to say that it is this right under certain conditions. In respect to the Japanese to peace of the Japanese Constitution, which does Constitution, renouncing all wars and war capability not tolerate war, that can lead to “a productive is at least the dominant idea of the established in- road to building the international community,” con- terpretation. Thus, there is on the one hand a right sidering that the Constitution anticipated, with great to peace that tolerates war, and on the other one foresight, the structural change of the international that does not. society and the basic values guiding those changes? (3) The universalism and model nature of the If so, the right to peace and the pacifism of the right to peace expressed in the Japanese Japanese Constitution hold “universalism” and a Constitution “model nature” in the sense that it shows one ideal The right to peace set out in the Japanese possibility for international relations. Constitution can be seen as having “universalism” Adopting this understanding, we see that the for three different reasons. First, the idea of right pacifism of the Japanese Constitution is in no way

― 165 ― The “Universal” Nature of the Pacifism Expressed in the Constitution of Japan a “one-country pacifism.”

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Toward a Movement That Seeks a Balance between Reason and Desires/Emotion

Tomoko Sakuma (PRIME Research Fellow)

The Gap between Youths Living on the Edge maintenance of the “present peace,” but that the with Unstable Jobs, and the Existing Movement class which faces problems getting three meals a During the last few years, the debate over the day (and is thus deprived of dignity) may have Constitution has become increasingly heated, and come to think, in extreme cases, that “we don’t moves toward its revision are becoming more con- need that kind of ‘peace’”, or “even without ‘peace’ crete in the Diet. At the same time, however, we (or precisely because of the absence of ‘peace’), see a provocative and paradoxical expression of a recovering the ability to eat (recovering dignity), preference for war, which can be understood as a or conversely, reaching a state where nobody else self-destructive urge by youths at a level that has can eat (losing dignity in an equal way) would nothing to do with, or is distinctly different from, also be acceptable (or better).” the discussion on revising or maintaining Article 9 If we closely examine Akagi’s view, it be- of the Constitution to begin with, as can be ob- comes clear that he is not giving positive support served in the essay “‘Maruyama Masao’ wo for war. If only his dignity could be restored, natural- Hippatakitai, 31sai Freeter. Kibou wa Senso” (31- ly he would not want war. At the same time, how- year old freeter (casual employee) who would like ever, his conclusion is that it is extremely difficult to slap Masao Maruyama: my hope is war,” written to recover one’s dignity. In fact there are, among by Tomohiro Akagi and published in the January people with non-regular employment who constitute issue of Ronza (１)” (note that this is not actually a one third of the labor force, or a half of it among preference for war). youths, some who are feeling increasingly repelled What does this expression of preference for by the labor unions that have safeguarded the rights war mean? Doesn’t it mean, in a very rough way, of regular employees. They believe that many of that there is a reality where the answer to the ques- the existing labor unions deprived youths of the op- tion of “Which is more important, peace or three portunity to work in order to guard the “vested in- meals a day (dignity)” can be completely different, terests” of the regular employees following the col- depending on the economic situation one finds one- lapse of the bubble economy. self in? In other words, a class that does not face With social welfare being eroded as well, for the problem of finding three meals a day (and is youths who have never been covered by social wel- thus equipped with dignity) hopes for the fare in the first place (to whom, for example the

― 167 ― Toward a Movement That Seeks a Balance between Reason and Desires/Emotion welfare for the low income households rarely ap- Toshihito Kayano writes, “Behind the hope for war, plies), for example, it is not just that they cannot there is a feeling that he has no place in society. find any benefit in guarding the existing system but The feeling of having no place surely seems con- also that it is unjust if the existing system is kept nected with the trend toward the right,” and goes unchanged without themselves covered by it. on to make the following analysis: “Although the Furthermore, although eroding the working context is completely different, it was the right- conditions of the private regular employees and wing and yakuza that gave a place to those who public employees that are clearly earning more in- could not find a place in the society and respected come than most of them does not lead to improved their individuality. People follow not those who say treatment for those with non-regular employment the correct things but those who respect them and and means the loss of the “public nature” of the give them a place.”(２) (Italics by this author.) public service, it could mean a measure of taking If this is the case, doesn’t it mean there is a back a kind of “equality.” In other words, although potential that the expression of a preference for war they feel repelled by neoliberalism, which destroys among youths who are living on the edge may lead their lives, they do not have any real feeling of to a real preference for war, depending on the having been protected by the public system, and situation (position given to them)? It would also therefore want to fight back against the “class that mean that although statements such as “war brings has been protected” by “the greater flexibility of benefits to the rich,” “it’s only the weak who are labor” and “increased neoliberalism” in public ser- forced to bear sacrifice,” “wouldn’t it better to be vices. It seems that this leads to the structure under alive,” “let’s fight alongside the social movement,” which they support the present “change for the or “do not mistake the desire for marriage and sav- worse” of the system. ing as dignity”(３) are correct in themselves, they In other words, there seem to be many people are not slogans that resonate with these people. who are not just unenthusiastic about the existing It may well be that there are many people, social movements of various kinds, but who have even beyond the “freeters,” who are drifting in adopted a critical and antagonistic position toward search of a place to belong, and who feel uncom- not just the peace movement but toward existing fortable or repelled by “correct arguments” that de- movements of all kinds, among the youths that are mand that people always “control themselves, barely surviving with fragmented jobs, produced on deepen their thoughts, continue efforts to ascertain a massive scale and structurally in the dozen years the essence, and exclude the possibility of tram- since the collapse of the bubble economy, and pling on the dignity of others,” because it sounds there is a “justifiable” reason for this position from as if (even if it is not the case) that they are say- their point of view. ing “otherwise we will not respect your voice or dignity” and feel a kind of rigidity or fear, even if How do we go along with the desires and they cannot raise a square objection to them. emotion of people? Although Akagi’s argument is disguised as a In his critique of the Ronza article by Akagi, criticism of the double standard of the side that

― 168 ― Toward a Movement That Seeks a Balance between Reason and Desires/Emotion states corrects arguments, I think, in reality, that in and the class of the regular employees also feels the background lies a feeling of discomfort or re- that it is impossible for the public system to re- vulsion. I wonder if it is just me who feels that place the internal welfare system that once existed some of the fault may lie with the existing social within corporations. Therefore they find no alterna- movement’s way of dealing with the desires and tive but to remain where they are now, even if emotions that seem to be more directly related to they need to overwork. As a result, they are so the maintenance of life than to people’s rationality? concerned about their own problems that they can- I feel that it may be that whether the “intellec- not adopt a tolerant attitude toward others and soci- tuals” and the existing movement actors can sin- ety. cerely confront these murmurs and moans in reality The increase in “unexplainable” crimes, where will determine the shape of the society and the di- the causal relationships are difficult to comprehend, rection of the debates on the Constitution. along with an increase in thefts, have created fear among this class. As a result, even if its members Why do people support the strengthening of do not harbor positive hopes for war, their fears surveillance and control, harsher punishments, concerning law and order, which have been in- the exclusion of others, and hard-line foreign flamed by the media, have come to take the form policies? of demands for “strengthening surveillance and co On the other hand, the “stable workers” (in ntrol,” symbolized by the installation of surveil- comparison to the “rich” and “unstable poor”) who lance cameras under the initiative of residents, de- are the focus of attacks by Akagi and others, also mands for “harsher punishment” for assailants, the feel increasingly uneasy about the future, and are affirmation of “exclusion toward others” including being forced to reexamine their daily lives as prior- foreigners, demands for a “resolute” (hard-line) at- ity is given to the profits of enterprises and share- titude toward the North Korea, etc. holders. Even though the economy is on a recovery Such attitudes, and in particular the support for path, the wage level continues to be kept low and a hard-line foreign policy, have the potential to at the same time, the burden of tax and social se- lead to war whether this class wants it or not. In curity payments is increasing. this case too, however, just stating that “conserva- The intensification of competition that “pro- tism in daily life” is bad does nothing at all to al- duces winners and losers” have led to the creation, leviate the “uneasiness” and “fear” that are actually on the one hand, of jobless people along with ex- felt, and to the contrary has the possibility to invite ploitative labor called non-regular employment, and the abovementioned feelings of being discomfort on the other of a class called standard employees and revulsion. who are exposed to high stress, as they face exces- Up to now, when discussing the unease con- sive demand and have to work long hours. cerning income and social security that has worried Though lifetime employment has become an il- this class, I have emphasized the importance of try- lusion, public protection for the unemployed and ing to work together to change patterns of thinking for non-regular workers is being whittled down, by developing activities that demonstrate an

― 169 ― Toward a Movement That Seeks a Balance between Reason and Desires/Emotion alternative way of life and work based on subsist- opposition from within movements to this, but it ence and coexistence, not growth and competition, should be possible to call this a shift from a move- and putting them into practice. I believe that we ment that appeals to people’s guilt to one that is need to do more to demonstrate that it is possible close to people’s hearts. We must become more to build a society where diverse people can feel aware that in the end, being able to clear away fulfilled and diverse abilities can be utilized to pro- “despair,” excessive “anxiety,” and “fear” from vide diverse people with a place to call their own, people’s minds through such a shift will be the key or work together with diverse to create such places. determinant of the direction of the debates on the However, in reality the fact is that although I Constitution. am to some extent involved in the alternative econ- At the same time, as a factor that will become omy and society, I do not earn my living or live crucial in considering the future of the peace move- my life there and I cannot say with total confi- ment, we must realize once again the importance of dence that I am free of the ideas of meritocracy. framing anew the issue of securing human security While this does not necessarily diminish the impor- in Japan (and other countries of the North),as tance of the proposal I am putting forward, I feel well as securing human security in the South, and the need to more carefully consider and respond to reexamining the present situation from that point of the reality that there are people who cannot easily view, and trying to mitigate and resolve the prob- swallow this argument. lems. In doing so, it is necessary to focus not only on the issue of minorities such as foreigners, home- Intellectual Tasks for the Movement less people, and women, but on the poor of all It is certain that if we can achieve a consensus generations within the country, particularly the very that life will still be acceptable if we abandon econ- contemporary issue of the youths with non-regular omic growth as a common goal, or in fact may get employment. In addition “conservatism in daily life” better, it will become possible to rebuild a tax and should not be denied one-sidedly for the reason financial system and regulations where the main that such people are relatively more privileged than focus will be on the redistribution and protection the people in the South or that it is based on a and relief of the weak, rather than on economic “philistine or foolish idea.” Although we still need growth. It will be possible to change the present to shed light on the reality in which capitalizm re- situation, where we aim for war for the sake of quiring infinite growth by nature often fabricate economic growth, something that is quite perverted “want” and “fear” as sources of profit, we also from the viewpoint of those hoping for peace. have to bear in mind that if the peace movement However, to accomplish this goal, the peace ignores the reality of “poverty” and “exploitation,” movement and social movement will need to shift along with the “anxiety” and “fear” that people away from the current emphasis on being “strong harbor, it could bring about fatal results. and correct” to one of trying to think and walk to- gether “even if we are weak and sometimes make (１) Asahi Shimbun sha, Jan, 2007. mistakes.” I am aware that there would be (２) http://blog.yomone.jp/kayano/

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(３) “ ‘Maruyama Masao’ wo Hippatakitai” heno Maruyama’”), Ronza, April issue, Tokyo: Oto” (Response to “Wishing to slap ‘Masao Asahi Shimbun Sha, 2007.

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“Rescuing” Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan

Toshio Hashimoto (PRIME Member)

In Japan, it is odd to note that ever since the clause that “renounces war and military power.” enactment of the current Constitution, the top offi- It’s not so much that the Japanese government has cials in charge of the government have consistently faithfully implemented it or made efforts to imple- argued in favor of amendments to the Constitution, ment the Constitution based on the principle that but finding themselves unable to undertake this di- sovereignty resides in the people, but rather, it has rectly, have managed to adopt unreasonable “inter been striving to revive and strengthen the power of pretations” to make new laws, thereby, slowly real- the state, and as a result, in various aspects of so- izing substantial “amendments to the Constitution.” ciety today many “realities” have grown far re- And now, based on the pretext that the existing moved from the ideals of the Constitution. Constitution is not in accord with “reality,” or that Amongst such Constitutional clauses, it is certainly we must “get rid of the post-World War Ⅱ regime” Article 9 that shows the sharpest, clearest disparity which is in fact a democratic constitutional struc- with social “reality.” ture, not only is the present Cabinet speaking out The very existence of a military, known as the in favor of “amendments,” but in fact is making “Self Defense Force,” has been ruled “constitutional” preparations with the expectation of achieving it. by the Japan’s Supreme Court. Article 9 has come The proposal for “amendments” will incorpo- to be interpreted as follows: it “does not fully re- rate numerous items, including some additional arti- ject the possession of military power for self de- cles and clauses, but the sole focus in reality is fense purposes,” and the SDF, which has been “Article 9.” This is because under the existing protected and developed based on the euphemism Constitution, there is almost nothing that cannot be of “pure self-defense,” growing to the point that it done just because it is not specified within it. For can send troops overseas under the pretext of example, there is no prohibition in the Constitution “international contribution” or “the war on terror.” to implementing the safety and security of life and Moreover, under this administration, even the exe- humanitarian rights or to pursue social justice, even cution of the “right of collective self-defense” if they are not stipulated in any clause. On the (joint military activities with the U.S.) is being other hand, there are a number of things that are considered. The strengthening of the logic of prohibited by certain clauses, with the clearest one “self defense” not only rationalizes the overseas being “Article 9,” which is essentially a prohibitory military activities, but even goes further, to allow

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“preemptive strikes.” It has come to the point of Japanese people ‘not to take up guns’”; thirdly, where there is no other effective way but to amend the economic constraint, under which the Japanese that “article” in order to further pursue “reality” in government could not afford the cost of militariza- that direction. tion considering the need to provide economic as- In the aftermath of World War Ⅱ, it was the sistance towards its citizens; and finally, the U.S. that ordered the Japanese government to estab- physical constraint that there would be a shortage lish a new constitution, taking the initiative for its of troops volunteering due to the second constraint, creation, but it was the Japanese who lay the foun- and the effort to build up troops could not be met. dation for the contents of the overall constitution This means that, in the first place, for both the and who envisioned Article 9. The U.S., which was Japanese and the U.S. governments Article 9 was unable to turn its back on the democratically in- never seen as a value that they should abide by, clined international public opinion of the time, had but existed as a “constraint.” In fact, the “post- no choice but to play a role as pioneer for Japa- World War Ⅱ regime” that proponents of constitu- nese “democratization,” but soon enough came to tional amendments to the refer to is the “Article 9 realize that in particular the establishment of Arti- regime.” cle 9 was inconvenient fact for both the Japanese The historical foresight and universal value of and the U.S. And even today, Article 9 continues Article 9, which was born from a dark era in the to be a heavy drag on Japan’s “re-militarization.” history of humanity, the great massacres of the In other words, the rationales behind the reasons world wars, is becoming increasingly important not given today for constitutional amendments, such as only for countries which, like Japan, depend on a “adopting an autonomous constitution” or “the chang- supply of resources from the rest of the world, but ing times” or “the need for updating,” have already also countries where thousands of people are being lost their basis, at least in regards to “Article 9.” drowned in the tide of globalization, and losing In a secret government meeting known as the their lives to poverty or war. The ideal of Article Ikeda-Robertson Talks, held in 1953 after the 9 has been severely damaged by the “reality” of cease-fire on the Korean Peninsula, Japan re- the past 60 years, and moreover, it is in a situation sponded to the U.S. demand for remilitarization by where the debate on constitutional amendments that asking for more military assistance from the US, is currently underway could open wounds further based on the following reasons. First, it brought up and ultimately prove to be fatal. For ourselves, and the legal constraint, “Article 9 of the Constitution”; for people around the world, we must do what we secondly, the socio-political constraint, where can do in order to “rescue” Article 9,ifforno “education for peace” has “won over the sentiment other reason than to protect it from further damage.

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Ashamed To Face The Constitution

Hiroyuki Hara (PRIME Member)

Article 13 of the Constitution of Japan states, changes. Although Japan does not have a tradition “All of the people shall be respected as individuals. of “civil disobedience” (H. Thoreau), it did experi- Their right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- ence an age of rebellion for a short period in the ness shall, to the extent that it does not interfere post-war era, centering on student protests against with the public welfare, be the supreme considera- the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty. At that time, people tion in legislation and in other state affairs.” It is still lived in poor communities. Later, many rode easy to see that liberty is fragile. For example, our on the crest of the wave of economic development blood has been chilled by the recent and persistent and felt indebted to the de facto “ruling party for attempts by the ruling parties in Japan to enact a life.” The loyalty is stronger among those who law that would make conspiracy a crime. Not only switched their support from political freedom to the right of pursuit of happiness, but the right to economic freedom. We have abandoned the cause life itself, is threatened for the have-nots of this of justice in exchange for a modest income. We country following cuts in social welfare including have thrown mud at the rebellious waves of the welfare benefits and changes in the taxation system. past, making it appear as if they were a disguise The Social Insurance Agency has misplaced records for personal interests. of pension payments, implying that the state could Various political groups drafted constitutions in fact be bankrupt. Although people pursue both after the war. The socialists’ idea resembled that of liberty and equality, it is becoming clear that eco- the conservative Japan Liberal Party; concentrating nomic freedom (the expansion of the private sector sovereignty in the state, and even dividing the rul- based on market competition) can only be obtained ing power between the diet and the emperor. In at the cost of the freedom of life, and that eco- contrast, the Japanese Communist Party put popular nomic freedom is incompatible with equality. sovereignty near the top, thus clarifying the obliga- Prime Minister Shinzo Abe is a politician who, tion of the people to monitor the separation of upon taking office, glibly expressed his hope to powers. In any case, from the various proposals “establish a new constitution.” As we all know, we presented, the Constitution of Japan was estab- already have a constitution, so it can only be re- lished. It was close to the standard of constitutions vised, and a revision requires procedures to show in the developed countries. “The new constitution that people have given their endorsement to was written by the Japanese people themselves,”

― 175 ― Ashamed To Face The Constitution stated a textbook (“Story Of The New Constitution”) importantly, the constitution is decided by the ma- that was used to help people understand the new jority as the symbol of democracy in return for constitution, adding that it was the fundamental rule their endorsement of the rule by law. for deciding state governance. Hasn’t this founda- However elaborately politicians may advertise tion of the state been neglected? If so, doesn’t this their beliefs, their words are no more than “sound indicate that the country is a terrible breaker of bites” to the people now. Hard work is stripping rules? people of the time and mental energy to think about complex matters. Currently in Japan, the constitutional issue re- fers primarily to the issue of “Article 9.” It doesn’t Between March and April 2007, the five na- matter whether the article expressing the principle tional dailies all conducted opinion polls on consti- of peace is “Article 1” or “Article 19.” I also am tutional revision. As an average, 52.5%of not opposed to the idea or rewriting it to make a respondents said that “some sort of change is nec- fresh start. Still, I believe that the clause on peace essary,” while 45.6% said that “Article 9 should be should remain in the constitution. I must confess, changed.” If one trusts these polls, it appears that however, that the reason is slightly different from a narrow majority of newspaper readers would like that of conscientious supporters of the constitution. to preserve the article. I sometimes find myself My ideas on (national) security are as follows. thinking, like Manabu Miyazaki, that “A country In the modern world, expanding armaments is like this deserves to be destroyed.” To begin with, it meaningless and ineffective unless the armaments is Japan’s culture, climate, and homeland that I include nuclear weapons. To possess nuclear weap- love. I have never felt attached to the country nor ons means accepting the idea that one’s country ever thought that its policies, domestic or foreign, may brutally burn to death people from other coun- were great. And now, Japan’s culture and folk tra- tries. This is “evil” in either moral or religious ditions are changing. The state, absorbed in pro- terms. Since those who wish to walk on the path moting sales by businesses, is beginning to abandon of righteousness will choose goodness, they will the people, especially the poor. Given such a situa- not choose to possess nuclear weapons. In return, tion, it is no wonder that it is so rare to find peo- they will feel proud of themselves in the belief that ple who feel a sense of loyalty to the country. they are utterly correct, and they will also win the I would like to change the topic, however. I respect of others. Thus, we should strive to exem- sometimes feel embarrassed to use the catchwords plify peace, and thus should abandon nuclear weap- “let’s save the planet.” It is we human beings who ons and war. really want to be saved. Global warming will de- Of course, things are not that simple. In the stroy us, and along with us other animals and modern world, as was true in the past, the arithme- plants. From the viewpoint of the global system, tic of profits and losses is often given a higher climate change is a problem, but it is not serious value than “righteousness.” Those who choose to enough to destroy it. The earth will continue to be correct may be seen as eccentric. And exist for over four billion years, oblivious to the

― 176 ― Ashamed To Face The Constitution disappearance of human beings. If it appears that violence in itself. It is also useless to argue that our extinction from global warming would be the the pacifist constitution is praised abroad, because ultimate solution to the problem of climate change, “abroad” is full of potential enemies as long as the we should ask Gaia a question. Do you want to state system is maintained. I believe that in any live with modern people who continue to harm case, most people accept the philosophy of the you, or would you want to make a fresh start with- Constitution. The challenge, then, is to ask our- out them? selves what “benefit” we can derive from preserv- The same can be asked about the claim, “let’s ing Article 9. Doing what is right earns respect, protect the constitution (Article 9).” I believe that and I personally support the idea, articulated by it is morally “correct,” especially when thinking some constitutional scholars in the “Article 9 As- about the future generations, to take appropriate sociation,” that it would be correct to immediately measures against global warming. From the same surrender before the death toll grew if Japan were perspective, I also believe that retaining Article 9 is to be invaded by another country. I want to stick “just.” However, we might also consider posing a to what I think is correct rather than to kill others question to the Constitution. But that is nonsense. by exercising unjust violence. However, if I may The constitution is an institution, not an ecosystem. repeat myself, the current constitution stipulates It is like talking to a television screen, which will popular sovereignty. We must think of a way to re- ignore you and continue with its business. What I tain Article 9 based on true popular support. want to say is that perhaps we should feel embar- rassed about speaking of protecting the constitution When we adopted the constitution after the without referring to the subject “us.” Instead of war, we resolved to abandon arms and war, and saying, “let’s protect the constitution,” shouldn’t we thus to fight with our bare hands. However, not be saying, “let’s protect ourselves by protecting the long afterward, the National Police Reserve and constitution”? Taking the thought further, that Self Defense Forces were established, opening an would lead us to make efforts to protect friends in era of “unconstitutionality.” The development of other countries by ensuring world peace. We cannot this “unconstitutional” situation must have been start thinking without “us.” preceded by “unconstitutional” policy decisions as More importantly, the constitution is a system well as administrative and lawmaking activities. In that adjusts the interests of people who are preoc- truth, they were. However, the violators of the con- cupied with their own personal interests. It is cho- stitution have not only escaped impeachment, but sen by the public, and it must be observed by the they have held the reins of power in this country entire state system. Now, it is a beautiful thing for as the ruling party administration almost throughout a person to refuse to resort to the “evil” of vio- the whole post-war period. Keeping the current lence even when that person is attacked. The per- constitution might be meaningful as a foundation son will be respected and considered to be just. for having the rulers who deceived it and we con- However, it is not possible to force others to think stituents who let them cheat understand our the same way, because enforcing this constitutes “shame.”

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The Personal Significance of Article 9

Makoto Katsumata (Director, PRIME)

In ‘Mono no mikata ni tuite’ (On the way we look means for its realization. Therefore I do not see at things), a book written by a Japanese journalist any need to revise this Constitution of 1945 in the about half a century ago, that is, just after the end immediate future. On the contrary, I feel that to fully of the World War II, there is a passage where a appreciate and keep rejuvenating the Peace German journalist Emil Ludwig asks former Hitler Consitution is that which is part of my responsibil- Youth members “Do you no longer salute Hitler?” ity as a citizen. and receives the uniformed answer that says But are the Preamble and Article 9 of the “Because it is prohibited by the law now.” And Japanese Peace Constitution, even granting that it is Ludwig continues: “If a man named Muller be- pervasively rooted in people’s beliefs, as is in my comes the ruler in ten years and asks German case, unrealistic in the world today? people to salute by raising their right legs, they I think they are realistic, at least for some would surely do so.”(1) time to come, for that I think it provides values Such was a remark made about fifty years ago. and guidance clearly essential to humankind for its Today when I think about Japanese Constitution, survival on earth for the following three reasons. the first thing that comes to my mind is a quesion, First, let us focus on the nature of contempo- whether the loss of this Peace Consitution would rary warfare. In recent years, unprecedented ad- impair my judgement about Japan and world affairs. vancement has been made in weapons of And my reponse is that, even if its Preamble and destruction that are capable of killing and harming Article 9, that is to say, those sections which con- a great number of people over large areas. In par- stitute the Peace Constitution, are stripped, Japanese ticular, nuclear weapons demostrate by its over- people ought to prevent a kind of politics that joins whelming energy that the scientific advancement, wars waged in the name of nation-state and make when used to kill people, can potentially annihilate efforts to bring global peace into being through the humankind. We have already witnessed the non-military means. For that I wish to live as a damage and aftereffects caused by the atomic global citizen as well as a Japanese national. bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first In my view, the Constitution of Japan mani- actual use of nuclear weapons in warfare, and the fests the vision for peace and global order, which suffering of residents and the environment inflicted I aspire as many others, and prescribes a clear by the disaster at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power

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Plant. In order to eliminate the danger of nuclear of resources such as petroleum which serves the war or accidents at nuclear facilities as much as satisfaction of material desires has provided the set- possible in the world today, where massive amount ting for numerous armed conflicts. It would be dif- of nuclear weapons are already produced and stock- ficult to sufficiently explain the recent wars in piled in reality, the preventive force that Article 9 Afghanistan and Iraq, if we are not to advert to the has against armed conflicts holds crucial impor- matter of presence and transport route of petroleum tance. and natural gas in the area. I have never heard a single hibakusha (atomic Therfore the fullfillment of these endless de- bomb victims) justifying the possession of nuclear sires which reduce all creation in accordance with weapons. It is impossible for me to dismiss the the market principles will not bring a kind of order voices and appeals for the elimination of nuclear that would means stability for the international weapons by those who were bombed and have had community in the medium- to longer-term. to live with the reality as unrealistic. The Preamble of the Japanese Constitution On the contrary, I think, as our mission calls for friendly harmonious coexistence with learned from the negative legacy, we ought to everyone in the world, and I think it is enlighten- patiently work upon countries, both ones that ing us to appreciate the value of peace in the already possess nuclear weapons and ones that wish human world which avoids military tension by to possess them, to know about and model a way fullfilling our desires in moderation. of the world suggested in the Preamble and Article I fear that the currently tolerated commodi- 9 of the Japanese Constitution, that is, the world fication of all things will lead to the destruction of that is nuclear-free and sustainable and based on the natural environment and blind us to the the notion of human coexistence. pricelessness of human life, and further, create Second, we should highlight the power of real- situations where those who are at strife cease to istic message the Preamble and Article 9 carries. It recognize the other as human beings. I cannot help gives us a future vision of hope for humankind, in but think that the brakes of Article 9 which thor- other words, an idea what moving forwards means oughly rejects organized bloodletting, although it for humankind, in the contemporary world where has not been fully realized, is an indispensable tool everything is under pressure to be reduced to in constructing the more humane and sustainable money and power globally. world. Market as an organizing principle of society Third, it should be acknowledged that the has functioned to unleash desire to acquire more Peace Constitution is enabling Japan to uniquely goods and services through money for many contribute to the realization of global peace. people. But are we to say that this alone is the Since Article 9 denies the exercise of military progress of humankind? We must not overlook the force overseas, Japan may stand to be more reliable fact that, in the history of humankind, strife over in solving global conflicts and also in helping wealth is still ongoing in many parts of the world. peace efforts in regions where conflicts are likely Even just to look at the last half century, allocation to break out.

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When I think about armed conflicts, both real particularly among young people. and potential, in the world today, I think that these These two major international sources of con- two, the arms race in East Asia and the Palestine- flicts cannot and should not be solved by military Islaeli conflict, should be priority agenda for peace force. While Japan’s non-military peace effortss building for thier potential, catastrophically negative based on Article 9 should not be overevaluated, it effect on all of humanity. Given the size of the is clear that the cource of action aimed at peaceful region’s poplulation, economy and military capac- coexistence drived from the war-renouncing clause ity, the confrontation in East Asia, once developped is an unique dimplomatic tool that Japan possesses into armed conflicts, will have decisively negative not only for dealing with these two major interna- impact on the stability and prosperity of the whole tional sources of conflicts but also for solving other world. The latter confrontation has brewed hatred regional conflicts. in the Arab, if not to the greater extent, in the Muslim world, towards Israel and the United (１) Shintaro, Ryo, Mono no mikata ni tuite (On States’ violent and skewed regional domination the way we look at things). Tokyo: imposed through their overwhelming military and Kawade Shobo, 1951, 254-5. The subtitle is economic power, and is contributing to inducing “What We Learn from Western Europe.” actions that do not hesitate to risk death,

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Overview of the Plenary at PRIME International Symposium on “Article 9 in the Global Context,” February 2007

Shigeki Takeo (PRIME)

In summarizing the statements and questions Workshop 1: “Analyzing Poverty and Violence raised in the plenary session, I would like to look against the World from the Perspective of Article back at the structure of this two-day symposium. In 9’s International Order” the four “sessions,” we formulated specific themes Comments: Tomoko Sakuma (PRIME Research in line with the lofty overall theme of this confer- Fellow), J.P. Mukengeshayi Matata ence, “Article 9 in the World,” and asked for pres- (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Sun Zhan entations and comments by researchers in those Kun (PRIME Member), Nobuhiro Okada (Hok- fields or by people and citizen movement activists kaido University) who have actually experienced such activities. Workshop 2: “Peace Education and Article 9” Then, in four “workshops” that followed, the pre- Comments: Mitsuo Okamoto (Peace Studies),Luis senters were divided into small groups following Roberto Zamora Bolaños (Costa Rika, Peace Boat), the themes of each session, and held discussions Mari Kushibuchi (PRIME Research Fellow) along with the participants. The aim of these work- shops was to have the participants further develop Day 2 and share the themes, beginning from questions on Session 3: “Constitutional Pacifism in Japan and the presentations made at each session. Okinawa,” Masahiro Takasaku (Ryukyu University) Comments: Shigetake Maruyama (Kanto Gakuin Day 1 University), Mika Tsutsumi (Journalist) Session 1: “From the Perspective of the History of Session 4: “Why Look at Article 9 in a Global International Law,” Sun Zhan Kun (PRIME Mem- Context? From the Experience of Peace Boat,” ber) Tatsuya Yoshioka (Peace Boat) Comments: Nobuhiro Okada (Hokkaido University), Comment: Megumi Hirayama (PRIME Member) Naghizade Mohammad (PRIME Member) Workshop 3: “How Has the Media Portrayed Wars?” Session 2: “What Does It Mean to Be a Country Comments: Hitoshi Sakurai (PRIME Research Fel- without a Military,” Luis Roberto Zamora Bolaños low), Masahiro Takasaku (Ryukyu University), (Costa Rica, Peace Boat) Shigetake Maruyama (Kanto Gakuin University), Comments: Mari Kushibuchi (PRIME Research Mika Tsutsumi (Journalist) Fellow) Workshop 4: “Article 9 at the Front Line of

― 183 ― Overview of the Plenary at PRIME International Symposium

International Cooperation” an example, the concepts of collective security is Comments: Michiya Kumaoka (PRIME Research often confused with collective self defense. What is Fellow), Tatsuya Yoshioka (Peace Boat) “AMPO,” our military relationship with the United Plenary: Closing Session States? Is it an alliance between the two countries? Moderators: Shigeki Takeo (PRIME Member), There are people who think that it is collective Masumi Matsumura (Peace Boat) security. Citizens ourselves need to carry out our own studies to clarify these concepts, and not leave Because two workshops were held simultaneously the debate on constitutional revision in the hands of in accordance with the schedule, each participant “experts”. had to choose to attend just one of them. Then, at In particular, this symposium made clear how we the plenary, the participants all moved back to the should conceptualize or interpret paragraph 2 of main hall, where they assembled together. They Article 9. The government itself is also likely began by listening to summaries provided by the thinking of what tack to take, and those trying to PRIME members and research fellows who acted spread Article 9 must also have our own scenario as moderators for each session and workshop. Fol- of sorts. lowing this, the presenters and commentators an- Next, at the Workshop led by PRIME researcher swered questions from participants, provided Tomoko Sakuma, it was pointed out that we need additional explanations, or offered proposals. The to debate the Constitution in a way that links to- following are the summaries of the sessions and gether international and domestic issues. Sakuma workshops. stated that if we are to spread Article 9 in the world, we must position debate on the Constitution within the reality of increasing disparities and the Summaries of the Sessions and Workshops cutting of welfare domestically. If we do not, the debate will not be grounded in reality. In other Session 1/Workshop 1 words, she proposed that the Preamble and Article (Moderator: Makoto Katsumata) 9 be used as ways for us to begin to explore the The government, which hopes to revise the Con- links between our own domestic unequal society stitution, is studying hard, including how to affect and corporation-centered globalization in interna- public opinion. Considering that the government is tional society. trying so hard to skillfully deal with the still In a word, the principle of Article 9 can be rein- deeply rooted hesitations that people have about the terpreted as a commitment by the Japanese people revision of Article 9, we citizens must also study to live as global citizens in peace. I believe that it just as hard. This was the theme assigned to the is a guideline with a strong message, even though two presenters, first PRIME member Sun Zhan Kun we have not yet made sufficient efforts. There are from the perspective of international law, and sec- countless problems, such as defining public and pri- ondly to Nobuhiro Okada from the perspective of vate, the environment and food security. In this constitutional law. Taking debate in the media as session, we saw solid evidence that Article 9 can

― 184 ― Overview of the Plenary at PRIME International Symposium be used as a powerful tool for creating a scenario valued for conceptualizing peace, human rights, and for an international and world order, and a more development in a comprehensive way, so in that humane world. sense it can be said that Article 9 did have a meaning. Session 2/Workship 2 On the other hand, it was pointed out that it is (Moderator: Takao Tahahara) true that in recent years, civil society has failed to First, Luis Roberto Zamora Bolaños gave a key- make use of Article 9,andade facto revision of note presentation on “What Does It Mean to Be a the Constitution has taken place, with the integra- Country Without the Military?” One of the focuses tion of the U.S. military and the SDF. But on the of his presentation was the Constitution of Costa other hand, if citizens are able to reclaim Article 9, Rica. It has been used quite effectively by the peo- they might have the opportunity to weaken the US ple of that country, and one individual student military’s global strategy, and we can expect a re- managed to use the Constitutional Court to change sponse to this from around the world. A number of the government’s stance on the Iraq War. Zamora examples were cited in this regard, such as efforts guestioned why is it difficult to see instances where to introduce a war-renouncing clause into the Euro- Japanese society makes actual use of its Constitu- pean Union Constitution and New Zealand’s estab- tion. lishment of Ministry of Disarmament. Another point he made is that Article 9 has a In response to Zamora’s second point concerning great deal of potential, and could be used as a the potential of Article 9, commentator Mitsuo standard for looking anew at Japan’s Self Defense Okamoto stated that Japan should stand more Forces (SDF) and at the current state of Asia. It firmly, holding up an ID card reading “Japan: the could make possible the launching of a peace proc- country that does not carry out war.” It could be ess in East Asia. If a course could be articulated seen as a popular brand label, and might be some- for cutting back the SDF, Japan would gain the po- thing that Japan’s young people could be proud of. sition to simultaneously call for disarmament by Another commentator, My Doan Takasaki, said neighboring countries, to create a nuclear-weapon- that seen from the eyes of a Vietnamese, Japan is free zone and, like in Europe, to establish an Asian already quite a powerful country, pointing out to Court of Human Rights. the participants that Vietnam became a battlefield A number of issues were raised relating to his at a time when Japan’s peace Constitution was talk. With regard to the perception that Japanese already in place. Moreover, that war has not yet citizens are not making use of Article 9, there were ended; people continue to suffer from the after- arguments that positive light should be focused on effects and from their wounds. It is hard to under- the fact that Article 9 became deeply rooted in stand why Japan, already a powerful country, postwar Japanese society, that people used it in intends to change its Article 9 and arm itself. And their struggle to prevent a military resurgence, and it seems that the number of Japanese who see that it had a positive influence on democratization North Korea as a threat is increasing, but the of the society. The Constitution of Japan should be argument seems odd if seen from the perspective of

― 185 ― Overview of the Plenary at PRIME International Symposium

North Korea. She suggested that Japanese think in the form of constitutional revision. As we about what kind of regional structure is developing confront the Law for a National Referendum (nec- in Northeast Asia. essary for revising the Constitution) and transfor- At the Workshop on “Peace Education and Arti- mation of the US military, there is a need to cle 9,” Okamoto emphasized that we must be reconsider the “anti” position. At this workshop, a aware that our action entails reaction from the lively discussion took place from a variety of an- counterpart. In other words, “If we want peace, gles. we must prepare for peace.” There is an old saying that, “If we want peace, we must prepare for war,” Session 3/Workshop 3 but it is a mistake in today’s world. (Moderator: Isao Yoshihara) He stated that it is unscientific to think that war First, Masahiro Takasaku gave a comprehensive is something instinctive and inevitable, and that the presentation on the situation in Okinawa and the proper perspective for peace studies is to see it as issues related to the Constitution. a social and historical phenomenon. He began with a brief historical review. After A number of arguments were raised regarding experiencing the tragic Battle of Okinawa, Okinawa peace education. On the various facts related to the was cut off from the rest of Japanese society, war carried out by Japan, there is a need to re- which had adopted Article 9, and was placed under educate the public. To do so, we must uncover his- US military rule where there was no freedom of torical facts through citizens’ activities. The history expression, no academic freedom, not even any of pollution in the postwar period is a good right to property. The reversion movement was example; there is a need for us to share with Asian based on what can be called “Constitutional people our experience of serious environmental patriotism.” It was a shared feeling of Okinawans contamination and human tragedy, which took place desiring to return to Japan under Article 9,and while people glorify economic growth without be- thus incorporated the pacifism of Okinawans, who coming a military power. wanted to become neither victims nor aggressors. It seems that peace education is a subject that However, following reversion, not only did the US should be taken up not just in schools but by the bases fail to disappear; the Japanese Self-Defense society as a whole. The character development of Forces moved in, and now the people are facing children is crucial, and we need to build a society the consolidation of US forces. where peace education is conducted on an everyday Why is the consolidation of US forces taking basis. place today? Following the end of the Cold War, One participant stated that in postwar Japan, anti- the US military underwent “transformation” and military-base, anti-war, anti-nuclear and peace ac- withdrew from many areas, but this was carried out tivities were generally “anti” activities, and we in consideration of American economic efficiency. need to reevaluate these activities, and actively To make up for the vacuum created by the departure work to create something positive, with excitement of the bases from other places, Japan’s Okinawa was and pleasure. We now face a huge political wave filled up.

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What has taken place in fact? When the “trans- is a problem that mainlanders are generally formation” was carried out, people were told that it unaware of and tend to be apathetic. would “reduce the burden of the bases,” but in Shigetake Maruyama made some comments re- fact, to the contrary, the burden has increased. The garding the role of the media. It is very problem- revision of the Constitution is now being envi- atic that the reaction of the media as a whole has sioned, based on a “logic of militarism.” The US become very lukewarm toward constitutional issues. military and SDF will be integrated, with the aim However, he stated that among local media, and to allow Japan to exercise collective self-defense. especially media in Okinawa, a pro-Constitutional This is taking place in a variety of forms, and is stance or at least a stance that the Constitution being pushed quite forcefully. does not need to be revised, can still be seen. With regard to the Constitution, the Law for the Generally speaking, the Asahi Shimbun is seen Protection of Citizens in Armed Attack Situations as a pro-peace or progressive paper, but today it was brought up as a significant problem. Under the seems to be quite close to the Democratic Party of law, all local governments are required to formulate Japan. Thus, as the DPJ becomes more interested plans for the protection of Japanese nationals in in constitutional revision and adopts a more pro- times of emergency. Certain private bodies, military policy, there is concern that this could be including the media in particular, are required, as dangerous for Japan as a whole, he commented. “designated public bodies,” to take part as a Maruyama participated in the World Social portion of the military. Okinawa Prefecture has Forum held in Nairobi, and reported that he had adopted such a plan, but according to a simulation been told about the value of Japan’s constitution conducted by a local newspaper, it would take more unexpectedly. A local participant said, “The idea of than a month to evacuate all the prefecture’s 1.36 not having weapons, and not waging war, would be million inhabitants to other areas, using aircraft and greatly beneficial for us in Africa, and we need ships. Concern was expressed that on these “islands something like that.” of bases,” where US and SDF bases are heavily In response to the presentation by Takasaku from concentrated, military plans and operations will be Okinawa, Mika Tsutsumi commented that there is given priority, and that the protection of local resi- a need to look at why Okinawa has been forced dents will be put on the back burner. into the situation it is in. After the experience of It is generally believed that an emergency situa- 9/11, Tsutsumi decided to carefully examine Ameri- tion will begin with Japan being attacked by an- can society, and she discovered the US is a society other country, but the various laws and the with terrible social disparities. And in fact, the peo- government envision the emergency systems going ple at the lowest echelons of society have been into operation long before this happens. For exam- forced to go to Iraq. ple, if an SDF unit deployed abroad comes under Tsutsumi has done interviews with soldiers re- attack, an emergency situation could be recognized. turning from Iraq, and they would tell her the fol- This may not have any sense of reality for people lowing about Article 9: “We envy you for having on the mainland, but is easy to feel in Okinawa. It it. I experienced war and came to understand the

― 187 ― Overview of the Plenary at PRIME International Symposium reality of war. It is unfortunate that people who peace and constitutional issues are not so frequently lead ordinary life don’t understand war. I hope raised by the media. you can spread Article 9 and the idea that we In relation to the issue of “comfort women,” shouldn’t wage war.” Sakurai pointed out, very importantly, that former At the workshop, Hitoshi Sakurai gave a presen- Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono had expressed regret tation to discuss why the media does not deal with and apologies over the “comfort women” in a state- peace issues, and pointed out their commercialism ment, but that a Diet resolution is now being and sensationalism. Pacifism is not very exciting, prepared to repudiate those comments. and does not lend itself to being taken up in a sen- During the debate, a discussion took place on a sationalistic way. Partly because its counterpart is recent case where several people placing anti-war not called war-ism, it is difficult to bring pacifism flyers in an SDF dormitory were handed down a up in the context of sensationalism and commer- guilty verdict by the High Court, and in relation to cialism, although there are many people within the this, there was a question from the floor, “There media who hope to advance the cause of peace. has been a series of incidents where citizens have Another issue brought up was fairness and neu- been unjustly arrested for speaking out. This is trality of the media, and here too there are many frightening, but what are we to do about it?” In problems. One good example is an NHK (public response, Takasaku said, “We must get as many broadcaster) program regarding the “comfort women,” people as possible involved, and continue the which underwent certain revisions and drew much movement.” concern. A ruling was recently handed down in a lawsuit regarding the pressure applied to NHK by Session 4/Workshop 4 government and political figures. In this very (Moderator: Megumi Hirayama) important ruling, the judge found that NHK had There is an extremely good list on page 14 of “been derelict in exercising its editorial rights by the supplemental materials, on “Article 9 in the overestimating the intention of the politicians.” A World.”(１) Tatsuya Yoshioka gave a report stating certain politician, when meeting with NHK direc- that the usefulness of Article 9 for the world is tors, had whispered, “Try to be neutral.” NHK took being increasingly recognized. The need is particu- this very seriously, and made significant revisions larly high for people embroiled in war. For exam- to the program. It cut scenes where former ple in Africa, the need is growing as people have “comfort women” appeared. It cut comments made had enough of war. With regard to concrete activi- by supporters of the cause of the “comfort women,” ties, an encouraging explanation was given on the and instead inserted interviews with people claim- activities being carried out by Peace Boat. ing that the women had become “comfort women” The discussion at the Workshop can be divided of their own will. The fact that a whispered com- into domestic and international issues. In the end, ment, “Try to be neutral” could be transformed into since abolishing Article 9 would mean losing every- such an outcome shows the state of free speech thing, the debate focused on how to recapture it in and the media in Japan. This is one reason why Japan and encourage young people to support it.

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First, it seems that people are resigned that war which involves traveling to war areas on a ship. will never be banished. Young people feel a barrier Internationally, we have not yet begun to debate in discussing Article 9, as they are afraid of being how Article 9 can be useful overseas. The labeled communists (reds). Itishardtouseit movement is becoming weaker, and as a way to because it is so sophisticated. Even among people overcome this, it was pointed out that the campaign who are not young, it is hard to accept using it for “Global Article 9 Conference to Abolish War” unquestionably. At the symposium, we have should be strengthened not only domestically but gradually come to understand this situation. So internationally as well. Yoshioka and Michiya Kumaoka gave ideas, from Additionally, principally in the area of inter- their own experiences on the frontlines, for what to national cooperation in war zones, we have to ask do. whether personnel can be safe without weapons. On the domestic front, people raised the question For example, when people ask us whether people of whether Japanese people are aware that they are carrying out international cooperation activities can accepting death penalty, and when wondering about protect themselves, we can point out, as stated by why the citizen’s movement has not been more Kumaoka, that having a weapon encourages others successful, pointed out that Japanese people lack to have weapons. So then, how can they be pro- confidence, because the citizen’s movement has tected? He mentioned that creating relations of trust never succeeded in toppling the government. In is the best means of self-defense. Yoshioka also South Korea, the citizen’s movement managed to mentioned that it is possible to make use of the force changes of government, but there is no such SDF. For example, it might be possible to allow experience in Japan. On the question of what to unarmed SDF troops to help with relief for natural do, Yoshioka proposed that as a logic of the disasters. movement, it is important for people who have Another question is how unarmed NGOs, been awakened try to make a change. And while including Japanese ones, can protect their staff raising our voices internationally, it is important to when operating overseas. There are probably three work domestically as well. choices. The first, epitomized by the activities of The problem of right-wing cartoonist Yoshinori France-based Medecins Sans Frontiers, is not to Kobayashi also came up. There are many young depend on the military for protection. Another is to people who empathize with his cartoons. When never do any activity in places that would require thinking about what we should think about this, military protection. Another is to follow the and why young people are attracted to it, it was situation of American NGOs, which are often pointed out that young people may have the experi- protected by the U.S. military. ence of having the peace movement forced upon them from above. Yoshioka proposed that in order Comments to overcome this, we should visit war zones to- 1. What kind of media would be most effective for gether and think together with them. This seems to spreading the pacifism embodied in Article 9?In lend legitimacy to the approach of Peace Boat, Western society, for example, it is possible to

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use the networks and facilities of Christian being a conspicuous case, the prefecture has been churches. How can we build something to com- positioned as a frontline base in the US global plement that in Japan? strategy, and far from seeing its functions 2. The role of established media such as news- lessened, has seen them strengthened, through the papers and television will likely continue to be plan to relocate Futenma Air Base for example. important. However, it is difficult to break down There was harsh criticism of the fact that the the barrier of commercialism and sensationalism, Japanese government’s policies only serve to which has permeated journalism in recent years. entrench this situation, and of the fact that there On the other hand, we should not underestimate is very little social interest in this situation of the potential of local newspapers, which are Japan, including Okinawa. rooted in their communities as they cover events. 5. We should not abandon attempts to investigate While some positive results have been achieved and appeal the active significance and usefulness by peace movements based on alternative media of Article 9, not only toward Japanese society using the internet and events geared toward but toward the world as a whole. In 2007, like citizens, and in particular young people, there is in previous years, NGOs and citizen groups are no need to give up hope on creating a frame- preparing for a variety of campaigns and world work for linking grassroots movements and major conferences. There is an urgent need for ongoing media. movements that will gain the understanding of 3. Considering the defensive and introverted ten- people who have not participated in activities in dency of Japanese society, how can links be cre- the past. ated with the world? As citizens, from the 6. The contents of this two-day symposium were perspective of involvement in international coop- broad ranging and very inspiring. However, it is eration, or rooted in the individual experiences unfortunate if the awareness is only shared such as study abroad, it was proposed that there among the participants, and not spread outside. is significance to making a commitment toward Symposia of this type are held from time to achieving change in society. We came to realize time, but the reports do not seem to circulate the enormous role played by civil society in the widely in society. Rapidly posting the summaries process of democratization in South Korea. Also, onto the internet or distributing them through at the time when new constitutions are created in mailing lists could be one way of making sure newly independent countries in Africa, great that the information is quickly spread. value and expectations are given to Article 9 7. In response to the discussion, PRIME director when people receive an explanation of its exis- Makoto Katsumata made some closing com- tence and significance. We should aim to have ments: Japanese people gain an understanding of the ex- “During the two days of the symposium, Article pectations and potential power held by Article 9 9 was approached from a variety of perspectives in international society. and methods. My understanding is that the question 4. On the other hand, the situation of Okinawa of whether to abolish or maintain Article 9 is a

― 190 ― Overview of the Plenary at PRIME International Symposium challenge involving whether the article will con- summaries were necessary, and all the moderators tinue to be something that citizens can use as a did a good job in providing simple descriptions of call for the abolition of war. I would like to pro- the points of contention. And on the basis of this, pose two paths for continuing to discuss the issue. I think the participants were able to think together The first is to create an introductory manual for about how to continue debates on this enormous spreading the meaning of Article 9. The second is issue, or ‘Article 9 in the World.’ Japan faces a to organize a study group to formulate a “road difficult international situation, and it may well be map” for the future of Article 9. The latter will that the spirit of peace is not adequately rooted in involve examining further development based on what Japanese civil society at this moment. It is easy to we have accumulated so far, and will be a search pin the blame for this on the conservative regime, for proper methods for conducting international which has leaned toward the United States and assistance in line with Article 9, whether in the implemented market-oriented policies that are harsh form of ODA (official development aid) or assistance toward the socially disadvantaged. Additionally, carried out by NGOs. And it may be necessary to there are certainly both advantages and limitations discuss how to create a global basis to achieve the to having a meeting sponsored by a research ideal of Article 9, and to discuss what sustainable organization like PRIME. Consequently, in order to development is. On this basis, we must lay out a achieve a better rooting of the spirit of peace in vision for an ‘Article 9-type’ global village, where Japanese society, we must carry out, in addition to undue burdens are not forced on specific places peace studies, activities that can act in synergy such as Okinawa. I hope that experiments such as with the peace movement in civil society both this can be coupled with the movements of citizen inside and outside Japan. groups and others.” (１) (1) concerns over Japan becoming a military Looking back at the plenary session, it may be power, (2) the limitations of military power in that too much time was spent summarizing the dis- national security; (3) links with Article 26 of cussions in the various Sessions and Workshops. the United Nations Charter and the Millennium As a result, it may be that we were not able to Development Goals; (4) the need for a non- spend adequate time on questions and answers and American model; (5) increasing international on debates. However, the symposium was struc- needs for non-military disaster relief activities; tured in such a way that it was impossible for a and (6) trust and security in international co- single person to listen to all the debates, so operation created by being “unarmed.”

― 191 ― 国際平和研究所購入図書一覧 (2007年１月～７月)

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地下の民 シネマテーク・インディアス 現代企画室

最後の庭の息子たち シネマテーク・インディアス 現代企画室

武装解除 紛争屋が見た世界 伊勢崎賢治 講談社現代新書

紛争から平和構築へ 稲田十一､ 吉田鈴香､ 伊勢崎賢治 論創社

NGO とは何か 現場からの声 伊勢崎賢治 藤原書店

９条がつくる脱アメリカ型国家 財界リーダーの提言 品川正治 青灯社

戦争のほんとうの恐さを知る財界人 品川正治 新日本出版社 の直言

― 193 ― 国際平和研究所購入図書一覧

文献表題 副題 著者 出版社

人権教育ファシリテーターハンド 角田尚子・ERIC 国際理解教育セン ERIC 国際理解教 いっしょに考えて！人権 ブック発展編 ター 育センター

人権教育ファシリテーターハンド 角田尚子・ERIC 国際理解教育セン ERIC 国際理解教 いっしょにすすめよう！人権 ブック実践編 ター 育センター

参加型 ｢気づきから築きへ｣ プログ 人権教育ファシリテーター・ハンド 角田尚子・ERIC 国際理解教育セン ERIC 国際理解教 ラム ブック基本編 ター 育センター

世界子供白書2007 ジェンダーの平等がもたらす二重の (財)日本ユニセフ ユニセフ (国連児童基金) 女性と子ども 恩恵 協会

世界子供白書2006 (財)日本ユニセフ ユニセフ (国連児童基金) 存在しない子どもたち 協会

統計で見る子どもの10年 ｢子どものための世界サミット｣ か (財)日本ユニセフ (財) 日本ユニセフ協会 (1990－2000) らの前進 協会

途上国ニッポンの歩み 江戸から平成までの経済発展 大野健一 有斐閣

いのちの秩序 農の力 たべもの協同社会への道 本野一郎 コモンズ

いのちと農の論理 地域に広がる有機農業 中島紀一 コモンズ

徹底検証ニッポンの ODA 村井吉敬 コモンズ

わたしと地球がつながる食農共育 近藤恵津子 コモンズ

アムネスティー・インターナショナ こころの手をつなごうえー 子どもが考える子どもの人権 コモンズ ル日本編

我､ 自衛隊を愛す故に､ 憲法９条を守る 防衛省元幹部３人の志 小池清彦､ 竹岡勝美､ 箕輪登 かもがわ出版

2006沖縄県民意識調査報告書 琉球新報社 琉球新報社

知られざる東台湾 湾生が綴るもう一つの台湾史 山口政治 展転社

水危機神話を越えて：水資源をめぐ 人間開発報告書2006 国連開発計画 国際協力出版会 る権力闘争と貧困､ グローバルな課題

ぼくは13歳職業､ 兵士｡ あなたが戦争のある村で生まれたら 鬼丸昌也､ 小川真吾 合同出版

― 194 ― 明治学院大学国際平和研究所について

明治学院大学国際平和研究所 (International Peace Research Institute, Meiji Gakuin University＝ PRIME) は､ 1986年４月､ 明治学院大学国際学部設立と共に､ 同学部の付属研究所として発足し､ そ の後､ 1988年４月には､ 全学の研究所となりました｡ 世界平和の諸条件の学問的解明と､ 学内外の平和 研究の振興を主な目的に活動しています｡ とくに､ 普遍的視点からの地域問題への取り組み､ 社会性あ るいは時代性のある研究､ 学際性の高い研究に重点を置いて､ 研究者ばかりでなく､ 広く市民に開かれ た平和研究の拠点となることを目指しています｡

PRIME (プライム) 第26号 2007年10月31日発行

[発行人] 勝俣 誠 [発行所] 明治学院大学国際平和研究所 〒108-8636 東京都港区白金台1-2-37 TEL:03-5421-5652 FAX:03-5421-5653 URL:http://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/˜prime/ [編集委員] 勝俣 誠､ 上條直美､ 孫 占坤､ 高原孝生､ 吉原 功､ 木村真希子 [表紙デザイン] 南風島 渉 [印 刷] ヨシダ印刷株式会社 TEL:03-3626-1301