Bilingualism & Language Course Structure
Contact: 1. National Standard & Dialects British English Welsh English & Welsh 2. Two National Varieties American vs British English Nigel Musk 3. Bilinggggualism & Language Contact Welsh English & Welsh English 3 & Teachers’ Programme 6161--9090 hp 4. Pidgins & Creoles Depart ment of Cult ure & Communi cati on Caribbean English Linköping University 5. English as a Second Language Indian English
Bilingualism & Language Contact Some Language Contact Scenarios
Bilinggyualism has rarely been absent from Language contact is the norm rather than the exception (f(even for geograp hlllddhllhically isolated and ethnically important levels of the intellectual and homogeneous countries, e.g. Iceland)
cultural life of Europe and nearly all Languages with official status
European languages have had long, and, in e. g. Irish in Ireland , Welsh in Wales (?)
some instances, several successive periods Languages without official recognition
of language contact. (Lewis 1977: 23) e.g. Breton & Basque in France
Community Languages (immigrant languages)
e.g. Indian languages in the UK Linguistic Outcomes of Language European Languages Contact
Three-way division (Thomason 2001: 10): 1. Contact-induced language change
e.g. all European languages 2. Extreme language mixture
e.g. Anglo-Romany, W. Indian Creoles 3. Language death (obsolescence)
e.g. GhiCGothic, Corni ihMsh, Manx
Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic 1. ContactContact--InducedInduced Language Change situations
Phonology 1. Standard-with-dialects e.g. Welsh English, Irish English
Lexis (loanwords) 2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism)
e.g. all European languages 3. Diglossia Morppgyhology
e.g. English under Norse influence Grammar Syntax
e.g. Welsh & Irish English SlSelec tdTtedBethesda Towns/Citi es of Wales Phonology: Welsh Accents 1
When I when I got married and I went up to London to live and uh my husband’s family ’adn’t met me many times and they used to look in Aberystwyth my face and they used to say to me come on Sylvia say some more you got a beautiful accent. You sing-song when you when you’ re talkin’ you you’re lovely go on and the sister-in-laws at that … because I I was the onlyyyy child and I went into a family of six and they used to sit all round me and they used to say come on Sylvia. Oh sing us something in Welsh now. Come on now. They they thought it was Swansea marvellous. They never made fun of me or anything, well up in Cardiff Abertawe Caerdydd London they didn’t, you know ’cause I think it’s it’s because they’ve Selected Towns/Cities of Wales got such a peculiar accent themselves. The Londoners ’ave they have really you know, yeah.
Welsh Accents 2 Welsh Accents 3a
Intonation – liltinggg or ‘sing-song’ accent Vowels Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation I hate South Walian accents. My brother’s in university down [ʌ] rubber, love [ə] there an d every time he comes bac k up he has this S outh [ə][ə] [ə] [ə] Walian accent and I can’t stand it … the enunciation I think it’s not just the young people it’s my mum my grandmother as well … They speak like in a rhythm da-da-da-da-da-DA-da everyone [ə]
Language Contact – Welsh lacks RP ’ s [ʌ]. Instead Welsh English has Language Contact – Welsh English dialects tend to adopted a similar vowel from Welsh [ə].
shthittittfllWlhdilthare the intonation patterns of local Welsh dialects [ə][ə][ə] e.g. ysgol ‘school’, ysbyty ‘hospital’ FtFront CtlCentral BkBack Close Welsh Accents 3b iː uː ɪ ʊ Vowels Close-mid Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation [ɜː] work, fur [øː] e ɔː [øː] ə, ɜː It was so funny to learn ’im Open-mid
ʌ æ ɒ Language Contact – Welsh lacks both long vowels. Open ɑː
FtFront CtlCentral BkBack Welsh Accents 4 Close iː uː Vowels ɪ ʊ Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation Close-mid [ɑː] father, calm [aː]
[aː] [aː] e ɔː ’e wouldn’t say Cardiff like we say Cardiff ə, ɜː people call uh us from the North Joscyns which means like uhm Open-mid farmers it’s like farmer farmers [aː][aː][aː] ʌ æ ɒ Language Contact – Welsh lacks RP’s long . Instead Welsh English [ɑː] Open ɑː has adopted the closest vowel from Welsh [aː]. aː
[aː][aː][aː] e.g. bach ‘little’, tad ‘dad’, cath ‘cat’ FtFront CtlCentral BkBack Welsh Accents 5a Close iː uː Vowels ɪ Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation ʊ
[æ] accent, cat [a] Close-mid
[a] [a] [a] [a] [a] e ɔː he has this South Walian accent and I can’t stand it ə, ɜː Open-mid Language Contact – Welsh lacks RP’s [æ]. Instead Welsh English has adopted a similar short vowel from Welsh [a]. ʌ æ ɒ [a][a] [a] [a][a] ɑː e.g. afal ‘apple’, bardd ‘bard’, adar ‘birds’ Open a
FtFront CtlCentral BkBack Welsh Accents 5b Close iː ʉ uː Vowels ɪ Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation ʊ
[ʉː] (contemporary RP) boot, shoot [uː] Close-mid
[uː] [uː] [uː] e ɔː two years ago I went back to school up to Cefn Hengoed school to take up Welsh ə, ɜː Open-mid we have a nice s:mooth rhythm [uː] ʌ LCttLanguage Contact – WlhEWelsh Eng lihhlish has a dop tdthlted the long c lose bac k vowe l æ ɒ from Welsh [uː]. Open ɑː [uː] [uː] e.g. sŵn ‘sound’, cŵn ‘dogs’ Welsh Accents 6 Welsh Accents 7a
Vowels Vowels Received Pronunciation South Welsh English Pronunciation Received Pronunciation South Welsh English Pronunciation few, tune [jʉː] [ɪʊ] [eɪ] made, late [eː] Diphthongs [ɪʊ][ɪʊ] and they used to look in my face and they used to say to me come on in RP [eː] [eɪ] [ɪʊ] pure and they used to look in my face and they used to say to me Sylvia. Say some more you got a beautiful accent vowels in [jʊ] it feels stupid if you try to talk otherwise South WEng [əʊ] nose, so [oː]
Language Contact – South Welsh English has adopted the same diphthong [oː][oː] from Welsh [ɪʊ]. we get that problem when we go away with the choir we go away [ɪʊ][ɪʊ] e.g. yw ‘is’, byw ‘live’ pretty often
Welsh Accents 7b Welsh Accents 8
Vowels Received Pronunciation South Welsh English Pronunciation Consonants
[eɪ] made, late [eː] Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation
really, rude – flapped /r/ Language Contact – South Welsh English has adopted the pure vowel from [ɹ] [ɾ] Welsh [eː]. [eː] [eː] e.g. sedd ‘seat’, beth ‘what’, [ɾ][ɾ] [Because if you didn’t speak Welsh] you were a foreigner [əʊ] nose, so [oː]
Language Contact – South Welsh English has adopted the pure vowel from Language Contact – Welsh English has adopted the /r/ phoneme from Welsh [oː]. Welsh [ɾ]. [oː][oː] [ɾ][ɾ] e.g. sôn ‘talk’, bod ‘be’ e.g. gardd ‘garden’, cariad ‘love’ Language Contact – Welsh English has adopted the regional Welsh Accents 9 variants from Welsh Welsh Accents 10 e.g. mêl ‘honey’, glan ‘pure’ Consonants Consonants Intervocalic (= between vowels) consonant lengthening Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation butter [bətːə], money [mənːi] [l / ɫ] little, likeable South WEng [l] North WEng [ɫ] [kː] YiYou sing-song wh’hen you you’re tlkitalkin’ – no clear distinction between clear and dark /l/ [kː] I’m ashamed that I don’t speak it [l] [l] I was the only child
[ɫ] [ɫ] Language Contact – Welsh English has adopted long consonants from Welsh. IdI don’t compet e b ut tIh I have grea t u hm in teres tit in, this loca lhitl history [ɫ][ɫ] and our culture, so I think it’s important that we as young people [dː][nː][kː] e.g. sydyn ‘sudden’, mynydd ‘mountain’, pecyn ‘parcel’ [ɫ] realise, uhm d’you know ou- our background
Welsh Accents 11 Differences in Lexis
Consonants Loanwords Language Contact Special Welsh consonants in loanwords & placenames There are surprisingly few loanwords from Welsh e.g. bach, del terms of endearment [x] – like German ach (velar fricative ) ych a fi! ‘ugh!’ bach [baːx] term of endearment (= little) eisteddfod ‘competitive arts festival’ chw arae teg [xwaɾe teːg] ‘fair play ’ nain, mamgu ‘grandma’ (N. Wales, S. Wales) taid, tadcu ‘grandpa’ (N. Wales, S. Wales) [ɬ] – voiceless /l/ (lateral fricative) Welsh English dialect llan [ɬan], Pwllheli [puɬheli] Most Welsh English dialect words are local or regional Language Contact e.g. tidy ‘nice’ (S. Wales) Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Brenhinol Cymru Differences in Grammar 1
Invariant question tags Language Contact Is it?/isn’t it?/innit? e.g. They do a lot of work, is it? [I feel really ashamed that I can’t speak and understand Welsh] and especially on holidays, innit? “Leave it till the mornin’, mab. Well, for a couple of hours, init, seein’ it’s four o’clock now.” Under influence from invariant tag questions in Welsh e.g. “Esgusodwch fi, on’d ife?” (= not is he/it?) ‘Excuse me, isn’t it?’
Differences in Grammar 2 Differences in Grammar 3
Substitution of have Language Contact Foregrounding for emphasis (predicate object inversion) Be with used instead of have Instead of normal word order, i.e. subject verb object (SVO): e.g. I never worry about bein’ with with a Welsh accent I object subject verb (OSV) never worried about it e.g. Money they’re not short of. Under influence from the lack of a single verb for have in Welsh Goin’ down the mine ’e is. e.g. Mae car ’da fi (= is car with me) Under influence from emphatic word order in Welsh (OVS instead of ‘I have a car’ VSO) e.g. PblbProblem bersono l yw hi(bl(= problem persona liit)l is it) ‘It’s a personal problem’ Language Contact Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic Some Snaps hot s of Bili nguali sm situations in Wales
1. Standard-with-dialects TV series: Pam Fi Duw? (Why Me God?)
Welsh homepages 2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism)
Signposting 3. Diglossia
Demographics
Official Language Policy & Planning
Bilingual A Bilingual Website RdiRoadsigns in Cardiff
Cardiff Caerdydd Fig. 2 Percentage && NumbersNumbers ofof WelshWelsh Speakers Speakers Bilingualis m 60 1200000 Percentage & No of Welsh speakers in Wales 50 1000000
40 800000 ers
30 600000 bb %% Num 20 400000
10 200000
% 0 0 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 no.
Our Vision Bilingualism
Our vision is a bold one[: …] a Idealised “native speaker” as the norm truly bilingual Wales, by which we mean a country where Early views: pppeople can choose to live their lives through the medium of “the native-like control of two languages” (Bloomfield 1933) either or both Welsh or English and where the presence of the two languages is a source of “The ideal bilingual switches from one language to the other pride and strength to us all. according to appropriate changes in the speech situation (WAG 2003: 1) (interlocutors, topics, etc.) but not in an unchanged speech situation, and certainly not within a single sentence .” (Weinreich 1953) Definition: Bilingual Three myths about bilingualism
Having an effectively equal control of two native languages. Thus a minority of people in Wales are bilingual in Welsh and Bilingual s are lik e t wo monoli ngual s roll ed i nt o one. English; many in England are bilingual in English and e.g. Punjabi. A bilingual community, as in Welsh-speaking parts of Walhhblllles, is one in which bilingualism is normal. Bilinguals have two equally developed languages Loosely or more generally, in some accounts, of people or communities that have two or more different languages, Bilinguals who master two languages do not usually whether or not control is effectively equal and whether or not more than one is native. Bilinguals in the ordinary sense are code-switch then variously called ‘ambilingual’ or ‘equilingual’, or are qualified as ‘full’, ‘true’, ‘ideal’, or ‘balanced’ bilinguals. TheConcise Concise Oxford Oxford Dictionary Dictionary of Linguistics of Linguistics. P. H. Matthews. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
CodeCode--switchingswitching 1 CodeCode--switchingswitching 2
“the ‘alternating use of two or more “codes” within one John Gumperz (a linguistic anthropologist) was the first to draw conversational epi sod e’ ” (Auer 1998: 1) attention to ways in which code-switching is used as a meaning-making resource. Early view of code -switching: In conversation “speakers associate one alternative expression with “[N]o one has been able to show that such rapid the casualness or intimacy of home or peer-group relations alternation is governed by any systematic rules or constraints and we must therefore describe it as the (we-code) and the other with the formality of public or out- irregular mixture of two distinct systems.” group relations (they-code).” (Gumperz 1982: 84) (Labov, 1972: 457) Thus bilingual communities ascribe different sets of symbolic
values to each code. By switching they can claim distinct LbLabov th thl idt h i tli us ll d laid down a challenge to other linguists. id titientities. CodeCode--switchingswitching 4 CodeCode--switchingswitching 5
Gumperz also highlighted that code -switching functions Gumpp(erz (1982) also p pproposed a ppyypgyreliminary typology of as a contextualisation cue used to signal “what discourse functions: ” (i) quotations (direct or reported speech) the ac tiv ity i s, h ow semanti c cont ent is t o be (ii) addressee specification understood and how each sentence relates to what (iii) interjections precedes or follows” (Gumperz, 1982: 131) (iv) reiterations (for emphasis or clarification)
(v) message qualification
(vi) personalization vs. objectivization
CodeCode--mixingmixing 1 CodeCode--mixingmixing 2 (FGD1, FG3, 24:52)
Participants: Louise (L), Carys (C), Llinos (Ll), Martha (M), Amy (A) “bilingg(gg)pual medium” (e.g. Welsh and English) as a default option
unmarked choice (i.e. no additional local meaning) (Myers- 1 Louise: └fi’n credu┘ gyda [ysgol 2] ddo os chi’n edrych ar I part. believe with [name of English school] though if you part. look on Scotton 1993) I think with [school 2] though if you look at 2y tables thing nw sy’ gyda nw fel un o’r top (.) there may be an identifiable pattern of “insertional” or the they who are with they like one of the the tables thing they have they’re like one of the top, “alternationalalternational” mixing (Auer 1999: 315) 3 ┌ones ┐ for a ┌lllevels┐ an’ (uhthh through)’) ma’ poblbol are people yet it may (or may not) signal group identity (Auer 1999: 318) ones for A levels an’ (uh through) people 4 Amy: └mm ┘ │ │ 5 Carys: └ie ┘ yeah 6 Louise: yn ffonio lan ’na yn meddwl mai private school pppart. phone up there p art. think that phone up there thinking that it’s a private school CodeCode--mixingmixing 3 CodeCode--mixingmixing 4
7 Louise: ┌yw e¿┐ ’chos ma’r results mor dda ┌yn a level ┐ 14 Louise: ┌┌yw ┐e¿ two years ago¿┐ is he ’cause are the so good in is he it i s ’ cause the results are so goodtd at AlA leve l they are two years ago 8 Llinos: └wir. ┘ 15 Amy: └│on’ │ ma’ nw’n rî:l┘i encourago plant nw. true but are they part. really encourage children their really but they really encourage their children 9 Amy: └ma’ nw yn y ┘ 16 Llinos: └ffach┘ are they part. uh cor they are uh 10 Amy: darllen ┌’di nw mm mm read past they they’ve read mm mm 11 Louise: └ y fourth t- uh out o- the to- uh the the fourth t- uh out o- the to- uh 12 Amy: °(xx)° ┐ 13 LiLouise: they ’re the┘ fourth top ibin brititain: sc hool
Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situations Bilingualism & Diglossia
bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed) use 1. Standard-with-dialects of two languages .” (Concise Ox ford Companion to the English Langu age 1998) 2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism) “Bilingualism is the use of two (or more) languages in one’s everyday life and not knowing two or more language equally well and optimally.” (Grosjean 2002: 2) 3. Diglossia diglossia: in some spppeech communities there is “one particular kind of standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play”
(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 65), one of which is a superposed variety, that is, not a primary “native” variety, but one learnt in addition to the native variety. Ferguson’s nine criteria for DiglossiaDiglossia:: high vs low determining diglossia (2000 [1959])
“The varieties are called H and L, the first being 1. function generally a standard variety used for ‘high’ purposes 2. prestige
and the second often a ‘low’ spoken vernacular. […] 3. literaryyg heritage
L is typically acquired at home as a mother tongue […] 4. acquisition
H, on the other hand, is learned through schooling and 5. standardisation never at home, and is related to institutions outside the 6. stability home.” 7. grammar (Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998, my highlighting) 8. lexicon 9. phonology
Ferguson’s four prototypical cases of The case of Arabic diglossia diglossia (2000 [1959]) (Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)
Situation H L
Sermon in church or mosque x Situation 'high' variety 'low' variety Instructions to servants, waiters, worksmen, clerks x Arabic Classic Arabic Variou s regional Personal letterletter x colloquial varieties Speeches in parliament, political speeches x Swiss German Standard German Swiss German Universit y lecture x Haitian Standard French Haiti Creole Conversations with family, friends, colleagues x News broadcasts x Greek Katharévousa Dhimotiki Radio 'soap operaopera ' x Newspaper editorial, new story, caption on picture x Caption on political cartoon x Poetry x Folk literature x Bilingualism & Diglossia in Wales Diglossia vs bilingualism (Musk 2006: 79)
Problems (Musk 2006: 74-77)
Domain analysis needs to accommodate more parameters in order to acknowledge the real choices that bilinguals make and can make in talk-in-interaction (including code-switching).
The simple binary distinction H vs L cannot capture either the range of possible situations or domains, nor in many cases the languages or language varieties.
But a formality/intimacy continuum (Fasold 1990 [1984]: 53) is at least one contributory factor which can influence the choice of language(s) or l(language variety(-ies)bll) in bilingual or mul lltilingual societies.
‘Lay’ Description of Diglossia in Wales ‘Lay’ Description of Diglossia in Wales
1 2 (Musk 2006: 368; FGD2, FG4, 13:57)
Does a lot of that go on these days then, you’ve you’ve got English with -io at 1 Cornilov: a fi’n ┌meddwl┐ ┌siarad┐ cymraeg nawr naturally yn and I part. think speak Welsh now part. the end? and I think speaking Welsh now naturally A: Yeah like cookio and stuff. Instead of coginio, which is cooking in Welsh. 2 Batman: └a- ┘ │ │ ? B: I uh say hatio which hate I hate something and I say hatio they they say it say 3 A Man: └ie ┘ it in the Welsh one yeah 4 Cornilov: golygu ((points towards himself with both hands & smiles)) C: Casàu. mean B: You’re supposed to say casàu yeah. means 5 naturally yn golygu ca’ l geirie s aesneg C: It feels stupid if you try to talk otherwise. If you di- if you didn’t e- even use part. mean get words English your (x) naturally means having English words 6 ynddo ┌fe he┐fyd ┌ie?┐= A: If you (spoke) proper former Welsh just like everyday it just it wouldn’ t sound in him him too yeah right somehow. in it too yeah? 7 A Man: └ie ┘ │ │ B: Sounds like you’re reading a book: if you uh speak proper Welsh it’s like yeah you’ re reading from a boo- Welsh book. 8 Batman: └ie ┘= yeah Diglossia in Wales Bibliography 1
vernacular: Galle’ nw at least hala Auer, J. C. P. (1998) “Introduction: Bilingual Conversation revisited.” Code-Switching in could they send Conversation. Language, interaction and identity. Ed. J. C. P. Auer. London: literary: Gallent (hwy) o leiaf anfon Routledge could ((y)they) the y of least send Auer, J. C. P. (1999) “From codeswitching via language mixing to fused lects: Toward a They could at least send dynamic typology of bilingual speech.” International Journal of Bilingualism 3.4: 309- 332 pltlant nw i ysgo lCâl Cymrâg. Blom, J. & J. J. Gumperz. (1972) “Social meaning in linguistic structures: codeswitching in Norway.” Directions in Sociolinguistics. J. J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (eds). New children their to school Welsh eu pp(y)ygyglant (hwy) i ysgol Gymraeg. York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston their children (their) to school Welsh Bloomfield, L. (1933) Language. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston their children to a Welsh school Coulmas, F. (2005) “Diglossia and bilingualism: functional restrictions on language choice.” Sociolinguistics. The study of speakers’ choices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 126-139 Fasold, R. W. (1990 [1984]). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell
Bibliography 2 Bibliography 3
Ferguson, C. A. (2000 [1959]) “Diglossia.” Ed. L. Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. London: Musk, N. (2006b) Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh. Linköping: LiU-Tryck. Routledge, 65-80