ISSN 0084-5841 ISSN VOL.37, No.1, WINTER 2006 WINTER No.1, VOL.37,

VOL.37, NO.1, Winter 2006

Yoshisuke Kishida, Publisher & Chief Editor Contributing Editors and Cooperators

- AFRICA - Ojha, T.P. (India) Kayombo, Benedict (Botswana) Verma, S.R. (India) Fonteh, Fru Mathias (Cameroon) Soedjatmiko (Indonesia) El Behery, A.A.K. (Egypt) Behroozi-Lar, Mansoor (Iran) El Hossary, A.M. (Egypt) Minaei, Saeid (Iran) Pathak, B.S. (Ethiopia) Sakai, Jun (Japan) Bani, Richard Jinks (Ghana) Snobar, Bassam A. (Jordan) Djokoto, Israel Kofi (Ghana) Chung, Chang Joo (Korea) Some, D. Kimutaiarap (Kenya) Lee, Chul Choo (Korea) Houmy, Karim (Morocco) Bardaie, Muhamad Zohadie (Malaysia) Igbeka, Joseph C. (Nigeria) Pariyar, Madan (Nepal) Odigboh, E.U. (Nigeria) Ampratwum, David Boakye (Oman) Oni, Kayode C. (Nigeria) Eldin, Eltag Seif (Oman) Kuyembeh, N.G. (Sierra Leone) Chaudhry, Allah Ditta (Pakistan) Abdoun, Abdien Hassan (Sudan) Mughal, A.Q. (Pakistan) Saeed, Amir Bakheit (Sudan) Rehman, Rafiq ur (Pakistan) Khatibu, Abdisalam I. (Tanzania) Devrajani, Bherular T. (Pakistan) Baryeh, Edward A. (Zimbabwe) Abu-Khalaf, Nawaf A. (Palestine) Tembo, Solomon (Zimbabwe) Nath, Surya (Papua New Guinea) Lantin, Reynaldo M. (Philippines) - AMERICAS - Venturina, Ricardo P. (Philippines) Cetrangolo, Hugo Alfredo (Argentina) Al-suhaibani, Saleh Abdulrahman (Saudi Arabia) Naas, Irenilza de Alencar (Brazil) Al-Amri, Ali Mufarreh Saleh (Saudi Arabia) Ghaly, Abdelkader E. (Canada) Chang, Sen-Fuh (Taiwan) Hetz, Edmundo J. (Chile) Peng, Tieng-song (Taiwan) Valenzuela, A.A. (Chile) Krishnasreni, Suraweth (Thailand) Aguirre, Robert (Colombia) Phongsupasamit, Surin (Thailand) Ulloa-Torres, Omar (Costa Rica) Rojanasaroj. C. (Thailand) Magana, S.G. Campos (Mexico) Salokhe, Vilas M. (Thailand) Ortiz-Laurel, H. (Mexico) Singh, Gajendra (Thailand) Chancellor, William J. (U.S.A.) Pinar, Yunus (Turkey) Goyal, Megh Raj (U.S.A.) Haffar, Imad (United Arab Emirates) Mahapatra, Ajit K. (U.S.A.) Lang, Pham Van (Viet Nam) Philips, Allan L. (U.S.A.) Hazza’a, Abdulsamad Abdulmalik (Yemen) - ASIA and OCEANIA - - EUROPE - Quick, G.R. (Australia) Kaloyanov, Anastas P. (Bulgaria) Farouk, Shah M. (Bangladesh) Kic, Pavel (Czech) Hussain, Daulat (Bangladesh) Have, Henrik (Denmark) Mazed, M.A. (Bangladesh) Pellizzi, Giuseppe (Italy) Gurung, Manbahadur (Bhutan) Wanders, A. Anne (Netherlands) Wang, Wanjun (China) Pawlak, Jan (Poland) Illangantileke, S. (India) Marchenko, Oleg S. (Russia) Ilyas, S. M. (India) Kilgour, John (U.K.) Michael, A.M. (India) Martinov, Milan (Yugoslavia)

EDITORIAL STAFF (Tel.+81-(0)3-3291-5718) Yoshisuke Kishida, Chief Editor Shinjiro Tetsuka, Managing Editor Noriyuki Muramatsu, Assistant Editor Zachary A. Henry, Editorial Consultant ADVERTISING (Tel.+81-(0)3-3291-3672) Yoshito Nakajima, Manager (Head Office) Hiroshi Yamamoto, Manager (Branch Office) Advertising Rate: 300 thousand yen per page CIRCULATION (Tel.+81-(0)3-3291-5718) (Fax.+81-(0)3-3291-5717) Editorial, Advertising and Circulation Headquarters 7, 2-chome, Kanda Nishikicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0054, Japan URL: http://www.shin-norin.co.jp E-Mail: [email protected] Copylight © 2006 by FARM MACHINERY INDUSTRIAL RESEACH CORP. SHIN-NORIN Building 7, 2-chome, Kanda Nishikicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0054, Japan Printed in Japan This is the 126th issue since its maiden isue in the Spring of 1971 EDITORIAL

Asian and Pacific Centre for Agricultural Engineering and Machinery (APCAEM), the new project of UNESCAP, had its first Session of Technical Committee and Governing Council end November last year. Asia has the world larg- est population and potential economic growth. Agricultural problem in Asia is the most important issue on the globe as well as for Asian countries. Whether Asian agriculture can support such enormous population is a big challenge for the people involved in agriculture.

The primary essential is to provide the technology to raise land productivity. As timely farm work is most required to increase land productivity, agricultural machines are indispensable. On seeking the most optimized work on each crop, more advanced technology such as precise agriculture is needed. It is also needed to maximize agricultural pro- ductivity by making agricultural input more practical. Mechanization of agriculture is the most important in view of optimization of agricultural input.

In most Asian countries, the population is rapidly drifting to cities from rural areas. Only cities will be densely pop- ulated while agricultural products enough to support city population are not supplied without timely dissemination of agricultural mechanization in rural areas.

In Japan after WWII, farmers purchased about 12 trillion yen worth of agricultural machines in total for 30 years during 1955 to 1985. Mechanization of agriculture allowed farmers to use their spare time working in other industries. Consequently their agricultural and industrial output was about 1,200 trillion yen in total with only one percent of investment in agricultural machines. The input to mechanization turned out highly efficient investment in economic point of view. Besides agricultural mechanization promoted the development of agriculture and other industries.

The same thing is going to happen in Asian countries. In the movement of economic globalization, Asian countries need to promote mutual exchange and cooperation. In this sense activities of APCAEM will receive much attention and expectation. Sufficient budget and effective management by the people concerned are anticipated.

I am concerned about recent trend to get rid of the term of “agriculture” in universities and many other places. It is critical issue for us involved in agriculture that “agriculture” is socially recognized and restored as the most important key word. AMA is resolved to give continued support to mechanization of agriculture in the world with contributors and read- ers.

Yoshisuke Kishida Chief Editor

Tokyo, Japan February, 2006 CONTENTS

AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA Vol.37, No.1, February 2006

Yoshisuke Kishida 7 Editorial J. John Gunasekar, S. Kaleemullah 9 Evaluation of Solar Drying for Post Harvest Curing of Turmeric P. Doraisamy, S. Kamaraj (Curcuma longa L.) H. Ortiz-Laurel, D. Rössel 14 Front Wheel Drive Effect on the Performance of the Agricultural J.G. Hermosilo-Nieto Tractor Sukhbir Singh, D.N. Sharma 18 Development and Performance Evaluation of a Test Rig for Me- Jagvir Dixit, Dinesh Kumar Vasta chanical Metering of Sunflower Seeds S.K. Shukla, P.G. Patil 25 Design Development and Performance Evaluation of a Saw Cylin- V.G. Arude der Cleaner for Mechanically Picked Cotton P.G. Patil, V.G. Arude 30 Design Development and Performance Evaluation of Portable Cot- S.K. Shukla ton Ginning Machines Niranjan Prased, K.K. Kumar 35 Design and Development of Power Operated Roller Type Lac Scraper S.K. Panday, M.L. Bhagat R.I. Sarker, D. Barton 38 The Impact of Power Tillers on Small Farm Productivity and Em- ployment in Bangladesh A.G. Powar, V.V. Aware 46 Field Performance Evaluation of Power Tiller Operated Air As- S.K. Jain, A.P. Jaiswal sisted Spraying System S.K. Jain, K.G. Dhande 51 Effect of Cone Angle on Droplet Spectrum of Hollow Cone Hy- V.V. Aware, A.P. Jaiswal draulic Nozzles Jay Radhakrishnan, V. Anbumozhi 54 Feasibility of Using Yield Monitors for the Development of Soil Robert H. Hill, Raymond J Miller Management Maps D. Balasubramanian 58 Improving Whole Kernel Recovery in Cashew Nut Processing Spe- cific to Nigeria Nuts O.V. Olomo, O.O. Ajibola 65 Processing Factors Affecting the Yield and Physicochemical Prop- erties of Starches from Cassave Chips and Flour P.R. Jayan, V.J.F. Kumar 70 Influence of Seeding Depth and Compaction on Germination C. Divaker Durairaj S.S. Taley, S.M. Bhende 75 Testing, Evaluation and Modification of Manual Coiler for Drip V.P. Tale Lateral A. Manickavasagan, K. Thangavel 80 Single Hydrocyclone for Cassava Starch Milk B. Shridar, P.K. Padmanathan 85 Utilization Pattern of Power Tillers in Tamil Nadu R. Manian

Abstracts 90 News 95 Book Review 100

★ ★ ★ Instructions to AMA Contributors ...... 4 Co-operating Editor ...... 102 New Co-operating Editors ...... 45 Back Issues ...... 105 Evaluation of Solar Drying for Post Harvest Curing of Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.)

by J. John Gunasekar S. Kaleemullah Assistant Professor Ph. D. Scholar Department of Bioenergy Department of Agricultural Processing Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore - 641 003 Coimbatore - 641 003 INDIA INDIA

P. Doraisamy S. Kamaraj Professor (Microbiology) Professor Department of Bioenergy Department of Bioenergy Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore - 641 003 Coimbatore - 641 003 INDIA INDIA

ity in 64 hours (8 days) compared tonnes of turmeric (Vikas Singhal, Abstract to 96 hours (12 days) in sun drying, 1999). Curing of raw turmeric rhizomes, thus saving considerable time (32 The ethno botanical significance essentially boiling and drying, is hours). Hence, the solar drying can of turmeric can be attributed to very important for the development be adopted for turmeric drying. its key biochemical constituents; of an attractive yellow colour (most- namely, the volatile oil, oleoresin ly due to curcumin) and aroma, and curcumin. The quality of the and the quality of the final product final product is determined by the Introduction depends largely on the correctness levels of these ingredients in the of the curing (Pruthi, 1992). The ef- Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is rhizomes. This study had the objec- fect of drying methods (direct sun an important spice, which is widely tive of assessing the effect of drying drying and drying in solar dryer) used in curry preparations for its in a solar dryer on the bio-chemical on the key biochemical constituents characteristic yellow colour and constituents of turmeric. such as curcumin, volatile oil, oleo- flavour. It is also used in cotton tex- resin and total protein of boiled tur- tiles as a colouring agent, in confec- meric (var: Erode) was studied. The tionery, in food industry, and in the Materials and Methods quality of the turmeric rhizomes preparation of medicines and cos- as influenced by the biochemical metics, thus having a high commer- Long turmeric fingers of the constituents varied at various levels cial value (Satyanarayana and Suku- Erode variety with a moisture con- of moisture content. The study in- maran, 1999). It is grown in tropi- tent of 70.24 % (w.b.) were used for dicated that the boiling and drying cal countries like India, Pakistan, this study. After harvesting, the raw intensified the curcumin content, Myanmar, Chile, Peru, El Salvador, rhizomes were cleaned well and the while the volatile oil, oleoresin and Japan, China, Sri Lanka, Bangla- finger rhizome samples used for total protein content progressively desh, Indonesia, Taiwan, Jamaica, various analyses were taken in trip- decreased as the moisture content Thailand and West Indies. India ac- licate by separating them from the decreased. The results also revealed counts for 80 % of the global output. mother rhizomes. The raw samples, that the solar drying is better than In India, during 1996 to 1997, the weighing 300 kg, were boiled in 0.10 direct sun drying as it achieved the area under the crop was 135,000 ha % alkaline (sodium bicarbonate) wa- desired moisture and essential qual- and the total production was 529,000 ter (rhizome: water = 1 kg: 0.3 litre)

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 9 humidity of the ambient air and hot air in the solar dryer were recorded in one hour intervals. The samples were dried until the moisture level in the samples was reduced to a safe storage level of 7 % (w.b.). Standard methodologies have been adopted to determine moisture content, curcumin, total volatile oil, total protein and oleoresin. Table 1 indicates the methodology adopted for the analysis.

Results and Discussion Temperature and relative humid- ity of ambient air varied from 29 to 40.5 ºC and 66 to 49 %, respectively, during the study period. The tem- perature and relative humidity of the hot air in the solar drier varied from Fig. 1 Solar drier (step type) 30 to 70 ºC and 64 to 34 % respec- tively. In both the cases an increase at a temperature of 90 ºC for about solar drying, one part was used for in temperature reduced the relative 40 minutes, until frothing occurred biochemical and the other part was humidity of air. The air tempera- and white fumes appeared and emit- used for the drying studies. ture increased up to 1:00 PM for all ted a characteristic turmeric odour. The drying was carried out under the days and then reduced. Every The boiling was carried out in a direct sun and in the solar dryer af- evening the turmeric samples were mild steel pan and dried turmeric ter keeping the samples in alumini- packed air tight and kept at 10 ºC in leaves were used to cover the mouth um trays. Solar drying was done in a a controlled atmospheric chamber. It of the pan (Kachru and Srivastava, popular natural draft step type dryer took 96 hours (12 days) and 64 hours 1991). After boiling, the turmeric (Fig. 1) having provision to control (8 days) in sun drying and solar dry- was drained and cooled before be- the flow of incoming cool air while ing, respectively, to get the turmeric ing used for drying and biochemical the sun drying was carried out in a rhizomes at around 7 % (w.b.) mois- analysis. The analysis was con- clear non-shadowed area. The dry- ture content. An assessment of the ducted in three replications. Each ing was done from 8 AM to 4 PM chemical qualities of the sun-dried replication contained the boiled in a dry weather period. The sample and solar dried turmeric was car- turmeric rhizomes divided into four weights were recorded daily at 4 PM ried out and the results of the studies equal parts (25 kg each) after taking and subsequently analyzed for mois- tabulated in Table 2. samples for determining the initial ture content and biochemical con- moisture, curcumin, volatile oil, stituents. Temperature and relative oleoresin and protein content. Two parts were used for direct sun drying tests and the other two parts were used for the solar drying tests. Of the two parts used for each sun and

Particulars Methodology Moisture content ASTA method 2.0, 1997 Curcumin ASTA method 18.0, 1968 Total volatile oil ASTA method 5.0, 1997 Total protein Lowry. et. al, 1951 Oleoresin ASTA method 4.0, 1975 Table 1 Methodology adopted for the analysis Fig. 2 Change of moisture content with respect to drying methods

10 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Sun dried, % Solar dried, % Days Hours Moisture Volatile Moisture Volatile Curcumin Oleoresin Protein Curcumin Oleoresin Protein content oil content oil 0 0 79.04 2.89 6.00 9.86 1.28 79.04 2.89 6.00 9.86 1.28 1 8 64.79 2.95 5.95 9.80 1.18 55.27 2.92 5.85 9.81 1.24 2 16 51.62 3.04 5.84 9.75 1.10 40.18 3.10 5.70 9.70 1.22 3 24 41.88 3.20 5.76 9.66 1.02 31.79 3.28 5.63 9.63 1.19 4 32 33.72 3.39 5.66 9.56 0.96 24.25 3.48 5.52 9.54 1.18 5 40 27.94 3.60 5.60 9.48 0.92 17.65 3.82 5.41 9.44 1.16 6 48 22.34 3.85 5.53 9.39 0.87 13.46 4.00 5.28 9.37 1.15 7 56 18.63 3.96 5.47 9.29 0.86 9.80 4.22 5.25 9.27 1.15 8 64 14.87 4.09 5.42 9.23 0.84 7.20 4.40 5.20 9.22 1.14 9 72 12.43 4.24 5.37 9.14 0.82 10 80 9.86 4.31 5.33 9.08 0.81 11 88 8.29 4.44 5.30 9.04 0.79 12 96 7.15 4.56 5.26 8.98 0.78 Table 2 Effect of sun and solar drying on the quality of boiled turmeric rhizomes

Effect on Moisture The maximum temperature differ- is only a small difference in the cur- The moisture content of boiled ence in the solar drying was higher cumin content of turmeric rhizomes rhizomes was reduced from 79.04 by 30 ºC as compared to sun drying dried in both the methods. to 7.15 % (w.b.) within 96 hours (12 and the maximum relative humidity A relationship was developed be- days) in sun drying method where difference was less by 15 %. Thus, tween curcumin content and mois- as it took only 64 hours (8 days) to solar drying was a faster and better ture content for both sun (Equation dry the material to 7.20 % (w.b.) method for drying turmeric as com- 3) and solar drying (Equation 4) as in solar drying method (Table 2). pared to sun drying. given below.

The drying of rhizomes in both the 2 Cursu = 0.0004 m - 0.057 m + 4.8821 methods followed an exponential Effect on Curcumin (R2= 0.99)...... (3) model (Fig. 2). The mathematical The initial curcumin content of the 2 Curso= 0.0005 m - 0.0611 m + 4.7588 models and the corresponding R2 boiled rhizomes was 2.89 g per 100 g (R2= 0.99)...... (4) values are given in equations 1 and of sample at 79.04 % (w.b.) moisture 2 as below. level (Table 2). A plot of daily mois- Where,

- 0.0254h 2 ture content (w.b.) values against the Cursu = curcumin content of sun Msu = 77.472 e (R = 0.99)....(1) - 0.0366h 2 corresponding curcumin values (Fig. dried turmeric rhizomes, g/100g Mso = 76.023 e (R = 0.99)...(2) 3) shows a non-linear increase in of sample

Where, curcumin values as moisture content Curso= curcumin content of solar

Msu = moisture content of sun dried (w.b.) decreased in both sun dried dried turmeric rhizomes, g/100g turmeric rhizomes, % (w.b.) and solar dried samples. The cur- of sample

M so = moisture content of solar cumin content increased from 2.89 to m = moisture content of the sample, dried turmeric rhizomes, % (w.b.) 4.56 and 4.4 g/100 g of sample in sun % (w.b.) h = drying hours, number dried and solar dried samples, re- spectively. It clearly shows that there Curing of the turmeric devel-

Fig. 3 Effect of drying methods on curcumin content Fig. 4 Effect of drying methods on volatile oil content

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 11 oped, a yellow colour, mostly due to Effect on Oleoresin and Sethumadhavan (1980). curcumin, as mentioned by Pruthi Boiled turmeric rhizomes had (1992) and Kachru and Srivastava an initial oleoresin content of 9.86 Effect on Protein (1991). Alkalinity of the boiling g/100 g of sample (Table 2) which Boiled turmeric rhizomes had an water also helped in imparting an decreased non-linearly during the initial protein content of 1.28 g/100 g orange yellow tinge to the core of drying operation (Fig. 5) from 9.8 to of sample (Table 2) which decreased turmeric as reported by Anonymous 8.98 and 9.22 g/100 g of sample in linearly during drying (Fig. 6) from (1991). sun dried and solar dried samples, 1.28 to 0.78 and 1.14 g/100 g of respectively. The final oleoresin con- sample in sun dried and solar dried Effect on Volatile Oil tent in solar dried sample was higher samples, respectively. The final pro- The initial total volatile oil con- than the sun dried sample. The rela- tein content in the solar dried sample tent of turmeric rhizomes was 6.0 tionships between oleoresin content was high compared to the sun dried ml/100 g of sample (Table 2) which and moisture content are shown in sample. The linear relationship be- decreased non-linearly during the equations 7 and 8 for sun drying and tween protein and moisture content drying operation (Fig. 4) from 6.0 to solar drying, respectively. is shown in equations 9 and 10.

5.26 and 5.20 ml/100 g of sample in 2 Olsu = -0.0002 m + 0.0286 m + 8.8218 Prsu = 0.007 m + 0.7304 sun dried and solar dried samples, (R2= 0.99)...... (7) (R2= 0.99)...... (9) respectively. There is only a very 2 Olso = -0.0002 m + 0.0217 m + 9.0882 Prso = 0.0019 m + 1.1301 small variation in the volatile oil (R2= 0.99)...... (8) (R2= 0.99)...... (10) content of turmeric rhizomes dried by both methods. The relationships Where, Where, between volatile oil and moisture Olsu = oleoresin content of sun dried Prsu = protein content of sun dried content for both the sun and solar turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g of turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g of drying methods is given in equa- sample sample tions 5 and 6, respectively. Olso = oleoresin content of solar Prso = protein content of solar dried

2 dried turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g of Vo su = - 0.0001 m + 0.019 m + 5.1466 of sample sample (R2= 0.99)...... (5) 2 m = moisture content of the sample, m = moisture content of the sample, Vo so = - 0.0001 m + 0.0214 m + 5.0508 % (w.b.). % (w.b.) (R2= 0.99)...... (6) Where, Previous studies indicate that the Comparing the results obtained in

Vo su = volatile oil of sun dried tur- oleoresin consists of the volatile es- this study with the prescribed index, meric rhizomes, ml/100g of sample sential oil and non-volatile resinous it can be said that the levels of cur-

Vo so = volatile oil of solar dried tur- fraction comprising heat compo- cumin, volatile oils, oleoresin and meric rhizomes, ml/100g of sample nents, fixatives, natural antioxi- protein fall within the specified re- dants, and pigments (Balakrishanan, quirements (Hart and Fishers, 1971) Decrease in volatile oil content 1991). It was observed that curing and, hence, the product is satisfac- during curing was also reported by decreased the oleoresin content of tory for application and consump- Joseph Philip and Sethumadhavan turmeric while it improved the co- tion. It is also observed that drying (1980). lour and physical appearance. Such of boiled turmeric in the solar dryer reduction in oleoresin content in was faster and saved considerable drying was also reported by Philip time over sun drying with only a

Fig. 5 Effect of drying methods on oleoresin content Fig. 6 Effect of drying methods on protein content

12 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 small effect on quality. Prso = protein content of solar dried Hart, L.A.M. and H.J. Fishers. turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g of 1971. Modern food Analysis. In: sample Modern Food Analysis, Springer-

Prsu = protein content of sun dried Conclusions Verlag, NY, pp 329-332. turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g of ■■ The results obtained in this study sample indicate the levels of curcumin, vol- w.b. = wet basis atile oils, oleoresin and protein fall within the specified requirements and hence the product is fit enough REFERENCES for application and consumption. The solar dried product showed a Pruthi, J.S. 1992. Post-harvest tech- greater protein content and hence nology of spices: pre-treatments, it is a biologically and therapeuti- curing, cleaning, grading and cally better product. Although, the packing. Journal of Spices and higher temperature in solar drying Aromatic Crops, 1: 1-29. caused a slight loss of curcumin and Satyanarayana, Ch.V.V. and C.R. volatile oil, the product will still Sukumaran. 1999. On Farm Tech- satisfy the specified requirements. nology of Turmeric Processing Furthermore, solar drying achieved and Suggestions for Mechanisa- the safe moisture content of 7.2 % tion. The Andhra Agricultural (w.b.) within 64 hours (8 days) as Journal, 46 (3&4): 229-233. against 96 hours (12 days) in case Vikas Singhal. 1999. Turmeric. of sun drying, thus, saving 32 hours Indian Agriculture, Indian Eco- (4 days) of drying time. Hence, the nomic Data Research Centre, New solar drying method is the best pos- Delhi, pp 468-472. sible option when compared to sun Kachru, R.P. and P.K. Srivastava. drying. 1991. Processing of Turmeric. Spice India, 4 (9): 2-5. Official Analytical Methods of the American Spice Trade Associa- List of Notation tion. 1997. Method 2.0.

Curso = curcumin content of solar Official Analytical Methods of the dried turmeric rhizomes, g/100g of American Spice Trade Associa- sample tion. 1968. Method 18.0.

Cursu = curcumin content of sun Official Analytical Methods of the dried turmeric rhizomes, g/100g of American Spice Trade Associa- sample tion. 1997. Method 5.0.

Vo so = volatile oil of solar dried tur- Lowry, O.H., N.J. Rosebrough, A.L. meric rhizomes, ml/100g of sample Farr and R.J. Randall. 1951. Pro-

Vo su = volatile oil of sun dried tur- tein estimation. J. Biol. Chem., meric rhizomes, ml/100g of sample 193: 265. h = drying hours, number Official Analytical Methods of the m = moisture content of the sample, American Spice Trade Associa- % (w.b.) tion. 1975. Method 4.0.

Mso = moisture content of solar dried Anonymous. 1991. Turmeric. Spice turmeric rhizomes, % (w.b.) India, 4 (7): 2-5.

Msu = moisture content of sun dried Joseph Philip and P. Sethumadha- turmeric rhizomes, % (w.b.) van. 1980. Curing of Turmeric.

Olso = oleoresin content of solar In: Proceedings of the National dried turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g Seminar on Ginger and Turmeric, of sample April 8-9, Calicut, pp 198-201.

Olsu = oleoresin content of sun dried Balakrishanan, K.V. 1991. Spice turmeric rhizomes, g/100 g of Extracts. Indian Spices, 28 (2): sample 22-26.

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 13 Front Wheel Drive Effect on the Performance of the Agricultural Tractor

by H. Ortiz-Laurel D. Rössel J. G. Hermosilo-Nieto Professor Professor Professor Campus SLP-CP, Iturbide 73, Campus SLP-CP, Iturbide 73, Fac. Ciencias Agricolas y Forestales, Salinas de Hgo., S.L.P. C.P. 78600 Salinas de Hgo., S.L.P. C.P. 78600 U.A. Chih. MEXICO MEXICO Cd. Delicias, Chih. C.P. 33000 [email protected] [email protected] MEXICO [email protected]

Abstract Introduction to obtain the best tractive perfor- mance (De Souza et al., 1995). The performance of a rear wheel The rear axle is the driving axle Engine fuel efficiency is defined as drive and a front wheel assist trac- of the traditional tractor concept, the ratio fuel consumption to power tors was determined under identical with two big rear and two small front output. Engine speed affects power operating conditions. Both tractors wheels (TWD). The front wheels of output, daily fuel consumption, were of the same model and trade- a front wheel assist tractor are small- specific fuel consumption and en- mark. The tractors were instrument- er than the rear wheels. The front gine life. The parameters that affect ed in order to determine the drawbar wheels are driven through a mechan- the wheel traction are: wheelslip, pull and travel speed on stubble soil ical or hydraulic transmission which draught, weight on the traction axle, and fresh ploughed soil. The two can be turned on or off from the size and number of wheels on the wheel drive (TWD) was tested with operator’s work station. In Mexico, traction axle, and soil type. Trac- a 3-leg subsoiler (1.45 m working the market for four wheel drive trac- tive efficiency is a measure through width) and the front wheel assist tors is slowly increasing. Additional which the traction element trans- (FWA) with a 5-leg subsoiler (2.25 to the extra purchase, price farmers forms the torque acting over the axle m working width). Fuel consump- do not know exactly the real field on a horizontal drawbar pull. tion, field capacity and turning time performance of these new machines, According to Bashford et al. were determined in plots of 0.5 ha, therefore, it contributes to its low ac- (1985) it is necessary to consider with a 5 m headland for turning. Soil ceptance. It is important to provide the following to compute the opti- physical and mechanical properties information to farmers required for mum amount of ballast: (a) tractor were measured. The instrumentation a purchase decision. This data must configuration and dimensions, (b) indicated that on average the FWA be obtained through controlled field implement weight transfer, (c) travel pulls 18 kN while the TWD pulls tests and compared with the results speed, (d) type of ballast, and (e) 15 kN in stubble soil and 16.5 kN obtained worldwide. the permissible load on the traction against 13 kN on ploughed soil re- In order to maintain a steady and steering wheels. On the other spectively. Drawbar power was iden- draught force, it is required that the hand, Pearce (1986) found, on an tical on both tractors, because the largest dynamic load over the rear instrumented tractor operating with TWD travelled faster but at lower axle be provided within the safety an implement, that the best perfor- pull. On tilled soil, fuel consumption support of the wheels. This dynamic mance was a lower wheelslip with (l h-1) was nearly the same on both load is produced by the implement FWA having a value of 13 %, as tractors and it increased by 14 % on weight and during operation there is compared 28 % with TWD under stubble condition. In field capacity a weight transfer from the front axle the same load. It resulted in 0.9 ha (ha h-1), the FWA was 22 % superior to the rear. On the front wheel assist h-1 against 0.79 ha h-1, respectively. to the TWD, and it increased over tractors (FWA) the whole weight Kucera et al. (1985) analysed the 3 % under ploughed soil condition. is used to generate traction force. effect of the number of wheels on the The FWA spent 10.7 % more time The static weight distribution on drive axle of a FWA. They reported for turning. The soil condition did both axles is normally distributed as that, on stubble untilled ground, a not affect the turning time. 45/55 (front axle/rear axle) in order tractor with single rear wheels was

14 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 more efficient on fuel consumption Materials and Methods than one with dual rear wheels. On the other hand, Bashford et al. (1987) This experiment was undertaken found that on a FWA there were not on a field of 0.5 ha. For turning at significant differences, with (p ≥ the headlands, a space of 5 m was 0.05), on the tractive performance left. The experiment had a random when dual or single wheels were design. The main parameters were used on the rear axle. They conclud- type of traction (two wheel drive ed that, only for giving flotation or and four wheel drive) and ground for supporting an additional load on condition (stubble and tilled soil). Fig. 1 Three-point linkage the axle, can it be viable economi- The tested tractors were from Ford- dynamometer cally to use dual wheels. New Holland and their specifications Ortiz (1997) reported a compari- are showed in Table 1. The imple- son of a FWA tractor against a TWD ment used for the trials was a tractor tractor. At the same travel speed and mounted Category II subsoiler with nearly the same engine speed, the depth control wheels. The number FWA achieved, on average, a field ca- of legs can be changed on the frame, pacity 9 to 10 % higher than the TWD each one having spacings of 600 mm at the same load. Wheelslip was lower among them. The legs are inclined for the FWA which and achieved 50 forward and the frame has a “V” to 55 % more draught force. Bashford configuration. Both tractors were in- Fig. 2 Trailing wheel for measuring (1985) reported similar results by strumented by using a dynamometer tractor travel speed comparing the performance of both and a trailing wheel for measuring traction modes on a unique tractor. draught forces and tractor speed. In order to determine precisely Paul et al. (1989), showed that the The three-point hitch dynamom- the fuel consumption, time for field tractive effort developed by a FWA eter has been described by Sánchez work per hectare and turning time tractor increased by 50 % and that the (1999). It consisted of three inde- (%), the land was tilled by control- price of this tractor is approximately pendent gauged transducers (Fig. 1) ling the following: same operator, 20 % higher than the TWD. and a device for measuring the op- pattern of job undertaken, area for This study was undertaken to erating angle of upper link. A trail- turning, engine speed, implement investigate the field performance ing wheel was used for determining depth, sensibility of hydraulic sys- achieved from the front wheel drive the travel speed (Fig. 2). Figure 3 tem, ballast, density of fuel, brak- assist by comparing two instru- shows the complete data acquisition ing for turning, schedule time, land mented tractors on field trials under system. The recording and storing slope and optimum wheelslip. Fuel similar working conditions, in order device was a Campbell Scientific consumption was measured once to establish their operating advan- 21X datalogger. Each data point was the job was finished at the end of tages and disadvantages. recorded every 0.8 seg on each run. the day. Total working time was registered with a chronometer from Specification FORD 7610 (TWD) FORD 7610 (FWD) the beginning until the subsoiling Manufacture Domestic Brazil operation ended. Time for turning Purchase year (hours of usage) 1994 (3540) 1993 (4052) in the field was registered each time Minimum turning radius (m) 3.59 4.11 the implement was raised and low- Shipping weight (kg) 2622 2972 ered out from the turning area. Weight with ballast (kg) 4180 5100 Murillo (1985), describes an eco- Weight ratio (front/rear) 33/67 45/55 nomic analysis which was consid- Weight difference (kg, %) -920 (100) +920 (122) ered adequate for application to in Front tyres 10.00-16 14.9-24 this work. The purchase price for the Tyre inflation pressure (psi) 24 22 tractors on March, 1999 were: TWD Rear tyres 18.4-34 18.4-34 $ 21,000.00 USD, and the FWA $ Tyre inflation pressure (psi) 16 16 24,000.00 USD. The difference is Transmission 8 x 2 16 x 4 obviously due to the front wheel Maximum power (SAE J: 1349)(kw) 77 77 drive option. The price of fuel was Maximum torque at 1400 rpm (Nm) 306 306 $ 0.363 USD per litre, the operator's Rated engine speed (rpm) 2100 2100 wages per hour $ 0.125 USD, and the Table 1 Specifications of tested tractors for this research investment rate was 27 %.

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 15 could be resulting from the fact that tion decreased on both tractors. Results and Discussion it pulled a 3 leg implement, achieving Fuel consumption (l ha-1). The Stubble conditions an average value of 13 kN while the best treatment for this parameter The average soil physical condi- FWA had an average value of 16.5 was for the FWA with an average tions at a depth of 450 mm were: kN. These forces increased on the consumption of 13.76 l ha-1 (Table texture of sandy clay, a cone index stubble condition. Likewise, the aver- 2). The TWD consumed on aver- of 1338 kPa, moisture of 20.5 % and age drawbar power was slightly high- age 3.59 l ha-1 more because it apparent density of 3.35 g cm-3. er for the FWA. This is so because it travelled at higher speed and with Figure 4 shows that the imple- had a higher efficiency under average a higher wheelslip, and because it ment pulled by the FWA experi- tractive conditions and because it had to perform more turns since enced higher draught force values. pulled a wider implement, but slower. the implement was narrower. Fuel This is so because it operated with consumption per hectare was higher a wider implement. These values Fuel Consumption (l h-1) on stubble ground. The highest fuel are in good agreement with those The parameter l h-1 (Table 2) did consumption was observed with the found by Bashford et al. (1985). The not show significant differences TWD on stubble ground. The TWD average drawbar power was practi- between treatments with (p ≤ 0.05). on tilled land and FWA on stubble cally equal, as the TWD travelled at This was due to the fact that the had no significant differences. higher field speed. engines were working at the same The treatment with FWA on tilled load because of the good selection ground was the most economical Tilled Soil of implements, gear, and operating due to its additional traction. The average soil physical proper- engine speeds. On stubble ground, ties at a depth of 450 mm were: cone there was an increase of fuel con- Field Capacity (ha h-1) index of 882 kPa, moisture of 26% sumption because ground resistance FWA achieved better results for and apparent density of 2.3 g cm-3. was higher. The treatments with field capacity (Table 3). It achieved, Figure 5 shows that the drawbar higher consumption were on stubble on average, 0.742 ha h-1 while the pull required by the implement was condition for both types of traction TWD achieved only 0.596 ha h-1 very steady for the TWD, which devices. On tilled soil fuel consump- on tilled land. This difference was because the FWA covered more land THREE-POINT LINKAGE by using a wide implement (2.25 m) DYNAMOMETER and by selecting the 3th power gear. RIGHT TRANSDUCER The TWD had a working width of Excitation output INTERFACE LEFT TRANSDUCER channels SC32A 1.46 m and used the 3th direct gear. UPPER LINK TRANSDUCER Thus, the FWA run along the field DATALOGGER increased by 30 %. The travel speed ROTARY POTENTIOMETER of the FWA was slower because the Input channels COMPUTER implement had the greater number TACHOGENERATOR of legs. The TWD could not move Fig. 3 Complete data acquisition system the subsoiler with 5 legs under the Draught force, kN tested conditions. Traction along the 25 surface had an influence on the pa- rameter ha h-1 where the best perfor- 20 mance was obtained on the stubble condition. The best treatment for this parameter was the FWA on stubble 15 and tilled soil, while the TWD had better performance on tilled soil, but 10 always less field capacity than the Four drive wheel front wheel assist tractor. 5 Two wheel drive Turning Time (%) The TWD showed a great advan- 0 13951 17 33292521 37 53494541 57 696561 7773 tage, because its turning time was Date points 13.2 % and 13.8 % against 15.0 % Fig. 4 Measurements of draught force on a two wheel drive and and 15.2 % for the FWA, on stubble a four wheel drive tractor operating on stubble condition and tilled soil respectively. The front

16 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Soil Fuel consumption Soil Field capacity Turning time Tractor Tractor condition L/h L/ha condition (ha/h) (%) Two wheel drive Stubble 10.815 19.622 Two wheel drive Stubble 0.5510 0.1320 Two wheel drive Tilled 8.940 15.000 Two wheel drive Tilled 0.5963 0.1381 Front wheel assist Stubble 10.790 14.531 Front wheel assist Stubble 0.7426 0.1502 Front wheel assist Tilled 9.633 12.995 Front wheel assist Tilled 0.7415 0.1523 Table 2 Average values of fuel consumption (litres/hour and Table 3 Average values of field capacity and turning time litres/hectare) from both tractors on two soil conditions from both tractors on two soil conditions drive option reduced the efficiency turning time. sation of a front wheel assist trac- of field turning (Table 3). It is shown Acquiring a front wheel assist tor. Agricultural Mechanization in that turning on the field and ground tractor for subsoiling work with an Asia, Africa, and Latin America. conditions did not affect these results. annual usage of less than 600 hours 26 (1): 13-15. per year is not economical. Kucera, H.L., K.L. Larson and V.L. Operating Costs Hofman. 1985. Field performance The capital and operating costs tests of front wheel assist tractors. per hour of ownership for a FWA are REFERENCES ASAE Paper No. 85-1047. 13 p. higher than for the TWD. However, Murillo S., F. 1985. Equipo agrícola: considering the same annual usage, Bashford, L.L. 1985. Axle power Seleccion y administración. Ed. the high field capacity (ha/h) and distribution for a front wheel Tecnológica de Costa Rica. Car- less fuel consumption of the FWA assist tractor. Transactions of tago, Costa Rica. 213 p. can reduce its costs per hectare com- ASAE. 28: 1385-1388. Ortiz, L.H. 1997. Apuntes de la ma- pared to the TWD. Under the same Bashford, L.L., and K.B. Von. 1985. teria de motores y tracción. Co- analysis in this work, both tractors Front Wheel assist: Does it pay off. legio de Postgraduados, Campus achieved the same operating cost per Agricultural Engineering. 66: 7-9. S.L.P. México. hectare only when the FWA had an Bashford, L.L., G.R. Woerman and Paul, M. and E. Wilks. 1989. Driven annual usage of 600 hours and the G.J. Shropshire. 1985. Front wheel front axles for agricultural trac- TWD 800 hours. assist tractor performance in tors. ASAE Distinguished Lecture two and four wheel drive modes. Series, No. 14. 17 p. Transactions of ASAE. 28: 12-17. Pearce, A. 1986. Just how good is Bashford, L.L., K.B. Von, T.R. Way FWA Power farming 4: 1p. Conclusions and L. Xiaoxian. 1987. Perfor- Sanchez, A.E. 1999. Diseño, con- The following conclusions can be mance comparisons between du- strucción y calibración de un drawn from this work: als and singles on the rear axle of dinamómetro para la medición Data obtained from the instru- a front wheel assist tractor. Trans- de fuerzas en el enganche de tres mentation was adequate and precise. actions of ASAE. 30: 641-645. puntos del tractor. Unpublished Draught power was almost equal De Souza, E.G., L.F. Milanez and MSc. Thesis. Colegio de Postgrad- on both tractors. The two wheel N.J. Pinho. 1995. Ballast optimi- uados. México. ■■ drive tractor travelled faster but Draught force, kN draught was low while the front 25 wheel assist tractor ran slower and its draught was higher. 20 The front wheel assist tractor had less fuel consumption (l ha-1) than the two wheel drive on both soil con- 15 ditions. Both tractors showed higher consumption on stubble condition. 10 The front wheel assist tractor had Four drive wheel better field capacity than the two 5 wheel drive tractor on both soil con- Two wheel drive ditions. 0 The turning time (%) for the 13951 17 33292521 37 53494541 57 696561 7773 two wheel drive tractor was lower Date points than the front wheel assist tractor. Fig. 5 Measurements of draught force on a two wheel drive and Ground condition did not affect the a four wheel drive tractor operating on tilled soil condition

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 17 Development and Performance Evaluation of a Test Rig for Mechanical Metering of Sunflower Seeds

by Sukhbir Singh D. N. Sharma Asst. Agric. Engineer Professor Department of Agric. Engineering Department of Farm Power and Machinery CSKHPKV, Palampur-176062 (H.P.) CCSHAU, Hisar-125004 (Haryana) INDIA INDIA

Jagvir Dixit Dinesh Kumar Vatsa Asst. Professor Reseach Engineer Department of Agric. Engineering Department of Agric. Engineering SKUAST-K, Srinagar CSKHPKV, Palampur-176062 (H.P.) INDIA INDIA

(Jadhav et al., 1997). Sunflower is Abstract lems, several types of planters/drills a photo-insensitive crop, yet, it has viz., manually operated, animal A test rig with provision to ac- become an important crop in North drawn, and tractor-operated ma- commodate various seed metering India as it fits very well in the exist- chines, have been developed and units for mechanical metering of ing cropping pattern. At present, all evaluated in India and abroad. But, sunflower seeds was developed. the operations except primary till- these have not become popular due These seed metering units were age in the cultivation of sunflower to different cultural practices. Keep- mounted in the hoppers with an crop are done with traditional tools ing in view the simplicity of this angle of repose equal to that in and implements which are very method, a test rig was developed at original drills. Four seed metering inefficient, labour intensive, and the college of Agricultural Engr. & rollers were evaluated for regularity cumbersome to operate. Broad- Tech., CCSHAU, Hisar (India) to of seed spacing of sunflower at four casting and dibbling on ridges are evaluate different seed metering de- different speeds of 4.11, 7.97, 11.84 the primary methods particularly vice for sunflower seeds. and 16.04 m/min. A speed of 7.97 to used by small and marginal farm- 9.66 m/min. was found suitable for ers for sowing of sunflower seeds. mechanical metering of sunflower Broadcasting makes weeding very Description of the Test seed. A uniformly shaped cell type difficult and dibbling needs a large Rig (triangular small cell) with alumi- number of workers which are often num casting having 8 cells on its usually not available at the peak of The rig frame 455 x 265 mm size periphery was found suitable. the sowing season. Proper place- was fabricated by using 30 x 30 x 3 ment of seeds in rows is one of the mm size MS angle iron (Fig. 1). The important factors in crop produc- shape of the frame was like a box tion that can affect crop growth and with a vertical height of 915 mm. A Introduction yield. Uniformity of seeds in the seed hopper especially designed and Sunflower is one of the important row depends on the performance of fabricated from G. I. sheet to ac- oil seed crops of India that ranks a metering device for a drill. There- commodate the test rollers was fitted next to groundnut in oil content. It fore, the proper design of a metering on top of the rectangular frame. The is grown over an estimated area of device is an essential element for lower portion of the box was made 2.2 million hectares with an aver- satisfactory performance of a seed conical with an adjustable hopper age yield of 0.68 metric tonnes/ha drill. To cope up with these prob- opening and, below its conical part

18 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 in the sidewalls, circular openings (a) Crop Variety Seed box equal to diameter of seed roller were Sunflower seed of two identified provided for fitting the metering varieties of sunflower for Haryana Shaft roller. The roller was mounted on a region namely, MYCO-8 (M.S.

15 cm mild steel shaft supported at FH-8) hybrid variety and HS-1, a Roller the both ends by M.S. bushings on composite variety, were used in all the top of the main frame. The seed experiments. Pulley Wooden base delivering funnel behind the hopper (b) Seed Dimensions was divided into circular openings The dimensions of the seed for by conduit pipe for collection of both the varieties were measured metered seed by separate set of seed with a vernier caliper. A minimum metering rollers. A reduction gear of 20 seeds were taken for each with a ratio of 20:1 was mounted on variety and average characteristic the lower portion of the frame to re- dimensions of length, breadth and duce the speed of the 1440 rpm, 0.5 thickness were calculated. kW electric motor that was fitted on (c) Bulk Density the base of the frame. Several sizes The bulk density of seed was Reduction gear of V-belt pulleys were provided measured by using a cylindrical Fig. 1 Experimental test rig for the reduction gear shaft and the beaker having a fixed volume 90.03 seed metering shaft. An idler pulley cm3. A minimum of ten replications the performance of different seed maintained the belt tension. was taken for each variety. metering rollers. (d) Seed Moisture Content (b) Seed Column Height in Hopper Moisture content of various seed According to the Bureau of Indian samples of respective varieties was Standards, there should be mini- Variables and Their Mea- determined by using the hot air oven mum variation in the seed rates in surement method. relation to heights of seed column The variables of the study were in the box. This can be achieved grouped into two categories namely Machine Variables through proper design of hopper bot- crop and machine variables. The ef- (a) Hopper Dimensions tom. Therefore, in the present study, fect of all the variables, along with Design of the hopper (size, slope the seed column height in hopper their interactions, on the metering of side walls, and hopper bottom was kept to the three positions of 5, characteristics of the various types openings) has a significant effect 10 and 15 cm in both the varieties of seed metering rollers were evalu- on the performance of the metering (c) Seed Metering Rollers ated to determine the optimum pa- unit. It should provide free flow of The uniformity of plant stand in rameters. seed to the metering unit with mini- the field will depend on the meter- mum damage. A rectangular hopper ing quality of seed rollers. The seed Crop Variables (27.9 x 16.5 x 22.8 cm) made from metering roller is the most critical The functional performance of a M.S. sheet with appropriate side component for metering the re- seeding device largely depends on slopes and adjustable bottom open- quired quantity of seed accurately crop variety, shape and size, bulk ing with holding capacity of one- and uniformly with minimum seed density and moisture content. kilogram of seed, was fabricated. It damage. Accordingly, four differ- was fitted on the test rig to evaluate ent rollers (Fig. 2) were fabricated from teak wood and aluminum cast- Cell dimensions Roller Material of Number ing which could be easily fitted in Type of roller identity construction of cells Length/ Width Depth the seed hopper of the test rig. The dia (mm) (mm) (mm) rollers differed with respect to size Rectangular with Teak R1 8 18 12 6 slope wood and shape of cells on their periphery Teak and these details are given below in R2 Circular 8 17 - 7.5 wood Table 1. Uniformly shaped Aluminum The performance evaluation of R3 cell type 8 25 15 6 casting the above four seed metering rollers (triangular large cell) was carried out on a test rig spe- Uniformly shaped Aluminum R4 cell type 8 20 14 4.5 cifically developed and fabricated. casting (triangular small cell) The rollers were tested in both the Table 1 Detailed specifications of seed metering rollers varieties of sunflower at four differ-

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 19 ent speeds. The roller speeds were Variety Particulars varied by changing the size of the MYCO-8 hybrid HS-1 composite pulleys. The uniformity of seed me- Seed dimensions (mm) tering in terms of seed rate, percent Length 11.23 12.1 cell fill, seed germination, and seed Breadth 6.14 6.79 damage were compared for each Thickness 3.63 4.52 roller. Bulk density (g/cm3) 0.424 0.408 (d) Speed of Rollers Moisture content (%) 16.20 14.71 The peripheral speed of the me- Table 2 Seed dimensions, bulk density and moisture content of tering roller has considerable effect MYCO-8 hybrid variety and HS-1 composite variety on the uniformity of seed metering. For each vertical cell type metering four different rollers (Fig. 3) was metered by the cell of the metering roller, there is an optimum speed judged and compared in terms of roller was measured in terms of which gives the best uniformity of quantity of seed metered, volumet- volumetric cell fill percentage, ex- seed and minimum seed damage. ric cell fill percentage, seed germi- pressed as under: The following four speeds were se- nation, and seed damage as follows: Vcf = [W/ (r x n x N x V)] x 100 lected for this experiment. (a) Quantity of Seed Metered Peripheral Rotational The seed hopper was fitted with Where, speed (m/min) speed (RPM) the roller to be tested and filled with Vcf: Volumetric cell fill, percentage V1 4.11 17 the seed. The test was run for one- W: Weight of seed collected in one- V2 7.97 35 minute. The seed delivered by the minute (g) V3 11.84 46 roller was collected and weighed. r: Bulk density of metered seed, 3 V4 16.04 70 Three replications were taken for (g/cm ) The different rotational speeds each roller at each height, speed and n: Number of cells were obtained by changing the sets seed variety. Similarly, the amount N: Number of revolutions per min- of pulley in the test rig. of seed delivered by the other three ute rollers were also collected and V: Volumetric capacity of each cell, Performance Parameters of Seed weighed. (cm 3) Metering Rollers (b) Volumetric Cell Fill Percentage For selection of the optimum roll- The working performance of the The number of seed collected/ er, the volumetric cell fill percent-

All dimensions are in Cms

FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW

Fig. 2(1) Seed metering roller (R1) Fig. 2(2) Seed metering roller (R2)

SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW

Fig. 2(3) Seed metering roller (R3) Fig. 2(4) Seed metering roller (R4)

20 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 age of each roller was calculated sions, bulk density and moisture and compared for both varieties. content of both varieties of sunflow- (c) Seed Germination er. The dimensions of the MYCO-8 The seed germination of both hybrid variety were smaller as com- fresh and metered seed of all the pared to the HS-1 composite variety. samples under laboratory conditions The average bulk density was 0.424 were measured by sowing a counted and 0.4081 g/cm3 for MYCO-8 hy- number of seeds (30 seed sample) brid variety and HS-1 composite va- in G.I. sheet trays. The germination riety, respectively. While moisture was counted ten days after sowing. content was observed as 16.2 and (d) Seed Damage 14.17 % for the MYCO-8 and HS-1 The extent of seed damage due to variety, respectively. The bulk den- mechanical metering by rollers was sity of seeds increased with increase calculated on the basis of laboratory in moisture content. germination test on metered and un- metered in all seed samples which Evaluation of Machine Variables Fig. 3 Performance evaluation of was calculated as shown below: (i) Quantity of Seed Metered seed metering rollers Seed damage (%) = Germination of Table 3 indicates that with roller,

un-metered seed (%) - Germina- R3, the highest quantities of seed able feature for a planter. There tion of seed metered by the roller were metered in all the seed depths was almost a linear relationship (%) and speeds of operation and were between quantity of seed metered highly significant as compared and speed of operation with all the

to R1, R2 and R4. With roller, R4, rollers except R2, where an increase though the quantity of seed metered in quantity of seed metered was Results and Discussion was lower than R1, R2 and R3 for all less as speed of operation increased Evaluation of Crop Variables speeds, it was capable of metering from 33 rpm. This was because of Table 2 shows the seed dimen- 2 to 3 seeds/cell which was a desir- the circular cell shape which may

Roller x MYCO-8, Hybrid HS-1, Composite

height V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean

R1 x h1 4.93 9.27 10.92 15.38 10.12 4.83 8.04 10.72 14.44 9.50

R1 x h2 5.41 9.33 11.43 15.85 10.50 5.09 8.21 11.15 14.83 9.82

R1 x h3 5.60 9.52 11.97 16.09 10.79 5.29 8.47 11.51 15.19 10.11 Mean 5.31 9.37 11.44 15.77 10.47 5.07 8.24 11.12 14.82 9.81

R2 x h1 11.04 18.33 10.82 28.20 19.59 10.96 16.30 19.20 27.30 18.44

R2 x h2 11.227 18.48 21.94 28.51 20.05 11.14 16.80 20.05 27.70 18.92

R2 x h3 11.58 20.66 22.72 28.73 20.92 11.31 19.73 21.52 28.10 20.16 Mean 11.29 19.15 21.82 28.48 20.18 11.13 17.61 20.25 27.70 19.17

R3 x h1 11.72 20.88 25.99 34.66 23.13 10.44 18.55 24.30 33.05 21.58

R3 x h2 12.02 21.25 27.01 35.22 23.87 11.68 19.58 25.17 33.65 22.52

R3 x h3 12.52 21.45 27.52 35.99 24.37 12.03 19.88 26.21 34.28 23.10 Mean 12.08 21.19 26.60 35.29 23.79 11.38 19.33 25.22 33.66 22.40

R4 x h1 5.04 7.56 9.68 13.12 8.85 4.20 7.18 9.49 12.05 8.23

R4 x h2 5.40 7.88 9.99 13.25 9.13 4.69 7.32 9.69 12.16 8.46

R4 x h3 5.69 8.15 10.28 13.79 9.47 4.83 8.02 10.17 12.45 8.86 Mean 5.37 7.86 9.98 13.38 9.15 4.57 7.50 9.78 12.22 8.51 Factor combination CD (5%) CD (5%) Roller 0.0363 0.0392 Height (cm) 0.0315 0.0339 Speed (m/min) 0.0363 0.0392 Roller x height 0.0629 0.0678 Roller x speed 0.0727 0.0738 Speed x height 0.0629 0.0678 Roller x height x speed 0.1258 0.1357 Table 3 Quantity of seed metered by different rollers (g/min)

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 21 not fill properly at higher speeds. In results on mechanical metering of slightly higher average values of cell other rollers, because of the uniform pre-germinated rice seeds. fill percentage were obtained with shape of cells, entry of seed, even at (ii) Volumetric Cell Fill Percentage MYCO-8 hybrid variety as com- higher speed, was better. The quan- Table 4 shows that the highest pared to HS-1 composite variety. tity of seed metered by the rollers volumetric cell fill percentage was (iii) Seed Germination at 15 cm height in the hopper was with roller, R3 (20.45 %), at 15 cm Table 5 shows that seed germi- maximum with R3 (35.99 g/min), seed-column height followed by nation was highest with roller, R4, followed by R2 (28.73 g/min), R1 R4 (16.65 %), R1 (14.55 %), and R2 (85.13 %) followed by R1, R2, and

(16.09 g/min), and R4 (13.79 g/min). (13.45 %) all at 17 rpm roller speed R3, respectively, in MYCO-8 hybrid This was because of better entry of with MYCO-8 hybrid variety. variety. Higher germination was seeds in the cells due to additional Though volumetric capacity of roll- recorded at 10 cm depth of seed 3 weight of seeds above the roller er, R4, was only 0.593 cm , because in the box for all the rollers at all cells. of the uniform triangular shape speeds. The seed germination was Table 3 also indicates that the of cell, the seed entry was better adversely affected by depth of seed roller R3 metered the highest and R4 as compared to rollers, R1 and R2. column height in the hopper. This metered the least quantity of seed There was a highly significant de- was because of seed damage by the with the HS-1 variety. The slightly crease in the seed occupancy as the roller at the cut-off device as more reduced quantitiy of seed metered speed of the roller increased from seeds entered the cells. As the roller by all rollers with this variety was 17 rpm to 70 rpm. speed was increased from 17 rpm due to the varietal characters of In HS-1 composite variety, roller, to 70 rpm there was a reduction in shape, size of seed, and lower bulk R3 also gave highest average volu- seed germination for all rollers at all density. Srivastava et al. (1988) metric cell fill percentage (20.41 seed column heights in MYCO-8. reported that shape and size of the %) followed by R4, R1, and R2, re- However, on an average, lower seed cells of seed metering rollers sig- spectively, at 15 cm seed height in germination was recorded for all nificantly affect the quantity of seed the box at 17 rpm roller speed. Due rollers with the HS-1 composite va- metered and seed occupancy of the to difference in seed dimensions riety. This could be due to varietal cell. Ritu (1995) supported these and other physical characteristics, character and quality of seed. Table

Roller x MYCO-8, Hybrid HS-1, Composite

height V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean

R1 x h1 12.79 12.40 10.47 9.69 11.33 13.00 11.16 10.68 9.45 11.07

R1 x h2 14.05 12.47 10.96 9.98 11.86 13.73 11.39 11.11 9.71 11.48

R1 x h3 14.55 12.72 11.48 10.14 12.22 14.27 11.76 11.47 9.94 11.86 Mean 13.80 12.53 10.97 9.93 11.80 13.66 11.43 11.08 9.70 11.47

R2 x h1 12.84 10.99 8.95 7.96 10.18 13.25 10.15 8.57 8.01 9.99

R2 x h2 13.12 11.07 9.43 8.05 10.41 13.47 10.46 8.96 8.13 10.25

R2 x h3 13.45 12.39 9.76 8.11 10.92 13.68 12.28 9.61 8.24 10.95 Mean 13.13 11.48 9.38 8.04 10.50 13.46 10.96 9.04 8.12 10.39

R3 x h1 19.14 17.57 15.26 13.74 16.42 17.71 16.22 15.24 13.62 15.69

R3 x h2 19.63 17.87 16.30 13.96 16.94 19.82 17.11 15.78 13.86 16.64

R3 x h3 20.45 18.05 16.61 14.27 17.34 20.41 17.38 16.44 14.12 17.08 Mean 19.74 17.83 16.05 13.99 16.90 19.31 16.90 15.82 13.86 16.47

R4 x h1 14.73 11.39 10.45 9.32 11.47 12.78 11.23 10.65 8.89 10.88

R4 x h2 15.80 11.87 10.79 9.40 11.96 14.26 11.45 10.88 8.97 11.39

R4 x h3 16.65 12.27 11.11 9.78 12.45 14.67 12.55 11.42 9.18 11.95 Mean 15.73 11.84 10.78 9.50 11.96 13.90 11.74 10.98 9.01 11.40 Factor combination CD (5%) CD (5%) Roller 0.0237 0.0282 Height (cm) 0.0205 0.0245 Speed (m/min) 0.0237 0.0282 Roller x height 0.0411 0.0489 Roller x speed 0.0474 0.0565 Speed x height 0.0411 0.0489 Roller x height x speed 0.0822 0.0978 Table 4 Effect of roller type, seed-column height in hopper and seed of operation on volumetric cell fill (percentage)

22 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Roller x MYCO-8, Hybrid HS-1, Composite

height V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean

R1 x h1 85.44 84.43 82.18 80.07 83.03 80.07 79.47 75.08 74.22 77.21

R1 x h2 85.62 85.22 82.32 81.40 83.64 81.18 79.25 75.99 73.48 77.47

R1 x h3 85.99 85.59 82.40 80.29 83.56 80.99 79.39 75.10 74.26 77.43 Mean 85.68 85.08 82.30 80.60 83.41 80.74 79.37 75.39 73.98 77.37

R2 x h1 86.36 85.03 80.33 80.66 83.09 78.44 78.40 75.40 73.10 76.33

R2 x h2 86.06 84.81 80.26 78.95 82.52 80.55 78.58 74.10 72.48 76.42

R2 x h3 85.88 82.05 82.29 78.22 82.28 80.48 77.70 73.77 72.44 73.09 Mean 86.10 83.96 80.96 79.30 82.63 79.82 78.22 74.42 72.67 72.28

R3 x h1 86.66 85.25 78.26 77.67 81.96 80.88 77.40 73.14 72.40 75.95

R3 x h2 85.55 84.40 80.48 78.55 82.24 80.36 79.17 73.62 74.33 76.87

R3 x h3 86.36 85.22 81.43 77.58 82.64 79.90 77.70 76.07 74.44 77.02 Mean 86.19 84.95 80.05 77.93 82.28 80.38 78.09 74.27 73.72 76.61

R4 x h1 88.07 86.29 84.11 82.25 85.18 82.03 80.66 77.26 76.29 79.06

R4 x h2 87.29 87.03 83.36 82.36 85.01 82.18 81.29 77.40 75.41 79.07

R4 x h3 88.15 87.13 84.26 81.33 85.21 81.88 80.33 76.77 75.96 78.73 Mean 87.84 86.81 83.99 81.98 85.13 82.03 80.76 77.14 75.88 78.95 Factor combination CD (5%) CD (5%) Roller 0.1729 0.2339 Height (cm) 0.1505 0.2026 Speed (m/min) 0.1738 0.2329 Roller x height 0.3010 0.4052 Roller x speed 0.3457 0.4678 Speed x height 0.3010 0.4052 Roller x height x speed 0.6019 0.8103 Table 5 Effect of roller type, speed of operation and seed-column height in hopper on seed germination

Roller x MYCO-8, Hybrid HS-1, Composite

height V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean V1 V2 V3 V4 Row mean

R1 x h1 4.55 5.56 7.48 9.92 6.87 4.92 5.52 9.91 10.78 7.78

R1 x h2 85.62 85.22 82.32 81.40 83.64 81.18 5.74 9.00 11.51 7.51

R1 x h3 85.99 85.59 82.40 80.29 83.56 80.99 5.60 9.89 10.74 7.55 Mean 85.68 85.08 82.30 80.60 83.41 80.74 5.62 9.60 11.01 7.61

R2 x h1 86.36 85.03 80.33 80.66 83.09 78.44 6.60 9.59 11.89 8.66

R2 x h2 86.06 84.81 80.26 78.95 82.52 80.55 6.41 10.89 12.52 8.56

R2 x h3 85.88 82.05 82.29 78.22 82.28 80.48 7.29 11.22 12.56 8.89 Mean 86.10 83.96 80.96 79.30 82.63 79.82 6.76 10.56 12.32 8.70

R3 x h1 86.66 85.25 78.26 77.67 81.96 80.88 7.59 11.85 12.59 9.03

R3 x h2 85.55 84.40 80.48 78.55 82.24 80.36 5.83 11.37 10.67 8.12

R3 x h3 86.36 85.22 81.43 77.58 82.64 79.90 6.14 8.93 10.55 7.68 Mean 86.19 84.95 80.05 77.93 82.28 80.38 6.52 10.71 11.27 8.27

R4 x h1 88.07 86.29 84.11 82.25 85.18 82.03 4.33 7.74 8.71 5.93

R4 x h2 87.29 87.03 83.36 82.36 85.01 82.18 3.71 7.59 9.59 5.92

R4 x h3 88.15 87.13 84.26 81.33 85.21 81.88 4.67 8.22 9.04 6.26 Mean 87.84 86.81 83.99 81.98 85.13 82.03 4.23 7.85 9.11 6.03 Factor combination CD (5%) CD (5%) Roller 0.1729 0.2339 Height (cm) 0.1505 0.2026 Speed (m/min) 0.1738 0.2329 Roller x height 0.3010 0.4052 Roller x speed 0.3457 0.4678 Speed x height 0.3010 0.4052 Roller x height x speed 0.6019 0.8103 Table 6 Effect of roller type, speed of operation and seed-column height in hopper on seed damage

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 23 5 clearly shows that roller, R4, having sunflower production. AMA. 28 uniformly shaped small cells which (4): 67-70. can accommodate 2 to 3 seeds/cell Ritu,B. 1995. Techno-economic at speeds of 33 to 40 rpm, is consid- feasibility of mechanical planting ered optimum for maximum seed of dry and pre-germinated rice germination in both the varieties. seeds. M. Tech. Thesis, CCSHAU, (iv) Seed Damage Hisar. The damage to the seed varied Robinson R.G. 1982. Response of from 1 to 13 % in both the varieties. sunflower to uniformity of plant Table 6 shows that the least dam- spacing. Agronomy Journal, age was observed with roller, R4, at 72(2): 363. 15 cm height at 4 m/min (17 rpm) Srivastava, A.P. and Panwar, J.S. speed and maximum seed damage 1988. Optimum sprout length for (12.41 %) was observed with roller, sowing pre-germinated paddy

R 3, at 70 rpm with 15 cm height seeds in puddled soil. AMA.19 of seed column in the hopper. The (3): 43-46. lower seed damage with roller, R4, Tabassum, M.A. and Khan, A.S. was due to proper geometry of seed 1992. Development of a test rig cells which accommodated 2 to 3 for performance evaluation of seeds/hill. However, when the speed seed metering device. AMA.23 of roller, R4, was increased from (4): 53-56. 15 rpm to 70 rpm, the damage in- ■■ creased from 1.85 % to 8.67 %. Similarly, with the HS-1 variety, higher seed damage was recorded with R2 at all speeds and seed heights. The minimum seed dam- age (2.81 %) was observed with R4 for HS-1 at 17 rpm. It was optimum for use in the sunflower planter up to 33 rpm. Similarly, for MYCO-8 variety, roller, R4, up to 40 rpm of operation was optimum.

Conclusions

The roller, R4, having uniformly shaped cell type (triangular small cell) with aluminum casting and 8 cells on its periphery, gave optimum seed quantity and cell fill percent- age, maximum seed germination, and minimum seed damage. Thus,

R4 with speeds between 17 and 40 rpm, along with 15 cm height of seed in the box are optimum for use in development of a sunflower planter.

REFERENCES

Jadhav, R.V. and Turbathmath, P.A. 1997. Effect of mechanization on

24 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Design Development and Performance Evaluation of a Saw Cylinder Cleaner for Mechanically Picked Cotton

by S. K. Shukla P. G. Patil Scientist (Mech. Engg.) Scientist (Sr. Scale) (Agric. Engg.) & Officer Ginning Training Centre of Central Institute for In-charge Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT) ICAR, Ginning Training Centre of Central Institute for Nagpur-440 023 Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT) ICAR, INDIA Nagpur-440 023 INDIA

V. G. Arude Scientist (Mech. Engg.) Ginning Training Centre of Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT) ICAR, Nagpur-440 023 INDIA

49.6 %, respectively. There was no taminants are plastic, plastic film, Abstract measurable fibre damage observed jute/hessian, leaves, feathers, paper, A saw-cylinder cleaner was de- during trash removal in all trials of leather, sand, dust, rust, metal, wire, signed, developed and its perfor- cleaning operations whereas slight sticks and stems. (Santhanam and mance evaluated. The major compo- improvement in uniformity ratio Sundaram, 1999). nents of the machine were hopper, was observed in all trials of clean- Presently, in India, cotton, wheth- feeder, kicker cylinder, saw cylin- ing operations. er irrigated or rain fed, is entirely ders, doffing brush cylinders, load- hand picked (Sandhar, 1999). One ing brushes, grid bars and deflec- adult person can pick 20 to 70 kg of tors. The feeder received seed cot- cotton per day as compared to 870 Introduction ton from the hopper and delivered to 2180 kg per day by a single row it to the kicker cylinder. The kicker India ranks first in the world in spindle type cotton picker (Prasad cylinder loosened the seed cotton area under cotton cultivation with and Majumdar, 1999). Hand picking and kicked it to the first stage of 8.6 million ha during 2001-02 and is not only tedious, hard work but the machine. Then, the seed cotton the third largest producer of cotton also ten times more costly than ir- was reclaimed and further cleaned fibre in the world after China and rigation and about twice the cost of in the second and third stages of USA. The average productivity of weeding. In recent years, it has been the machine, respectively. Trash cotton in the country is about 310 observed that there are labour short- removed in each stage and cleaned kg lint/ha as compared to a world ages during peak periods of cotton seed cotton were routed directly average of 650 kg lint/ha. Nearly harvesting. In order to meet the out of the machine. The capacity 60 % of cotton cultivation is grown scarcity of labour, efforts need to of the developed saw cylinder was under rain fed conditions and the be concentrated on mechanization found to be 800 kg seed cotton/hr. remaining 40 % is irrigated (Naray- of cotton harvesting. The use of the The stick removal efficiency and anan and Sundaram, 1999). Indian mechanical picking machine will fine trash content removal percent- cotton is the most contaminated cot- minimize the drudgery involved in age were found to be 87.0 % and ton in the world and the main con- hand picking as well as enhancing

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 25 production of a cleaner grade of nents interfere with the operation of seed cotton. The mechanical cotton gin stand and contribute to the fine picking system will also be helpful trash and bark content of the ginned in achieving timeliness of operation lint (Baker and Laird, 1982). Stick for next crop. removal is particularly important Two types of mechanical harvest- because of the close relationship ing equipment are used to harvest between sticks content of cotton be- cotton; namely, spindle pickers fore ginning and bark content of the and strippers (McMillan and Har- ginned lint (Laird and Baker, 1975). rington, 1991). The picker is a se- A two-stage saw cylinder cleaner lective-type harvester that removes was designed, developed, and seed cotton only from well-opened evaluated for its performance in an bolls. Green, unopened bolls are left attempt to remove the large veg- on the plant to mature for later pick- etative trash components present ing. The stripper is a nonselective or in mechanically harvested cotton. once over machine that removes not This machine used sling off action only the well-opened bolls but also of high speed rotating saw cylinders cracked and unopened bolls along by utilizing centrifugal force and Fig. 2 Side view of saw cylinder cleaner with the burs and other foreign mat- the stripping action of round grids ter (Miller, 1960; McMillan and positioned about the circumference The function of each part and their Harrington, 1991). of each cylinder to extract burs and brief description are as follows: Foreign matter concentration in sticks from the cotton. machine picked seed cotton nor- Hopper mally ranges from 5 to 10 percent A trapezium shaped hopper was before gin processing (Anthony, placed at the top of the machine to Materials and Methods 1990). Approximately 80 % of this feed the seed cotton. It has capacity trash is composed of burs and sticks, The saw cylinder cleaner consist- to store 5-6 kg of seed cotton. There which are large plant components. ed of three saw cylinders, two doff- was an opening at the bottom of the If large plant components are not ing-brush cylinders, three loading hopper through which the seed cot- removed from cotton, these compo- brushes and three grid bars arranged ton was fed to feeders. in a special configuration which is INPUT illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. Feeders A side view of the developed saw Directly below the hopper were

A cylinder cleaner is shown in Fig. 2. the two feeder cylinders with a The height, width and length of the preset clearance between them to E B machine was 2100 mm, 240 mm, uniformly feed the seed cotton to a

C 1500mm, respectively. The first kicker cylinder. The required sur- F (top) saw cylinder served as the pri- face speed of the feeder cylinders mary sling off cylinder for the first for a uniform supply of cotton was E stage of extraction, and the second obtained through reduction gears.

D F C saw cylinder served as reclaimer for its seed cotton. The once-cleaned Kicker Cylinder and reclaimed seed cotton was then The kicker cylinder, as mentioned

COTTON redirected to the third saw cylinder above, picks up cotton from the FLOW for a second and final stage of clean- feeder cylinders. This cylinder had E TRASH ing. Trash removed was routed di- spikes all over its surface, which FLOW F rectly out of the machine. Doffing- opened the wads and clods of seed C D brush cylinders were used to doff cotton, and made the seed cotton the cleaned seed cotton from each suitable for saw cylinder cleaning. CLEANED COTTON saw cylinder just after stripping ac- The kicker roller rotated at very tion of round grids positioned about high speed so that all the cotton A - FEEDER B - KICKER CYLINDER the circumference of each cylinder. adhering to it, along with the sticks C - SAW CYLINDER TRASH D - DOFFING BRUSH CYLINDER EXIT and burrs, was loosened by centrif- E - LOADING BRUSH The first doffing cylinder served for F - GRID BAR both first and second saw cylinders ugal force and was kicked towards Fig. 1 DiagramFig. 1 ofSaw saw Cylinder cylinder Cleaner cleaner to reduce the height of the machine. first saw cylinder.

26 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 SAW CYLINDER

SAW CYLINDER Thus, the heavier matter, such as SAW BANDS burrs and sticks, were freed from the grip of saw teeth and resulted in their separation from the seed cot- ton. SAW BANDS

Grid Bars The grid bar system that envel- oped (flanked) the saw cylinder on one side was made of two types of Fig. 3 Saw Cylinder alongwith Saw Bands bars, as shown in Fig. 5. The first type of grid bar consisted of 11.6 Fig. 3 Saw cylinder along with saw bands mm diameter rods spaced at 200. Fig. 3 Saw Cylinder alongwith Saw Bands The second type consisted of one DOFFING rod of 11.6 mm diameter with the BRUSH other rods having a 5.4 mm diam- HOLDER eter. The angle between the first and second rods was 160 and the angle DOFFING BRUSH between the other rods was 13.80. SHAFT HOLDER The bars were attached near their ends to two arc-shaped rectangular

BRUSH CYLINDER plates such that the system of bars SHAFT and plates assumed the shape of a bent ladder. The rungs of the ladder were equally spaced except for the BRUSH CYLINDER DOFFING BRUSHES two top rungs where the spacing Fig. 4 Doffing brush cylinder was somewhat larger than the other Fig. 4 Doffing Brush Cylinder pairs. This arrangement allowed Saw Cylinders ricated by mountingDOFFING equally spaced for speedy removal of heavy trash The saw cylinders were used to nylon brushes overBRUSHES the periphery through the top two rungs of the remove the trash from the seed cot- of steel cylinders as shown in Fig. grid. The cotton was then scrubbed Fig. 4 Doffing Brush Cylinder ton. Specially designed saw bands, 4. The bristle of brushes was se- between the remainder of the grid as shown in Fig. 3, were fitted over curely fitted in wooden holders. In bars and any loose, lighter trash was the periphery of saw cylinders. The the present set up, the first doffing- hurled through the grid bars towards saw bands are fabricated by cut- brush cylinder was used for the a trash, screw conveyor. ting a typical profile on alloy steel first two saw cylinders to conserve sheets with the help of a punch and space. The position of the axis of the Deflectors die. The saw bands were then bent cylinder with respect to the two axes Right below each saw cylinder in circular shapes and hardened to of the saw cylinders was carefully was a thin plate a small distance withstand the scrubbing force be- adjusted for this purpose. There was from the tip of saw teeth. The seed tween saw teeth and the seed cotton. also a provision to accurately adjust cotton, after leaving the grid bars, They were mounted over saw cylin- for the position of the axis in case of was carried forward through the nar- ders in such a way that the spacing wear and tear of the bristles of the row passage between this plate and between each saw band was equal to brushes. the width of an individual saw band. GRID BAR The surface speed of the saw cylin- Loading Brushes ders was selected so that the centrif- A loading brush was placed on ugal force was 20 to 30 times that of the top of each saw cylinder such SIDE SUPPORT the force of gravity. This centrifugal that the cotton on the saw cylinders FOR BAR force was quite sufficient to loosen forced its way through the bristles the entangled sticks and burrs from before being scrubbed between the the seed cotton. surface of the saw cylinder and a grid bar system. The loading brush Doffing Brush Cylinders further loosend the entangled sticks Doffing-brush cylinders were fab- and burrs from the seed cotton. Fig. 5 Grid bar assembly

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 27 the saw cylinder towards a doffing- it would simulate machine-picked ficiency of the machine ranged from brush cylinder. The gap was narrow cotton. The total number of sticks 84.5 % to 90.0 % for the five trials so that only cotton was allowed removed in each trial was counted conducted with average of 87.0 %. towards the doffing brushes. The to assess the stick removal perfor- Percentage of fine trash content re- sticks and burrs, if any, were blocked mance of the machine. The cleaned moval was found to be in the range and fell on a second saw cylinder seed cotton obtained from each trial of 43.8 % to 58.3 % for the five tri- for further cleaning. The loading and the control seed cotton were als conducted with average of 49.6 brush, grid bars, blocking plate and ginned on double roller (DR) gins. %. Fine trash content removal per- doffing-brush cylinder stages were The lint samples obtained after centage was lower as the machine provided for the saw cylinder. Addi- ginning were analysed on MAG- was designed for removing large tional design details for this machine SITRA trash separator for fine trash plant components (sticks and burrs). are given in Table 1. content and on High Volume Instru- The 2.5 % span length of lint fibres ment (HVI) for its fibre properties varies from 21.9 to 22.2 mm for dif- Performance Evaluation which were 2.5% span length, uni- ferent trials as well as for control. It Five sets of trials were conducted formity ratio, fineness and strength. is evident that no fibre damage oc- to assess the performance of the curred while in the developed saw developed saw-cylinder cleaner. For cylinder cleaner. However, slight these trials, this machine was in- improvement in uniformity ratio Results and Discussion stalled in our laboratory. Five hun- was observed in each trial due to dred kg of seed cotton was used in The fibre properties, trash content separation of short fibres during each trial from a single lot. The cot- and time required to clean the seed cleaning operations. ton was fed manually and uniformly cotton are shown in Table 2. The to the machine in each trial. Since output capacity of this machine, machine-picked cotton was not percentage of sticks removed and Conclusions and Recom- available in India, 400 cotton plant percentage of fine trash content re- mendations sticks were added and thoroughly moved are shown in Table 3. mixed in the seed cotton prior to The capacity of the developed saw • The overall performance of the cleaning in each trial. The stick siz- cylinder was found to be 800 kg developed machine was satisfactory es were selected in such a way that seed cotton/h. The stick removal ef- • The capacity of the developed

Items Specifications Items Specifications Saw Cylinder First Grid Bar Diameter, mm 420 Diameter, mm 11.6 Saw band width, mm 16 No. of rods 7 Saw band spacing, mm 16 Angular spacing, deg 20 Operating speed, rpm 360 Clearance to saw, mm 12.5 First Doffing Brush Cylinder Second Grid Bars Diameter, mm 398 Firsr rod No. of brushes 16 Diameter, mm 11.6 Operating speed, rpm 1,080 Angular spacing, deg 16 Second Doffing Brush Cylinder Other rods Diameter, mm 314 Diameter, mm 5.4 No. of brushes 12 No. of rods 15 Operating speed, rpm 1,080 Angular spacing, deg 13.8 Clearance to saw, mm 12.5 Table 1 Design characteristics of saw cylinder cleaner

Time required No. of sticks Fine trash 2.5 % Span Uniformity Fineness Bundle Experiment to process (s) removed content (%) length (mm) ratio (%) (Micronaire) strength (g/tex) Control - - 4.8 25.6 45 4.1 22.2 Trial 1 2,325 360 2.4 25.3 46 4.0 21.9 Trial 2 2,212 352 2.1 25.4 47 4.1 22.0 Trial 3 2,362 340 2.8 25.4 46 4.1 21.8 Trial 4 2,295 350 2.4 25.5 48 4.0 22.1 Trial 5 2,235 338 2.2 25.3 46 4.1 21.9 Table 2 Fibre properties, trash content and time required to clean seed cotton

28 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Capacity Sticks removed Fine trash content Experiment (kg/h) (%) removed (%) Trial 1 774.2 90.0 50.0 Trial 2 813.7 88.0 43.8 Trial 3 762.0 85.0 58.3 Trial 4 784.3 87.5 50.0 Trial 5 805.4 84.5 45.8 Average ≈ 800.0 87.0 49.6 Table 3 Output capacity, percentage of sticks removed and percentage of fine trash content removed saw cylinder was found to be 800 kg From sticks to bark. Cotton Gin- seed cotton/h. ners’ Journal and Yearbook. Vol. • The stick removal efficiency was 43 (1): 27-32. found to be 87.0 percent. McMillan, D. and Harrington, R. • Percentage of fine trash content 1991. John Deere Tractors and removal was found to be 49.6 per- Equipment (1960-1990). Booklet cent. published by American Society of • There was no measurable fibre Agricultural Engineers. damage observed during trash re- Miller, H.F. 1960. Swift Untiring moval in all trials of cleaning opera- Harvest Help In Power to Pro- tions. duce. The year book of agricul- • Slight improvement in unifor- ture, Washington, D.C., USDA: mity ratio was observed in all trials 164-183. of cleaning operations. Narayanan, S. S and Sundaram, V. • More stages of cleaning saw 1999. Improved sustainability of cylinders may be incorporated to in- cotton in India by enhancing its crease the efficiency of the machine. production and improving quality. • Grid bar spacing may be varied Paper presented in International to increase the efficiency of the ma- seminar on cotton and its utiliza- chine. tion in the 21st century held at • The performance of the machine CIRCOT, Mumbai during Decem- may be evaluated after varying the ber 10-12th 1999. Book of papers: saw band spacing over the saw cyl- 4-15. inders. Prasad, J. and Majumdar, G. 1999. • The performance of the machine Present practices and future needs may be evaluated after changing the of mechanization of cotton pick- saw band tooth profile. ing in India. Paper presented • For better performance of the during Indo-Uzbek Workshop machine, well opened seed cotton on Agricultural Research during specially pre-cleaned in a cylinder November 15-16 held at CIAE, cleaner should be used. Bhopal. Sandhar, N. S. 1999. Present practic- es and future needs of mechaniza- REFERENCES tion of cotton picking/harvesting in India. Paper presented during Anthony, W. S. 1990. Performance Indo-Uzbek Workshop on Agri- characteristics of cotton ginning cultural Research during Novem- machinery. Transaction of ASAE, ber 15-16 held at CIAE, Bhopal. Vol. 33: 1089-1098. Santhanam,V and Sundaram, V. Baker, R. V. and Laired, J. W. 1982. 1999. Harvest and Post-harvest Potentials for improving stick ma- measures to reduce contamination chine performance. Transaction of in cotton. Handbook of cotton in ASAE, Vol. 25(1): 198-203, 209. India. ISCI: 283-289. Laired, J. W and Baker, R.V. 1975. ■■

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 29 Design Development and Performance Evaluation of Portable Cotton Ginning Machines

by P. G. Patil V. G. Arude Scientist (Sr. Scale) (Agric. Engg.) & Officer Scientist (Mech. Engg.) In-charge Ginning Training Centre of Central Institute for Ginning Training Centre of Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT) ICAR, Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT) ICAR, Nagpur-440 023 Nagpur-440 023 INDIA INDIA

S. K. Shukla Scientist (Mech. Engg.) Ginning Training Centre of Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT) ICAR, Nagpur-440 023 INDIA

ated gin and the Lilliput gin, were commercial market and, at this time, Abstract designed at Ginning Training Centre 20 foot operated gins and 75 Lil- The cotton breeder must ascertain of Central Institute for Research liput gins are in use in agricultural the fibre properties (span length, on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT), universities, seed industries, ginner- fibre fineness, maturity, strength) Nagpur (India). The foot operated ies and with the farmers. The foot and ginning percentage (GP) for gin and the Lilliput gin have a gin- operated gin is much more suitable hundreds of new strains when se- ning output capacity of 311 g lint/h for farmers because it is economical lecting for further propagation. The and 2111 g lint/h respectively. The and auxiliary power is not required fibre properties of cotton also de- 2.5 % span length and uniformity for its operation. The Lilliput gin is termine the price and are invariably ratio remained practically same for the most popular amongst the cotton taken into consideration by traders hand ginning, foot operated gin and breeders, traders and seed indus- while buying the cotton. Hence, to the Lilliput gin. The machine pa- tries. facilitate cotton breeders, traders rameters have no damaging effect and farmers, two portable type cot- on fibre properties or seed quality. ton ginning machines, a foot oper- Both gins are well accepted in the Introduction India has the most land in cot- Serrated steel roller Seed cotton ton production of any country in Doffing plate the world with about eight million Nylon roller hectare and is third in total cotton production with 2.5 million tonnes. India now produces all the different Lint slide Lint quality cottons for the domestic need Seed and has some remaining for export. Tray for lint Tray for seed The quality of cotton fibres, as they develop in the bolls on the plant, is mainly dependent on the Fig. 1 Principal of operation of foot operated gin pedigree of the plant and the con- Fig. 1. Principle of operation of Foot operated gin

30 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Gap Adujustment Screw Serrated Steel Roller (20 f) Pulley 253 340 Nylon-12 Roller (53.5 f) ------Tray For Seed

Tray for Lint 365 V-Belt Hollow Rectangle 810 Pedal

All Dimensions are in mm

565

Fig. 2. Design details of Foot operated gin 10 ditions under which the plant is doffer. The seeds are collected in a Materials and Methods grown. This inherent quality can be separate tray. improved upon only by cross breed- The Foot Operated Gin and Lil- The design of the foot operated ing, selection and adoption of ap- liput Gin were designed based on gin is very simple (Fig. 2). It con- propriate agronomic practices, but the market needs. An extensive sists of two cylindrical rollers 253 no improvement is possible after the market survey was conducted with mm length. The upper roller (diam- cotton boll on the plant opens. The different user groups to determine eter 20 mm) is serrated and made important criteria chosen by the cot- their requirements in terms of util- of mild steel. The lower roller is ton breeder while selecting a new ity, output capacity and cost. Two made of Nylon-12 and its diameter strain for further propagation are 2.5 kinds of user groups were identified is 53.5 mm. The peripheral speed % span length, strength, micronaire, depending on the above factors. The of both the rollers is 0.36 m/s. The uniformity ratio (UR), maturity foot operated gin was designed for gap between two rollers varies from and ginning percentage (GP). The an output of 1 kg seed cotton/h and 0.10-0.13 mm. In addition to the gin- breeder must ascertain the above the Lilliput gin was designed for an ning rollers, the machine consists of fibre properties for hundreds of output of 6 kg seed cotton/h. These a lint doffer, a lint slide, a frame and strains with small samples of seed two machines were designed and operator’s seat. A V-belt and pulley cotton every year as accurately as developed and their performance are provided to transmit the power possible in a short time. The cotton evaluated and compared to that of from the bicycle pedals to the gin- grower must assess the monetary the hand ginning method. ning roller. This machine does not return from the crop by knowing require electric power and can be fibre properties and GP since cot- Foot Operated Gin Serrated steel roller operated by one unskilled operator. ton with higher GP and better fibre The principle of operation of the The base of the machineSeed iscotton 570 x 565 properties will bring a better price. foot operated gin is Doffingshown plate in Fig mm and the height of the machine is Further more, in cotton markets 1. This is a pedal operated machine 1150 mm. The weight Nylonof the roller machine for seed cotton, the lint content of in which a pair of counter rotating is 45 kg. The foot operated gin with the seed cotton is estimated by the rollers is employedLint to pinch and operator is shown in Fig.Lint slide 5. purchaser/broker by the usual hand- pull out fibres from the seeds. The Power Transmission Seed and-eye judgement, which is bound seed cotton Trayis fedfor lint by the operator Number of pedals perTray forminute seed = 42 to involve large personal errors. between the rollers by hand and (1 pedal/1.4 s.) Most seed in the market contain the lint caught between the roller is RPM of nylon roller = 127 mixtures of different varieties due drawn out, pulled from the seed and RPM of grooved roller = 341 to malpractices and mixing of dif- carried forward by the nylon roller Speed ratio: Nylon roller: Grooved Fig. 1. Principle of operation of Foot operated gin ferent varieties in cotton markets from which it is stripped by the lint roller =1:2.6 and in ginneries. Hence farmers are Gap Adujustment not getting pure and quality seeds Screw for planting. Further, seed available Serrated Steel Roller in the market are costly. In India, (20 f) Pulley mostly roller and saw gins are used 253 340 for commercial ginning. These Nylon-12 Roller machines are impracticable for (53.5 f) ------Tray For Seed breeders, traders, and farmers when ginning small samples to obtain ginning percentages. In addition, Tray for Lint these machines are more costly and 365 V-Belt are not portable. Hollow A portable ginning machine was Rectangle 810 needed to overcome the problems Pedal faced by the cotton breeder, trader, seed industries and farmers. Thus, a portable type foot operated gin and the Lilliput Gin were designed and All Dimensions are in mm fabricated at the Ginning Training Centre, Central Institute for Re- 565 search on Cotton Technology (ICAR) Nagpur (India) -PIN-440 023. Fig. 2 Fig.Design 2. Design details details of of foot Foot operated operated gin gin 10

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 31 Leather roller Fixed knife roller to adjust the pressure between

Pusher the fixed knife and roller. A suitable mechanism is provided to adjust the gap between the fixed and moving Lint Seed grid knife. The schematic diagram of the gin is shown in Fig. 4. Moving knife The length and diameter of the roller is 254 mm and 100 mm re- Seed Tray for lint spectively and rotates at 120 rpm. The moving knife reciprocates at Seed guide 480 strokes per minute. Grooves on the surface of the roller are 25 mm apart and the width and depth are 2 mm. A wooden flat is placed on the front side of the roller to avoid back- lash. The lint collection tray is just Tray for lint below the roller and the seed collec- Fig. 3 Principal of operation of Lilliput gin tion tray is beneath the seed grid. A small rectangular hopper is used to Lilliput Gin eccentric shaft is fixed between the feed the cotton. The belt pulley and This power operated portable two metal sheets and is driven by a chain sprocket have safety guards gin works on the principle of Ma- belt and pulley mechanism from the and handles are provided on both carthy’s gin. A chrome leather motor. The power to drive the roller the sides of the machine for ease in roller, fixed knife and moving knife is supplied by a chain and sprocket handling. The base of the machine are the main components of the gin. mechanism driven by an eccentric is 400 mm x 340 mm, the height is A spirally grooved roller is pressed shaft. The eccentric shaft drives 650 mm and the weight is 70 kg. A against a fixed knife and is made to and reciprocates the moving knife pictorial of the Lilliput gin is shown rotate at a definite speed. A mov- and the pusher, which helps feed in Fig. 6. ing knife reciprocates by means of the seed cotton at the ginning point. a crank or eccentric shaft near the Two screws are provided to adjust leather roller. When seed cotton is the height of the fixed knife, which fed into the operating machine the adjusts the overlap between the fixed Performance Tests fibre adhere to the rough surface of knife and moving knife. Slots are Both the developed gins were the roller and are carried in between provided on bearing housings of the tested to evaluate the performance the fixed knife and the roller such that the fibres are partially gripped Pusher Chain & between them. The moving knife Fixed knife sprocket drive beats the seeds and separates the fibres, which are gripped from the Leather roller seed end. This “push and pull” ac- tion separates the the fibres from the seed. The separated fibres are car- ried forward on the roller, pass up- ward and are dropped out of the ma- chine. The ginned seeds drop down through the grid slots provided. The Seed tray Clank-connecting Lilliput gin is shown in Fig. 3. rod mechanism The main frame of the machine is fabricated from cold rolled sheet metal. The moving knife and the Electric fixed knife are made from EN-8 motor alloyed steel. The roller is made of chrome composite leather. The machine is powered by a single- Fig. 4 Schematic view of Lilliput gin phase, one-hp electric motor. The depicting internal mechanisms Fig. 5 Foot operated gin in operation

32 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 in terms of ginning output, gin- Hand ginning Foot operated gin Lilliput gin ning percentage and fibre qual- Cotton variety Output GP Output GP Output GP ity parameters which are 2.5% span (g/h) (%) (g/h) (%) (g/h) (%) length, fineness, uniformity ratio, G. arborium strength and quality of seeds ob- LD.327 16.0 41.53 250 42.2 1,962 41.6 tained. The varieties selected for K.10 14.1 34.73 355 36.3 2,330 35.0 testing the performance of the gins AKH.4 15.8 34.13 375 36.9 2,156 35.4 were: four G. arboreum (LD.327, Y.1 15.8 35.30 375 38.4 2,142 35.3 K.10, AKH.4 & Y.1); six G. hir- Mean 15.4 36.42 338.7 38.4 2,147.5 36.8 sutum (LRA.5166, H.777, Suman, G. hirsutum G.Cot.10, Abadhita & Sharda); one LRA.5166 14.6 35.4 371 37.1 2,151 35.3 G. harbaceum (G.Cot.11); and five H.777 15.2 32.0 270 34.7 2,082 33.6 Hybrids (DCH.32, NHH.44, H.4, Suman 16.9 33.3 323 37.5 2,118 35.3 H-6, Ankur.651). All the selected G.cot.10 15.3 36.9 234 36.7 2,089 36.2 varieties were also hand ginned for Abadhita CPD 8-1 14.7 35.9 226 36.4 1,930 36.1 comparison. Sharda 14.2 39.6 229 38.2 1,963 37.6 Mean 15.1 35.5 275.5 36.7 2,055.5 35.6 A 100 g seed cotton sample was G. harbeceum ginned for each variety by the foot- G.cot.11 Hybrid 14.2 36.0 317 35.0 2,141 35.8 operated gin, a 500 g seed cotton DCH.32 13.2 31.6 347 32.1 2,154 31.7 sample was ginned by the Lilliput NHH.44 13.7 35.2 323 35.0 2,005 35.3 gin and a 100 g sample was ginned H.4 14.2 34.1 295 34.0 2,137 34.3 by hand. Triplicate tests were made H.6 14.3 35.0 300 34.2 2,083 34.7 for each cotton and method of gin- Ankur.651 14.0 34.5 301 34.3 2,111 33.9 ning. The lint out put per hour and Mean 13.8 34.1 313 33.9 2,098 33.9 ginning percentage (GP) were calcu- Grand Mean 14.6 35.5 311 36.0 2,111 35.5 lated for each variety. The lint sam- Table 1 Ginning output and ginning percentage of lint by ples obtained from machine ginning hand ginning, foot operated gin and Lilliput gin and hand ginning were tested for the fibre properties (2.5 % span length, The ginning percentage (GP) of a were higher compared to those of fineness and strength) on the state given sample was calculated by us- hirsutum, herbaceum and hybrid of the art High Volume Instrument ing the following formula cottons. The statistical analysis (HVI-900) manufactured by M/S. Ginning Percentage (%) = (Weight shows that variance in GP is due to Zellweger Uster, (USA) approved by of lint/ Weight of seed cotton) x varieties. USDA. 100 Table 2 presents fibre properties (2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, strength and fineness (micronaire)) of lint obtained from the three meth- Results and Discussion ods. These fibre properties remained The output of lint per hour and practically the same whether the GP of 16 cotton varieties, when cotton was ginned by hand or in the ginned by all the three methods foot operated gin or the Lilliput gin. (hand ginning, foot operated gin, The statistical analysis showed that and the Lilliput gin) are given in Ta- the variance due to gin treatment ble 1. Overall lint output of the foot was not significant. Thus, both the operated gin and Lilliput gin was machines could be used for all sci- about 311 g/h (i.e. about 1 kg seed entific work and also in trade. cotton/h) and 2111 g/h (i.e. about 6 The cost of the foot operated gin kg seed cotton/h) respectively. The is about US $ 200 and that of the GP of the seed cotton for the foot Lilliput gin is about US $ 600. The operated and the Lilliput gin was 36 foot operated gin and the Lilliput % and 35.5 % respectively. The gin- gin are well accepted in the com- ning output and GP by hand ginning mercial market and so far 20 foot was 14.6 g/h (i.e. about 50 g seed operated gins and 75 Lilliput gins cotton/h) and 35.5 % respectively. are in use in various cotton research Fig. 6 Lilliput gin in operation The GP values of arboreum cottons institutes, agricultural universities,

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 33 cotton markets, ginneries, seed in- cotton research institutes, agricul- incidence of seed coat fragments. dustries and with the farmers. The tural universities, cotton breeders, Text. Ind. and Trade J. 35 (1-2): foot operated gin is found to be ginneries, seed industries and farm- 37-41. much suitable for farmers because it ers for ginning small samples for ■■ is economical and electrical power quality evaluation, for identifying is not required for its operation but ginning percentage and for seed the Lilliput gin is the most popular production for planting. amongst the cotton breeders, trad- ers, ginneries and seed industries. REFERENCES

Iyengar, R. L. N. and Sen, D. L. Conclusions 1948. Standardization of the Gin- • The foot operated gin and the ning Technique for the small sam- Lilliput gin were designed and de- ples. Proc. of Ind. Sci. cong.: 115. veloped to give an output of 1 kg Oka, G. G., Iyengar, R. L. N. and seed cotton/h and 6 kg seed cotton/h Nanjundayya, C. 1956. Laboratory respectively. Gin and its performance. Tech. • Both the machines are simple Leaflet series B No. 39 CTRL, and robust in construction. The Mumbai. overall performance of the gins was Srinath, B. 1986. Developments in satisfactory and found technically ginning and factors for improve- and economically viable. ment in ginning. CTRL publica- • No damage to the lint and seed tions (New series) No. 335. was observed. Vizia, N. C., Jadhav, S.B., Anap, • Both the gins are commercial- G. R. and Iyer, K. R. K. 1997. ized and are popular amongst the Influence of Roller speed on the

Hand ginning Foot operated gin Lilliput gin Cotton variety SL Str UR SL Str UR SL Str UR Mic Mic Mic (mm) (g/t) (%) (mm) (g/t) (%) (mm) (g/t) (%) G. arborium LD.327 20.13 16.9 7.1 48.3 20.43 16.7 6.7 47.9 20.26 16.5 6.9 48.1 K.10 28.1 24.9 4.4 48.0 29.23 24.6 4.2 47.5 28.33 24.3 4.3 48.3 AKH.4 27.93 22.6 4.5 50.3 27.76 22.2 4.4 49.3 27.36 22.3 4.5 49.6 Y.1 22.46 24.7 4.7 48.7 22.56 24.3 4.5 49.1 22.66 24.2 4.5 48.5 Mean 24.66 22.3 5.2 48.8 24.9 22.0 5.0 48.45 24.65 21.8 5.0 48.6 G. hirsutum LRA.5166 29.1 25.2 3.8 45.3 29.06 25.4 3.6 45.5 29.0 25.6 3.7 47.0 H.777 25.46 22.5 4.3 48.3 25.86 22.3 4.4 48.5 25.2 22.5 4.3 48.2 Suman 25.1 23.6 4.0 47.0 25.56 24.5 4.2 48.1 25.4 21.6 4.1 46.4 G.cot.10 25.1 22.6 4.2 51.3 24.7 22.7 4.5 50.1 24.7 22.3 4.3 49.2 Abadhita CPD 8-1 24.2 22.4 3.5 49.0 24.9 22.7 3.5 48.0 24.7 22.6 3.4 49.3 Sharda 23.80 22.3 4.2 50.3 23.93 22.5 4.2 50.1 23.7 22.4 4.2 50.4 Mean 25.46 23.1 4.0 48.5 25.66 23.3 4.0 48.3 24.11 22.8 4.0 48.4 G. harbeceum G.cot.11 Hybrid 25.13 22.8 4.2 49.7 24.9 22.6 4.3 48.8 24.7 22.3 4.1 49.3 DCH.32 33.7 30.1 3.1 44.7 32.23 30.0 3.4 44.8 32.9 29.4 3.0 44.8 NHH.44 25.53 24.1 3.8 47.0 25.66 24.0 3.8 47.0 25.4 24.1 3.8 47.9 H.4 27.9 24.5 4.2 50.3 28.03 24.3 4.3 50.1 27.53 24.1 4.1 50.0 H.6 28.8 25.3 3.8 47.3 28.6 25.1 3.7 48.1 28.4 25.3 3.9 47.3 Ankur.651 28.2 22.3 3.5 45.0 28.3 22.3 3.4 45.1 28.2 22.8 3.5 46.6 Mean 28.82 25.2 3.6 48.8 28.5 25.1 3.7 47.0 28.4 25.1 3.7 47.3 Grand Mean 26.02 23.3 4.2 48.9 25.9 23.2 4.2 48.1 25.4 23.0 4.2 48.4 Table 2 2.5 % span length (SL), strength (Str), fineness (Mic) and uniformity ratio (UR) of lint of different varieties by hand ginning, foot operated gin and Lilliput gin

34 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Design and Development of Power Operated Roller Type Lac Scraper

by Niranjan Prasad K. K. Kumar Scientist (SS) Director Indian Lac Research Institute Indian Lac Research Institute Namkum, Ranchi-834 010 Namkum, Ranchi-834 010 INDIA INDIA

S. K. Panday M. L. Bhagat Scientist Scientist Indian Lac Research Institute Indian Lac Research Institute Namkum, Ranchi-834 010 Namkum, Ranchi-834 010 INDIA INDIA

lac, reducing the price to farmers is carried out on the ground, many Abstract and creating problems during lac unwanted foreign materials such as Lac is the hardened resin secreted processing in industries. In order soil, sand, and stick pieces find their by the tiny lac insect. Lac insects to increase the output and reduce way into the scraped lac, reduc- thrive only on certain trees called the drudgery of lac production, a ing return to farmers and creating lac hosts. Butea monosperma (Pa- simple power operated roller type problems during lac processing in las), Zizyphus mauritiana (Ber) lac scraper was designed and de- industries. A manual lac scraper and Schleichera oleosa (Kusum) veloped. The machine consists of a was developed at the Agricultural are the major lac hosts used in In- scraper, separation screen, feed hop- Engineering Department, Birsa dia. Lac cultivation involves five per, drive mechanism and machine Agricultural University, Ranchi, In- major operations which are prun- frame. The machine scrapes lac dia (Pandey and Majumdar, 1997). ing, inoculation, used up broodlac under the action of shear and com- However its popularity was reduced (phunki) removal, harvesting and pressive forces. One person operates due to its limited capacity and func- lac scraping. Mostly, lac cultivation the machine and scraps about 13.5 tional limitations. An electrically operations are carried out manually kg lac stick in an hour with scraping operated lac scraper - cum - grader with the aid of locally manufactured efficiency of 95 percent. was developed at CIPHET, Ludhi- traditional tools. Manual lac scrap- ana, India (Anon., 1998). Prasad et ing is a very slow and tedious pro- al. (2000) and Prasad et al. (2001) cess. In one method, farmers sit on reported that the high cost reduced Introduction the ground in a group and scrape its popularity among lac growing lac with the traditional tools like Lac scraping involves removal farmers. In this study a low cost a small scraping knife (dauli) and of lac encrustation from lac sticks. Power Operated Roller Type Lac sickle. In another method, farmers Traditionally lac encrustation is Scraper was designed and devel- remove lac encrustation by beat- removed either by scraping with the oped. ing lac sticks with bamboo stick. help of tools such as a scraping knife One person scrapes 5-10 kg of lac and sickle.or by beating lac sticks in a day. As scraping is done on with a bamboo stick. About 95 % Materials and Methods the ground, unwanted foreign ma- of farmers use a scraping knife. terials like sand, soil, and wooden (Prasad, 1999). The process is very The power operated roller type lac twigs find their way into scraped tedious and slow. Since the scraping scraper is shown in Fig. 1, 2, 3 and

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 35 4. The machine scrapes lac under ac- pan, which guided the material to- phunki). An operator fed lac stick tion of shear and compressive forces. ward the outlet of the machine. The into the machine by hand. A basket The construction details and testing scraped lac encrustation that did not filled with lac stick was kept on a are discussed below. pass through the sieve along with platform raised to the level of the the sticks, slid down the sieve and feeding hopper for the convenience Scraping Rollers came out of the machine. of the operator. Scraping rollers were the main The following performance pa- components of the machine and Feed Hopper rameters of the Power Operated were comprised of two corrugated The feed hopper was situated at Roller Type Lac Scraper were deter- mild steel rollers 125 mm diameter the upper portion of the machine mined. and 200 mm long. One of the roll- and was used to feed and guide the Capacity: The capacity was mea- ers was fixed and other was spring lac sticks between scraping rollers sured by calculating the weight of loaded (spring constant of 24.5 safely. the scraped lac stick per unit time kg/cm), and thus adjustable. They (kg/h). rotated in opposite directions at a Drive Mechanism Scraping Loss: The scraping loss speed differential of 1:1.6. In idle The machine was powered by a was measured in terms of percent- condition, the gap between the fixed 0.25 hp, single-phase, 1450 rpm mo- age of lac encrustation that re- and the adjustable rollers was 2 mm. tor. V-belts transmitted power to the mained unscraped and carried along As the stick moved between the roll- rollers with a pulley reduction ratio with the lac stick. ers, the spring loaded roller caused that drove the rollers at 25 and 40 compression against the stick. Lac rpm, respectively, for the fixed and removal resulted from the compres- adjustable scraping rollers. Results and Discussions sion of the spring and the scraping action (shear force) resulting from Machine Frame The capacity of the machine was the differential speed of the rollers. The basic structure of the ma- found to be 13.5 kg/hr. Thus, the chine frame on which the various capacity for an 8 hour day was 108 Separating Screen components were fixed, was made kg lac stick as compared to 10-15 A 10-mesh sieve was fitted at an from mild steel angle iron (35 x 35 x kg for one person with traditional inclination of 450 from horizontal 5 mm). The feed hopper frame was tools like the scraping knife. The under the two scraping rollers to made of mild flat steel (25 x 5 mm). machine increased the output about receive the scraped lac and stick. seven times as compared to manual Most of the lac encrustation of less Testing scraping and two times as compared than 10 mesh size passed through The machine was tested using to scraping with a pedal operated the sieve and fell on the inclined kusmi lac stick (used up broodlac or lac scraper (Prasad et al., 2002). The

All dimensions are in mm

1. Scraping roller 2. Scraping roller gap adjustment mechanism 3. Machine frame 4. Motor Fig. 1 Power operated roller type lac scraper Fig. 2 Top view of power operated roller type lac scraper

36 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 scraping efficiency was 95 % after Hisar, India (16-18, Dec., 1999). passing lac sticks twice through the Prasad, N., Pandey, S. K. and Bha- machine. Thus, 5 % lac encrustation gat, M. L. Lac scraping equip- remained on the lac stick even after ment - a review. Paper presented the lac sticks were passed twice in National Symposium on Lac in through the machine. If remaining the new millennium held at ILRI, lac encrustation was not manu- Ranchi, India (20-21, Sept., 2000) ally scraped it was lost. Only one Prasad, N., Pandey, S. K., Kumar, person was required to operate the K. K., and Agarwal, S. C. Scope machine. The machine was less ex- of mechanization in lac produc- pensive and simpler in comparison tion. AMA 2001 32 (2):65-67. with the lac-scraping-cum-grading Prasad, N., Pandey, S. K., Bhagat, machine (Anon., 1998), and is in M. L. and Kumar, K. K. Design an affordable range for lac growing and development of pedal operated farmers. Further, skilled labour was roller type lac scraper. Paper pre- not needed for operation and it re- sented in 36th Annual Convention quired less maintenance. of ISAE held at IIT, Kharagpur, W.B., India (28-30 Jan., 2002) ■■ REFERENCES

Anon., Vision 2020, Perspective Plan, CIPHET, Ludhiana (India), 1998. Pandey, M. M. and Majumdar, K. L. Farm machinery digest. Published from CIAE, Bhopal (India), 1997. Prasad, N. Mechanization of lac cul- tivation operation - a challenge. Paper presented in XXXIV Con- vention of ISAE held at CCSHAU,

All dimensions are in mm All dimensions are in mm

1. Scraping roller 3. Machine frame 3. Machine frame 4. Motor 4. Motor 5. Feed hopper 5. Feed hopper 6. Sieve 6. Sieve Fig. 3 Front view of power operated roller type lac scraper Fig. 4 Side view of power operated roller type lac scraper

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 37 The Impact of Power Tillers on Small Farm Productivity and Employment in Bangladesh

by R. I. Sarker D. Barton Professor Doctor Department of Farm Power and Machinery, Natural Resources Institute, Bangladesh Agricultural University, University of Greenwich, Mymensingh 2202 Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB BANGLADESH UK

Abstract benefit from mechanisation. Padma, Jamuna, Brahmaputra and • Farm incomes improve Meghna river systems. The principal Bangladesh agriculture is cur- • Mechanisation of other tasks crops grown in Bangladesh are rice, rently experiencing rapid growth in such as transplanting and harvesting wheat, jute, pulses, oilseeds, potato, the adoption of power tillers (PTs) are much more likely to have nega- sugarcane, tea, tobacco and spices. for land preparation. Earlier research tive social effects, given that these Farm power plays a crucial role (Gill, 1984) suggested that mechani- are the most labour demanding in crop production in Bangladesh. sation was adopted by larger farmers tasks. Access to labour and farm power and had a negative impact on em- • Landless labourers benefit from - human, animal and mechanical ployment opportunities for landless improved employment opportunities - determines the scale of farming labourers, the availability of land for The present trend towards mecha- operations. Power for lifting water tenants (sharecroppers) and had little nisation of cultivation operations for irrigation is closely associated impact on productivity (yields). This does not generally disadvantage the with increases in land productiv- study concluded that the adoption of rural poor; however, there is some ity, which are crucial to the inten- PTs for land preparation is an effi- displacement of permanent farm la- sification of agriculture; however, cient strategy for the management of bour. This displaced labour is pres- increases in the area irrigated can in labour and farm power as their use ently finding alternative occupations turn lead to increased demands for is associated with: in the expanding wider economy of power and labour. • A reduction in the costs of pro- the country. As long as this trend With almost the entire possible duction for all sizes of farm continues, PT adoption may be arable area of Bangladesh under cul- • Higher gross margins for all regarded as having neutral or posi- tivation, it is apparent that increased sizes of farm tive effects on the livelihoods of the production must be achieved through • Greater labour productivity for poor. However, changes in price greater cropping intensity (more all sizes of farm structures for inputs and outputs than one crop per year) or through • Increased demand for hired la- may have a wider effect and these increased yields per unit area. A bour should be monitored and analysed. constraint to achieving this has been • Small but measurable increases identified as shortage of draught in opportunities for sharecropping power, formerly provided mostly The overall impact of the use of Introduction by cattle (Mettrick and James, PTs has been positive both in terms 1981; Hermans, 1984; ULG, 1986; of economic value and social ef- Bangladesh is predominantly an Daniels, 1987). This is the result of fects. Therefore, planners and pol- agricultural country with a total reduced land and feed resources and icy makers should not be seriously land area of about 14.4 million ha of increased demand for draught power concerned about the impact of PT which around 90 % is under cultiva- at peak periods. One solution has mechanisation on the poor because: tion. Most of this area is relatively flat been to increase the use of cows for • All farmers and labourers can and lies in the deltaic plains of the draught (Matthewman, 1987; Mat-

38 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 thewman and Foulds, 1988). Fig. 1 Generalised cropping calender for principal A further solution, and one which rice-based farming systems in Bangladesh has become widespread in recent JFMAMJJASOND years has been to mechanise cul- T. Aman tivation using power tillers (PTs), T. Aus & B. Aus since these can cultivate more quickly than draught animals (Pal- B. Aman lis et al, 1983; Bunyavejchewin et al, 1993). Between 1980 and 1987, T. Boro under a bilateral agreement between Seasons Rice Crop Bangladesh and Japan, Kubota and T. boro (transplanted boro rice), 130-day growing season, Yamaha brands of PTs were import- Rabi ed into Bangladesh. Chinese mod- transplanted between 1 December and 15 April. els, mainly Dong Feng and Saifeng T. aus (transplanted aus rice), 100-day growing season, trans- were also imported at this time and Kharif-1 planted 15 March - 30 April. B. aus (broadcast aus rice) approx. same growing season. B. aman (deepwater rice), longer season. were considerably cheaper than the T. aman (transplanted aman rice), growing season about 130 Japanese models, despite the high Kharif-2 levels of import duty levied. Follow- days, transplanted 15 July - 30 August. ing the severe floods of 1988, the Souce: Modified from Sims (1994) Bangladesh Government withdrew tariffs and taxes on imported PTs tillers may thus disturb the existing Cropping Systems and and a large number of PTs entered asset bases of farmers and also have Cropping Intensity the market from the People’s Re- direct effects on production through public of China (PRC) and Korea. changes in the maintenance of soil Great changes in the cropping Prices of PTs fell dramatically and fertility. The available literature systems of Bangladesh have taken the numbers imported increased. indicated there had been little in- place over the last 20-30 years with Tariffs have not been re-imposed vestigation of the impact of the use the widespread introduction of ir- and retail prices of the Chinese PTs of mechanical sources of power for rigation from both deep tubewells are still low today at approximately small farming in Bangladesh since (DTWs) and shallow tubewells US$ 1200 for a 7 kW machine. It Gill’s major study in the early 1980’ (STWs) for dry season (winter) ir- is argued (Planning Commission s (Gill, 1984) and that of Jabbar et rigation of rice. As a result of this, 1997, Miah, 2000) that agricultural al. (1983). These studies indicated the cropping intensities of nearly all mechanization can help in improv- that the use of PTs, while profitable parts of the country showed con- ing productivity, reducing costs of for their owners, seriously affected siderable increases over this period production, and increasing input use the incomes of marginal farmers, (Table 1). and efficiency as well as achieving sharecroppers and landless labourers Before irrigation became popu- timeliness of crop production. while contributing little to the over- lar the principal cropping systems A number of potential problems all productivity of the farming sys- in most parts of the country were may arise from this policy. Draught tem. The study reported here1 aimed based on Aus rice (planted March- animals have traditionally provided to address these issues which are of May in the early rains or Kharif-1 family security, manure and income crucial importance in Bangladesh season) and Aman rice (planted from calves or rental and have been where poverty remains the single July-September in the mid-to late- used for threshing and out of season most important social and economic rains or Kharif-2 season). Since the uses such as transport, as well as challenge facing the country. advent of irrigation, the pattern has cultivation. The adoption of power changed to Aman - Boro, the latter being the irrigated crop planted in Table 1 Multiple cropping indices (cropping intensities) for Bangladesh December to April during the dry 1960 1980 1998-99 winter (Rabi) season (most of the Project National National National farmers Small (0-1.01 ha) 167 181 n/a 167-2071 1Funds for this research were provided Medium (1.02-3.04 ha) 152 167 n/a 189-2002 by the Natural Resources Systems Pro- 3 gramme of the Department for Interna- Large (>3.04 ha) 135 152 n/a 190-200 tional Development (DFID), UK. The Average n/a 165 176 195 authors also acknowledge the contribu- Souce: Gill (1983), 1This study "Landless, marginal & small" category (<1.01 ha); tions of BAU scientists and farmers of 2This study "Medium" category (1.02-2.02 ha); 3This study "Large" category (>2.02ha) Mymensingh and Tangail Districts

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 39 8th and 10th, respectively, out of the 64 districts of Bangladesh in terms of numbers of PTs. Therefore the study area offered a picture of an advanced state of PT adoption com- pared to the national situation. The location of the study area and the sampled villages is shown in Fig. 2. The agro-ecological zone (AEZ), the Old Brahmaputra Floodplain, AEZ 9, in which the villages are located, occupies some 5 % of the country’s land area and is ranked as the 8th largest AEZ in the country. It resembles, in terms of land type (elevation and soils), other AEZ’s in the Ganges2 and Karatoya - Bangali flood plains, which, together with Kumargata Satrashia the Old Brahmaputra Floodplain, Sangram occupy some 21 % of the country’s Shimul land area. There is very little deep- water rice on the single annual crop Golabari system in the area. This practice is common in the coastal areas and the Pakutia lowest lying areas of the country. Jhunkail The most common cropping pat- terns in the study area were “Fallow - Boro3 - T. Aman4 “ and “Mustard - Boro - T. Aman”. The sampled farms have a higher level of crop- ping intensity (multiple cropping index) - 195 % - than the national Fig. 2 Location of study areas average of 176 %. rice crops are transplanted and pre- The implications and opportunities fixed “T”, although some are broad- (including the effect on crop yields) cast, prefixed “B”). The cropping that arise from an increased use of Availability and Distribu- calendars for rice, that is Aus, Aman, power tillers was investigated at the tion of Farm Power Boro and the usually geographically farm level to examine their impact A baseline survey of 198 house- separate system of deep water rice on power availability, yields, capital holds was undertaken to establish - carried out on the coastal and per- inputs, labour use, livestock produc- the extent of PT use in study vil- manent water body margins of the tion, landless labour and sharecrop- lages as well as land ownership pat- country - are complex and largely ping. The results will help in the terns, tenure and access to land of determine the demand for draught planning of improved extension in- the different categories of farmers. power (Richards, 1979). Peak de- puts and support for power tiller and Landless, marginal, small, medium mand coincides with the turn- draught animal use and development. and large farmers had average hold- around time between crops. Timeli- ings of cultivable land of 0.2, 0.41 ness in cultivation at these times is and 0.78, 0.96 and 1.80 hectares re- critical (Orr et al, 1986), placing a Study Location spectively. heavy demand on power resources. But the changed cropping pattern Figures on PT use obtained from 2The Ganges flood plain soils are, how- cited above has implications for the the Department of Agricultural Ex- ever, more alkaline 3 timing and pressure on cultivation tension indicated that the districts Boro: the winter (dry season) irrigated rice crop power sources. Cropping patterns where the sample villages are situ- 4T. Aman: the rainy season transplanted are shown in the Fig. 1. ated, Tangail and Mymensingh, rank rice crop

40 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Sample farmers owned a total (considering size, heterogeneity and transport and threshing. of 17 PTs and 145 draught ani- availability of project resources). • Animal labour used (in hrs) for mals (DA). They had a total of 422 More than 100 separate pieces of ploughing, laddering, transport, permanent male workers at their data (variables) were collected for threshing etc. Types of animal used disposal (including family labour) each plot, including: (a pair of cows, bulls, or mixed) (Table 2). • Area, soil-type, topography and • PT hours used for ploughing, The estimated power available to ownership of the plot, variety laddering, transport, threshing sample farmers in the six villages is • Human labour used (in hrs) • Material inputs (quantity and shown in Table 3, excluding casual by its source (e.g. family, hired, cost): Seed, Manure, Urea, TSP, or migrant labour. male, female, casual, permanent) SSP, MP, Zinc, Gypsum, Pesticides, The total power available per hect- for the following operations: clean- herbicides, fuel, electricity etc. are on sample farms was higher than ing, ploughing, laddering, seedling • Outputs: grain and straw the national average (0.39 kW/ha, transfer, sowing, transplanting, irri- Figure 3, 4 and Table 6 demon- Sarker, 1997) as a result of a high gation, application of fertiliser, pes- strate that the majority of farmers concentration of PTs in the study ticides and herbicides, harvesting, use PTs for land preparation. Only area. Table 4 demonstrates that the majority of farmers - 177 (89 %) Table 2 Distribution of PT, DA and human labour (sample farmers) Permanent use PTs for land preparation. The No. of working No. draught Name of village employed No. of PTs growth in the use of PTs for land person (male) animals labour (male) preparation was confirmed during a Pakutia 86 - 19 4 participatory exercise undertaken in Jhunkail 93 6 55 6 1999. The six villages collaborating Sangram Shimul 38 5 11 2 with the study reported that the total Golabari 57 4 33 1 number of PTs had increased from Satrashia 62 8 6 2 13 in 1995 to 36 in 1999. Kumargata 58 5 21 2 The introduction of PTs has had a Total 394 28 145 17 significant impact on the numbers of Souce: Baseline survey date, 1999 cattle kept by farmers. The baseline survey indicated a steady decline as Table 3 Distribution of power available in the study area (sample farmer) farmers withdrew draught animals Total Power from Power from Power from Power cultivable from their farms (Table 5). Name of village working draught power tiller available/ha land area person (kw) animal (kw) (kw) (kw/ha) (ha) Pakutia 67.64 5.16 3.14 28 0.53 Power Sources and Other Jhunkail 64.47 5.94 9.08 42 0.88 Inputs Used by Farmers Sangram Shimul 35.22 2.58 1.82 14 0.52 Golabari 47.67 3.66 5.45 7 0.34 A weekly survey was designed to Satrashia 52.55 4.20 0.99 14 0.37 collect information from 482 pre- Kumargata 74.11 3.78 3.47 14 0.29 selected plots belonging to sample Total 34.66 25.32 23.95 119 0.49 farmers, a visit was made each week Cotribution for land 15 14 71 for a period of 14 months to record preparation (%) all farm activities on these plots Calculations in Table 3 are based on the following standard units: PT = 7 kw, Male DA (January 1999 to March 2000). The = 0.18 kw, Female DA = 0.15 kw, Male human = 0.06kw, Cropping intensity is 215 %. main objectives of this survey were Souce: Baseline survey date, 1999 to quantify the impact of PTs on Table 4 Use of PTs and DAs by sample farmers land and labour productivity, labour (no. of farmers using each source of power) use, yields and margins. A two way (village and farm cat- Landless Marginal Small Medium Large Total egory) stratified sampling technique Own oxen 5 6 6 10 6 33 was followed. The sample sizes for Own cows 9 9 12 9 5 44 different strata (a combination of a Rented oxen 2 2 3 2 1 10 village and a farm category) were Rented cows 1 0 0 0 0 1 not proportional to the correspond- Own PT 4 6 0 4 5 19 ing population sizes but were de- Rented PT 41 37 32 31 17 158 termined by subjective allocation Souce: Baseline survey date, 1999

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 41 27 farmers used DAP excusively al- and positive impact on yields (i.e. Fig. 3 Distribution of power options on though many used a combination of farms that used more family labour Boro plots PTs and DAs. had higher yields). The use of urea The study established that the and ash were also important factors adoption of PTs is widespread (in for higher yields. the study area) and the machines are Yields of Aman rice were similar � used by all sizes of farms. PTs are for both power sources and differ- not only used by the larger farmers ences were not significant (R2 = that were formerly the case (Gill, 0.54). Yield differences between 1984). PT cultivation is perceived villages were significant, Pakutia to be faster than DAP and given having the highest yields and Ku- that installed capacity is increasing, margata the lowest. There were no queuing for contract services (as re- differences between the other vil- ported by Gill, 1984) may be a thing lages. Choice of variety and urea of the past. use had a significant and positive Fig. 4 Distribution of power options on impact on yield. Aman plots PTs improve farmers’ gross mar- gins as production costs decrease DAP Yields and Returns farm� (Table 7) (mechanical cultivation 7 % PTs have little impact on rice uses less human labour than DAP yields (Table 7). Although PT users cultivation) and benefit: cost ra- DAP + PT farm� 31 % have statistically significant higher tios (BCR) are therefore higher. yields than DAP users for Boro rice PT users are likely to have higher (R2 = 0.29), the increase is small. incomes than DAP users (per unit PT farm� Significant differences in yields were of production). PTs also have the 62 % found between varieties and the use effect of reducing the management of family labour had a significant required for production (supervision

Table 5 Time series date on cattle ownership 1994-98 (n=198) costs are reduced) and also probably Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 reduce the labour and management required to maintain draught ani- Draught oxen 160 155 116 87 68 mals. These savings are of greater Draught cows 142 136 114 93 87 importance to larger farmers. The Milk cows 99 115 100 99 94 major benefits accruing to smaller Calves 77 79 72 91 - enterprises are reduced production Buffaloes 4 2 2 0 0 costs but hiring PTs also reduces the Souce: Baseline survey date, 1999 need for smaller farmers to maintain Table 6 Types of power used on plots surveyed during the weekly survey draught animals.

DA Both PT All Village: Labour Productivity and Pakutia 8 57 33 98 Use Jhunkail 8 73 17 98 Sangram Shimul - 14 50 64 The use of PTs for rice production Golabari 9 49 16 74 improves labour productivity (the Satrashia - 6 68 74 yield or quantity of grain produced Kumargata 2 23 49 74 by each unit of labour) (Table 8). Farm category: The increase in the productivity of Landless 3 15 34 52 labour with the adoption of PTs is Marginal 12 34 58 104 20 % for Boro (significant p<0.01) Small 6 72 42 120 and 18 % for Aman (not significant). Medium 6 51 39 96 Large - 50 60 110 Family Labour All 27 222 233 482 The use of PTs for land prepara-

42 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 tion is associated with increases in size of holding of sharecroppers in cropping. Landlords appreciate the the demand for hired labour and re- each village after the introduction benefits of organic material (ma- ductions in the use of family labour. of PTs. With the exception of San- nure) and anticipate higher yields It is not clear whether family labour gram Shimul, total cultivable land from the use of DAP. Ownership or is redeployed elsewhere or benefits of sharecroppers has increased fol- access to DAP (and manure) may be from increased leisure time. Despite lowing mechanisation (most of the a precondition for access to rented being a labour saving technology farmers in Sangram Shimul are re- land (sharecropping). - it reduces the human labour re- source poor farmers with little land quired for land preparation - the available to let). Land available to introduction of PTs has probably sharecroppers has increased for the Conclusions provided employment opportunities following reasons: for labourers. Farms using DAP for • Cost of production increases has PTs have the following impact on land preparation use equal amounts discouraged landlords from culti- most farming systems of Bangla- of family and hired labour whereas vating their own land or to acquire desh: PT farms use twice as much hired more land to sharecrop with others. • Little or no impact on yields labour as family labour. • The supply of available labour is • A reduction in the costs of pro- often insufficient and labour wages duction for all sizes of farm Landless Labour therefore increase, consequently, • Higher gross margins for all Participatory exercises with land- larger farmers prefer to rent out land sizes of farm less labourers confirmed that PTs to sharecroppers. • Greater labour productivity for reduce daily wage labour employ- • The number of absentee land- all sizes of farm ment opportunities for land prepara- lords may have increased (migra- • Increased demand for hired la- tion (ploughing with DAs). Larger tion), thus improving the opportuni- bour farmers also reduce the number ties for sharecropping. • Small but measurable increases of permanent labourers they em- However, it is DAP owners rather in opportunities for sharecropping ploy (there is less need to maintain than PT owners or users who have On balance, the overall impact draught animals). However, the been offered more land for share- of the use of power tillers has been increase in the availability of ir- rigation water has altered cropping Table 7 Impact on yields and returns patterns and increased the demand for labour for transplanting and har- Power source DAP PT Both vesting. Labourers also reported an Boro Rice increase in non-farm employment Yield (kg/ha) 5,307 5,385 5,483 opportunities (where wages are Gross return (Tk/ha) 38,635 39,202 39,916 higher) and an increase in the real Net return (Tk/ha) 8,774 12,785 12,641 value of wages over the past decade. BCR (undiscounted) 1.29 1.48 1.46 On balance they felt their liveli- Aman Rice hoods had improved following the Yield (kg/ha) 3,540 3,580 3,530 introduction of PTs, (although this Gross return (Tk/ha) 26,373 26,671 26,298 was not a causal relationship). Net return (Tk/ha) 12,373 13,746 13,388 BCR (undiscounted) 1.88 2.06 2.04 Souce: Weekly survey date, 1999-2000 Landlord / Tenant Rela- tions Table 8 Labour productivity Yield per unit of Earlier research in the field of Human labour Power source Yield (kg/ha) human labour (hrs/ha) agricultural mechanisation (PTs) in (kg/hr) Bangladesh reported that the adop- Boro Rice tion of PTs reduced opportunities DAP 1,431 5,307 3.70 for sharecropping as landlords ‘took PT 1,212 5,385 4.44 in hand’ land that was formerly let Difference PT - DAP -219 +78 +0.74 to tenants or sharecroppers (Gill, Aman Rice 1984). Participatory research under- DAP 1,184 3,540 2.99 taken by this project indicates that PT 1,015 3,580 3.53 this is no longer the case. Difference PT - DAP -169 +40 +0.54 Table 9 shows the changes in Souce: Weekly survey date, 1999-2000

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 43 positive both in terms of economic of important effects of the adoption Preparation, Productivity and Em- value and social effects. Therefore of PTs on women and children ployment in Bangladesh. Journal planners and policy makers should However, there is some displace- of Development Studies. Vol. 19, not be seriously concerned about the ment of permanent farm labour. No. 3 (April), 1983, 328-348. impact of PT mechanisation on the This displaced labour is presently Gill, G. J. 1984. Tractorisation and poor because: finding alternative occupations in rural employment in Bangladesh. • All farmers and labourers can the generally expanding wider econ- In Farm power and employment in benefit from mechanisation. omy of the country. As long as this Asia: performance and prospects. • Farm incomes improve trend continues, PT adoption may Proceedings of a regional seminar • Mechanisation of other tasks be regarded as having neutral or held at the Agrarian Research such as transplanting and harvesting positive effects on the livelihoods of and Training Institute, Colombo, are much more likely to have nega- the poor. However, changes in price Sri Lanka, October 25-29, 1982. tive social effects, given that these structures for inputs and outputs AGRTI, Colombo and ADC, are the most labour demanding may have a wider effect and these Bangkok. tasks. should be monitored and analysed. Hermans, C. 1984. Pattern of sea- • Landless labourers benefit from sonality in livestock production improved employment opportunities and cattle rations. Centre for The present trend towards mecha- REFERENCES World Food Studies, Wageningen, nisation of cultivation operations Netherlands. does not generally disadvantage the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics Jabbar, M. A., Bhuiyan, M. S. R. rural poor. This study has demon- 1986. Report on the Bangladesh and Bari, A. K. M. 1983. Causes strated that farms using DAP for Livestock Survey 1983-84. BBS, and consequences of power tiller land preparation use equal amounts March, 1986. utilisation in two areas of Bangla- of family and hired labour whereas Bunyavejchewin, P., Sangdid, S. and desh. In “Consequences of small PT farms use twice as much hired Chantalakhana, C. 1993. Socio- farm mechanisation” IRRI Occa- labour as family labour. It is not economic conditions affecting the sional Paper. clear whether this family labour, use of draught buffalo versus two- Matthewman, R. W. 1987. The role including women and children, is wheeled tractors in some villages and potential of draught cows in redeployed elsewhere or benefits of Surin Province. Buffalo and tropical farming systems. Tropi- from increased leisure time. It is Beef Production Research and cal Animal Health and Production possible that the decline in cattle Development Centre, Suwanva- 19: 215-222 numbers, by reducing the tasks of jokkasikit Animal Research and Matthewman R. W. and Foulds, A. animal husbandry, has benefited Development Institute, Kasetsart, B. 1988. Draught Animal Power women and children who previously Bangkok, Thailand. in Bangladesh. Centre for Tropi- bore this responsibility to a large Daniels, I. 1987. The relationship cal Veterinary Medicine, Univer- extent. The main responsibility of between the size and structure of sity of Edinburgh. women is post-harvest operations the Bangladesh cattle population Mettrick, H. M. and James, D. P. (threshing/winnowing) and PTs and the availability of rice straw 1981. Farm Power in Bangladesh. have made little impact on the la- for feed. Livestock Services De- Vol. 2. Development Study No 20. bour demands for these tasks. The velopment Project. October, 1987. Department of Agricultural Eco- study therefore found no evidence Gill, G. J. 1983. Mechanised Land nomics and Management, Univer-

Table 9 Changes in size of land holding of sharecroppers after introduction of power tillers (ha) Before introducing PT, 1988 After introducing PT, 1999 Difference Village Land Land in size of Land owned Total Land owned Total rented in rented in holding (±) Pakutia, n=10 2.570 0.425 2.996 3.198 0.425 3.623 0.627 Jhunkail, n=10 3.259 0.834 4.093 3.320 0.834 4.154 0.060 Sangram Shimul, n=5 1.880 0.182 2.064 1.032 0.170 1.202 -0.862 Golabari, n=6 0.770 1.032 1.801 1.214 0.607 1.821 0.020 Satrashia, n=6 2.093 1.391 3.484 2.222 1.645 3.868 0.385 Kumargata, n=6 0.878 1.615 2.494 1.599 0.901 2.500 0.006 Total of all locations, n=43 11.453 5.479 16.933 12.587 4.583 17.170 0.237 Average of all locations 1.908 0.913 2.822 2.097 0.764 2.862 0.040 Percentage of total in each year 67.64 32.36 - 73.31 26.69 - -

44 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 sity of Reading. work animals and an 8.5 HP tiller mechanisation in Bangladesh: Miah, M. T. H. 2000. “Impact of in preparing lowland rice fields. selection of technology. In “Pro- power tiller utilization on crop Report to Cropping Systems ceedings of the joint International yield, income and employment of Working Group. IRRI/Chinese conference on Agricultural Engi- farmers in Rural Bangladesh”, In academy of Agricultural Sciences, neering and Technology”, Vol. 1, M.A.S. Mandal (ed.) Changing China, October 25-29. pp.7-9. Dhaka, Bangladesh. Rural Economy of Bangladesh, Planning Commission 1997. The Sims, B. G. 1994. Bangladesh: Farm Bangladesh Economic Associa- Fifth Five Year Plan 1997-2002, power and tillage in small farm tion, Dhaka. Ministry of Planning, Sher-E- systems. Silsoe Research Institute Orr, A. W., Islam, A. S., and Haq, Bangla Nagar, Dhaka. Overseas Division Report No. M. M. 1986. Constraints on turn- Richards, J. I. 1979. The role of OD/94/12, UK. around time in Bangladesh. Eco- draught cattle in the agricul- ULG 1986. Bangladesh Deep Water nomic Division, BRRI, Dhaka. tural development of Bangladesh. Rice Project Phase II: Socio-Eco- Pallis, R. K., Aye, Swi and Shinn, K. CTVM, University of Edinburgh, nomic aspects of DWRFS. Ban- 1983. Comparative performance April 1979. gladesh Rice Research Institute/ of one work animal, a team of two Sarker, R. I. 1997. Agricultural DFID. BRRI. ■■

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Other Position: • Head of Depertment of Heat - Refrigeration Engineering. • Chairman of Scientific Council of Faculty of Engineering. • Director of Center of Heat - Refigeration Technology and Equipment - NONGLAM University - Ho Chi Minh City. •Chairman of Sub - Society of Agricultural Engineering for Ho Chi Minh City and South - East Provinces.

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 45 Field Performance Evaluation of Power Tiller Operated Air Assisted Spraying System

by A. G. Powar V. V. Aware Associate Dean Assistant Professor College of Agric. Engineering and Technology College of Agric. Engineering and Technology Dr. Balasaheb Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth Dr. Balasaheb Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth Dapoli, Maharashtra, India 415 712 Dapoli, Maharashtra, India 415 712 INDIA INDIA

S. K. Jain A. P. Jaiswal Assistant Professor Assistant Professor College of Agric. Engineering and Technology College of Agric. Engineering and Technology Dr. Balasaheb Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth Dr. Balasaheb Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth Dapoli, Maharashtra, India 415 712 Dapoli, Maharashtra, India 415 712 INDIA INDIA

respective values of 47 droplets/sq. the mango tree that would be pow- Abstract cm and 450 µm at the bottom outer ered by the fly wheel of a power til- A power tiller operated sprayer position of the tree canopy. ler. The principle of operation of an was designed and developed consid- air carrier sprayer with the mango ering spraying requirements of the tree is to replace all the existing air mango tree and available power at in the tree canopy with the spray- Introduction the flywheel of a power tiller. Field laden air that will deposit uniformly evaluation of the sprayer was done India is the largest producer of on every part of the canopy. Thus, if for droplet distribution over the leaf mango in the world with an an- the sprayer is properly designed and area. Spraying was carried out at nual production of 9.5 million tones. operated, more uniform distribution three blower speeds (2250, 2500 and However, many detrimental insects might be obtained as compared to 2800 rpm) and three different liq- such as mango hopper, mealy bug, hydraulic sprayers. uid discharge rates for each blower fruit fly, shoot borer, stem borer, Volume mean diameter (VMD) speed. Observations were taken at mango scale insects and mango and droplet density are the two 12 locations in the canopy of the shoot gall maker cause damage to prime factors of droplet distribu- mango tree and two leaf surface mango quality and quantity every tion pattern which determine ef- areas (upper leaf and lower leaf) by year. Also, many diseases such fectiveness of pest control. Smith glossy papers. All the samples were as anthracnose, powdery mildew, et al. (1975) recommended droplet analyzed for droplet density and brown rot, leaf blight and pink dis- size between 140 µm and 200 µm Volume Mean Diameter (VMD). ease damage the mango tree. to be used for spraying most crops. The best results were obtained at Existing hydraulic sprayers have They found that at 200 µm VMD, a 2250 rpm blower speed and 600 many limitations which include droplet density of 20-25 droplets/sq cc/min liquid discharge rate. At this non-uniform spraying, particularly cm was most effective for control of treatment, the minimum value of on the under leaf area and the top boll weevil on cotton. Anon. (1970) droplet density was 06 droplets/sq and inside portion of the mango tree studied the adequacy of droplet cm and a VMD of 220 µm was ob- canopy, and ineffective use of chem- density using ULV sprayer and rec- served at the inner side of the top icals. An air carrier sprayer was de- ommended that an average of 15 to tree canopy position with maximum signed and developed especially for 20 droplets/sq cm was adequate for

46 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Table 1 Average discharge rate at used (Table 1). Each trial was replicated shown in Table 1. The crown of the at different speeds of blower 3 times. Impeller speeds were se- trees under treatment was divided Blower Nozzle disc Discharge lected considering a design speed of into three sections (top, middle and speed (rpm) used (cc/min) the blower as 2500 rpm. The blower bottom) considering their individual D1 600 2250 speeds for the experiment were tak- heights. It was also divided into D2 700 (S1) en above and below the design speed four sections vertically (top-inner D 840 3 (2250, 2500 and 2800 rpm). Liquid and top-outer at each half section of D1 750 2500 D 890 discharge rates were selected after tree). In this way 12 glossy papers (S ) 2 2 calibration of three nozzle discs (D1, of 4.5 cm x 6 cm size were fixed D3 1120 D2, and D3). The discharge of each at the upper leaf surface and 12 at D1 930 2800 disc increased with blower speed as the lower leaf surface in each tree D2 1000 (S3) D3 1380 Note: S = Speed of impeller, D = Liquid discharge, cc/min S = 2250 rpm: D = 600 cc/min, D = 700 1 1 2 600 cc/min, D3 = 840 cc/min S2 = 2500 rpm: D1 = 750 cc/min, D2 = 890 550 cc/min, D3 = 1120 cc/min S3 = 2800 rpm: D1 = 930 cc/min, D2 = 1000 S1 x D1 cc/min, D3 = 1380 cc/min 500 S1 x D2 S1 x D3 450 S2 x D1 controlling most insects and pests. S2 x D2 Alms et al. (1987) studied the effect 400 S2 x D3 VMD, um of actual ingredient, droplet size and S3 x D1 350 S3 x D2 distribution on egg deposition and S3 x D3 control of adult mites. They found 300 S3 x D3 that 41 droplets/sq cm at 120 µm S3 x D2 250 S3 x D1 VMD or 18 droplets/sq cm at 200 µ S2 x D3 m VMD eliminated 80 percent of 200 S2 x D2 S2 x D1 egg deposition. Impeller speed and liquid 150 S1 x D3 S1 x D2 discharge combinations BO BI MO S1 x D1 MI TO Position on tree TI Material and Methods Fig. 1 VMD on upper leaf surface A centrifugal type of air carrier sprayer was designed and developed to meet the requirements of the Fig. 1 VMD on upper leaf surface mango tree that could be driven by 600 the fly wheel of power tiller. Field experiments were conducted in the 500 mango garden of ASPEE Farm, S1 x D1 Tansa (Dist. Thane, Maharashtra) S1 x D2 S1 x D3 to study the performance of the 400 S2 x D1 pesticide application system. The S2 x D2 independent parameters were im- S2 x D3 S3 x D1 VMD, um 300 peller speed, target location, liquid S3 x D2 discharge rate, leaf surface, leaf S3 x D3 traverse location and leaf transverse 200 S3 x D3 location. Plant to plant distance was S3 x D2 10 m. Crown diameter and heights S3 x D1 100 S2 x D3 ranged between 8 to 13 m and 7.5 S2 x D2 Impeller speed and liquid S2 x D1 to 12.5 m respectively. Random- discharge combinations 0 S1 x D3 ized Block Design was used with S1 x D2 BO BI MO S1 x D1 a total of 27 selected plants. There MI TO were nine treatments with 3 impel- Position on tree TI ler speeds and three discharge rates Fig. 2 VMD on lower leaf surface

Fig. 2 VMD on lower leaf surface VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 47 canopy. Coloured liquid was used Table 2 Statistical analysis of VMD date on upper leaf surface for total crown for spraying on the tree. Thus, in all Position Bottom Bottom Middle Middle Top Top 24 sample leaves representing the on tree outer inner outer inner outer inner Mean treatment (BO) (BI) (MO) (MI) (TO) (TI) crown were selected for analysis. S x D 450 402 387 266 242 188 322.5 With these design parameters 1 1 S x D 455 416 390 278 221 224 330.7 the following were the independent 1 2 S1 x D3 536 446 442 320 246 242 372.0 and dependent parameters for field S x D 524 453 452 344 256 219 374.7 evaluation of the sprayer: 2 1 S2 x D2 544 479 461 366 258 234 390.3

S2 x D3 551 516 480 372 324 247 415.0 Independent Parameters S3 x D1 555 514 486 336 275 252 403.0 1. Impeller speed, rpm (S): 2250, S3 x D2 580 520 513 362 336 266 429.5 2500, 2800 S3 x D3 592 527 522 388 352 304 447.5 2. Liquid discharge, cc/min (D): 3 CD (5 %): 19.046 CD (1 %): 25.494 CV = 4.22 % MEAN = 387.241 µm levels (as per Table 1) 3. Leaf surface: Upper, Lower Table 3 Statistical analysis of VMD date on lower leaf surface for total crown 4. Leaf traverse location: Top, Position Bottom Bottom Middle Middle Top Top middle, bottom on tree outer inner outer inner outer inner Mean 5. Leaf transverse location: Inner treatment (BO) (BI) (MO) (MI) (TO) (TI) side, outer side in the canopy S1 x D1 377 381 378 141 138 139 259.0 S1 x D2 459 411 382 240 198 120 301.7 Dependent Parameters S1 x D3 516 426 398 265 248 170 337.2 1. Droplet density, droplet/sq. cm. S2 x D1 452 444 447 287 221 198 341.5 2. Spray VMD, µm S2 x D2 546 472 448 336 174 214 365.0 S2 x D3 548 527 476 368 287 226 405.3 All the samples were analysed S3 x D1 548 506 469 324 177 249 378.8 S x D 551 507 487 357 290 225 402.8 for VMD and droplet density using 3 2 S x D 557 514 490 359 320 275 419.2 computerised IMAGE PRO ANAL- 3 3 CD (5 %): 32.5 CD (1 %): 43.5 CV = 7.81 % MEAN = 356.722 µm YSER. Note: S = Speed of impeller, D = Liquid discharge, cc/min S1 = 2250 rpm: D1 = 600 cc/min, D2 = 700 cc/min, D3 = 840 cc/min S2 = 2500 rpm: D1 = 750 cc/min, D2 = 890 cc/min, D3 = 1120 cc/min S = 2800 rpm: D = 930 cc/min, D = 1000 cc/min, D = 1380 cc/min Result and Discussion 3 1 2 3 Droplet spectrum analysis results sented in Table 2 to Table 5. Table spray VMD on upper leaf surface of all the samples collected are pre- 2 and Fig. 1 show the variation of with change in blower speed, liquid discharge rate, leaf traverse and leaf transverse location relative to the sprayer. Maximum value of VMD 60 of 592 µm was obtained with the S3

x D3 combination at “bottom-outer” 50 position of the tree canopy. Whereas, S1 x D1 minimum VMD was found with the S1 x D2 S1 x D combination at “top-inner” 40 S1 x D3 1 S2 x D1 location of the canopy. Observation S2 x D2 indicates that VMD increases with Droplet density, S2 x D3 30 No./sq.cm. S3 x D1 increase in speed and discharge S3 x D2 rate and decreases with increase in S3 x D3 20 traverse as well as transverse dis- S3 x D3 S3 x D2 tance from the sprayer outlet. The S3 x D1 10 S2 x D3 direct relationship of VMD with S2 x D2 Impeller speed and liquid speed of blower might be because S2 x D1 discharge combinations of the increase in the air discharge 0 S1 x D3 S1 x D2 BO rate with increase in blower speed. BI MO S1 x D1 MI While the inverse relation with the TO Position on tree TI distance from the outlet of sprayer Fig. 3 Droplet density on upper leaf surface might be because of the loss of en-

Fig. 3 Droplet density on upper leaf surface 48 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Table 4 Statistical analysis of droplet date on upper leaf surface for total crown Table 4 and Fig. 3 show the drop- Position Bottom Bottom Middle Middle Top Top let density distribution at the upper on tree outer inner outer inner outer inner Mean leaf surface area. Minimum droplet treatment (BO) (BI) (MO) (MI) (TO) (TI) density of 9 droplet/sq cm was ob- S x D 47 41 22 27 14 28 29.83 1 1 tained with S x D combination at S x D 44 35 38 23 22 10 28.67 3 1 1 2 “top-inner” location. Maximum val- S x D 32 39 38 37 27 40 35.50 1 3 ue of 53 droplet/sq. cm was obtained S2 x D1 38 31 32 38 34 33 34.33 with S3 x D3 at “middle-inner” loca- S2 x D2 38 37 30 26 31 34 32.67 tion of the canopy. Statistical analy- S2 x D3 37 40 37 36 30 55 39.16 sis of the data indicates pthat varia- S3 x D1 37 28 38 23 10 09 24.17 tion with blower speed, liquid dis- S3 x D2 26 44 20 23 23 21 26.17 charge rate and traverse and trans- S3 x D3 38 29 37 53 27 17 33.50 CD (5 %): NS CD (1 %): NS CV = 27.35 % MEAN = 31.556 nos/sq.cm verse distance is non-significant (Critical Difference value is NS). Table 5 Statistical analysis of droplet date on lower leaf surface for total crown This might be due to more value of Position Bottom Bottom Middle Middle Top Top droplet density at the bottom was on tree outer inner outer inner outer inner Mean due to more air fl ow rate (power) at treatment (BO) (BI) (MO) (MI) (TO) (TI) relatively shorter distance. Whereas S1 x D1 24 34 24 28 31 27 28.00 more value at upper location of the S1 x D2 20 34 32 18 25 06 22.50 tree canopy. Thus considering the S1 x D3 11 37 09 04 37 11 18.17 values of droplet density required S2 x D1 32 33 25 28 22 05 24.17 for the effective control of pests and S2 x D2 19 32 28 07 30 43 26.50 disease (15-45 droplets/sq cm) all S2 x D3 23 23 26 16 28 42 26.33 combinations were suitable. How- S3 x D1 23 19 25 12 19 05 17.17 ever, considering the lower power S x D 19 23 12 20 13 11 16.33 3 2 and chemical requirement at the S S x D 24 28 26 25 24 10 22.83 1 3 3 x D combination it was considered CD (5 %): NS CD (1 %): NS CV = 38.94 % MEAN = 22.444 nos/sq.cm 1 as the best combination for effec- Note: S = Speed of impeller, D = Liquid discharge, cc/min tive spraying with droplet density S1 = 2250 rpm: D1 = 600 cc/min, D2 = 700 cc/min, D3 = 840 cc/min S2 = 2500 rpm: D1 = 750 cc/min, D2 = 890 cc/min, D3 = 1120 cc/min ranging from 14 to 47 droplets/sq. S3 = 2800 rpm: D1 = 930 cc/min, D2 = 1000 cc/min, D3 = 1380 cc/min cm. Table 5 and Fig. 4 indicate the similar trend with droplet den- ergy due to the obstructions of the m at “top-inner” and “bottom-outer” sity at lower leaf surface area. Non- branches and leaves and increase in position respectively. significant critical difference indi- lateral cross section of the air flow. Thus, this decreased energy is only capable of carrying small droplets to the upper canopy of the tree that causes less VMD at the upper loca- 45 tions. Higher VMD values at the 40 S1 x D1 bottom portion might be due to more S1 x D2 airflow and overlapping of droplets 35 S1 x D3 S2 x D1 over each other. Considering the ef- 30 S2 x D2 fective VMD values mentioned by S2 x D3 25 past research workers (100 to 400 µ Droplet density, S3 x D1 No./sq.cm. S3 x D2 m), best results were obtained with 20 S3 x D3 the S1 x D1 combination with VMD 15 S3 x D3 ranging between 188 to 450 µm at S3 x D2 S3 x D1 10 “top-inner” and “bottom-outer”po- S2 x D3 S2 x D2 sition respectively. Similar trend was 5 Impeller speed and liquid S2 x D1 discharge combinations observed from VMD at lower leaf S1 x D3 0 surface area (Table 3 and Fig. 2). S1 x D2 BO BI MO S1 x D1 Here the best results were obtained MI TO Position on tree TI with the S1 x D1 combination with VMD ranging between 139 to 377 µ Fig. 4 Droplet density on lower leaf surface

Fig. 4 Droplet density on lower leaf surface VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 49 cates that there was no significant • Best results of VMD (139-377 size and distribution of drops con- difference in the values of droplet µm) on the lower leaf surface was taining Bifenthrin on Tetranychus density at any combination of speed obtained at S1 x D1 combination. urticae. Journal of Economic En- and liquid discharge rate. Therefore, • There was no significant effect tomology Society of America. pp

S1 x D1 combination at which drop- of blower speed, liquid discharge 517-520. let density varied between 24 to 38 and traverse and transverse distance Anonymous (1970). Meyer’s tech- droplets/sq cm was considered best of leaf from the blower outlet on the nical manual, Air sprayers and suitable combination for spraying droplet density of spray. spraying. Section I, Orchard on mango tree. • Best results of droplet density spraying. (14-7 µm) at upper leaf surface was Powar A.G. (1997). Design, devel-

obtained at S1 x D1 combination. opment and performance of air • Best results of droplet density assisted pesticide application sys- Conclusion (24-38 µm) at lower leaf surface was tem for mango orchards. An un-

On the basis of data collected and obtained at S1 x D1 combination. published Ph.D. thesis submitted statistical analysis following conclu- • The developed blower is suitable at Department of Agril. Engineer- sions could be inferred: for spraying on mango tree at S1 x ing, Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth,

• VMD increases with increase in D1 combination with good results Dapoli, Maharashtra. blower speed and liquid discharge both on upper as well as lower leaf Smith D. B., E. C. Burt and E. P. rate. surface area. Lloyd. 1975. Selection of optimum • VMD decreases with increase spray droplet sizes for boll weevil in transverse as well as traverse dis- and drift control J. Econ. Ent. 68: tance of leaf from the blower outlet. REFERENCES 415-417. • Best results of VMD (188-450 ■■ µm) on the upper leaf surface was Alms S. R., D. L. Riechard and F. obtained at S1 x D1 combination. R. Hall, 1987. Effect of spray drop

50 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Effect of Cone Angle on Droplet Spectrum of Hollow Cone Hydraulic Nozzles

by S. K. Jain K. G. Dhande Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Deptt. of Agricultural Process Engineering Deptt. of Farm Power and Machinery College of Agric. Engineering and Technology College of Agric. Engineering and Technology Dapoli, Maharashtra, India 415 712 Dapoli, Maharashtra, India 415 712 INDIA INDIA

V. V. Aware A.P. Jaiswal Assistant Professor Research Associate Deptt. of Farm Power and Machinery College of Agric. Engineering and Technology College of Agric. Engineering and Technology Maharashtra, India 415 712 Dapoli, Maharashtra, India 415 712 INDIA INDIA

The uniformity coefficient of this liquid in a chamber immediately be- Abstract cone angle was 0.955, which is near hind the orifice plate. The angle and Effective pest and disease control unity. The second best value for number of tangential ports through is accomplished with the help of useful volume (2.847 x 10-4 cc) and which the liquid enters, govern sprayers that have better designed droplet density (617 droplets/sq cm) the swirl velocity in this chamber. nozzles. The essence of spraying were for a cone angle of 64.4º which Combination of orifice and swirl is reduction of spray solution into had a uniformity coefficient 0.975. can, thus, be arranged to give any droplets that is usually achieved by The other cone angles were less ef- desired combination of discharge nozzles operating at constant pres- fective in comparison with the cone and cone angle. sure, specific discharge and cone angle of 68.5º. Droplets below size 150 µm have angle. This study was undertaken to insufficient kinetic energy to over- determine the effect of cone angle come the surface energy and viscous on the droplet spectrum of a hollow forces and cannot bounce (Breen- Introduction cone nozzle by keeping constant skill, 1956). Spray droplets with 500 operating pressure at 3 kg/cm2 and Pest control is of vital impor- µm V.M.D. (volume mean diameter) discharge of 473 ml/min. Six nozzles tance for successful growth of any do not provide as good disease con- with cone angles of 57.66º, 59.0º, 64.4 crop. The essence of spraying is trol as those with the 100-400 µm º, 68.5º, 77.0º and 87.0º were tested. reduction of spray solution into (Willson et al., 1963). A model was A droplet analyzer analyzed the droplets, which is usually achieved developed to determine deposition number of spray droplets. Amongst by nozzles. Nozzles are designed efficiency of 91 and 11 percent for six nozzles, the spraying perfor- to operate at constant pressure for 200 and 20 µm droplets respectively mance of a hollow cone nozzle with different spray angles ranging from (Miles et. al., 1975). a cone angle of 68.5º was best. The a straight stream to 100 degrees. Droplet size between 140 µm tests with this nozzle resulted in a Spray pattern, droplet spectrum and 200 µm was recommended for useful volume of 3.189 x 10-4 cc, a and discharge rate mainly depend spraying most crops. Also droplet maximum volume mean diameter of upon cone angle where pressure is density of 20-25 droplets/cm2 was 149.99 µm and a maximum droplet constant. Byass and Charlton (1968) proven most effective for control of density of 636 droplet/sq cm, which found that, while operating, nozzle boll weevil insect on cotton (Smith provided effective disease control. spiral motion is imparted to the et. al., 1975). For most pests and dis-

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 51 Orifice Swiri plate while those too big do not adhere During the movement of the trolley, Cone angle diameter diameter (degrees) to the target surface resulting in re- droplets of the coloured solution of (mm) (mm) duced application efficiency. Thus, Methyl Violet Crystal Hydrochlo- 57.66 1.016 0.8890 this study was undertaken with the ride (concentration - 10 gm in 1000 59.0 0.9652 0.9906 objectives of fabricating hydraulic ml water) were collected on glossy 64.4 0.9398 0.9398 nozzles of different cone angles papers from a fixed height of 66.5 68.5 0.9652 0.9652 that would have constant discharge cm. The speed of trolley was main- 77.0 0.9906 0.9398 at constant pressure; studying the tained at 2.4 kmph. The droplets, 87.0 1.0922 0.8890 spraying parameters by determin- thus, obtained were studied under Table 1 Specification of nozzles ing droplet size distribution of the a microscope attached to droplet ease control, 100-200 µm was rec- nozzles; and to find the cone angle size analyzer manufactured by M/s ommended as optimum droplet size of the most effective nozzle. Flemings Instruments Ltd., England. (Plotts, 1976). For reducing drift po- The numbers of droplets obtained by tential for wind speeds of 1.6 to 11.2 spraying were counted in the range kmph the critical droplet diameter of 1-250 micron. A psychrometer, Material and Methods was 150-200 µm (Bode, 1981). For hygrometer and anemometer were similar nozzles with constant pres- Six hydraulic hollow cone nozzles used to record dry and wet bulb tem- sure drop, the droplet size increased with the different cone angles were perature, relative humidity and wind with nozzle size by the equqtion fabricated by selecting different velocity during the experiment.

Dvm1/Dvm2 = (orifice diameter 1/ swirl plate diameters and orifice orifice diameter 2) 2/3. diameters so as to discharge the Perry (1984) reported that a shift liquid spray at a constant rate of 413 Results and Discussion to a smaller angle nozzle gave ml/min with an operating pressure slightly larger drops for a given type of 3 kg./cm2. A droplet size analyzer in which of nozzle because of the reduced The nozzle specifications are numbers of droplets were obtained tendency of the liquid sheet that given in Table 1. in various ranges analyzed the num- remains to be integrated in a film A nozzle patternator was used ber of spray droplets. A computer form. to measure the cone angle and dis- program was used to calculate the Droplet spectrum refers to the charge of nozzles. Operating pres- volume of droplets in various ranges ranges of the droplet size obtained sure and height of nozzle above pat- and other aspects such as number from the nozzle and is a function of ternator surface were kept constant. mean diameter, volume mean di- operating pressure and discharge. An overhead trolley system was ameter, uniformity coefficient and Usually, finer droplets are associat- used to simulate spraying operation droplet density. The number and ed with the greater discharge, high- in the laboratory under controlled size of droplets along with the vol- er pressure and wider cone angle, conditions of wind velocity, speed ume are given in Table 2 for each while coarse droplets are associated of operation, and distance between nozzle. Table 3 and Fig. 1a and b with low discharge, low pressure nozzle and target. In the system, show that a useful volume of 3.189 and smaller cone angle. Droplets too pressure at the nozzle was kept x 10 -4 cc was the maximum and oc- small in size may be lost by drift constant by a pneumatic regulator. curred for the nozzle having a cone

700 3.5 Uniformity cofficient 600 3.0 Useful volume,� -4 cc x 10 500 2.5

400 2.0 Number mean diameter, um� 300 �Volume mean diameter, um� 1.5 Droplet� density, no. of droplets/sq.cm 200 1.0

100 0.5

0 0.0 57.66 59.0 64.4 68.5 77.0 87.0 57.66 59.0 64.4 68.5 77.0 87.0

Fig. 1a Spraying parameters of nozzle with different cone angles Fig. 1b Spraying parameters of nozzles with different cone angles

52 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 angle of 68.5º. This nozzle also had Number mean Volume mean Droplet Useful Cone angle Uniformity the maximum volume mean diam- (degrees) diameter diameter density (no. of volume (µm) (µm) droplets/sq.cm ) coefficient (cc) eter of 149.99 µm and the maximum 57.66 175.29 134.05 423 0.765 1.537 x 10-4 droplet density of 636 drops per 59.0 150.23 146.61 493 0.976 2.296 x 10-4 sq cm, which provides effective 64.4 149.91 141.18 617 0.975 2.847 x 10-4 disease control. The value of uni- 68.5 157.12 149.99 636 0.955 3.189 x 10-4 formity coefficient was 0.955 that 77.0 174.81 133.06 440 0.761 1.623 x 10-4 was near unity. The nozzle of cone 87.0 146.91 148.20 404 1.008 2.128 x 10-4 angle 64.4º had second best values Table 3 Spraying parameters of hollow cone nozzles with different nozzle angles for useful volume (2.847 x 10-4 cc), droplet density (617 drops per Thompson and R. Willamson, Acknowledgment sq cm) and uniformity coefficient 1975. Simulation of droplet depo- (0.975). The mean diameter for all Author is very much thankful sition on the bodies with rectan- nozzles ranged from 146.91 µm to to the ASPEE Research Institute, gular boundaries. Trans. ASAE, 175.29 µm; the volume mean diam- Malad, Mumbai for providing facili- 18:74-78. eter ranged from 133.06 to 148.20 µ ties and needed help during study at Perry, R.H., 1984. Perry’s Chemical m; the droplet density ranged from their Institute. Engineering Handbook. Interna- 404 to 636 droplets per sq cm; the tional student edition, Mc. Graw uniformity coefficient of the nozzles Hill Co., Newyork. ranged from 0.761 to 1.008; and the REFERENCES Plotts, S.F., 1976. Particle size of useful volume ranged from 1.537 insecticides and its relation to ap- x 10 -4 to 3.189 x 10-4 cc. The study Bode, L.E. and B.J. Butter, 1981. plication, distribution and deposi- also showed that the orifice size of The three D’s of droplet size di- tion. J. econ. ent., 39:716-20. 0.9652 mm and swirl plate diameter ameter, drift and deposit. ASAE Smith, D.B., E.C. Burt and E.P. of 0.9652 mm was most efficient as paper no. AA. 81-004. Lloyd, 1975. Selection of optimum compared to other combinations. Breenskill, R.T., 1956. Factors af- spray droplet sizes for ball wee- fecting the relation of spray drop- vil and drift control. J. econ. ent. lets on leaves. Pub. - proc. 3rd Br. 68:415-17. Weed Control Conference-2. pp. Training Report (1995). A report Conclusion 593-603. submitted to ASPEE Research In- It was concluded from the experi- Byass, J.B. and G.K. Charlton, stitute. mental results that spraying perfor- 1968. Equipment and method for Wilson, J.D., O.K. Hedden and J.P. mance of the hydraulic hollow cone orchard spray application research Sleesman, 1963. Spray droplet size nozzle was more effective for spray I: Laboratory application equip- as related to disease and insect angle 68.5º at a constant pressure ment. J. Agric. Engng. Res. 13 control on row crops. Ohio agric. of 3 kg/sq. cm and discharge rate of :280-9. Exp. Stn. Res. Bulletin 945:50. 473 ml/min. Miles, G.E., E.D. Threadgill, J.E. ■■

Table 2 Droplet spectrum study of hollow cone nozzles Cone angle Droplet Average Actural 57.66º 59.0º 64.4º 68.5º 77.0º 87.0º size droplet droplet range size diameter No.of Volume of No.of Volume of No.of Volume of No.of Volume of No.of Volume of No.of Volume of (µm) (µm) (µm) drop droplets drop droplets drop droplets drop droplets drop droplets drop droplets -lets (cc) -lets (cc) -lets (cc) -lets (cc) -lets (cc) -lets (cc) 1-25 12.5 08.439 1 3.146 x 10-10 4 1.258 x 10-9 6 1.887 x 10-9 3 9.439 x 10-10 0 0 0 0 26-50 37.5 25.300 4 3.390 x 10-8 9 7.627 x 10-8 8 6.780 x 10-8 11 9.322 x 10-8 3 2.542 x 10-8 1 8.475 x 10-9 51-75 62.5 42.200 9 3.539 x 10-7 16 6.292 x 10-7 14 5.506 x 10-7 15 5.899 x 10-7 9 3.539 x 10-7 5 1.966 x 10-7 76-100 87.5 59.100 14 1.512 x 10-6 21 2.268 x 10-6 19 2.052 x 10-6 25 2.700 x 10-6 15 1.620 x 10-6 10 1.080 x 10-6 101-125 112.5 75.960 19 4.357 x 10-6 26 5.963 x 10-6 34 7.798 x 10-6 40 9.174 x 10-6 20 4.587 x 10-6 18 4.128 x 10-6 126-150 137.5 92.839 24 1.005 x 10-5 31 1.298 x 10-5 43 1.800 x 10-5 45 1.884 x 10-5 21 8.794 x 10-6 29 1.214 x 10-5 151-175 162.5 109.700 27 1.865 x 10-5 32 2.210 x 10-5 47 3.247 x 10-5 55 3.799 x 10-5 24 1.658 x 10-5 31 2.141 x 10-5 176-200 187.5 126.600 28 2.973 x 10-5 39 4.141 x 10-5 52 5.521 x 10-5 54 5.734 x 10-5 27 2.867 x 10-5 34 3.610 x 10-5 201-225 212.5 143.500 29 4.484 x 10-5 39 6.031 x 10-5 52 8.041 x 10-5 58 8.969 x 10-5 31 4.793 x 10-5 39 6.031 x 10-5 266-250 237.5 160.400 28 6.047 x 10-5 49 1.058 x 10-4 54 1.166 x 10-4 62 1.339 x 10-4 32 6.911 x 10-5 44 9.502 x 10-5 >250 262.5 177.300 240 7.000 x 10-4 227 6.621 x 10-4 288 8.400 x 10-4 268 7.816 x 10-4 258 7.525 x 10-4 193 5.629 x 10-4 Dry bulb temperature: 30 ºC, Wet bulb temperature: 27 ºC, Speed: 2.4 km/hr, Height of nozzles from target: 66.5 cm No. of replication: 3, Operating pressure: 3 kg/cm2

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 53 Feasibility of Using Yield Monitors for the Development of Soil Management Maps

by Jay Radhakrishnan V. Anbumozhi USDA-ARS, School of Frontier Sciences, Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory University of Tokyo Beltsville, MD 20705 Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033 USA JAPAN

Robert H. Hill Raymond J Miller Department of Natural Resource Sciences Department of Natural Resource Sciences and Landscape Architechture and Landscape Architechture University of Maryland University of Maryland College park, MD 20742 College park, MD 20742 USA USA

ally or group them into manageable Abstract Introduction areas (Radhakrishnan, 1999). The The advent of yield monitors pro- Yield monitors provide detailed objective of this study was to de- vides an unprecedented opportunity crop yield information as a field is termine the feasibility of using soil to investigate the feasibility of using harvested. Without this information, mapping units large numbers of soil-mapping units for field scale it has been difficult to document the yield data obtained from the yield management of crop yields. The ob- actual yield of a crop in all parts of monitor for the development of crop jective of the study was to study the a field. With such information, it yield management maps by testing feasibility of using crop yield moni- should now be possible to determine for differences between land areas tor data delineating different soil the productivity of different land delineated by mapping units in three mapping units within fields cropped areas enclosed by soil mapping unit fields cropped to corn, soybean and to corn, wheat and soybean. Pair- delineation. An understanding of the wheat. wise yield comparisons, were made patterns of soil and crop yield vari- between yields, obtained by yield ability is important for implement- monitors in different land areas of ing variable rate fertilizer applica- Materials and Methods the fields delineated by soil map- tions because yield goals influence ping units. Significant differences fertilizer recommendations. There Yield Monitor and its Working were found for mean crop yields have been several attempts to relate Yield monitor (Ag Leader Tech- within land areas delineated by soil crop yields to soil types (Karlen et nologyTM Yield Monitor 2000TM) mapping units for all three crops but al., 1990; Carr et al., 1991; Colvin et data of corn, wheat and soybean for were not significant when one stan- al., 1995; Wibawa et al., 1993; Sadler 1996 were collected from private dard deviation of mean were consid- et al., 1998; Steinwand et al 1996; producer fields in the Chester River ered. These significant differences Lamb et al., 1997; Lark and Stafford, Watershed in Kent County, Mary- suggested that the crop yields are 1996) but the conclusions have been land, USA and subsequently used distributed uniformly with local- contradictory. Farm fields can be di- in the analyzes. Ag Leader sells the ized variability over the field. The vided into land areas based on yield most widely-used grain yield moni- lack of adequate replications of soil monitor-mapping unit delineation. If toring technology which is available mapping units within a field made it different areas within a field have a for nearly all combines made in difficult to evaluate soil type differ- different yield potential, it should be the last 25 years. It can monitor the ences. possible to manage them individu- wide range of crops that a combine

54 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 can harvest, including small grains, yield values from different mapping for 56, 34 and 29 fields for corn, corn, soybeans, rice, and even grass units obtained from this overlay soybean and wheat respectively, seed (Fig 1). It will display and procedure in Arc-Info were used in were analyzed but for the sake of record yield, moisture, combine the t-test procedure. A simple sta- brevity summarized results from speed, grain flow, acres, distance, tistical program was written in SAS one field for each crop is presented wet bushels, dry bushels, and acres for t-tests to compare yield values (Tables 1, 2,and 3) and discussed. per hour. It organizes data by year, to test the null hypothesis that there Pair-wise comparisons of mean farm, field, grain, and load for easy are no differences in mean yields corn yields of land areas delineated identification. Data can be trans- between land areas within the fields by mapping unit polygons, indicated ferred to a computer to print a sum- delineated by soil mapping unit that there were significant differenc- mary of all fields. Adding GPS and polygons. es in these mean yields as detailed memory card will automatically re- elsewhere (Radhakrishnan, 1999). cord the instantaneous information Study Site and Soil Types The variability associated with the to print yield and moisture maps. The fields of corn (53 hectares), Bs map unit was high (as evidenced As a mapping system, it performs soybean (18.2 hectares) and wheat by the standard deviation) due to a all the monitoring features above, (25.5 hectares) are located on the fewer number of samples compared plus creates an on-screen field map northern boundary of the Chester to the other mapping units. With a and allow spot marking of rocks, River Watershed in Kent county, large number of samples for the oth- holes, etc. to show up on the yield Maryland, USA. The soil mapping er mapping units the variability was map. By itself, the Yield Monitor is units as delineated by soil survey reduced. There were significant dif- a valuable tool to give reliable yield were: Mattapex- Matapeake- But- ferences in wheat map unit means information quickly (Pfeiffer et al, lertown silt loams, 2-5 % slopes except for mapping unit MnB and 1993) and, also, a harvest summary (MxA), Matapeake silt loams, 2-5 mapping unit MxA which are not at the end of the season, enabling % slopes (MnB), Matapeake silt- significantly different. The rela- the farmers to respond to farming loam, 5-10 % slopes (MnC2) and tive variability as evidenced by the operation in a precision way (Staf- Sassafras loam, 2-5 % slopes (SfB) standard deviations was relatively ford et al, 1991). for the corn field. For the soybean similar for all the mapping units. The 1:15,840 soil survey maps field, the mapping units were: Colts- Although slope and erosion differ- (USDA, 1981) were digitized and neck gravelly loam, 5-10 % slopes ences existed between these two the base map, with associated attri- (CgC3), MxA, and Mattapex silt map units, it is not reflected in the butes, was provided by the US Fish loam, 0-2 % slopes (MtA). For the differences in crop yields. There are and Wildlife Service. A methodol- wheat field the mapping units were: some definite conclusions than can ogy was developed to extract crop Sassafras loam, 2-5 % slopes (SfB), be drawn. yield information on the number Mattapex-Matapeake-Butlertown As the spatial area of sampling of data values, minimum yield, silt loams, 2-5 % slopes (MxB), and the number of samples increase, maximum yield, mean, variance and MnB, Butlertown siltloam, 5-10 the range of yield values within standard deviation from entire pro- % slopes (BuC2), SfB and MxA land areas delineated mapping units ducers’ fields. Although the mean (USDA, 1981). also increase contributing to sig- and standard deviations can be used nificant differences. However the as indicators of crop yields and their mean crop yields within the land relative variability, aggregate pair- Results and Discussions areas varied greatly as evidenced by wise comparisons between and the standard deviations for all the among the different mapping units Pair-wise comparisons of crop three crops (Tables 1 to 3). Based was not possible because of the yields within map unit delineation on mean yields the differences in nature of variances involved. The entire yield monitor data was used in t-tests to determine differences between mean crop yields of land areas delineated by soil mapping units. The Arc-Info point coverage was overlaid with the boundary soils coverage and all the yield values that fell within individual soil map- ping unit polygon boundaries were extracted and summarized. All the Fig. 1 Working of yield monitor mounted on a combine during wheat harvest

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 55 yield between land areas enclosed be partly explained by differences economic conditions, Asian farming by soil mapping unit polygons were in soil mapping units at the 1:15,840 systems present both opportunities less than 0.4 tons/hectare for corn scale, but managing individual soils and obstacles for adoption of preci- with the exception of the Bs map- rather than fields does not appear sion farming. ping unit. These differences were feasible with the current levels of It is well known that sustainable less than 0.2 tons/hectare for wheat. soil information. Though, the results agricultural development can hap- The differences in mean crop yields from this study suggest that there pen only if the natural resource base of land areas enclosed by soil map- are significant differences in yields upon which it depends is prudently ping units for soybean were less between land areas delineated by managed. However, in Asia and than 0.1t/ hectare except for the dif- mapping units at the 1:15,840 scale, the Pacific region, yield increases ferences between CgD3 and CgC3, based on the data for 1996, which in this region have been achieved and CgD3 and SfB. Yields seemed happened to be a “near normal” at considerable expense to its re- to be fairly uniformly distributed rainfall year, the relationships may source base and largely by means with fairly uniform quantities of not be the same in a drought year. of excessive and indiscriminate variance associated with the yields. use of external inputs: irrigation, As the number of data values in- Implications of Yield Mon- seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, etc. High crease the distribution of these val- itor Technology for Preci- rates of aquifer depletion, pest and ues tend to approach normality and sion Farming in Develop- disease incidence, environmental the mean differences between these ing Countries in Asia, pollution, soil erosion, and reduced data come closer and closer together Africa and Latin America biodiversity are, therefore, rampant. such that the differences based on For instance, soil erosion in this re- means alone become small. How- Mounting populations, improving gion due to water and wind exceeds ever, the differences in crop yields diets due to economic development, the natural soil formation by 30-40 between land areas enclosed by and increasing urbanization are ex- fold (FAO, 1993). The problem of soil mapping unit polygons are not pected to further enhance demand water quality deterioration is also significant based on one standard for more and superior quality food serious. Pollution of drinking water deviation overlap. This was also re- in the Asia and Africa region. De- in tobacco and rice ecosystems of ported by Colvin et al. (1995). teriorating environmental quality, Malaysia (Ahmad et al., 1996) and The minimum resolvable detail at declining input response of major of groundwater near vegetable fields the scale of the soil survey in a map- crops, and a widening gap between in Japan (Nishio, 1998) are just two ping unit is one hectare. Virtually the potential and realized farm examples. every soil mapping unit delineation yields are main points of concern in Precision Farming (PF) technolo- includes areas of soil components current Asian agriculture. Adoption gies have been developed in coun- or miscellaneous areas (inclu- of precision farming through prac- tries where farm socio-economic sions) that are not identified in the tices such as optimal application conditions are much different than name of the mapping units. Many of inputs depending on spatial and in Asia. It must be noted, however, of these components are too small temporal variability of crop yields that even under subsistence farm- to be identified with existing field and soil properties is increasingly ing, several decisions (application methods. Inclusions reduce the ho- recognized as a valuable approach rates of seeds, fertilizers and other mogeneity of the mapping units and to sustain yields and improve en- inputs) have to be made for optimiz- could contribute to the differences vironmental quality. Because of ing yields and income. As PF tech- seen. The results from this study wide diversity in crops and crop- nologies assist farmers in improved suggest that crop yield variation can ping systems, farm sizes and socio- decision making, and have the Table 1 Differences in corn yields (t/ha) Table 2 Differences in wheat yields (t/ha) Table 3 Differences in soybean yields (t/ha) between original yield monitor date and land between original yield monitor date and land between original yield monitor date and land areas enclosed by different mapping units areas enclosed by different mapping units areas enclosed by different mapping units Mean MnB MnC2 MxB SfB Mean SfB MxA BuC2 MxB Mean CgD3 MtA CgC3 SfB Map Map Map corn wheat soybean unit unit unit yield 0.52 0.35 0.42 0.53 yield 0.71 0.89 0.71 0.77 yield 0.57 0.41 0.46 0.51 Bs 3.80 4.00 3.21 3.80 4.49 MnB 3.70 0.27 0.62 0.45 0.18 MxA 0.46 0.28 0.07 0.57 0.30 MnB 0.52 - 0.38 0.26 0.42 SfB 0.71 - 0.32 0.12 0.08 CgD3 0.57 - 0.35 0.85 0.64 MnC2 0.35 -- 0.58 1.27 MxA 0.89 -- 0.44 0.22 MtA 0.41 -- 0.50 0.28 MxB 0.42 --- 0.69 BuC2 0.71 --- 0.21 CgC3 0.46 --- 0.21 The number of observations (N) for mapping The number of observations (N) for mapping The number of observations (N) for mapping units for Bs = 262, MnB = 22851, MnC2 = units for MnB = 695, SfB = 1404, MxA = units for MxA = 5715, CgD3 = 20, MtA = 1104, MxB = 13056 and SfB = 1057. 386, BuC2 = 373 and MxB = 9298. 2135, CgC3 = 952 and SfB = 818.

56 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 potential to reduce or remove the ef- buel, and F. Perez-Munoz. 1995. Spatial scale requirements for fects of limiting factors on the farm, Yield monitoring for mapping. p. precision farming: A case study in a convincing case can be made on 3-14. In P.C. Roberts, R. H. Rust, Southeastern USA. Agron. J. 90: their suitability to Asian conditions. and W. E. Larson (eds.). Site -spe- 191-197. cific Management for Agricultural Stafford, J. V., B. Amber, and M. P. Systems. Second International Smith. 1991. Sensing and map- Conference. Mar. 27-30. Minne- Conclusions ping grain yield variations. In apolis, MN. ASA/CSSA/SSSA, automated Agriculture for the 21st In this study the differences and Madison, WI. century. Proceedings of the 1991 similarities in crop yields obtained FAO. 1993. Agriculture: towards symposium. ASAE Publ. 11-91, from yield monitors and that de- 2010. Twenty-Seventh Session ASAE, St. Joseph, MI lineated by soil mapping unit poly- of FAO Conference document Steinwand, A. L. Karlen, D. L. Fen- gons were analyzed. Significant C93/24. Rome. 320pp. ton, T. E. 1996. An evaluation of differences occurred in crop yields Karlen, D. L. Saddler, E. J. Buss- soil survey crop yield interpreta- between land areas delineated by cher, W. J. 1990. Crop Yield Varia- tions for two central Iowa farms. mapping units when large numbers tion Associated with Coastal Plain Journal of soil and water conser- of crop yield values from the entire Soil Map Units. Soil Sci. Soc. of vation. 51 (1): 66-71. yield monitor files were used in Am. J. 54 (3):859-865. United States Department of Agri- the analysis. Although significant Lamb, J. A., R. H. Dowdy, J. L. culture, Soil Survey Staff. 1981. differences in mean crop yields Anderson and G. W. Rehm. 1997. Soil Survey of Kent County, between mapping units have been Spatial and temporal stability of Maryland. USDA- NRCS. Wash- obtained, the lack of adequate infor- corn grain yields. J. Prod. Agric. ington D.C. mation in the soil survey data and 10 (3):410-414. Wibawa, W. D., Dludlu, D. L., Sw- the inherent variability associated Lark R. M., and Stafford, J. V. 1996. enson, L .J. Hopkins, D. G. Dahn- with crop yields and soil properties, Consistency and change in spa- ke, W. C. 1993. Variable fertilizer make it difficult to directly support tial variability of crop yield over application based on yield goal, the use of soil mapping units in successive seasons: Methods of soil fertility, and soil map unit. developing crop yield management data analysis. In P. C. Roberts, R. Journal of production agriculture. maps. But it is adjudged that there is H. Rust, and W. E. Larson (Eds.) Apr/June 1993. 6 (2): 255-261. great potential for using yield moni- Site-specific Management for Ag- ■■ tor to develop field management ricultural Systems. ASA/CSSA/ maps when soil information is avail- SSSA, Madison, WI. able in necessary detail. Nishio, M. 1998. Sustainability and vulnerability of Japanese agricul- ture to the environment in the past REFERENCES and at present. Presentation at the Asia Pacific High-Level Confer- Ahmad, A.R., Zulkefli, M., Ahmed, ence on Sustainable Agriculture, M., Aminuddin, B.Y., Sharma, China Hall of Science and Tech- M.L., and Mohd nology, Beijing, China, October Zain, M. 1996. Environmental im- 4-8, 1998. pact of agricultural inorganic pol- Pfeiffer, D. W., Hummel , J. W., and lution on groundwater resources of Miller, N. R. 1993. Real-time corn the Kelantan plain in Malaysia. In: yield sensor. American Society Agricultural impacts of ground- of Agricultural Engineers. Inter- water quality (Eds. Aminuddin, national Summer Meeting, Paper B.Y., Sharma, M.L., and Willett, No. 931013, pp 25. St. Joseph, MI. I.R.) ACIAR Proc. No. 61. 97pp. Radhakrishnan, J. 1999. Relation- Carr, P. M., G. R. Carlson, J. S. Ja- ships between crop yields and cobsen, G. A. Nielsen, and E. O. soil mapping units for potential Skogley. 1991. Farming soils, not applications in precision farming. fields: A strategy for increasing Doctoral dissertation. University fertilizer profitability. J. Prod. Ag- of Maryland, College Park. ric. 4 (1): 57-61. Sadler, E. J., W. J. Busscher, P. J. Colvin, T. S., D. L. Karlen, J. R. Am- Bauer and D. L. Karlen. 1998.

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 57 Improving Whole Kernel Recovery in Cashew Nut Processing Specific to Nigeria Nuts

by D. Balasubramanian Scientist (AS & PE) National Research Centre for Cashew Puttur - 574 202, DK., Karnatala INDIA [email protected]

ity of 1.0 million tones constitute Abstract causes, an investigation was pur- cashew-processing sector in India sued to optimize various technical The cashew industry plays an (Abdul Salaam, 1999). About 0.08 parameters in order to improve the important role in Indian economy. million MT of cashew kernels were whole kernel recovery and ease About 70 percent of total raw ca- exported in 2000-2001 and earned a kernel peeling. The problem was at- shew nut exported from Nigeria foreign exchange of Rs18.8 million tempted in two phases; initially the goes to India for processing. Kernel (Anonymous, 2001). Two-thirds technical parameters related to nut damage (16 percent) in de-shelling of the total industries in India fol- conditioning were optimized to en- operation is primarily due to irregu- low steam boiling and cashew nut sure better whole kernel recovery at lar shape of the nut and wide varia- processing which involves material shelling stage. In the second phase, tion in nut size. Raw nut exposed to separation in the unit operations of in order to maintain optimum nut- steam for 33 minutes maintained at nut conditioning, shelling, kernel conditioning parameters, the kernel 100 PSI with subsequent cooling for drying, peeling and packaging drier conditions were optimized 18 hours was found to give optimum with an ultimate aim of recovering to ease peeling and improve whole results at shelling stage. Exposing white whole kernels. Raw nuts are kernel yield without scorching. the kernels to hot air at 70 ºC for 6 imported from various countries to hours with a cooling period of 24 supplement indigenous production hours eased the peeling process and and 79 percent of total export from Materials and Methods resulted in a high percent of whole Nigeria goes to India. Difficulty in kernels with minimal scorching and peeling without breakage is one of Physical Dimension and Moisture a low percent of difficult to peel the serious problems in processing Content kernels. Rate of moisture removal Nigerian nuts (Anonymous, 2001). Raw cashew nuts of Nigeria during kernel drying is faster dur- End product quality is predominant- origin were collected from the local ing the first six hours affected by ly a function of raw nuts, processing industry and cleaned from adhering the free moisture in the kernel. technique and plant management, dirt and stones. In order to deter- which decisively influence financial mine the proportion of nuts based results. The potential loss could be on the size and mass, a sample of 100 nuts were collected randomly Introduction due to • Inferior raw nut quality in the and its principal axis dimensions of Organized cashew processing line of processing length, width and thickness were originated and developed in India. • Improper nut conditioning measured with an electronic mi- Presently, the Indian system of ca- • Incorrect manipulation of nuts crometer which had an accuracy of shew nut processing is considered during de-shelling 0.01 mm. Because of the irregular to be an effective and economical • Ineffective kernel drying tech- shape of the nut, width and thick- method worldwide. Over 1295 fac- nique ness were measured perpendicular tories with annual processing capac- Considering the mentioned to major axis (Balsubramanian,

58 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 2001). A precision electronic bal- its adhering testa was removed man- tio; Qw is the quantity of whole ance reading 0.01 g (LC) was used ually. Finally, peeled kernels were kernels obtained in kg and Qb is the to obtain individual nut weight. The segregated into wholes, broken, quantity of broken kernels obtained initial moisture content of the raw rejects and difficult to peel kernels in kg. nut sample was determined using and weighted. The quality index Difficult to peel kernels are the toluene distillation method and the was calculated as shown below ones with more skin adherence and values were expressed in dry basis. Quality index = ∑ Ki Pj...... (1) difficult to peel off by the applica- Where K is kernel grade (i, j = tion of extra pressure. The DTP ker- Optimizing Steam Exposure Pe- whole/broken/difficult to peel ker- nels are calculated as riod nels) after peeling process; P is the DPK =( Qdp/ Qk ) x 100...... (3) Raw nuts were conditioned by average price of respective grades Where DPK is the difficult to peel exposing to steam in the baby boiler. The values were fit to a second kernels in %; Qdp is the quantity of

The baby boiler consisted of a cy- order polynomial equation and, by difficult to peel kernels in kg and Qk lindrical drum with a hopper on the equating its derivatives to zero, the is the quantity of kernels obtained top to feed the nuts. Steam gener- optimum values were obtained. in kg. ated in a boiler was let into the nut Wholes to broken kernel ratio chamber (320 kg nut capacity) at 100 (WBR) and the difficult to peel Optimizing Kernel Drying PSI. After saturation, steam pressure kernels (DPK) are the primary indi- In order to optimize the technical droped to 80 PSI and care was taken cators to assess the qualitative effi- parameters related to kernel drying, to maintain the pressure such that ciency of kernel out put and they are which are hot air temperature, ker- CNSL does not ooze out from nut. calculated as follows, nel exposure period and kernel cool-

Nuts were subjected to various times WBR = Qw / Qb...... (2) ing period, an electrically operated of steam exposure; 32, 33, 34, 35 and Where WBR is wholes to broken ra- cross flow drier (tray drying system 35 minutes in different batches. Af- terwards, the nuts were cooled in an ambient environment for 14, 16, 18, Table 1 Comparison of stage wise kernel recovery in processing goa and Nigeria origin cashew nuts 20, 22, 24 hours in thin layers. Three Goa origin Nigeria origin samples of 5 kg weight were drawn Particulars Quantity (kg) % Quantity (kg) % randomly from each batch and de- Raw nut processed 3,500 3,500 shelled using hand-cum-pedal oper- Impurities 13.3 0.4 17.8 0.5 ated sheller to extract the kernels. Spoiled 24.8 0.7 58.6 1.7 The shelled kernels were sorted into RN - Steam boiled 3,461.9 98.9 3,423.6 97.8 wholes, broken and rejects based on Shelling the specifications (Shivanna, 1973) Whole kernels 997.5 28.81 928.4 26.8 and their weights were noted. Broken 35 1.01 69.1 2.0 The extracted kernels were sub- Rejects 3.2 0.1 5.4 0.2 jected to hot air drying in a borma Shelling recovery 1,032.5 29.8 997.5 29.1 drier to enable removal of its brown Kernel drying skin (testa) without damage. Borma Wholes 942.4 890.3 drier is a cabinet type drier heated Broken 32.9 67.4 by cashew shell at the bottom. Ker- Peeling nels were spread on a tray with a Wholes 693.2 67.1 577.7 57.9 wire mesh bottom and loaded inside Broken 165.9 16.1 208.9 20.9 the drying chamber. Heat radiated Difficult to peel 0.9 0.1 22.8 2.3 from the bottom and sides through Peel 103 10.0 103.9 10.4 iron plates to the kernel (Sankaran Rejects 12.2 1.2 43.2 4.3 Nambhudiri, 1972). Primarily the Grading kernels were subjected to hot air White wholes 494.1 47.9 209.9 21.0 maintained at 90 ºC for 8 hours and Scorched wholes 93.9 9.1 134.6 13.5 then air temperature was reduced to Dessert wholes 56.6 5.5 101.4 10.2 80 ºC gradually for next 12 hours. Others wholes 40.7 3.9 61.8 6.2 After drying, kernels were air cured White broken 98.7 9.6 87.8 8.8 for 14 to 24 hours. During cooling, Scorched broken 31.3 3.0 113.4 11.4 random samples were drawn at two Dessert broken 42.1 4.1 75.9 7.6 hour intervals from each batch and Values are average of 5 sets of processing nuts at industrial level

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 59 Table 2 Physical dimensions of Nigeria nuts wholes, broken, rejects, and difficult Length Width Thickness Weight Volume Density to peel kernels and their respec- Sl. No. 3 3 (mm) (mm) (mm) (gm) (cm ) (gm/cm ) tive weight were taken for analysis. Minimum 19.55 18.02 12.01 2.10 3.00 0.64 During peeling operation, the ease of peeling and colour of the kernels Maximum 33.16 28.40 18.69 7.70 7.50 1.23 were observed for every sample to evaluate the effect of various tech- Average 27.74 22.02 15.81 4.43 4.25 1.04 nical parameters. The kernel quality Correlation 0.76 0.77 0.57 1.00 0.93 0.52 indicators were calculated and the coefficient optimum values were determined as Standard 2.41 1.96 1.48 1.08 0.89 0.11 explained earlier. deviation

Table 3 Effect of steam exposure and cooling period on WBR in shelling Nut cooling Steaming duration (minutes) Results and Discussion duration (hrs) 32 33 34 35 36 14 15.75 20.00 17.80 10.45 9.88 The comparison of cashew kernel 15 16.61 19.38 18.67 11.33 10.88 recovery at various stages of pro- 16 16.96 21.11 20.67 10.58 11.45 cessing of Nigeria and India (Goa) 17 15.60 19.37 19.79 12.46 12.44 origin is given in Table 1. In spite 18 15.60 20.44 19.18 11.18 13.38 of same shelling recovery, the varia- 19 13.48 23.00 21.18 11.07 11.86 tion in the proportion of whole and 20 13.38 21.41 19.37 10.97 13.76 broken kernels at the end of shelling 21 14.92 22.12 19.25 - 15.48 clearly indicates that the nuts were 22 14.46 21.65 18.95 - - highly irregular in shape and size, 23 10.32 - 20.44 - - posing a problem in manipulating Average 14.71 20.94 19.53 11.15 12.39 the nut while extracting kernels us- ing the semi-mechanized de-sheller. - model) was used. Initially, the raw batches. The various kernel drying The kernel proportion at the end of nuts were subjected to steam pres- periods at different air temperatures peeling operation clearly indicates sure of 100 PSI for 33 minutes and were 6, 8, 10 and 12 hours. After low whole kernel recovery (56 per- air cured for 18 hours in the ambient drying, kernels were air cured for cent) for the Nigerian nuts, which environment. The conditioned nuts 14 to 24 hours and, at regular inter- is 16.5 percent lower than Indian were de-shelled using hand-cum- vals of two hours, random samples nuts. In addition, higher values of pedal operated sheller to extract were drawn from each batch and scorched kernel (33.2 percent) and whole kernels. The whole kernels its adhering testa was removed difficult to peel kernel (2.2 percent) were separated and subjected to hot manually. All the experiments were for Nigerian nuts showed the impact air in a cross flow drier maintained replicated three times and aver- of the parameter values in the pro- at hot air temperature of 70 ºC, 80 age values were taken for analysis. cessing line. At the end, the broken ºC, 90 ºC and 100 ºC in separate Peeled kernels were segregated into kernels amounted to 25.9 percent Index value Index value 190 190

185 185

180 180

175 175

170 170

165 165 32 33 34 35 36 161514 17 2221201918 Steam exposure period, min Nut cooling period, hrs Fig. 1a Optimizing steaming period for cashew nuts of Nigeria Fig. 1b Optimizing cooling period for cashew nuts of Nigeria

60 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 of kernel recovered in shelling, rep- for 33 minutes of steam duration, at 4. By optimization technique, it was resenting improper kernel drying the various cooling periods indicat- found that the optimum value of technique and method of peeling. ed that this treatment yielded better kernel out put was obtained for the The minimum, maximum, aver- results during the shelling operation. nuts subjected to 33 minutes steam- age and standard deviations of the Less variation was observed with ing and 18 hours cooling (Fig. 2). principal axes of Nigeria nuts are respect to cooling period in terms The proportions of wholes, broken given in Table 2. The poor cor- of WBR indicating that the effect of and difficult to peel kernels at the relation coefficients among length, nut cooling time was not significant. end of peeling was not encouraging width, thickness and weight of the The average ambient temperature for the nuts treated at 32, 35 and 36 nut infer wide distribution of nuts and relative humidity during the minutes. based on size. The average weight experimental period were 31.1 ºC of nuts is 4.5 g, which is normally and 89.5 percent respectively. Optimizing Kernel Drying Pa- categorized between small to me- Regression equations for the ker- rameters dium quality nuts. nel output after peeling operation at The kernel moisture loss during The moisture content of the raw different steam exposure and nut- the drying process subjected to the nut samples was found to be in the cooling periods are given in Table various air temperatures and cool- range of 4.1 to 8.7 percent d.b. con- firming that the nuts were well dried Table 4 Regression equation and optimizing nut before supplying to processing line. conditioning parameters for Nigeria origin Since the raw nuts were imported Steam duration Regression equation Y and stored under high temperature 32 Y = -0.2091x2 + 1.7161x + 170.47 173.99 and low humidity environment; that 33 Y = -0.4739x2 + 5.0334x + 170.97 184.34 is, during summer, the natural phe- 34 Y = -0.3529x2 + 3.0023x + 176.3 182.69 nomena of nuts attaining equilib- 35 Y = -0.313x2 + 1.6736x + 172.52 174.76 rium with environment took place 36 Y = -0.0669x2 - 0.0747x + 176.61 176.63 by loosing moisture. Optimum (33 min) Y = -0.1379x2 + 2.2101x + 168.26 177.12 Optimum (18 hrs) Y = -0.4739x2 + 5.0334x + 170.97 184.34 Optimizing Nut Conditioning Pa- rameters Table 5 Quality index for the kernel output in optimizing kernel drying Raw nuts were exposed to steam Exposure Nut cooling Hot air temperature ºC period (hrs) period (hrs) and, subsequently, cooled to make 70 80 90 100 14 202.80 225.67 247.35 235.56 the nut hard and brittle for opening 16 219.29 207.54 248.19 235.25 to extract the whole kernel. During 18 197.39 219.60 241.61 231.47 steaming, moisture infused into the 6 20 225.88 216.74 240.69 231.41 nut and distributed uniformly over 22 225.63 212.70 244.60 239.37 the nut. When it was subjected to 24 220.10 203.55 244.26 237.84 air-cooling after steaming, the nut 14 195.76 226.07 248.32 228.93 lost its moisture gradually enabling 16 209.27 225.58 244.45 235.19 the testa to loosen from the inner 18 208.42 212.34 245.26 227.69 layer of nut (endocarp). Therefore, 8 20 226.28 197.37 240.86 231.26 steam pressure and cooling period 22 221.88 202.72 245.72 242.80 were shown to be the critical param- 24 216.27 210.45 241.45 227.54 eters to be optimized in relation to 14 203.13 216.52 246.11 231.83 nut conditioning. 16 227.19 210.45 245.80 233.43 It is evident from Table 3 that 18 213.88 221.10 241.95 231.75 10 a higher whole kernel recovery (> 20 212.61 204.16 240.36 229.92 18 percent) occured at 33 and 34 22 221.95 211.47 249.76 237.23 minutes of steam exposure than at 24 212.43 199.25 241.08 236.93 the other treatments of 32, 35 and 14 212.04 214.23 247.12 231.62 36 minutes of steaming. When the 16 214.44 235.84 241.17 224.05 steamed nuts were cooled for 19 12 18 210.42 217.14 246.18 225.83 hours, a high value of WBR (23.0) 20 201.15 200.69 240.31 243.22 was obtained for 33 minutes of 22 216.53 213.31 240.67 236.42 steaming. Index values were calculated based on average price values of whole, broken and The average values of WBR (20.9) difficult to peel kernel

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 61 Table 6 Regression equation and optimizing kernel drying kernels and the kernel composition. parameter for cashew nuts of Nigeria origin Therefore, kernels are susceptible to Nut exposure Temp (ºC) Regression equation Y scorching during continuous expo- period (hrs) sure at high temperature. Consider- 6 Y = -0.4199x2 + 6.7679x + 197.86 225.13 ing the economy of the processing, 8 Y = -1.9609x2 + 18.247x + 178.86 221.31 70 which is highly influenced by the 10 Y = -1.3802x2 + 10.504x + 199.37 219.36 quality of kernels obtained at the 12 Y = 2.7397x2 - 16.114x + 229.62 205.93 peeling stage, the kernels should be 6 Y = -0.348x2 - 0.364x + 220.85 220.95 exposed to lower temperature for 8 Y = 2.0612x2 - 19.047x + 247.82 203.82 80 the purpose of loosening testa. 10 Y = -0.7878x2 + 2.6519x + 213.16 215.39 Kernels, after extraction from 12 Y = 0.8473x2 - 7.6008x + 230.51 211.09 6 Y = 0.6433x2 - 5.2778x + 253.16 242.33 the nut will have moisture and the 8 Y = 0.2531x2 - 2.7698x + 250.2 242.62 skin will be difficult to peel im- 90 10 Y = 0.1983x2 - 1.813x + 247.51 243.37 mediately. In order to remove the 12 Y = -0.147x2 - 0.6574x + 246.57 247.30 skin, kernels must be exposed in the 6 Y = 0.7103x2 - 4.3026x + 239.48 232.96 controlled environment and cooled 8 Y = -0.5613x2 + 4.4855x + 225.05 234.01 for a certain period. This alternative 100 10 Y = 0.4725x2 - 2.3051x + 234.42 231.61 heating and cooling will shrink the 12 Y = -0.2442x2 + 3.4617x + 223.94 236.21 kernel and loosen the skin enabling 70 Y = -2.4018x2 + 6.0522x + 220.81 224.62 manual peeling using small knives. 80 Y = 3.2051x2 - 17.826x + 233.34 208.55 Increasing wholes to broken ratio 90 Y = 0.9129x2 - 2.9991x + 244.56 242.10 and decreasing the difficult to peel 100 Y = 0.8881x2 - 3.7077x + 236.31 232.44 kernels should be the ultimate aim Optimized (70 ºC) Y = 1.603x2 - 2.3155x + 220.69 219.85 in the peeling process. In addition, the technical parameters in kernel ing periods is given in Fig. 2. A sig- the drying progresses, the diffusion drying must be optimized to ease nificant effect was observed during of bound moisture has taken place the peeling operation and reduce the the initial period of drying up to 6 and less variation in rate of moisture scorching of kernels for better eco- hours. Rapid rate of moisture loss in loss with respect to temperature is nomic efficiency. the initial phase may have resulted observed after 6 hours. The effect of various air tem- from loss of free moisture. The When the kernels were subjected peratures and kernel cooling periods mechanism of moisture diffusion to temperatures of 90 ºC and 100 º on the kernel quality at peeling is is greatly influenced by the tem- C, discolouration of kernels was depicted in Figs. 3 and 4. It is clear perature, which is evident from the noticed. This could be due to the that the whole kernel recovery is faster removal of moisture at higher effect of higher temperature on the stable at temperatures of 70 ºC and temperature (90 ºC and 100 ºC). As volatile compounds present in the 80 ºC (range 73.11 to 77.56 percent)

Whole kaernel to broken ratio, % Hard to peel kernels, % 21 70OC 80OC 18 70OC 80OC O O 80 O O 100 90 C 100 C 90 C 100 C 18 15 90 15 12 100 80 12 9 90 70 9 6 6 70 3 3

0 0 14 18 22 14 18 22 14 18 22 14 18 22 14 18 22 14 18 22 14 18 22 14 18 22 16 20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 Cooling period, hrs Cooling period, hrs 6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12 Kernel exposure period, hrs Kernel exposure period, hrs Fig. 3 Effect of drying parameters on wholes Fig. 4 Effect of drying parameters on difficult to broken ratio in peeling process to peel kernels in peeling process

62 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 irrespective of the cooling period. the operation of peeling. Although a period of 24 hours can yield better The value increased above 80 per- higher values of WBR were obtained results at the peeling stage. Practi- cent when it was subjected to 90 ºC at 90 ºC and 100 ºC this is not feasible cally, industries require at least 24 and 100 ºC (range 82.50 to 92.90), due to kernels scorching. hours time to pass on the kernels but the kernels turned light to deep The quality index value for the from one stage to another. Since the brown due to scorching. These kernel output in relation to optimi- quality index at these kernel-drying scorched kernels were edible, but it zation of kernel drying parameters parameters is optimum, this blends is not preferred when the economic is given in Table 5. The polynomial with the industry practice. efficiency of the processing system equations framed with optimum val- is concerned. Thus, exposing the ues at different cooling periods are kernels to high temperatures above presented in Table 6. The optimum Conclusions 80 ºC must be avoided for better values for kernel drying parameters economic results. Longer heating viz., air temperature, length of dry- 1. Wide variation in the size of periods for kernels of 10 and 12 hrs ing inside borma and kernel cooling nuts and absence of grading based have caused them to become highly period in ambient environment are on nut size led to 16 percent kernel brittle and cause more breakage dur- shown in Figs. 5a, 5b, and 5c. Fol- damage in shelling by longitudinal ing manual peeling. Higher values lowing the optimization technique, cracks in the extracted kernels. The of WBR at 6 and 8 hrs indicated that it is observed that kernels exposed dimensions of the raw nut showed the kernels must be exposed in hot to hot air maintained at 70 ºC for 6 that Nigerian nuts are highly irregu- air for shorter time in order to ease hours and cooling subsequently for lar shape, demanding correct ma-

Moisture loss, % Index value 10 250 80 240 8 100

230 90 6 220 4 O O 70 C 80 C 210 70 90OC 100OC 2 200

0 190 8642 10 12 70 80 90 100 Drying time, hrs Air temperature, OC Fig. 2 Rate of drying of cashew kernels at various temperature Fig. 5a Optimizing of kernel drying parameters for cashew nuts of Nigeria - air temperature

Index value Index value 250 250

240 240

230 230

220 220

210 210

200 200

190 190 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Kernel exposure period, hrs Kernel cooling period, hrs Fig. 5b Optimizing of kernel drying parameters for cashew Fig. 5c Optimizing of kernel drying parameters for cashew nuts of Nigeria - exposure period nuts of Nigeria - cooling period

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 63 nipulation according to size during capacity. Longer kernel drying nut requirement. Cashew Bulletin, the de-shelling operation to avoid tended to remove more moisture and 38 (3): 2-3 damage to the kernel. makes the kernel brittle irrespective Anonymous, 2001. Export trend. 2. Ineffective peeling method is of cooling period. This results in Cashew bulletin, 39(8): 3 the major cause for high propor- more broken and scorched kernels Anonymous, 2002. 5th National tion of broken kernels at the peeling while peeling. seminar on Cashew. Cashew bulle- stage. Removing skin at the lateral 8. To improve the economic re- tin, 40 (6): 7 sides could avoid scratching of ker- sults by lowering the quantity of Balasubramanian, D. 2000. Physi- nels by knife and ease the peeling difficult to peel kernels in the peel- cal properties of raw Cashew nuts. process, as the skin adherence is ing stage, the raw nuts must be Journal of Agricultural Engineering more on the sides of the kernels. subjected to steam at 100 PSI for Research. 78 (3): 291-297 3. The moisture content of raw 33 minutes and cooled in an ambi- Sankaran Nambhudiri. E and S. nut determined by toluene distilla- ent environment for a minimum of K. Lakshinarayana, 1972. Stud- tion method is in the range of 4.12 18 hrs. The kernels obtained from ies on improvement in Cashew nut to 7.31 percent d.b. showing the nuts shelling must be exposed to hot processing. Journal of Food Science were well dried before processing. air temperature of 70 ºC for 6 hrs and Technology (I), 9 (3): 124-126 A major portion of difficult to peel continuously in a cabinet type drier Shivanna C. S and V. S. Govinda- kernels is due to immature nuts in followed by 24 hrs cooling to ease rajan, 1973. Processing of Cashew the processing line, which is evident peeling operation and increase peel- nuts. Indian Food Packer, 27 (5): from the proportion of shriveled ing output. 21-48 kernels at packing, i.e. 16.4 percent. ■■ 4. A significant rate of moisture removal took place during the initial Acknowledgement phase of kernel drying irrespective of hot air temperature mainly due The author gratefully acknowledg- to the loss of free moisture from es the Director, National Research the kernel. During bound moisture Centre for Cashew, Puttur, Karna- removal in subsequent phase of dry- taka, India for the encouragement ing, care should be taken to avoid and the facilities provided to carry change in chemical composition and out the studies. Thanks are due to loss of volatile components of ker- Mr. Walter D’souza and Mr. Veigas nel. for the cooperation to take up the 5. Exposing the kernels to higher experiment at their industry. temperatures of 90 ºC and 100 º C, made the skin removal easy and enhanced operational capacity. Notations However, this caused a high propor- tion of the kernels to be scorched. PSI: Pounds per square inch Thus, the unpeeled kernel should MT: Metric tones be exposed to lower temperature to LC: Least count obtain a higher quantity of white Db: dry basis whole kernels. Mm: millimetre 6. The whole kernel recovery was CNSL: Cashew Nut Shell Liquid 77.56 percent, when the kernels Kg: Kilogram were dried in a cross flow drier WBR: Whole to Broken kernel subjected to 70 ºC for 6 hours. This Ratio recovery was 37 percent higher than DPK: Difficult to Peel Kernels the presently used conventional type ºC: degree centigrade borma drier. cm3: Cubic centimetre 7. The adherence of testa was highly related to the amount of moisture present in the testa and the REFERENCE kernel. The amount of manpower spent on careful peeling of difficult Abdul Salaam, 2000. Two more to peel kernels reduced operational decades to achieve today’s cashew

64 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Processing Factors Affecting the Yield and Physicochemical Properties of Starches from Cassava Chips and Flour

by O. V. Olomo O. O. Ajibola Agro-Industrial Development Unit (AIDU) Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Federal Dept. of Agriculture, P. O. Box 384, Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU), Gwagwalada, Abuja Ile-Ife NIGERIA NIGERIA

Abstract Introduction raw material, thereby operating with much greater efficiency (Ajibola, Three processing factors, namely, Cassava processing in Nigeria 1996). The need to establish these raw materials type (RMT) (i.e. chips is still characterized by features, possibilities has therefore provided and flour) and raw material drying which exercise a limiting effect on the impetus for carrying out this mode (RDM) (i.e. sun and oven- product diversification and wide- research work with a view to inves- drying at 55 ºC) were related to the spread utilization. Since cassava tigating the processing factors influ- yield and some physicochemical is cultivated principally in small- encing the extraction of starch from properties of starch in a 23 factorial holder farms across the country, the cassava chips and flour. experiment. The quality characteris- quantity of harvested roots that is tics investigated were: moisture con- commercially available is not large, tent, pH, crude fibre content, peak and when there are surpluses, the Materials and Methods viscosity and pasting temperature. problem of commodity agglom- Starch yields from oven-dried chips eration and linking with industrial Fresh cassava roots (Manihot es- and flour were significantly higher processors become daunting. The culenta Crantz) of a local variety ( (at 5 %) than from sun-dried ma- transformation of cassava into high “oko iyawo”) were obtained from terials. The optimal yield of 55.90 quality starch from stable cassava a private farm inside the Obafemi g (per 70 g of dried product or 79.9 products like chips and flour will Awolowo University (OAU), Ile-Ife, %) was obtained from oven-dried have a phenomenal facilitating ef- Nigeria. starch extracted from oven-dried fect within the general cassava flour. The peak viscosity (PV) of processing sub sector and for starch Preparation of Dried Raw Ma- starches extracted from flours were extraction activities in particular. terials (Experiment 1) significantly higher than those from As noted by Thro et al. (1994), the A Hallde dicing machine (A.B. chips with average values of 565.22 increasing importance of cassava Hallde, Maskiner, Sweden) was used and 550.08 RVA units respectively, as an industrial crop makes the lo- to produce peeled cassava chips of while the pasting temperatures (PT’ gistics of supplying fresh cassava to approximately 10 x 10 x 10 mm in s) of flour-extracted starch were processing locations more critical. size. These were collected in drying lower than starches from chips with The capacity to store cassava roots trays and subsequently sun and ov- mean gelatinization temperatures of in the form of chips and flour for en-dried. Sun-drying was continued 76.44 ºC and 76.50 ºC respectively. more than a few days would provide until no further loss in weight of the processors with the operational flex- diced roots was noticed. Oven dry- ibility of inventorying a reserve of ing was carried out at a temperature

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 65 of 55 ºC using standard procedures were used because it is known that continually recorded. The crude in a Gallenkamp moisture extrac- gelatinization of cassava starch oc- fibre content of the samples was de- tion oven. Drying was deemed to be curs at 70 ºC and above. termined using the AOAC Method complete when there was no further A 23 factorial experiment was of Analysis (AOAC, 1978). The data loss in weight over a 24 hr period. performed to investigate the effects in Table 1 were analysed using the The final moisture content was then of dried raw materials type (RMT), Yates algorithm; the two and three determined. Similarly, dried cassava raw material drying mode (RDM) factor interactions were used as es- flour was produced by weighing and and starch drying mode (SDM) on timates of the standard errors where grating fresh roots in an electric the yield and physicochemical prop- appropriate (Box et al., 1978). A motor-powered mechanical cassava erties of the starch produced. Each computer program (SAS, 1987) was grater. The ensuing mash was put factor was investigated at two levels, used to derive the F-values and fac- into a permeable high-density poly- yielding eight treatment combina- tors significant at the 5 % level. propylene sack, and immediately tions (see Table 1 for the results of dewatered in a screw press. The the factorial experiments). dewatered cakes were weighed into The moisture content of samples Results and Discussion trays to be dried in the sun at ambi- was determined using standard pro- ent temperature, and in the oven cedures in a Model 28, Thelco Lab Analysis of the results of the at 55 ºC. Other drying procedures Oven (Precision Scientific, GCA 23 factorial experiment (Table 1) and methods apply as identified for Corp., USA). pH was determined indicated that starch yields were chips above. by dissolving 10 g of each sample in significantly affected by the raw 10ml of distilled water, and allowed material drying mode RDM (Table Extraction of starch from roots to stand for 30 min. The pH of the 2). Oven-dried materials (chips and and dried products (Experiment 2) filtrate was determined with a Cole flour) gave yields, which were sig- Each of the sets of chips and flour Parmer digital meter (Cole Parmer nificantly higher (at 5 %) compared produced by the two drying modes Instrument Co., Chicago, Illinois). with those from sun dried materi- described above (viz., sun-drying The pasting temperature and peak als. A review and comparison of the and oven-drying at 55 ºC) was viscosity of the starch samples were unit operations for the production ground in a vertical shaft hammer determined using a rapid visco of chips and flour indicated that the mill with a screen size of 300 µm analyzer (RVA). The RVA (Newport more comprehensive size reduction sieve bowl, and the starch milk al- Scientific Rapid Visco Analyzer) and dewatering operations for flour lowed to settle for 8 hours. This was with Microsoft Thermocline for production would normally lead to followed by the decantation of the Windows Software (Microsoft Inc., the loss of some starch molecules in supernatant and dewatering of the USA), HP 690C Printer (Hewlett suspension during the period. Ac- starch sediment in a screw press. Packard Inc., USA) and Computer cording to Ajibola (1987) however, The dewatered starch cakes from Monitor (Dell Corp. USA) were the quantity of starch molecules each of the samples (i.e. from oven used to assess the quality of the lost during the mash dewatering and sun-dried chips and flour) were starch samples. The precise ramped process was not significant. It can spread on drying trays, and put sep- heating and cooling abilities of the therefore be hypothesized that the arately in the sun, and oven at 55 ºC RVA, along with steady state tem- lower starch yields from chips may in 2 x 2 drying experiments. Each of perature control, allowed careful be due to internal activities occur- these samples was replicated twice. control of the cooking environment, ring during the other processes of Relatively low drying temperatures while changes in viscosity were starch extraction from the dried

Factors Crude starch Moisture Peak Pasting Experiment yield/70 g DM content pH Crude fibre viscosity temp. number RMT RDM SDM (mean) (mean) (mean) (mean) 1 (B3) Chips Sun Sun 34.15 (48.8 %) 10.93 5.50 - 520.75 76.58 2 (B1) Flour Sun Sun 43.80 (62.6 %) 12.10 4.99 - 556.84 76.40 3 (B4) Chips 50 ºC Sun 48.95 (69.9 %) 10.93 4.70 1.93 556.25 76.58 4 (B5) Flour 50 ºC Sun 55.45 (79.2 %) 10.80 5.03 - 566.46 76.40 5 (B5) Chips Sun 55 ºC 39.20 (56.0 %) 10.56 5.12 0.29 557.42 76.50 6 (B7) Flour Sun 55 ºC 48.70 (69.6 %) 10.52 5.11 - 522.33 76.35 7 (B6) Flour 55 ºC 55 ºC 45.35 (64.8 %) 10.20 4.80 - 566.92 76.45 8 (B8) Flour 55 ºC 55 ºC 55.90 (79.9 %) 10.72 5.14 - 615.25 76.50 Table 1 Results of 2 factorial experiment to determine the effects of RMT, RDM and SDM on the yield and quality of extracted starch (Experiment 2)

66 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 chips and flour samples. Giraud (grated, dewatered cassava mash) sun-dried samples was 9.413 and et al. (1994) observed significant flour was to be expected in view of 10.033 % (w.b.) respectively. A study variations in the pH of sun and the greater degree of the size reduc- of the effects table developed from oven-dried cassava flour, with the tion and the resultant relatively bet- the Yates Algorithm table indicated latter being lower. They suggested ter access of the solvent (water) to that RDM significantly affected pH; that the pH increase during sun wash out the starch granules from but there was also significant inter- drying (of starch samples) might the cells of the flour compared with action of RMT and RDM (Table 3). be due to the consumption of lactic chips. Essentially, it can be deduced This interaction may be explained as acid in a chemical reaction. Lactic that given similar communition the combined effects of differential acid can be transformed during sun conditions (equal milling time in drying rates in chipped and grated drying to either lactate or the lactic screen, of equivalent mesh open- cassava roots (RMT), and the more form may disappear. The activities ings) starch yields from flour will controlled and uniform oven-drying of bacteria converting (ferment- be greater than from chips, except conditions compared with the more ing) cassava starch to lactic acid probably, if the two samples are variable sun-drying profile (RDM). was probably more pronounced for ground in a manner to ensure equal- Under similar drying conditions, starch extracted from sun-dried raw ity of the fineness moduli of the en- cassava flour would be expected to materials than for oven-dried ones, suing milled samples. dry faster than chips in view of the leading to the greater crude starch greater surface area available for yields from the latter compared to Effects of Processing Conditions moisture movement and evaporation the former. Starch drying mode on Starch Quality compared to chips, whose lower (SDM) did not have any significant Most of the starch samples as- degree of size reduction hinders effect on yield (Table 2). The mean sayed had no crude fibre in them. speedy moisture migration to its starch yields from flour and chips The Duncan’s Multiple Range Test surface and therefore lower water are 50.96 g and 41.91 g (per 70 g of indicated that RDM had no signifi- evaporation (and drying rates). The dried product) respectively. This cant effect on the moisture content foregoing is relevant to the respec- difference is significant at 5 % using (MC) of the starch samples pro- tive pH levels recorded for chips the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. duced. The mean MC for oven and and flour when the importance of Even though a particle size analysis Estimates + of the disintegrated dried flour and Effect F value Pr>F chips was not undertaken, it was ob- standard error served that the coarse aggregates Average 46.44 + 0.75 in the latter were much higher than Main effects the former. This was evidenced in Raw material type (T) 9.05 + 1.50 71.11 0.0001 the large quantities of coarse over- Raw material drying mode (D) 9.95 + 1.50 85.95 0.0001 flows (for chips) during screening Starch drying mode (S) 1.70 + 1.50 of the solubilized “flours” to filter Two-factor interactions out the starch milk. Henderson and TD -0.53 + 1.50 Perry (1976) indicated that the size ST 0.98 + 1.50 and shape of the individual grains in SD -3.28 + 1.50 any mass of material would depend Three-factor interactions TDS 1.05 + 1.50 upon the history and method of re- Table 2 Effects of factors on crude starch yields (CSYs) duction. Since the methods of size reduction and drying were similar Estimates + Effect F value Pr>F for both dried raw material types, standard error the variation in the consistency for Average 5.05 + 0.06 the ensuing hammer milled flour Main effects can be attributed to differences in Raw material type (T) 0.04 + 0.13 their physical characteristics (i.e. Raw material drying mode (D) 0.26 + 0.13 4.41 0.1706 size of the chips compared with Starch drying mode (S) -0.01 + 0.13 unmilled flour). It was obvious dur- Interactions ing the experiment that the fineness TD 0.29 + 0.13 5.46 0.1404 modulus (FM) of the milled chips ST 0.13 + 0.13 was much higher than the corre- SD 0.12 + 0.13 sponding flour samples. Therefore, TDS 0.13 + 0.13 the greater starch yields from dried Table 3 Effects of factors on pH

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 67 water (moisture) for the facilitation (SDM) had significant effects on a projection of the initial tendency of the fermentation process is con- peak viscosity. Table 4 shows that of the dried raw materials them- sidered. Bokanga (1995) indicated the estimate of the three-factor selves. From experiment 1, we noted that nearly all fermentations rely on interaction was about twice that of that the PV of flour samples was sig- the fortuitous presence of microbes the highest two-factor interaction; nificantly higher than that for chips on the roots and/or in the water, and (14.39 for RMT * RDM Versus (i.e. 502.12 Vs 396.94 RVA units). on the prevailing favourable con- 27.33 for RDM * RMT * SDM). It Finally, it was observed that oven- ditions. One of the conditions for was therefore plausible, that a three- dried starch samples possessed peak promoting microbial (or bacterial) factor interaction was indicated as viscosities much higher than sun- activity is the presence of moisture. having significant effects on the PV. dried starches. This finding agreed The degree of fermentation (with The experiment showed that starches with that of Dufour et al. (1994) pH as index) is related to the relative extracted from oven-dried raw ma- who observed that fermentation and duration of moisture availability. terials exhibited higher peak viscos- sun drying modified the rheological This relationship between pH and ities compared with those extracted properties of the starch and pro- moisture availability partly explains from sun-dried feed stocks. The duced a more marked retro grada- the effect of the RMT and RDM observed lower PV of starches from tion and lower maximum viscosity. interactions on pH. The difference sun-dried raw materials may be due Retro gradation is an increased ri- in the mean pasting temperatures of to the progressive carry over of the gidity in the starch gel that occurs as sun and oven-dried materials (76.46 PV characteristics of the oven-dried starch granules re-associate during ºC and 76.45 ºC respectively) is not materials from experiment 1, which cooling, sometimes leading to syn- significant. There were no discern- were themselves characterized by eresis or the release of water (Safo- ible correlations between starch pH higher PV’s compared with the PV’ Kantanka and Acquistucci, 1994). and the PT’s for starch extracted s of sun-dried chips and flour (i.e. It appears that the consistent cor- from either oven-dried or sun-dried 450.56 Vs 448.50 RVA units). It was relation between crude starch yields materials. also found that the PV for flour- and peak viscosities in the three Analysis of the results of experi- extracted starch was significantly interacting factors is responsible for ment 2 indicated that each of RDM, higher than those extracted from their significant interactive effect on RMT and starch drying mode chips. This may also be attributed to PV. From the data generated in this work, it was observed that crude Estimates + Effect F value Pr>F starch yield is the most prominent standard error common characteristic affecting PV Average 557.78 + 4.31 values. This agrees with the work of Main effects Moorthy et al. (1994) who suggested Raw material type (T) 14.89 + 8.61 11.30 0.0211 that the lower starch content of flour Raw material drying mode (D) 36.89 + 8.61 68.02 0.0001 samples could account, in part, for Starch drying mode (S) -15.41 + 8.61 12.09 0.0103 their lower peak viscosities com- Interactions pared with the PV’s of correspond- TD 14.39 + 8.61 9.86 0.0164 ing starches extracted from the ST -8.27 + 8.61 same cassava root. This proposition SD 14.33 + 8.61 finds concurrence with the findings TDS 27.33 + 8.61 37.50 0.0005 in this work, and confirms the valid- Table 4 Effects of factors on peak viscosity (P.V) ity of the three-factor interaction, viz.: oven-dried starch (SDM) from Estimates + Effect F value Pr>F standard error oven-dried flour (RDM and RMT) Average 76.47 + 0.02 gave PV values greater than any Main effects other alternative factor combina- Raw material type (T) -0.12 + 0.04 tions. Raw material drying mode (D) 0.03 + 0.04 RMT was implicated in the analy- Starch drying mode (S) -0.04 + 0.04 sis as having a significant effect on Interactions pasting temperature, PT, with the TD 0.05 + 0.04 gelatinization temperature of starch ST 0.07 + 0.04 extracted from chips being higher SD 0.03 + 0.04 than those from flour. Further to TDS 0.05 + 0.04 5.89 0.0456 this observation was the significant Table 5 Effects of factors on pasting temperature effect of a three-factor interaction

68 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 (RMT * RDM * SDM) on PT. F 4. The quality characteristics of perimenters. An introduction to = 5.89 (Pr>F) = 0.0456 (Table 5). oven-dried starch samples extracted design, data and model building. This three-factor interaction can be from oven dried cassava flour (Sam- John Wiley & Sons Publishers. viewed as combining factor levels ple B8) was found to be optimal or Dufour, D., Larsonneur, S., Alar- in such a manner as to produce vari- close to the highest standards re- con, F., Brabet, C., and Chuzel, able starches (from chips and flour), quired by a cross section of relevant G. (1994): Improving the bread- which have different lipids and industries (i.e. the paper manufac- making potential of cassava sour sugar contents. Such components turing and certain categories of the starch. In Proc. of the Int’l Meet- within the samples, by variably food industries in the USA). ing on Cassava Flour and Starch, restricting access of water into the 5. The result of this research has Cali, Colombia. Dufour, D., O’ starch granules, can delay gelatini- demonstrated the possibility of Brien, G. M. and Best, R. (eds) pp zation, thereby creating differences producing high quality starch from 133-142. in the PT values. According to Os- dried cassava products rather than Giraud, E., Brauman, A., Keleke, man (1967), surfactants and lipids, from bulky fresh roots, which make S., Gosselin, L., and Raimbault, by forming complexes, can raise cassava-processing operations M. (1994): A lactic acid bacte- gelatinization temperatures. Lipids, inflexible and often logistically rium with potential application in common with many surfactants, precarious. The benefits of this pos- in cassava fermentation. Ibid pp are also identified by Krog (1973) sibility for Nigerian farmers, the na- 133-142. as significantly affecting starch by tion’s cassava processing industries Henderson, S. M. and Perry, R. L. complexing strongly with amylose and the economy are numerous. (1976): Agricultural process engi- and amylopectin side chains. The neering. 3rd ed. The AV1 Publish- foregoing can be ascertained by ing Co. Inc., Westport, Connecti- subjecting the starch samples to de- Acknowledgement cut. pp 130. fatting and ethanol extraction before Krog, N. (1973): Amylose complex- carrying out the viscoamylographic Access to laboratory facilities and ing effect of food grade emulsi- analysis. use of Rapid Visco Analyzer by the fiers. Starche/Starke 23: 206-210. International Institute for Tropical Moorthy, S. N., Rickard, J., and Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan is grate- Blanshard, J. M. V. (1994): Influ- fully acknowledged. Conclusions ence of gelatinization character- istics of cassava starch and flour The following deductions were on the textural properties of some made from the results and analysis REFERENCES food products. In Proc. of the Int’ carried out in this work. l Meeting on Cassava Flour and 1. Raw material type (RMT) had Ajibola, O. O. (1987): Mechani- Starch, Cali, Colombia. Dufour, a significant effect on starch peak cal dewatering of cassava mash. D., O’Brien, G. M. and Best, R. viscosity. The peak viscosities of Transactions of the American 5th (eds) pp 15-155. starch samples from chips were sig- Society of Agricultural Engineers ■■ nificantly lower than those extracted (ASAE) Vol. 30:20. from flour. Ajibola, O. O. (1996): Optimisation 2. Raw material drying mode of the processing of cassava into (RDM) was positively correlated to glucose and high fructose syrup starch yield and peak viscosities, as through starch hydrolysis. Unpub- oven-dried raw materials had sig- lished Research Proposal to the nificantly higher crude starch yields National Agricultural Research and higher peak viscosities. Project (NARP), Dept. of Agric. 3. Neither raw material type Sciences, FMANR, Nigeria. 25p. (RMT) nor raw material drying AOAC (1978): Methods of analysis. mode (RDM) had any significant 13th ed. Association of Official effect on pasting temperatures (PT’ and Analytical Chemists, Wash- s) of the dried raw materials. RDM ington D.C., USA. and starch drying mode (SDM), Bokanga, M. (1995): Biotechnology similarly had no significant effects and food processing in Africa. on starch gelatinization tempera- Food Technology. 49 (1) 86-90. tures, but RMT significantly af- Box, E. P., W. G. Hunter and Hunter, fected starch PT. J. S. (1978): Statistics for ex-

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 69 Influence of Seeding Depth and Compaction on Germination

by P. R. Jayan V. J. F. Kumar Research Scholar Professor Dept. of Farm Machinery Dept. of Farm Machinery Agric. Eng. College and Research Institute Agric. Eng. College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Combatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu Combatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu INDIA INDIA

C. Divaker Durairaj Professor Dept. of Farm Machinery Agric. Eng. College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Combatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu INDIA

sure over the soil cover (Pathak et Abstract Introduction al., 1976). Field studies were conducted to A viable seed’s germination sown The measurement of soil com- observe the effect of depth of seed- in a well-pulverized soil may be af- paction in terms of bulk density is ing and soil compaction on germi- fected by its contact with the soil more reliable than the penetration nation for crops, namely, black gram for moisture. This problem can be resistance, as it is associated with (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper), maize eliminated to a certain extent by the changes in pore space and void (Zea mays L.), cotton (Gossypium compacting the seeds to the desired ratio of the soil (Koolen and Kui- hirsutum L.) and gingelly (Sesamum level. Studies showed that the emer- pers, 1983). It is cumbersome to indicum L.). Different soil compac- gence of seedling improved progres- measure the soil compaction in the tion levels viz., 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and sively by increasing planting depths field precisely at different depths. 1.5 g cm-3 were applied by means of from 0 to 2.5 cm and soil compaction A foil type strain gauge pressure a roller press wheel. A simple low from 0 to 0.84 kg cm-2 (Triplett and transducer was used to measure the cost pressure-sensing device was Tesar, 1960). The surface compac- compacting load over the seed in a developed to measure the soil com- tion below 0.04 kg cm-2 decreased triaxial pressure cell (Johnson and paction in the field at different seed- cotton seed emergence (Elmer and Henry, 1967). A miniature strain ing depths. The study revealed that Wanjura, 1970). The position at gauge pressure transducer was also soil surface compaction levels of 1.3 which the seed is compacted also developed to measure the soil pres- and 1.2 g cm-3 and seedling depths significantly affects the germina- sure instantaneously by a passing of 2.5 and 5.0 cm, yielded maxi- tion. When pressure above 0.05 kg coulter (Baker and Mai, 1982). The mum seed germination for black cm-2 was applied over the seed level, methods developed to measure the gram and maize, while for cotton 60 and 65 % seedling emergence compaction of soil are very costly and gingelly seed germination was was observed for wheat and maize and trained personnel are needed maximum at 2.5 and 2.0 cm seeding respectively. But seedling emer- to make observations. In this study, depths at a surface compaction level gence of 95 and 90 % were obtained a simple low cost pressure-sensing of 1.1 g cm-3. for wheat and maize respectively at device was developed to measure the same moisture levels and pres- the soil compaction at different

70 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 depths. The effect of soil compac- relationship between the bulk density at 2.5 and 5 cm depths, while cotton tion on seed germination was also and manometric displacement was and gingelly were placed at 2 and 3 investigated for crops, namely black obtained as, Y = 26x - 8.04, where, Y cm depths by means of a specially gram, maize, cotton and gingelly in = manometric level, cm and x = bulk made dibbling device which main- the field. density, g cm-3. tained the depth precisely. The roller wheel with the known weight was Development of Field Compacting rolled at normal walking speed of 2 Device km h-1 until soil reached the mano- Materials and Methods To compact the soil in the field metric displacement corresponding The experiment was conducted in after sowing the seed, a roller press to the required bulk density. sandy clay loam soil (USDA clas- wheel that consisted of a mild sification) that consisted of 33.8 % steel roller of 10 cm diameter and Lay out of Experiment clay, 8.21 % silt, 29.6 % fine sand and 30 cm long, weighing 27 kg, was A field of 0.16 ha was selected for 23.08 % coarse sand. The apparent fabricated (Fig. 2). It developed a the study. It was divided into four specific gravity of the soil was 1.2 pressure of 0.03 kg cm-2 so as to equal plots. The experiment was to 1.35 and infiltration rate was 1.5 make the soil bulk density of 1.1 g laid out using the Factorial Ran- to 2 cm h-1. cm-3. Additional weights made of domised Block Design with 6 x 2 32 mm diameter mild steel rods and x 4 x 4 treatments as bulk density, Development and Calibration of a 30 cm length weighing 2.5 kg were depth, type of seed and replications Pressure Sensor added successively to increase the respectively. The seed rates adopted To measure the compaction of bulk density of soil to 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 were 15, 15, 10, and 5 kg ha-1 re- soil, a simple pressure sensor that and 1.5 g cm-3 respectively. A rect- spectively for black gram, maize, consisted of a rubber tube sealed angular box was also provided over cotton and gingelly (Anon, 1999). at both ends and fixed with two the roller to add additional weights The viability of these seeds were mouths was developed (Fig. 1). The to increase the pressure uniformly respectively 92 %, 99 %, 80 % and sensor was filled with water and one (Gabrilides and Akritidis, 1970). 79 %. Life irrigation was provided mouth was closed with a pin. The two days after planting. The seeds other mouth was left open and con- Accomplishment of Field Com- germinated per hill were observed nected to a graduated manometer of paction Level and recorded up to eighth days after 525 mm length. It was calibrated for Initially the field was irrigated dibbling. Beyond that no germina- soil bulk densities of 1.0-1.5 g cm-3 until it reached field capacity. The tion was observed. at an interval of 0.1 g cm-3 using moisture was allowed to deplete a simple test rig. The test rig con- to 46 % (w.b.). The pressure sen- sisted of a 45 x 30 x 15 cm box with sor was placed at the desired depth Results and Discussion the prepared soil sample. A soil of the seed with a spacing of 2 m. sample of 18 kg was collected from Black gram and maize were dibbled The pressure sensor developed the field in which the study was to be undertaken. The soil sample was kept in an oven for 48 h for drying at 105 ºC. It was then allowed to pass through a 2 mm Indian Stan- dard sieve. The soil was mixed with 8 litre of water to obtain the soil moisture content of 46 % (w.b.). This moisture content was selected so as to have good seed germination (Reddy and Reddy, 1995). The wet soil was then transferred to the box in 2.5 cm layers and compacted with a Standard Proctor compacting de- vice (Punmia, 1994). The manomet- ric displacement at the particular DEMENSIONS IN mm bulk density was observed. The ex- periments were repeated until con- current values were obtained. The Fig. 1 Pressure sensor

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 71 to observe the bulk density worked observed that the germination was The interaction between the treat- satisfactorily in field conditions. highly significant at a bulk density ment combinations of different The required compaction was ac- of 1.3 g cm-3 than any other treat- bulk densities and depth of dibbling complished with the roller wheel. ments at 2.5 cm depth of dibbling. maize is shown in Table 5. It was The seed germination at 1.1, 1.2, inferred germination was highly Effect of Compaction on Seed and 1.4 g cm-3 compaction levels are significant at 2 g cm-3 compaction Germination on par. The compaction level at 1.5 level as compared to any other treat- The effect of compaction on seed g cm-3 resulted in poor seed germi- ments at 2.5 cm depth of sowing. germination for black gram, maize, nation and could be compared with The seed germination at 1.1 and 1.4 cotton and gingelly were recorded the control. The seed germination g cm-3 compaction levels and con- at two seeding depths. The results at 5.0 cm depth of dibbling revealed trol were on par. The compaction were analysed using the statistical that the compaction level of 1.3 g level at 1.3 and 1.5 g cm-3 resulted package “AGRES”. Standard Dunk- cm-3 was significantly different from in poor germination and were on en’s Multiple Range Test results 1.1 g cm-3. But, the treatment of 1.3 par. The seed germination at 5.0 cm were obtained with the mean com- g cm-3 bulk density was highly sig- depth of dibbling revealed that the parison to know the main and inter- nificant when compared with other compaction level at 1.2 g cm-3 bulk action effects. Analysis of variance treatments. The treatments of 1.2, density was highly significant as for seed germination with respect 1.4 and 1.5 g cm-3 and control were compared to any other treatments. to black gram, maize, cotton and on par. The interaction of factor The treatments 1.1 and 1.3 g cm-3 gingelly are presented in Table 1, 2, means for depth of dibbling indi- and control were on par. Seedling 3 and 4 respectively. It was inferred cated that seeding at 2.5 cm depth emergence at 1.5 g cm-3 compaction that the main effect was highly sig- significantly improved the seed level was the lowest. The interaction nificant for black gram while the germination as compared to 5.0 cm, of factor means for different depth interaction effect was significant. It irrespective of compaction level. of dibbling indicated that dibbling was also observed that all the main The results concluded that the seed at 5.0 cm was highly significant as and interaction effects were highly germination at a compaction level compared to 2.5 cm depth, irrespec- significant for maize, cotton and of 1.3 g cm-3 and seeding depth of tive of compaction level. From the gingelly respectively. 2.5 cm yielded the best germination. results, it was concluded that the The interaction between differ- Dibbling the seed at 5 cm depth seed germination at a compaction ent compaction levels and depth without compaction and 1.5 g cm-3 level of 1.2 g cm-3 and dibbling of dibbling black gram is depicted compaction level yielded the lowest depth of 5.0 cm yielded the best ger- in Table 5. From the table, it was germination. mination. Dibbling the seed at 5 cm depth and compacting at 1.5 g cm-3 yielded poor germination. The interaction between the treat- ment combination of compaction levels and depth of dibbling of cot- ton is summarised in Table 5. The factor interaction effects revealed that germination was highly sig- nificant at 1.1 g cm-3 bulk density as compared to any other treatments at 2.5 cm depth of dibbling (Johnson and Henry, 1964). The seed ger- mination at 1.2 g cm-3 compaction level was on par with the control. The compaction levels at 1.4 and 1.5 g cm-3 resulted in poor seed germi- nation. The seed germination of the control was highly significant at 5.0 cm depth of dibbling as compared to any other treatment. The seed DEMENSIONS IN mm germination at 1.1 and 1.2 g cm-3 compaction levels were on par. The Fig. 2 Roller press wheel compaction level at 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 g

72 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 cm-3 resulted in poor seed germina- ed poor seed germination and were depth and compacting at 1.5 g cm-3 tion. The interaction effects inferred on par. It was also observed that the resulted in lower germination. that dibbling at 2.5 cm depth was germination was highly significant highly significant as compared to at 1.1 g cm-3 compaction level as dibbling at 5.0 cm depth, irrespec- compared to any other treatments at Conclusions tive of compaction level. The results 3.0 cm depth of dibbling. The seed concluded that the seed germination germination at control was better A low cost pressure sensor was at 1.1 g cm-3 compaction level and than 1.3 and 1.4 g cm-3 compaction developed and calibrated to measure 2.5 cm depth of dibbling yielded the level. At 1.5 g cm-3 compaction, the the soil compaction level. The soil best germination. Sowing the seed seed germination was the lowest. surface compaction level at 1.3 g at 5.0 cm depth and compacting at The interaction of factor means for cm-3 and seeding depth of 2.5 cm 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 g cm-3 level yielded different depths of dibbling indi- yielded maximum black gram ger- lower germination. cated that dibbling at 2.0 cm depth mination, while maize at 1.2 g cm-3 The interaction effect of bulk den- was highly significant as compared and 5.0 cm yielded maximum ger- sities and depth of dibbling gingelly to 3.0 cm, irrespective of compac- mination. The soil surface compac- is presented in Table 5. The seed tion level. The results concluded tion level at 1.1 g cm-3 and seeding germination at 2.0 cm depth of sow- that the seed germination at 1.1 g depth of 2.5 cm yielded maximum ing revealed that the compaction cm-3 compaction level and 2.0 cm cotton germination whereas, the level of 1.1 g cm-3 was significantly depth of dibbling yielded the best compaction level at 1.1 g cm-3 and different than 1.2 g cm-3 and control. performance followed by the same seeding depth of 2.0 cm yielded The seed germination at 1.3, 1.4 and compaction level with seeding depth maximum gingelly germination. 1.5 g cm-3 compaction levels result- of 3.0 cm. Sowing the seed at 3.0 cm In summary a seeding depth of 2.5

Table 1 Analysis of variance for black gram Table 2 Analysis of variance for maize Degrees of Sum of Mean sum Degrees of Sum of Mean sum F-value F-value Source of variation freedom squares of square Source of variation freedom squares of square Total 47 1,021.47 21.73 6.88 Total 47 286.31 6.09 10.57 Replication 3 1.06 0.35 0.11 Replication 3 2.73 0.91 1.58 Treatment 11 916.22 83.29 26.38** Treatment 11 264.56 24.05 41.73** Error 33 104.18 3.15 1.00 Error 33 19.02 0.58 1.00 Bulk density 5 661.35 132.27 41.89** Bulk density 5 209.19 41.84 72.59** Depth 1 212.52 212.52 67.31** Depth 1 6.02 6.02 10.45** Bulk density x depth 5 42.35 8.47 2.68* Bulk density x depth 5 49.35 9.87 17.13** Error 33 104.18 3.15 1.00 Error 33 19.02 0.58 1.00 C.V. = 8.87 %, **Significant at 1 % level, *significant at 5 % level C.V. = 10.05 %, **Significant at 1 % level SED CD (P = 0.05) CD (P = 0.01) SED CD (P = 0.05) CD (P = 0.01) Bulk density 0.88 1.80 2.42 Bulk density 0.38 0.77 1.04 Depth 0.51 1.04 1.40 Depth 0.22 0.45 0.59 Bulk density x depth 1.25 2.55 3.43 Bulk density x depth 0.54 1.09 1.47

Table 3 Analysis of variance for cotton Table 4 Analysis of variance for gingelly Degrees of Sum of Mean sum Degrees of Sum of Mean sum F-value F-value Source of variation freedom squares of square Source of variation freedom squares of square Total 47 355.67 7.57 9.36 Total 47 1,506.00 32.04 25.69 Replication 3 1.33 0.44 0.55 Replication 3 0.83 0.28 0.22 Treatment 11 327.67 29.79 36.86** Treatment 11 1,464.00 133.09 106.60** Error 33 26.67 0.81 1.00 Error 33 41.17 1.25 1.00 Bulk density 5 199.17 39.83 49.29** Bulk density 5 1,367.00 273.40 219.16** Depth 1 96.33 96.33 119.21** Depth 1 56.33 56.33 45.16** Bulk density x depth 5 32.17 6.43 7.96** Bulk density x depth 5 40.67 8.13 6.52** Error 33 26.67 0.81 1.00 Error 33 41.17 1.25 1.00 C.V. = 11.61 %, **Significant at 1 % level C.V. = 7.14 %, **Significant at 1 % level SED CD (P = 0.05) CD (P = 0.01) SED CD (P = 0.05) CD (P = 0.01) Bulk density 0.45 0.91 1.23 Bulk density 0.56 1.14 1.53 Depth 0.26 0.53 0.71 Depth 0.32 0.66 0.88 Bulk density x depth 0.64 1.29 1.74 Bulk density x depth 0.79 1.60 2.16

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 73 cm was favourable for germination elements. In: Agricultural soil of black gram and cotton, whereas, mechanics, Ist ed., pp.21-43, germination was best for maize and Springer-Verlag, Berlin. gingelly at a seeding depth of 5.0 Pathak, B. S., Gupta, P. K. and Ma- cm and 2.0 cm respectively. hajan, V.(1976). Effects of soil compaction on seedling emer- gence. J. Agric. Engng. Res., 13 REFERENCES (1): 35-47. Punmia, B. C. (1994). Compaction. Anonymous. (1999). Crop produc- In: Soil mechanics and founda- tion guide. Tamil Nadu Agricul- tions, 13th ed., pp.427-446, Lak- tural University, Coimbatore and shmi Publications, New Delhi. Commissioner of Agriculture, Reddy, Y. T. and Reddy, G. H. S. Chennai. (1995). Seeds and sowing. In: Baker, C. J. and Mai, T. V. (1982). Principles of agronomy, Ist ed., Physical effects of direct drill- pp.177-192, Kalyani Publishers, ing equipment on undisturbed New Delhi. soils - techniques for measuring Tripelett, G. B. and Tesar, M. B. soil compaction in the vicinity (1960). Effects of compaction, of drilled grooves. New Zealand depth of planting and soil mois- Journal of Agric. Res., 25: 43-49. ture tension on seedling emer- Elmer, B. H. Jr. and Wanjura, D. gence of alfalfa. Agron. J., 52 F. (1970). A planter for preci- (12): 681-684. sion depth and placement of cot- ■■ ton seed. Trans. ASAE., 13 (2): 153-154. Gabrilides, S. T. H. and Akritidis, C. B. (1970). Soil pressure influ- ence on some basic plant char- acteristics for groundnuts and sesame. J. Agric. Engng. Res., 15 (2): 171-181. Johnson, W. H. and Henry, J. E. (1964). Influence of simulated row compaction in seedling emer- gence and soil drying rates. Trans. ASAE., 7 (3): 252-255. Johnson, W. H. and Henry, J. E. (1967).Response of germinating corn to temperature and pressure. Trans. ASAE., 10 (4): 539-542. Koolen, A. J. and Kuipers, H.(1983). Mechanical behaviour of soil

Table 5 Interaction of treatment combination on germination Average black gram Average maize Average cotton Average gingelly Bulk density germination (No.) germination (No.) germination (No.) germination (No.) (g cm-3) 2.5 cm 5.0 cm 2.5 cm 5.0 cm 2.5 cm 5.0 cm 2.0 cm 3.0 cm Control 15.00 11.50 7.00 6.75 8.75 7.50 16.75 15.50 1.1 19.00 17.00 7.25 7.75 11.75 5.75 28.25 24.50 1.2 18.25 15.00 9.75 12.25 8.00 4.75 19.75 19.50 1.3 28.00 20.00 4.25 7.50 6.75 3.50 14.75 13.50 1.4 17.50 13.75 6.75 4.75 4.75 2.75 13.50 12.50 1.5 15.25 10.50 4.00 3.25 4.00 2.75 12.50 7.00 Mean 18.83 14.62 6.33 7.04 7.33 4.50 17.58 15.41

74 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Testing, Evaluation and Modification of Manual Coiler for Drip Lateral

by S. S. Taley S. M. Bhende M. Tech. Student Associate Professor Dept. of I. & D. E. Dept. of F. P. M. G. B. P. U. A. & T. Dr. P. D. K. Agril. Univ. Pantanagar, (U. S. Nagar.) Akola (Maharashtra) - 444 104 Uttranchal - 263 145 INDIA INDIA

V. P. Tale M. Tech. Student Dept. of I. & D. E. G. B. P. U. A. & T. Pantanagar, (U. S. Nagar.) Uttranchal - 263 145 INDIA

potential from 42 % to 50 % by manual, coiling-decoiling machine Abstract 2000 A.D. to satisfy the immense was designed and fabricated in the A manual coiler was developed in demand for food. (Jain, 2002). Mi- Dept. of Farm Power and Machin- the Dept. of Farm Power And Ma- cro-irrigation is not merely an irri- ery Dr. P. D. K. V. Agril. University chinery CAET Dr. P.D.K.V. Agril. gation technology, but an integrated Akola (M.S.) in 1998. Operation of University, Akola (M.S.) India to management tool in the hands of the the original machine showed that overcome the difficulty in coiling farmer. Water saving is one of its there was an need for modification and decoiling operations during prominent features along with other and reevaluation. Thus, the follow- laying and removal of drip later- consequential advantages. Micro- ing objectives were identified for als. However, testing identified the irrigation can save water by 39 % to this study - need for modifications which were 62 % with an increase of production 1. To modify the coiler as required. made. The machine was tested by 2 to 4 times and productivity by 2. To test the machine for field for its performance with a 150 m 27 % to 52 %. It can easily achieve performance. long segment of drip lateral in the irrigation efficiency of 90 % to 95 % 3. To evaluate the machine for its field (black-cotton soil with a bulk as compared to 30 % to 35 % with initial and working cost. density of 1.12 gm/cc and moisture flood irrigation, so it is most often content near field capacity). Also, it used worldwide (Jain, 2002). Instal- was tested for its cost. The machine lation and removal of a drip irriga- Working of the Machine performance was good in terms of tion system is a drudegerous and field capacity, field efficiency energy cumbersome job requiring many The machine was stationary dur- conservation, and reduction of cost man-hours. The laterals are avail- ing its operation, while the reel and drudgery. Therefore it could be able in the form of coils and coiling mounted over it was able to rotate adopted in advanced farming. and decoiling operations must be through 3600 around the central performed in the field. Also, the shaft provided. The machine had rough handling, scaring, twisting, two operations, namely, ‘coiling and folding and pitting of the lateral de-coiling’. In the coiling operation, Introduction tend to reduce the life. To overcome the starting end of the drip lateral India must increase its irrigation such difficulty, a simple, low-cost, was hooked to the reel of the coiler,

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 75 operation. The lateral was laid in which was stationary. The sliding the field for its full length. The coil- friction caused reduction in the ing operation was begun by hooking speed, which prevented the problem the lateral to the appropriate place discovered earlier. on the reel. The reel was rotated at The modified machine was tested an approximate constant speed. A in the field using the following pa- proving ring was used to measure rameters. the torque. 1. Moisture content of the field at Fig. 1 Side view of the coiler A constant row-to-row width of the time of each test as per the stan- 1m was assumed and field capaci- dard procedure given in the litera- and then rotated until the complete ties and field efficiencies for the ma- ture (Punmia, 2001). segment of the drip lateral was chine were calculated in tilled and 2. Speed of the operation. coiled. During de-coiling, the coil untilled field conditions at a soil 3. Effort required for coiling and of the drip lateral was mounted over moisture near field capacity. de-coiling operations. the reel and one end was pulled by Machine Modifications: During 4. Field capacity and field efficien- walking in the field along the line de-coiling operation of the original cy of the machine before and after over which the coil was to be laid. machine, the inertia of the system incorporation of modifications in In both of these operations, the ma- increased after de-coiling of the differing field conditions (Kepner, chine was stationary and not in the first 30 m segment. The extra force 1987). field, which is an advantage. required to overcome this inertia 5. Total market cost of the ma- caused the reel to temporarily turn chine. faster than the lateral was moving 6. Working cost of the machine and resulted in a spilling out of the (Kepner, 1987). Materials and Methods coil from the vertical flats provided. The original model was con- To overcome this problem, a centrif- Construction of the Coiler structed in the laboratory and a ugal brake was designed to reduce The modified coiler is shown in cost analysis was made. It was then the abnormal increase in the speed. Fig. 1. tested for field performance. When Centrifugal Brake: The brake was Reel: The reel was made of three modifications were incorporated designed similar to the design of concentric rings with diameters of the machine was re-tested and com- the centrifugal governor system of 500 mm, 550 mm and 900 mm re- pared with the original machine. Khurmi (2001) with modifications. spectively. These rings were joined An area 1.5 ha at the North-East A vertically mounted drum of 200 with equally spaced straight M.S. corner of CAET Dr. PDKV Akola mm diameter was made up of a M. plates and the whole machine was (M.S.) India was selected for the S. plate. Two iron balls of 90 gm mounted horizontally on a shaft study. It was 150 m long by 100 m each were attached to the rotating having its longitudinal axis in the wide with black cotton soil hav- reel bearing- housing by means of vertical direction by means of cen- ing a bulk density of 1.2 gm/cc. two springs having a stiffness of 0.1 tral housing. The space between the Experiments were conducted with kN/m each. As the speed of rotation first two rings (2.5 mm) served as soil moisture near field capacity to increased, the centrifugal force act- the trap for holding the starting end obtain maximum values of force ing on the balls pushed them away of the lateral at the time of coiling. required for the operation (Heish, from the center of rotation, so that Also there were four arms provided 1994). they slid against the brake drum, along its periphery, which served as A 150 m long H.D.P.E. drip lat- eral having a diameter of 16 mm Longitudinal First 30 mm Next 30 mm Next 30 mm Next 30 mm was loaded on the reel of coiler. A length of the shaft length length length length person pulled the free end of the Diameter of the 25 mm 15 mm 25 mm 12.5 mm coil and a proving ring measured shaft the pull required for the decoiling Table 1 Varying diameters of central supporting shaft Final wt. after Initial wt. of soil and Test condition Wt. of box (W1), gm. oven-drying of soil Moisture content, % box (W2), gm. and box (W3), gm. Untilled 220 20 172 31.58 Tilled 220 20 178 27.58 Tilled with modified machine 220 20 178 27.58 Table 2 Moisture contents at the time of field tests

76 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 handles. Body: The structure that rested Stand: Two 40 mm (5 mm vertical Flexible Flats: Eight vertical flats over the carriage wheels was made M.S. flats having length of 110 mm. of 300 mm length each served as a of angle iron bars. It had upper-face They were provided to support the core for the coils. They were welded dimensions of 150 mm x 150 mm whole machine when it was in the vertically to the ring having a diam- and lower face dimensions of 220 rest position. These flats were at- eter of 500 mm. For easy de-coiling mm x 220 mm. Slanting angled iron tached vertically to the handle. operation, these flats were bend in- bars joined both faces. The overall Dimensions of all the components ward at the height of 200 mm from height of the body was 300 mm with obtained along with their individual the base. a clearance of 30 mm between reel costs were as shown in Table 9. Support of the Flexible Flats: Dur- and the upper face of the body. ing coiling, the drip lateral applied Carriage Wheels: The wheels pressure to cause inward bending were made of M.S. flats 40 mm Results and Discussion of the flexible flats. To prevent this, wide with a circular diameter of a supporting concentric ring was 300 mm. They were mounted over Field Testing provided on the shaft, which had a a shaft by means of bosses. The The results obtained during the diameter of 450 mm and was held at rim was connected with the boss by field-testing of the equipment were 200 mm above the base of the flats means of eight ‘s’ shaped rods 10 as shown in Table 5 to Table 8. at uniform distance of about 25 mm mm in diameter. The wheel track from each vertical flat. was 750 mm. Cost Analysis Central Supporting Shaft: A M. Handle: A handle was provided to If the profit = 20 % S. shaft of 230 mm length with a improve comfort of transportation Then, Selling price = (0.2 x 3400) varying diameter was welded to by increasing steering ability of the + 3400 = 4080 ≈ 4100. the frame and the inner bearing machine. It could be used as either race so that the core of the reel was a push or pull type. It was made of Operating Costs mounted on the outer race of the two flat bars, which were connected Machine costs: bearing, which was free to rotate. to the housing of the wheel shaft. 1. Let labour charges (L) = Rs. The varying diameters provided to The flats were bend upward and 6.25/hr. the shaft along its longitudinal axis joined together by means of a hori- 2. Depreciation cost (D) = (C-S) ÷ are shown in Table 1. zontal rod (to increase its rigidity). (L x H)

Test conditions Length Untilled soil with unmodified machine Tilled soil with unmodified machine Tilled soil with modified machine of lateral Time Average Time Average Time Average de-coiled Speed Speed Speed required pull required pull required pull (m) (m/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec) (sec) (kg) (sec) (kg) (sec) (kg) 150-120 13 1.24 2.31 14 1.4 2.14 16 1.40 1.88 120-90 17 3.06 1.76 16 3.25 1.88 18 1.25 1.67 90-60 19 4.5 1.58 20 5.6 1.5 21 5.82 1.43 60-30 18 5.54 1.67 22 6.5 1.36 21 6.54 1.43 30-0 19 6.21 1.58 22 7.8 1.36 22 8.0 1.36 Total ∑ 86 ∑ 94 ∑ 98 Table 3 Observations obtained during de-coiling operations

Test conditions Untilled soil with unmodified machine Tilled soil with unmodified machine Tilled soil with modified machine Length of lateral Average Average Average Time No. of twisting Time No.of twisting Time No.of twisting de-coiled Speed Speed Speed required turns force reqired turns force reqired turns force (m) (m/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec) (sec) required required (sec) required required (sec) required required (kg m) (kg m) (kg m) 0-30 72 19 5.2 0.42 74 19 5.6 0.41 78 20 5.9 0.38 30-60 68 18 4.9 0.44 70 18 5.2 0.43 70 18 5.15 0.43 60-90 68 14 4.2 0.44 65 13 4.6 0.46 66 15 4.39 0.45 90-120 60 13 3.67 0.50 60 13 4.0 0.50 60 12 3.88 0.50 120-150 48 12 1.27 0.63 51 14 3.4 0.59 55 12 1.5 0.55 Total ∑ 316 ∑ 320 ∑ 329 Table 4 Observations obtained during coiling opwrations

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 77 Where, So, operational cost in coiling moisture content is high. C = Initial value of the machine. operation = Rs. 94.23/ha. ≈ Rs. During the de-coiling operation S = Salvage value of the machine. 94.25/ha. the average speed of operation was H = Life of the machine in years Cost Involved in Traditional Meth- 1.53 m/sec with a maximum pull (13 years). od: requirement of 8 kg for the modified L = Working hours per year of the It was observed, that field capac- machine. The actual field capac- machine (100 hours). ity of two labours for de-coiling ity of the operation was 0.45 ha/hr D = (4300-430) ÷ (13 x 100) = Rs. operation was about 0.20 ha/hr and with a field efficiency of 81.82 %. 2.98 ≈ Rs. 3. that of coiling was about 0.10 ha/hr. When these values were compared 3. Interest (I) = ((C+S) ÷ 2) + (i ÷ So, one labour hour costs Rs. 6.25. with values for the unmodified ma- H) (a) De-coiling operation = 2 x chine over same field conditions, Where, 6.25 ÷ 0.20 = Rs. 62.50/ha. the modified machine showed negli- i = interest rate = 12 % (b) Coiling operation = 2 x 6.25 ÷ gible reduction in operational speed I = ((4300+430) ÷ 2) + (0.12 ÷ 100) 0.10 = Rs. 125.00/ha. and actual field capacity but a slight = Rs.2.84 ≈ Rs. 3. increase in the pull requirement due Therefore, variable cost per hour to friction of brake provided and (T) = L + D + I = 6.25 + 3 + 3 = Rs. that is permissible. Conclusions 12.25. The coiling operation for the [I] De-coiling operation = Field The following conclusions were modified machine showed a maxi- capacity = 0.45 ha/hr. drawn from the study: mum twisting force of 5.9 kg/m with So, operational cost in de-coiling The machine was stationary dur- a speed of operation of about 0.46 operation = Rs. 27.22/ha. ≈ Rs. ing its operation and had no need to m/sec and actual field capacity and 27.25/ha. enter the field. Thus the soil and the field efficiency of 0.13 ha/hr. and [II] Coiling operation = Field ca- crop were not disturbed, which was 81.25 % respectively for the coil- pacity = 0.13 ha/hr. especially important when the soil ing operation. As compared to the unmodified machine, the speed of operation and actual field capacity Average speed of Maximum pull Test conditions were slightly reduced while twist- operations (m/sec) required (kg) ing force requirement was slightly Untilled soil with unmodified machine 1.74 6.21 increased which is permissible. Tilled soil with unmodified machine 1.60 7.80 The total cost of the modified ma- Tilled soil with modified machine 1.53 8.00 Table 5 Results of working speed and maximum force chine was found to be Rs. 4100 with required obtained for de-coiling operation an operational cost of Rs. 12.25/hr. The operational costs of coiling and Average speed of Maximum twisting Test conditions de-coiling operations were found to operations (m/sec) force required (kg) be Rs. 94.25/ha and Rs. 27.25/ha re- Untilled soil with unmodified machine 0.47 5.2 spectively. This was much less than Tilled soil with unmodified machine 0.47 5.6 the operational costs involved in tra- Tilled soil with modified machine 0.46 5.9 ditional method, which were found Table 6 Results of working speed and maximum twist required obtained for coiling operation to be Rs. 125/ha and Rs. 62.50/ha in coiling and de-coiling operations Theoretical Actual field respectively. Field Test conditions field capacity capacity effiency (%) So, it was concluded that the (ha/hr) (ha/hr) machine was quite economical and Untilled soil with unmodified machine 0.63 0.52 82.54 adaptable in the present era of ef- Tilled soil with unmodified machine 0.58 0.46 79.31 ficient irrigation management. Tilled soil with modified machine 0.55 0.45 81.82 Table 7 Field capacities and field efficiencies for de-coiling operation

Theoretical Actual field REFERENCES Field Test conditions field capacity capacity effiency (%) (ha/hr) (ha/hr) Fedler, J (1996): “Irrigation for the Untilled soil with unmodified machine 0.17 0.14 82.35 twenty-first century”. Israel Agril. Tilled soil with unmodified machine 0.17 0.14 82.35 Technology Focus. 4 (3):10-11 Tilled soil with modified machine 0.16 0.13 81.25 Heish, L. C. Coates, W. E. (1994): Table 8 Field capacities and field efficiencies for coiling operation “Design of Carriage System For

78 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Cable Drawn Farming System” Qutab Rd., New Delhi 110055 (In- St. Joseph, USA ASAE Paper No. dia) 2001: 670-671. 941007: 12-13. Mehta, P. H., et al.: “Testing and Jain, A. B. (2002): “Management of Evaluation of Agricultural Ma- Water Resources: Improper Tech- chinery”, National Agricultural nologies Could Jeopardize fur- Technology Information Center ther.” The Hindu Survey of Indian India: 12-18. Agriculture-2002: 183-186. Punmia, B. C.: “Soil Mechanics Kepner, R. A. and Bainer R. et al.: And Foundations”, Standard Book “Principles of Farm Machinery” House, 1705A Nai sarak, Delhi- CBS Publishers and Destribut- 6,PB No.-1074 (India), 2001: ers 485, Jain Bhavan, Bhola nath 24-25. Nagar Shahdara, Delhi 110032 ■■ (India), 1987: 25-45. Khurmi, R. S. and Gupta, J. K.: “Theory of Machines”, S. Chand and Co. Ltd. 7361, Ram Nagar,

Table 9 Dimension and cost of individual component on material required Specifications Length Weight Amount Item (mm) (m) (kg) (Rs.) Carriage wheel Rim 50 x 5 2.5 5 50 Spoke 12 ø 4.4 2.7 45 Boss 50 ø 0.15 2.5 50 Axle 30 ø 1.5 12 180 Vertical support to reel shaft MS. angle 35 x 35 x 5 2.5 4 65 MS. shaft 30 x 5 0.3 4 65 Reel shaft Round bar 35 ø 0.25 2.5 55 Bearing (30206) 1-in no. - - 125 Bearing (30205) 1-in no. - - 100 Nuts 12.75 - - 10 Reel spindle MS. pipe 70 ø 0.25 - 40 MS. bar 70 ø 0.2 4 60 Reel MS. flat 30 x 5 14 18 290 MS. pipe 25 ø 0.4 - 40 Reel core leaf MS. pipe 300 0.25 - 300 Handle and stand MS. flat 40 x 50 3.10 - 50 MS. flat 25 x 5 3.00 - 50 Centrifugal brake MS. bar 16 ø 0.10 - 320 MS. sheet 31,000 mm2 10 gauge - 50 Miscellaneous Nuts and bolts - - - 250 Primer - - - 100 Colour - - - 100 Labour - - - 500 Electricity and other - - - 500 consumable charges Total amount = Rs. 3395 ≈ Rs. 3400

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 79 Single Hydrocyclone for Cassava Starch Milk

by A. Manickavasagan K. Thangavel Ph. D. Scholar Associate Professor Dept. of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Dept. of Farm Agricultural Processing, Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan Coimbatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu MALAYSIA INDIA

ana et al. (1990) reported that a rapid Abstract diameter (19 mm) and an under flow diameter of 5 mm. Since the separation of starch from the milk Washing, rasping and screening concentration of starch milk coming and the removal of impurities from operations in the processing of cas- to the settling tank is 5 percent in the colloidal suspension could be sava, require a large quantity of wa- the existing factories, the developed achieved by centrifuging. But centri- ter, which leads to the production of hydrocyclone was optimized for fuging could not completely replace more volume of starch milk. Conven- 5 percent feed concentration. The the gravity settling, and settling was tionally, starch separation from milk optimized parameters were: cyclone to be employed after centrifuging to is being carried out by the gravity diameter of 101.6 mm, inlet diame- separate the starch from any other re- settling method. The longer contact ter of 19.0 mm, overflow diameter of maining solid impurities. A hydraulic time of water with starch leads to 19.0 mm, length of vortex finder of jack can be used as a dewatering the fermentation producing alcohols 40.6 mm, underflow diameter of 5.0 technique by pressing with the water and organic acids which gives very mm, length of cylinder of 84.7 mm being removed by powerful mechani- bad smell and pollutes the whole and length of cone of 423.3 mm. cal pressing equipment (Igbeka et al., atmosphere surrounding the indus- 1992). try. This paper describes the single In order to separate water from the hydrocyclone developed to concen- Introduction starch milk, a hydrocyclone system trate the starch milk for a more rapid would be preferable. A preferable separation of starch from fruit water. Washing, rasping and screening method for starch milk separation The water can then be recycled to operations in processing of cas- would be a hydrocyclone system. reduce the consumption and the sava require a large quantity of water, The majority of the solid particles are volume of effluent from the factory. which leads to the production of more concentrated into a smaller volume A prototype single hydrocyclone of volume of starch milk. Convention- of water and exit at the bottom of the 101.6 mm (4 inches) diameter was ally, starch separation from milk is cyclone called the underflow. Excess developed and fabricated with 1 mm being carried out by the gravity set- water is removed from the top of the GI sheet. The performance of the hy- tling method. The starch and sago hydrocyclone called the overflow. drocyclone was evaluated at two inlet factories are adopting outdated tech- The concentrated starch milk from diameters (34.5 mm and 19 mm), two nology that involves longer duration the bottom of the hydrocyclone can overflow diameters (34.5 mm and 19 of extraction and unhygienic han- be directed to the settling tanks and mm), three under flow diameters (8.6 dling of the material leading to a poor the excess water can be recycled for mm, 7 mm and 5 mm), five pressure quality end product (Rangaswami, crushing the fresh tubers. levels (9.8 KPa, 19.6 KPa, 29.4 KPa, 1993). The longer contact time of wa- 39.2 KPa and 49 KPa) and ten feed ter with starch leads to the fermen- tation producing alcohols and organic concentrations (3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, Materials and Methods 17, 19 and 21 percent). acids (Radley, 1976). The effluent A maximum underflow concen- from the sago processing units with Hydrocyclone tration of 43 percent was obtained high organic matter creates environ- Classifying cyclones are a widely when the feed was at 21 percent mental pollution around the factories used device for achieving ultra fine concentration at the highest pres- (Belliappa, 1990). The starch milk is particle size separations in industrial sure (49 Kpa), the lowest overflow permitted to settle for 6-8 hours in a applications (Honaker et al., 2001). diameter (19 mm), the lowest inlet tank with out disturbance. Sreenaray- Hydrocyclones have received recent

80 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 move towards the wall. The high the cone from the top. Contrasting tangential velocity of the fluid in the with gas cyclones, for which there central part of the device causes the are several families of geometrically pressure to decrease below atmo- similar cyclones, there are only two spheric pressure. The low-pressure well-known families of geometri- region causes the formation of an cally similar hydrocyclones, these air core in the central line. Gener- are due to Rietema and Bradley. ally, the heavier material moves to Bradley hydrocyclones provide the periphery (by centrifugal force) higher efficiencies, while Rietema and falls to the bottom and exits hydrocyclones give higher capacities with some carrier fluid. Most of the (Castilho and Medronho, 2000). carrier fluid and some of the lighter The following dimensions, as rec- material moves to the low pressure ommended by Rietma and Verver, section in the central line and to the (1961) for the standard hydrocy- exit. In spite of the simple geom- clone, were taken for the fabrication etry and operation, explaining the of the experimental hydrocyclone. detailed mechanism of the work is L/D = 5...... (1) Fig. 1 Experimentally developed extremely complicated (Romero and l/D = 0.4...... (2) hydrocyclone Sampaio, 1999). Although traditional b/D = 0.28...... (3)

orientation of a classifying hydrocy- Do/D = 0.34...... (4) attention because of advantages such clone is vertical, some hydrocyclones Du : Do = 1 : 4...... (5) as simple structure, low cost, large are mounted inclined to the vertical, L1 : L2 = 1 : 5...... (6) capacity and small volume. The hy- and in extreme cases can even be Where, drocyclone separation technique has essentially horizontal. This is often L = Cyclone length been used in an increasing number done for plant design or installation D = Cyclone diameter of recent applications in areas such convenience rather than for process l = Length of vortex finder as mineral processing, environ- reasons, but it would be expected b = Inlet diameter mental engineering, petrochemical that the performance of an inclined Do = Diameter of overflow orifice engineering, food engineering, elec- cyclone would be different to that of Du = Diameter of underflow orifice trochemical engineering, bio engi- a vertical unit, especially for large, L1 = Length of cylindrical portion neering, and pulping process. (Liang low pressure cyclones (Asomah and and

Yin Chu et al. 2002). Napier Munn, 1997). The magnetic L2 = Length of cone. Hydrocyclones were originally cyclone was developed in the late A 101.6 mm (4 inches) hydrocy- designed to promote solid-liquid sixties as a natural extension of a clone (cyclone diameter) was de- separations but are now used for conventional hydrocyclone with the signed and fabricated with 1.0 mm solid-solid, liquid-liquid and gas- aim of providing an additional exter- galvanized iron sheet. The fabricat- liquid separations. A hydrocyclone nal (magnetic) force to supplement ed hydrocyclone had the following has no moving parts and consists of the gravitational and centrifugal specifications a conical section joined to a cylindri- forces that cause classification and Cyclone diameter: 101.6 mm cal portion, which is fitted with a separation (Svoboda et al., 1998). Inlet diameter: 28.5 mm tangential inlet and closed by an end In operation, the starch milk Diameter of overflow orifice: 34.5 mm plate with an axially mounted over- consisting of particles of starch sus- Length of vortex finder: 40.6 mm flow pipe. The end of the cone termi- pended in water is introduced tan- nates in a circular apex opening. Al- gentially into the cylindrical portion. though a hydrocyclone is very simple The high centrifugal force acting to build, custom-made cyclones are on the starch particles throw these not widely used. This is probably due to the walls, whilst the lower grav- to the lack of a simple procedure for ity fluid passes to the low pressure in hydrocyclone design (Castilho and the center. The starch particles pass Medronho, 2000). Tangential fluid via the cyclone walls to an opening feeding, causes a strong rotational at the apex of the cone, where they movement inside the equipment that are discharged. The fluid passes to charges a centrifugal field. Because a tangential overflow at the opposite of this field, the solid particles are end of the hydrocyclone by way of a Fig. 2 Experimentally set up of hydro- suspended in the fluid and tend to tube that projects into the vortex of cyclone unit for starch milk concentration

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 81 Underflow orifice diameter: 8.6 mm achieved by adding dry starch flour trations, inlet diameter, overflow Length of cylinder: 84.7 mm with a known volume of water. Hy- diameter, underflow diameter and Length of cone: 423.3 mm drocyclone parameters were altered pressure. The percent increase in The details of the developed hy- by using different sizes of pipe for underflow concentration was calcu- drocyclone are given in Fig. 1. the inlet, overflow and under flow as lated by the equation. shown below. Percent increase in underflow con-

Experimental Set up I1: Inlet diameter = 28.5 mm centration = {((Cu - Cf) x 100)/ Cf }..(7)

The experimental set up for the I2: Inlet diameter = 19.0 mm Where, performance evaluation of the de- O1: Overflow diameter = 34.5 mm Cf = feed concentration in percent veloped hydrocyclone is given in O2: Overflow diameter = 19.0 mm and

Fig. 2. A centrifugal pump of 1 hp, U1: Underflow diameter = 8.6 mm Cu = underflow concentration in was selected for pumping the feed U2: Underflow diameter = 7.0 mm percent pulp. Starch milk with different con- U3: Underflow diameter = 5.0 mm centrations was prepared in a tank. Pressure levels: 9.8 KPa, 19.6 KPa, A 38.1 mm pipe with foot strainer 29.4 KPa, 39.2 KPa and 49 KPa Results and Discussion was used as suction pipe for the cen- trifugal pump. Using a 38.1 mm to Experimental Design Percent Increase in Underflow 19.0 mm reducer a 19.0 mm delivery Factorial completely randomized Concentration pipe was connected to the centrifu- design (FCRD) was used. Since In general, there was an increase gal pump. A pressure control valve starch milk is coming at 5 percent in the underflow concentration when and pressure gauge were connected concentration to the settling tank the feed concentration was increased. in the delivery pipe. The other end in the existing sago factory, experi- When the particle density or the of the delivery pipe was connected mental results obtained at 5 percent particle size increasesd, the absolute to the inlet of hydrocyclone. Over- feed concentration were alone taken radial velocity of the solid particles flow product was collected from the for statistical analysis. decreased. The particle radial veloc- vortex finder through a flexible hose Independent factors: I1, I2, O1, O2, ity also decreased with increasing pipe in a cement tank. Underflow U1, U2, U3 and five different pressure the feed particle concentration (Lian product was collected in a gradu- levels. Yin Chu et al., 2002). The underflow ated bucket. Dependent factor: Underflow con- concentration also increased with The developed hydrocyclone centration. increase in pressure and with the re- was tested at five different pres- The experiment was replicated duction in the overflow diameter, un- sure levels, with two different inlet three times. derflow diameter and inlet diameter. diameters and overflow diameters A maximum underflow concentra- and three different underflow diam- Performance Evaluation tion of 43 percent was obtained at the eters. The feed concentration was The hydrocyclone was evaluated highest pressure of 49 KPa, the low- varied from 3 percent to 21 percent. by observing the underflow concen- est overflow diameter, inlet diameter Different feed concentrations were tration with different feed concen- and underflow diameter of 19 mm,

Percent increase in underflow concentration Percent increase in underflow concentration 210 210 5 5 200 200 190 8.6 mm underflow diameter� 190 8.6 mm underflow diameter� 7 mm underflow diameter 7 7 mm underflow diameter 7 180 5 mm underflow diameter 180 5 mm underflow diameter 170 170 160 160 8.6 8.6 150 150 140 140 130 130 120 120 110 110 100 100 9.8 19.6 29.4 39.2 49 9.8 19.6 29.4 39.2 49 Pressure, KPa Pressure, KPa Fig. 3 Effect of pressure on percent increase in underflow Fig. 4 Effect of pressure on percent increase in underflow concentration at 28.5 mm inlet diameter, 34.5 mm concentration at 28.5 mm inlet diameter, 19 mm overflow diameter and 5 percent feed concentration overflow diameter and 5 percent feed concentration

82 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 19 mm and 5 mm respectively when 1. As pressure increased, the per tion. Patil and Rao (1999) found that the feed was at 21 percent concentra- cent increase in underflow concen- with a smaller volume of underflow tion. Effect of pressure on percent tration also increased water there was less fines and better increase in underflow concentra- 2. At the lowest underflow diam- sharpness of separation. tion at different inlet diameters and eter of 5 mm, the percent increase outlet diameters of hydrocyclone are in underflow concentration was the Variation of Overflow Rate presented in Fig. 3 to Fig 6. As pres- highest at the all pressures (further The overflow rate increased with sure increased, the percent increase reduction in underflow diameter led increase in pressure. It was also in- in underflow concentration also in- to the blocking of underflow). creased with decrease in underflow creased for all underflow diameters. 3. The percent increase in under- diameter. There was no significant At 28.5 mm inlet diameter and 34.5 flow concentration was the highest relation between overflow rate and mm overflow diameter, the maxi- when the overflow diameter and the feed concentration. mum percent increase of 182 in un- inlet diameter were minimum. derflow concentration was obtained. 4. The percent increase in under- Analysis of Variance of Factors It was observed that reduction in the flow concentration was at higher Since the values of underflow underflow diameter of the cyclone rate when the inlet diameter was concentration were expressed in increased the percent increase in minimum. This might be due to the percent, square root transforma- the underflow concentration. It was increase in the radial acceleration tion was made before the analysis. revealed from Fig. 4 that, when the of solid particles when there is a re- All individual factors, namely, overflow diameter of 19 mm was duction in the entrance orifice of the underflow diameter, overflow di- used, the maximum percent increase hydrocyclone (Whitcomb, 1964). ameter, inlet diameter and pressure obtained was 200. The increase in had significant effect on underflow pressure increased the percent in- Variation of Underflow Rate concentration (Table 1). The inter- crease in underflow concentration. The underflow rate decreased action of O x P, I x P and O x I x P The maximum percent increase in with increases in pressure and over- had a significant effect on under- underflow concentration obtained flow diameter. At each pressure flow concentration. The remaining at 19 mm inlet diameter was 202, level, the underflow rate increased interaction effect between various where as only 182 percent increase with increase in underflow diameter. combinations had no significant ef- in underflow concentration could be The variation in underflow rate with fect on underflow concentration. obtained at 28.5 mm inlet diameter. respect to overflow orifice diam- It was noted from Fig. 6, that a eter was significant at low-pressure Effect of Inlet Diameter and Pres- maximum percent increase of 206 levels and maximum inlet diam- sure on Under Flow Concentration in underflow concentration was eter. But this variation was marginal An inlet diameter of 19.0 mm was obtained at 490.5 KPa pressure. with higher pressure and small inlet superior to 28.5 mm at all pressure The effect of pressure on percent in- diameters. It was also observed that levels. The combination of 19 mm di- crease, as identified in Fig. 3 to Fig. there was no significant change in ameter and 49 Kpa pressure was best. 6, is summarized below. underflow rate with feed concentra-

Percent increase in underflow concentration Percent increase in underflow concentration 210 210 8.6 mm underflow diameter� 5 5 200 200 7 mm underflow diameter 190 5 mm underflow diameter 190 7 7 180 180 170 170 160 160 8.6 8.6 150 150 140 140 8.6 mm underflow diameter� 130 130 7 mm underflow diameter 120 120 5 mm underflow diameter 110 110 100 100 9.8 19.6 29.4 39.2 49 9.8 19.6 29.4 39.2 49 Pressure, KPa Pressure, KPa Fig. 5 Effect of pressure on percent increase in underflow Fig. 6 Effect of pressure on percent increase in underflow concentration at 19 mm inlet diameter, 34.5 mm concentration at 19 mm inlet diameter, 19 mm overflow diameter and 5 percent feed concentration overflow diameter and 5 percent feed concentration

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 83 Effect of Overflow Diameter and percent feed concentration and the ciency. Minerals Engineering, 14 Pressure on Under Flow Concen- optimized parameters are: cyclone (11): 1445-1457 tration diameter of 101.6 mm, inlet diameter Igbeka, J. C., M. Jory and D. Griffon. At both overflow orifice diam- of 19.0 mm, overflow diameter of 1992. Selective mechanization for eters, underflow concentration in- 19.0 mm, length of vortex finder of cassava processing. Agricultural creased with increase in pressure. 40.6 mm, underflow diameter of 5.0 Mechanization in Asia, Africa and An overflow diameter of 19.0 mm mm, length of cylinder of 84.7 mm Latin America, 23 (1): 45-50 was better than 34.5 mm. It is found and length of cone of 423.3 mm. Liang Yin Chu, Wen Mei Chen and that the best combination was an Xiao Zhong Lee. 2002. Effects of overflow diameter of 19.0 mm with geometric and operating param- a pressure of 59 Kpa. eters and feed characters on the Conclusions motion of solid particles in hydro- Effect of Overflow Diameter (O), Hydrocyclones can be used to cyclones. Separation and Purifica- Inlet Diameter (I) and Pressure(P) concentrate the starch milk in cassa- tion Technology, 26: 237-246 on Under Flow Concentration va starch processing industries. But Liang Yin Chu, Wen Mei Chen and There was no significant differ- a single hydrocyclone could not re- Xiao Zhong Lee, 2002.Enhance- ence between O1I1P1 and O1I1P2. It place the starch settling tanks in the ment of hydrocyclone performance was noted that P5 was superior to existing factories. Starch milk from by controlling the inside turbu- other pressures on underflow con- both underflow (high concentration) lence structure. Chemical Engi- centration. At O1I2, the pressure P3 and overflow (low concentration) neering Science, 57: 207-212 was on par with P4, where as at O1I1, should be allowed to settle in two Patil, D. D. and T. C. Rao. 1999. significant difference existed be- different tanks. In order to eliminate Technical note on classification tween P3 and P4. While comparing the settling tanks, further research evaluation of water injected hydro- the two levels of overflow diameter should be carried out with multiple cyclone. Minerals Engineering, 12 with pressure and inlet diameter, O2 hydrocyclones. From the experi- (12): 1527-1532 was superior to O1 at all P x I combi- ments on a single hydrocyclone for Radley, J. A.. 1976. Starch produc- nations. It was concluded that O2I2P5 starch milk concentration, it was tion technology. Applied Science was the best among the various com- found that the underflow concentra- Publishers Ltd., London. binations of O, P and I. Since the tion increased with increase in input Rangaswami, G. 1993. Tapioca based concentration of starch milk coming pressure and decrease in underflow industrial complex. Prosperity to settling tank is 5 percent in the diameter, overflow diameter and in- 2000 (II), India, 123-137 existing factories, the developed let diameter. Rietma, K. and C. G. Verver. 1961. hydrocyclone was optimized for 5 Cyclones in industry. Elsevier. Amsterdam. SV DF MS REFERENCES Romero, J. and R. Sampaio. 1999. A Treatment 59 0.15** numerical model for prediction of Uflow (U) 2 0.18** Asomah, A. K. and T. J. Napier the air core shape of hydrocyclone Oflow (O) 1 0.23** Munn. 1997. An empirical model flow. Mechanics Research Com- Inlet (I) 1 1.58** of hydrocyclones, incorporating munications, 26 (3): 379-384 Pressure (P) 4 1.55** angle of cyclone inclination. Min- Sreenarayanan, V. V., K. R. Swami- U x O 2 0.00ns erals Engineering,10 (3): 339-347 nathan and N. Varadaraju. 1990. U x I 2 0.00ns Belliappa, P. M.1990. Pollution from Tapioca processing-Problems and U x P 8 0.01ns sago industries and the treatment prospects. Green book on tapioca, O x I 1 0.01ns process. Green book on tapioca, Sagoserve , Salem, India. 24-27 O x P 4 0.01* Sagoserve, Salem, India, 60-65 Svaboda, J., C. Coetzee and Q. P. I x P 4 0.08** Castilho, L. R. and R. A. Medronho. Campbell.1998. Experimental U x O x I 2 0.00ns 2000. A simple procedure for de- investigation into the application U x O x P 8 0.00ns sign and performance prediction of a magnetic cyclone for dense U x I x P 8 0.00ns of Bradley and Rietema hydrocy- medium separation. Minerals En- O x I x P 4 0.14** clones. Minerals Engineering, 13 gineering, 11 (6): 501-509 U x O x I x P 8 0.01ns (2): 183-191 Whitcomb, C. F. 1964. Hydrocyclone Error 120 Honaker, R. Q., A. V. Ozsever, N. Total 179 for beneficiating calcium carbon- Singh and B. K. Parekh. 2001. ate sludge. Chemical and Process Table 1 The analysis of variance table for underflow concentration (percent) Apex water injection for improved Engineering, 201-206. based on transformed values hydrocyclone classification effi- ■■

84 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Utilization Pattern of Power Tillers in Tamil Nadu

by B. Shridar P. K. Padmanathan Assoc. Professor Research Scholar Dept. of Farm Machinery Agricultural Engineering Dept. of Farm Machinery Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu Coimbatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu INDIA INDIA

R. Manian Professor and Head Dept. of Farm Machinery Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu INDIA

the availability of farm power. Bull- Abstract 45.83 percent had education up to middle school level, 35 percent had ocks meet power requirements of The utilization pattern and perfor- higher secondary level and more, marginal and small farms (less than mance of selected, popular makes and the remaining were illiterate. 2 ha) with associated limitations. of power tillers were investigated in Fifty six per cent of the ‘medium Tractors meet requirements of large the Gobichettipalayam region of the farmers’ category (2-4 ha) preferred farms (above 6 ha). Power tillers are Erode district. Selection of study purchasing the power tiller followed visualized as an appropriate source areas and power tiller respondents by small category farmers. The pri- of farm power for medium farms (2 were made by statistical procedures. orities considered for the purchase -6 ha). All the required primary data were of a power tiller, were timeliness of The power tiller is a multipurpose collected by personal interview with operation, multipurpose use, non- walking tractor designed for rotary the help of a pre-tested comprehen- availability of labour and low pur- tilling and other farm operations sive interview schedule. The data chasing cost. The respondents sur- where the operator walks behind. were analyzed through a percentage veyed had Shrachi (water-cooled), Its maneuverability and versatil- analysis, pooled average method and Mitsubishi (Air-cooled) and Mit- ity make it ideally suited for various conclusions were drawn. The aver- subishi (water-cooled) power tillers. agricultural operations in small and age annual working hours of all the medium size farm holdings of both makes of power tillers were in the dry lands and irrigated lands. Tamil range of 853 to 888 hours. Besides Introduction Nadu accounts for 17.45 percent of land preparation, the maximum use the total power tillers available in of the power tiller was for weeding India is an agricultural country India. At present, the power tiller (78.47 percent), followed by trans- and agricultur e contributes about 38 is mainly used for rotary tilling, port (55.55 percent), pumping (25.69 percent to the nation’s gross domes- ploughing, and puddling in dry percent) and threshing (23.61 per- tic product. Agricultural implements land, garden land and wet land. A cent). The major accidents occurred and equipment are one of the major study to identify the soil, cropping with the engagement of the rotary inputs in the crop production indus- pattern and region will be of great tiller while crossing the bunds (91 try. They reduce drudgery involved use to the power tiller owner and the percent) followed by road transport in the farming operations, increase manufacturer so that the power tiller (84 percent). Eighty per cent of the production and productivity, and can be most effectively utilized dur- respondents said that they were get- make cumbersome work easier, ing its lifetime. In this investigation, ting spare parts on time. Among the more timely and more efficient. Ag- the utilization and performance of power tiller respondents surveyed, ricultural productivity is linked with power tillers are analyzed through

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 85 surveys and collection of basic data Selection of Sample chettipalayam, T. N. Palayam, and with a pre-tested interview to iden- (i) Selection of the Study Area Nambiyur blocks were 57, 26 and 17 tify the problems and constraints The highest population of power percent, respectively. Accordingly encountered by the users. tillers in 1994 was found in the 20, 9 and 7 villages were selected in Erode district of Tamil Nadu, and Gobichettipalayam, T. N. Palayam, accounted for 16.74 percent of the and Nambiyur blocks, respectively, total number of power tillers, ac- Review of Literature and are shown in Fig. 1. cording to the Department of Statis- The revenue villages in each block Singh (1987) found that farmers tics, Chennai. Among various taluks were listed based by the descending owning power tillers had more land of the Erode district, the Gobichet- order of number of power tillers. and operational holdings than farm- tipalayam taluk had the maximum From this, the first 20 villages in ers not owning power tillers. Pacha- power tiller population and was the Gobichettipalayam block, the rne et al. (1990) reported that 90 selected for this study (Table 1). first 9 villages in T. N. Palayam, and percent of power tiller owners used Three popular makes of power til- the first 7 villages in the Nambiyur them for paddy crop, 35 percent for lers; Shrachi (water cooled), Mit- block were selected. The list of inter-cultivation in orchards and 43 subishi (air cooled) and Mitsubishi sample villages selected are shown percent for commercial purposes. (water cooled) were selected.. in Tables 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Most of the farmers were satisfied In Gobichettipalayam taluk, the with the use of power tillers for number of power tillers was maxi- (ii) Selection of Power Tiller Re- farm work. Varshney et al. (1990) mum in the Gobichettipalayam block spondents stated that the power tiller was used (318), followed by T. N. Palayam A master list of farmers owning for transportation of tree seedlings, block (148) and Nambiyur block power tillers for conducting the sur- digging pits, plant residue collection (95). Gobichettipalayam taluk has 72 vey was obtained from the Statisti- and tree felling in forestry. Dash et revenue villages spread out in three cal department, Gobichettipalayam, al. (1993) observed that power til- blocks. Of the 72 villages, 50 percent and from the local dealers who sup- ler farming system was superior to (36) were selected for this study. The plied the different makes of power bullock farming system considering number of villages selected in each tillers. In each selected village, four the yield and cost of operation. Dash block was based on the proportion of farmers who owned the power til- et al. (1990) concluded that rota the power tillers in each block. The lers were selected randomly. The puddling twice using a power tiller proportion of power tillers in Gobi- selected farmers in each village was found to be the best in terms of depth and speed of operation, time Table 1 Taluk and block wise population of power tiller in Erode district (1994) requirement, fuel consumption, Power tiller Taluk Block Total grain yield and straw yield. Uddin population (1991) reported that puddling op- Bhavani 139 331 eration by power tiller was the more Bhavani Ammapatty 107 (18.46) energy saving as compared to the Anthiyur 85 bullock and the tractor in rice culti- Dharapuram 30 59 vation. Dharapuram Kundadam 10 (3.29) Mulanur 19 Modakuruchi 82 222 Erode Erode 78 Materials and methods (12.38) Kodumudi 62 Formulation of Interview Schedule Gobichettipalayam 318 561 The information on location, edu- Gobichettipalayam T. N. Palayam 148 (31.29) cational details, land holding and Nambiyur 95 size, soil type, cropping pattern, de- Vellakoil 48 60 Kankeyam tails of the power tiller, operations Kankeyam 12 (3.35) performed with the power tiller, Chennimalai 102 214 Perundurai Perundurai 85 failure details, facilities for repair, (11.93) maintenance aspects of power til- Uthukkuli 27 ler, ergonomic aspects of the power Bhavanisagar 170 346 Sathyamangalam Sathyamangalam 129 tiller, socio economic aspects and (19.3) constraints were collected through Dhalavadi 47 an interview schedule. Total 1,793 100

86 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 were first asked whether they had spondents were categorized as Make respondent. purchased the power tiller before A, Mitsubishi (air-cooled) power d. Problems and constraints of 1994. If his response was ‘yes’, then tiller respondents were categorized the power tiller with the follow- he was considered as a sample unit as Make B and Mitsubishi (water- ing factors; noise level, operational and data were collected. cooled) power tiller respondents problems, accident factors, service were categorized as Make C. factors, and spare parts available. Collection of Data The topic areas and the factors All the required primary data covered in each topic area were: were collected from the farmers by a. General characteristics of the Results and Discussion personal interview with the help of a respondent with the following fac- pre-tested comprehensive interview tors; education, soil type, size of General Characteristics of the schedule specifically designed for holding, farming experience, occu- Respondent this purpose. The data included in- pation, and bullock/tractor use. Among the respondents, 45.83 formation on education, land hold- b. Utilization of the power tiller percent had education up to middle ing, field size, soil type, cropping by the respondent with the following school level, 35 percent had higher pattern, manufacturer and model of factors; reason for purchasing the secondary level and more and the the power tiller, utilization pattern, power tiller and the particular make, remaining were illiterate. Of the failure details, attitude towards the use of the power tiller for different respondents 30, 35 and 35 percent loan scheme, and their opinion and operations, and operator comfort. had purchased the Shrachi (water- suggestions for improvement of the c. Cost and maintenance of the cooled), Mitsubishi (air-cooled), and power tiller. power tiller with the following fac- the Mitsubishi (water-cooled) power tors; lubrication and oil change, tillers, respectively. Method of Analysis maintenance as viewed by the re- The land holding distribution pat- The data were classified and ana- spondent, and overall performance tern was 30 percent, 26 percent and lyzed. The Shrachi power tiller re- of the power tiller as viewed by the 44 percent of wet land, garden land and mixture of wetland and garden land, respectively. The majority (56 Table 1 Taluk and block wise population of power tiller in Erode district (1994) percent) of medium farmers (2-4 ha) preferred purchasing power tillers followed by small category farmers. This may be due to versatility of the power tiller for performing most of the farm operations in medium and small farms. With respect to soil type, 76 per- cent had heavy soil farms and the remaining 24 percent were had light soil farms. Forty six percent of the farmers had 11-20 years farming experience and 23 percent had 21-30 years farming experience. This in- dicated that the power tillers sales were increased during the last two decades. About 87 percent had agri- culture as their primary occupation.

Utilization of Power Tiller by the Respondent Bullock power was predominately used for head land ploughing and the power tiller was used for other farm operations. The priorities con- sidered for the purchase of a power tiller were timeliness of operation (49.30 percent), multipurpose use

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 87 (48.56 percent), non-availability ler had the maximum continuous the power tiller was satisfactory and of labour (45.13 percent) and low operation due to the presence of a the remaining rated them as highly purchasing cost (43.15 percent). The seating attachment. satisfactory. About 60 percent of major reasons for the purchased of All the respondents (100 percent) the power tiller farmers indicated the Shrachi (water-cooled) power expressed that the power tiller was that the maintenance of the power tiller were after sale service and the suitable for land preparation in both tiller was easy and the remaining provision for a seat. garden and wet land. Besides land indicated that it was difficult. This Fuel efficiency, make and model preparation, the maximum use of indicated that training on operation availability were expressed as the the power tiller was for weeding and maintenance of the power tiller major reasons for the farmers who operation (78.47 percent), followed was necessary. The general practice purchased the Mitsubishi (air- by road transport (55.55 percent), of the respondents for changing the cooled). The average annual work- pumping (25.69 percent) and thresh- gear oil and engine oil was only ing hours of all the makes of power ing (23.61 percent). The Mitsubishi during the service time of the power tillers ranged from 853 to 888 hours. (air-cooled) power tiller alone was tiller. They were not following the The Mitsubishi (air-cooled) power used for all operations including recommended norms prescribed by tiller was used for maximum hiring threshing because of absence of a the companies. because of its suitability for paddy radiator. Among the respondents threshing. 61.80 percent operated the power til- Problems and Constraints of Pow- Mitsubishi (air-cooled) and Mit- ler both by themselves and by hired er Tiller Users subishi (water-cooled) power tiller operators. The major accidents occurred operators continuously operated while crossing the bunds with the the power tillers for a maximum of Cost and Maintenance Aspect of engagement of the rotary tiller (91 five hours and the Shrachi (water- Power Tiller percent) followed by transport (84 cooled) power tiller were operated The cumulative rest time required percent). The same pattern was for a maximum six hours continu- for the power tiller operator was up also observed in all makes of power ously. The continuous operation of to one hour in a day of eight hours, tillers. Considering the operation power tillers was mainly dependent which was expressed by 67 percent of the power tiller, 59 percent of on experience of the operator. The of the respondents. About 60 percent operators were of the opinion that Shrachi (water-cooled) power til- expressed that the performance of the operation was moderate. The

Table 2 List of selected sample villages Table 3 List of selected sample villages of T. N. palayam block of Gobichettipalayam block Power tiller Name of sample village Power tiller population Name of sample village population Kaliyan Kadu 22 Kottum Pullam Palayam 25 T. N. Palayam 21 Nagadevan Palayam 21 Kondayam Palayam 19 Googalur 18 Periya Kodi Veri 13 Kalingium 17 Kannakkam Palayam 12 Mevani 16 Kasi Palayam 11 Nanjai Gobi 13 Arakkan Kottai 7 Allukuli 13 Permugai 7 Pallam Palayam 12 Vani Putthur 2 Nathi Palayam 12 Total 148 Palaiya Pariyur Karai 12 Amma Palayam 12 Table 4 List of selected sample villages of Nambiyur block Goundam Palayam 9 Power tiller Name of sample village Modachur 9 population Kollapalur 9 Kurumathur 10 Gobi 8 Sundakampalayam 9 Pudhu Karai 8 Pitchampalayam 8 Polava Kali Palayam 7 Kadathur 7 Pariyur 7 Karattu Palayam 6 P. Vellavi Palayam 6 Irugalur 6 P. Mettu Palayam 6 Kadaselli Palayam 5 Total 318 Total 95 Souce: Dept. of Stastics, Gobi (Table 3, 4)

88 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Mitsubishi (air-cooled) had the most by road transport (84 percent). The intolerable noise level followed by cumulative rest time required for Shrachi (water-cooled), which could the power tiller operator was up to be due to the variation in the muf- one hour in a day of 8 hours, which fler systems. was expressed by 67 percent of the About 49 percent of power tiller respondents. operators indicated that the avail- ability of service facilities was be- yond 10 km. The power tiller users REFERENCES were solely dependent on the dealers for getting the original spare parts Dash, R. C., D.Behera, and S. C. and 80 percent of the respondent Pradhan, 1990. Comparative study said that they were getting the spare of bullock farming and power til- parts on time. ler farming system for paddy crop in Orissa. Indian Journal of Agri- cultural Research, 60 (1): 17-22. Dash, R. C., S. C. Pradhan, Debaraj Conclusion Behere, and M. Mahapatra, 1993. Based on the analysis of the re- Evaluation of bullock farming sults the following conclusions were and power tiller farming system drawn. for groundnut crop in the state Among the power tiller respon- of Orissa, India. Agricultural dents surveyed, 45.83 percent had Mechanization in Asia, Africa education up to middle school level, and Latin America, 24 (3): 19-22 35 percent had higher secondary Pacharne, D. T. and R. K. Parkale, level and more and the remaining 1990. Monitoring the use of were illiterate. Of the power tiller power tiller in Maharashtra, Pa- respondents interviewed, 30, 35 and per presented at XXVI Annual 35 percent, respectively, had pur- convention of ISAE, held at HAU, chased the Shrachi (water-cooled), Hissar, India. the Mitsubishi (air-cooled) and the Singh. R. 1987. Problems and pros- Mitsubishi (water-cooled) power til- pects of utilization of power tillers lers, respectively. The nature of the in rice growing belts of North Bi- land holding distribution pattern of har. Ad-hoc study No. 63. Publi- the power tiller respondents were cation No.109, AERC, University 30 percent, 26 percent and 44 per- of Allahabad. cent for wet land, garden land, and Uddin, M. S.1991. Selection of a mixture of wetland and garden energy saving tillage system for land, respectively. The majority (56 puddling operation. Proceedings percent) of medium sized farmers of the workshop on Bangladesh (2-4 ha) preferred the purchasing Agricultural University Research of the power tillers followed by Progress, pp.457-467. small category farmers. The priori- Varshney, A. C., D. C. Saxen, and ties considered for the purchase of S. Narang, 1990. Power tiller po- the power tiller, were timeliness of tential in forestry. Agricultural operation (49.30 percent), multi- Mechanization in Asia, Africa purpose use (48.56 percent), non- and Latin America, 21 (2): 71-72. availability of labour (45.13 percent) ■■ and low purchasing cost (43.15 per- cent). The average annual working hours of all the makes of the power tiller were in the range of 853 to 888 hours. The major accidents occurred while crossing the bunds with the rotary tiller (91 percent) followed

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 89 The ABSTRACTS pages is to introduce the abstracts of the article which cannot be published in whole contents owing to the limited publication space and so many contributions to AMA. The readers ABSTRACTS who wish to know the contents of the article more in detail are kindly requested to contact the authors.

288 test code and procedure for the ergonomic evaluation of Ergonomic Evaluation of Cono Weeder for Paddy: K. cono weeder was developed similar to the RNAM and BIS Kathirvel, Professor, Dept. of Farm Machinery, Agril. Engi- test codes for field evaluation. neering College and Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore - 641003, India, K.P.Vidhu, PG Student, same, R. Manian, 290 Professor, same, T. Senthilkuamr, Research Scholar, same. Development and Testing Of A Variable Width Double The ergonomic evaluation of cono weeder for paddy was Furrow Animal-Drawn Ridger: E.A. Ajav, Dept. of Agril. investigated to quantify the drudgery involved in the op- Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, I.S. Ati- eration (Fig. 1). Three subjects were selected for the study waurcha, same. based on the age and screened for normal health through A variable width double furrow animal drawn ridger medical investigations. The parameters used for the ergo- has been developed and tested. The ridger was made nomical evaluation of paddy transplanter include heart rate from scrap metals and the fabrication was done in a rural and oxygen consumption, energy cost of operation, accept- blacksmith's workshop. The developed ridger consists able work load, endurance time, work rest cycle, discom- mainly of handle, main beam, headwheel assembly and fort ratings and force measurement. Based on the analysis the soil engaging components (share, furrow wing, and the following inferences are drawn. The mean value of ridge wing). The field performance of the ridger under heart rate of the three subjects for cono weeder was 14.03. dry and wet conditions were evaluated in terms of draft The heart rate lies in the range of 126 to 156 beats min-1 and field capacity. The performance of a standard ridger and the corresponding oxygen consumption was 1.251 lit was also studied as a basis for comparison. The draft min-1. Based on the mean oxygen consumption, the energy requirements for the dry condition cultivation ranged expenditure was computed as 26.11 kJ min-1 or 6.22 kcal from 0.5830 kN to 0.5912 kN and that for the wet condi- min-1, the operation was graded as “heavy”. The heart tion cultivation ranged from 0.6958 kN to 0.7482 kN. rate lies in the range of 126 to 156 beats min-1 for about The field capacities for both dry and wet condition cul- 75 percent of the operating time for cono weeder, neces- tivations ranged from 0.1048 to 0.2095 ha/h. The draft sitating the higher energy demand of the operation. The requirements for the developed ridger is 10 % less than oxygen uptake in terms of VO2 max was 63.62 percent. that of the locally existing ridger. The developed ridger These values were much higher than that of the AWL costs about 50 % less than the existing one. For both dry limits of 35 percent indicating that the cono weeder could and wet conditions cultivations, the differences in the not be operated continuously for 8 hours. The work rest average draft were statistically significant at 5 % level of cycle for achieving functional effectiveness of the weeder significance. The results also showed that for both dry was arrived 30 minutes of work followed by 15 min rest and wet condition cultivations, there were no significant with one operator. Based on the over all discomfort rate variations in the field capacities for varied widths/depths (ODR) of 8.03 obtained for weeding with cono weeder and at 5 % level of significance. the subjective response, a handle grip with a soft material was suggested to improve the gripping comfort of the op- 305 erator. The force required for pushing and pulling the cono Influence of Process Water Treatments on the Yield and weeder was 41.25 N and 41.32 N respectively. Standard Amylographic Properties of Cassava Starch: O.V. Olomo, Agro-Industrial Development Unit (AIDU), Federal Dept. Side View of Agriculture, P.O. Box 384, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria, O.O. Ajibola, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU), Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The poor adaptation of existing cassava processing operations to the infrastructural and economic status of the rural majority (who are the principal producers and primary processors of the roots) has hindered the effective and widespread exploitation of the industrial and other non-food potentials of the crop. Lack of potable water is however one of the uncomfortable realities of rural Nige- ria. This paper investigated the effects of different treat- ments applied to process water from natural sources, on Fig. 1 Cono weeder for pady the yield and quality of cassava starch. The quality char-

90 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 acteristics investigated were: moisture content, pH, crude been found that water in about 29 % exceeds the permis- fibre content, peak viscosity and pasting temperature. Two sible level (>0.05 mg/l), 29.69 % is within permissible level main process water treatment modes were used for starch (0.05 mg/l) and 41.31 % under WHO guideline (0.01 mg/l). extraction, coded as TRT 1 and TRT 2. The former con- The study also revealed that arsenic concentration increas- sisted of filtered stream and well water (FSW and FWW), es with the increase of depth. Results from this study date and their aluminized options, namely, filtered stream wa- from other of the country suggest that arsenic contamina- ter with alum (FSWA) and filtered well water with alum tion of groundwater in Bangladesh is much more wide- (FWWA). The addition of sulphur, dioxide fumes into all spread than initially thought. The paper presents results of the aforementioned water modes (TRT 2) was also investi- arsenic contamination in groundwater at the South-Eastern gated. Analysis of results indicated that starch yields high- part of Bangladesh and to put some suggestions and rec- est when FWW was used for extraction and lowest when ommendations for mitigation of arsenic problem. FSW was applied. Addition of alum to process water had a significant effect (P>0.05) on the pasting temperatures 405 (PTs) of starches from chips compared to those from flour, Efficient Machinery and Equipment for Livestock with the former having temperatures much higher than the Farms: H.C. Joshi, Principal Scientist, Livestock Production latter. The addition of alum and S02 to process water was Management Section, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, conclusively implicated in the significant depression of the Izatnagar 243122, India, Mukesh Singh, Scientist (Senior peak viscosities (PVs) of the starched extracted. Scale), same. Equipment and machinery have been designed and de- 319 veloped at Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar Arsenic Contamination in Ground Water in South- which are useful for livestock farms for different opera- Eastern Bangladesh: Toufiq Iqbal, Scientific Officer (Agril. tions like cleaning of animal paddocks, optimum supply Engg.) and Station in Charge, Rahmatpur Sub Station, Ban- of water to animal water troughs and lifting of the injured gladesh Sugarcane Research Institute, Rahmatpur, Barishal, large recumbent animals for their effective treatment Bangladesh, Fatima Rukshana, Scientific Officer, GR Build- (Figs. 2 to 4). An animal lifting system has been devel- ing, River Research Institute, Faridpur-7800, Bangladesh, oped to lift the recumbent animal effectively with mini- S.U.K. Eusufzai, Head, Agricultural Engineering Division, mal use of man-power. Lifting of animals for their effec- Bangladesh Sugarcane Research Institute, Ishurdi-6620, tive treatment is quite essential for an effective treatment. Pabna, Bangladesh, S.M.I. Iqbal Hossain, Assistant Agricul- Large ruminants’ viz. cattle and buffalo have tendency tural Engineer (Grade 1), same. to remain recumbent following long bone injury, joint af- In recent years, presence of elevated levels of arsenic in fection or neuromuscular disorders. Prolong recumbence groundwater has become a major concern in Bangladesh. may further lead to other complications like bed sores, Based on the experience of arsenic contamination in the radial nerve paralysis and tympany. Developed bullock neighboring West Bengal, India, it was initially thought operated dung cleaner is found to be most effective for the that arsenic contamination would most likely concentrate routine dung collection operation of the livestock farms. in the North-Eastern region of Bangladesh. This paper The machine rests over two ADV pneumatic wheels of presents the status of arsenic contamination of groundwa- size 8.00-19 which are attached to standard ADV axle of ter in the South-Eastern part of Bangladesh. A total of 305 bullock carts. The machine has collections blade of size no. of tube well samples from South-Eastern region were 170 x 40 cm which can be lifted or lowered through a foot analyzed for arsenic contamination of ground water. It has operated lever mechanism. It can accomplish collection of dung from 74 m2 area per minute. A low cost float- cock costing approximately Rs. 100/-is sturdy enough for use in dairy farms. It is able to maintain the water level

Fig. 2 Sequence of lifting of injured large animal through developed device Fig. 3 Low cost float-cock Fig. 4 Dung scraper cum cleaner

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 91 in the drinking water troughs meant for the animals kept tions: K. Rayaguru, Assistant Research Engineer, AICRP in loose housing systems. This reduces wastage of water on Post Harvest Technology, CAET, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, occurring from the unattended water taps to a great extent Orissa, India, K. Khan, Research Engineer, same. and improves the hygienic condition of farms. Among the different oilseeds grown in Orissa ground- nut is considered as a major potential source because 408 of its yield economics. But the unavailability of seeds Prediction of the Drift Distance of Injected Water stands as a major constraint for extensive coverage. This Droplets in a Moving Air Stream: Adnan I. Khdair, Associ- problem can be solved only if groundnut seeds, which ate Professor, Biosystem Engineering Department, Jordan are harvested towards end of May, are preserved, so that University of Science and Technology (J.U.S.T), Irbid, Jordan, seeds can be made available to the farmers at the right time Lua'y Zeatoun, Chemical Engineering Department, same during October sowing without losing the available re- A computer program was used to simulate the effect of sidual moisture. This becomes significant during the pe- several variables on drift distance of injected water drop- riod from June to November due to prevailing high tem- lets in a moving air stream. Variables were initial droplet perature and high relative humidity. Storage experiments size of (25 to 500 mm), wind velocity (1.0 to 10.0 m/s), and were carried out using different farm level structures like discharge height (0.25 to 2.0 m). All 75 mm diameter and bamboo doli, metal bin and insulated metal bin. Ground- smaller droplets completely evaporated before deposit- nut seeds were also stored under dehumidified refriger- ing 0.5 m below the point of discharge for all simulated ated storage conditions of temperature 15 ± 1 ºC and rela- conditions. The simulation showed that the drift distance tive humidity 60 ± 2 % The sun dried groundnut seeds increased by increasing wind velocity and discharge height, (AK-12-24) procured from farmers of Orissa were used but decreased as droplet size increased at a given wind ve- for the experiments. Before storing the seeds in different locity and a discharge height. The simulated drift distance storage structures the samples were drawn and analysed of injected water droplets was fitted to a multiple regression for the initial seed qualities. During storage of seeds the model. The model expresses the drift distance of a droplet prevailing atmospheric temperature and relative humidity as a function of injection height, wind velocity and droplet were recorded regularly. The performance of each stor- size. The relative effect of these parameters showed that age system was evaluated at 20 days interval through the droplet size has the largest effect on drift distance followed standard tests for moisture content, germination percent- by discharge height and wind velocity, respectively. The age, viability percentage, vigour number and seed health. model showed also that parameter interaction has signifi- Analysis of observations on seeds stored under different cant effect on drift distance at the 95 % confidence level. conditions for a period of 18 weeks more or less coincid- Droplet size and injection height have a second order sig- ing with the critical period for the seed life concludes the nificant effect, while wind velocity has a linear effect only. following findings. Bamboo doli is the structure most prone to changes due to the outside climatic conditions 423 and therefore the seed quality declined much earlier than Determination of the Effects of Different Soil Tillage that of metal bins. However the insulated metal bin gave Methods on Some Soil Physico - Mechanic Features in slightly better performance than that of the non-insulated Sugarbeet Cultivation: Koc Mehmet Tugrul, Turkish Sugar metal bin. In this respect dehumidified refrigerated stor- Factories Corporation, Sugar Institute, 06790 Etimesgut, age maintained all the seed qualities to a large extent at 06790 Ankara, Turkey, Ilknur Dursun, Faculty of Agricul- the end of 18 weeks of storage period. ture, University of Ankara, Dept. of Agricultural Machinery, 6110 Ankara, Turkey. 451 In this research, it was objected the determination of Application of Enamel Coating in Draught Reduction the effects of different soil tillage methods on some soil of a Mouldboard Plough: I.A. Loukanov, PhD, MSc, Senior physico - mechanic features in sugarbeet cultivation. Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Univer- The methods that were estimated in this research are tra- sity of Botswana, P/Bag UB0061, Gaborone, Botswana, J. ditional soil tillage methods and five different methods Uziak, PhD, MSc, Associate Professor, same. which were considered to be feasible in Turkey. The soil This paper studies the effect of an enamel coating on physico - mechanic features, which were observed in the the draught performance of an animal-drawn mouldboard study, are soil moisture content, dry bulk density, soil plough (Fig. 5). A single furrow mouldboard plough-Maun aggregate size distribution and penetration resistance. In Series, and the same type enamel-coated plough, both ox- conclusion it was determined the best results in S1 and S2 drawn, are compared under similar working conditions such in terms of the soil physico - mechanic features. as soil moisture content, depth and width of cut, and ap- proximately constant speed of ploughing. The enamel coat- 445 ing has reduced both the actual and specific draught. The Storage of Groundnut Seeds Under Different Condi- percentage reduction of actual draught for enamel-coated

92 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 plough as compared to uncoated one varied from 12.7 % at covered with transparent polythene. These temperature 25 % d.b. soil moisture content to 18.1 % at 32 % d.b. soil were found to be greater than the lethal temperature (45 º moisture content, whereas the percentage reduction of the C) for all developing stages of storage insects. The struc- specific draught varied from 25.7 % at 25 % d.b. soil mois- tures with inclined surface like pyramid and triangular ture content to 20.3 % at 32 % d.b. soil moisture content. recorded the highest maximum temperatures compared to vertical structures. Generally, it could be concluded that solar energy could be utilized for control of storage insects with simple treatment of the containers tested in this study under Al-Ahsa conditions throughout the year.

454 Experimental Research on Physical Properties of Coat- ed Rice Seeds: Yang Ling, Lecture, Engin Tech College, SW Agric. Univ., Chongqing 400716, China, Yang Mingjin, Lec- ture, same, Li Qingdong, Professor, same, He Peixiang, As- Fig. 5 The maun plough sociate Professor, same, Chen Zhonghui, Professor, same. Some physical properties, bulk density, particle density, 452 restitution coefficient and drag coefficient, were experi- Thermal Control of Stored Grains Insects by Utilizing mental researched for the coasted seeds of three hybrids Solar Energy: Ali M.S. Al-Amri, Dept. of Agricultural Engi- widely cultivated in Southwest of China. By means of neering, College of Agricultural and Food Sciences, King orthogonal experiment design and analysis of variance Faisal University, P.O. Box 4421, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia, (Anova), major factors and their significant levels affect- Sirelkhatim K. Abbouda, same. ing these properties were determined. Practical date were Storage insect-pests are the major cause of damage obtained as well. and losses in food grain. For prevention of damage and losses by insects infestation, all insects present in the 455 stored product must be eliminated at any stage of their Mathematical Analysis for Predicting the Suitable development. Preservation methods which applied to food Amplitude of Shaking Unit in Mechanical Harvesting of products for insect pests control, as chemical method, Fruits: Mohamed I. Ghonimy, Associate Professor, Agri- resulted in several problems and hazard for consumers. cultural Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Heat treatment is one of the safe alternative measures for Cairo University, Egypt. storage insects control but it is costy and requires special The mathematical analysis provided an equation for facilities for application. Therefore, the aim of this study predicting the suitable-shaking amplitude of limb tree is to utilize solar radiation as source of heat for thermal shaker. This mathematical equation correlated the pulling control of storage insects, in an attempt to find out a safer force to fruit mass ratio, stem length, shaking frequency effective control measure at minimal cost. To study the ef- and damping ratio. The mathematical equation was fect of material, black paint, and transparent cover on heat checked under two circus varieties; Valencia and Grape- observation, four groups of containers were from different fruit. The practical study showed that, the mathematical materials (plastic, polythene, metal and jute). Two con- derived equation could be used with enough confidence tainers from each group (out of three) were painted black in predicting the shaking amplitude of shaking unit in and one from these two black containers was covered with mechanical harvesting of citrus fruits. The optimum fruit transparent polythene. All containers were filled with removal percentage without limb damage was 97 % and equal amounts of sorghum grains and kept out door for 97.5 % for Valencia and Grapefruit varieties respectively. exposure to direct sun radiation. Temperature measure- These values were realized at the following parameters: ments were taken at two hours time interval from 8:00 0.4-1.2 cm amplitude; 7-6 Hz shaking frequency. A.M. to 1:00 P.M. for the first period and from 1:00 P.M. to 5:00 P.M. for the second period. Five structures of dif- 470 ferent geometrical shapes made of black galvanized metal Development and Evaluation of Manual Weeder: Rajvir were used to study the effect of geometrical shape on heat Yadav, Associate Professor, Department of Farm Machin- absorption. All containers (pyramid, cylindrical, triangu- ery and Power, College of Agril. Engg. and tech., JAU, Ju- lar, rectangular and cubic) were filled with sorghum grain nagadh 362001, India, Sahastrarashmi Pund, Ex Research and temperature measurements were taken as mentioned Associate, CAET, GAU, Junagadh, India. above. Highest maximum temperature were observed in To increase the productivity per unit area of small land black plastic container (64.7 ºC), black polythene con- holding of farmers and considering their economic condi- tainer (64.2 ºC) and black metal container (58.3 ºC) when tion, it is quite necessary to have suitable agricultural im-

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 93 plements by which farmers can use them and also allow collector was developed in the Department of Processing custom hiring (Fig. 6). Weeding is an important agricul- and Agricultural Structures, Punjab Agricultural Uni- tural operation affecting crop yield upto 30 to 60 percent. versity, Ludhiana. It comprised a dung-collecting bucket, With regard this, a manually operated weeder was de- pivoted on a frame. Tilting the bucket with the help of a veloped and tested considering various parameters such foot-operated lever emptied it. From the experience of the as speed of travel, weeding efficiency, time of operation, dairy farm workers, existing design of the dung collector field capacity, crop height, plant population and horse required certain changes for convenience in operation and power requirement. The ground wheel of weeder (390 to reduce the labour requirements. Accordingly, the height mm) was fabricated from mild steel flat of 52 x 3 mm. of the foot lever was reduced from 53.34 cm to 30.48 cm. The weeding blades were made from steel flat, which is The width of the bucket was reduced to two-third, thereby strong enough to sustain the prevailing forces as well as increasing convenience. The modified dung collector took to carry, the load of the implement. V-shape support was 47.5 % less time than the existing one for dung collection. fabricated from mild steel and was directly welded to the The paper contains the details of the kinematic analysis handle to join the ground wheel with the main frame. The and synthesis processes that were employed to incorporate arrangement was also made to adjust the height and angle the required modifications in the eqiopment. ■■ of the handle as per the need of the operator. The weeding efficiency of the developed weeder was satisfactory and also easy to operate. The developed could work upto 3.00 cm depth with field efficiency of 0.048 ha/hr and higher weeding efficiency was obtained upto 92.5 %. The rest pause of 14 min was required by the subjects during the heavy work to come to normal position. The peak heart rate was found to range from 142 to 150 beats per min. The overall performance of the weeder was promising.

478 Kinematic Analysis of Manually Operated Dung Col- lector: Preetinder Kaur, Asstt. Research Engineer, Dept. of Processing and Agricultural Structures, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India, P.S. Grewal, Associate Professor, same, Bee- ba Sahib Kaur, Project Student, same. Kinematic analysis was carried out to improve the de- sign of an existing manually operated cattle dung collec- tor. An improved wheel-mounted, manually pushed dung

Fig. 7 Side evaluation and plan of modified dung collecter

Fig. 6 Groundnyt weeder Fig. 8 Illustration showing the difference in the size of the backet

94 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 NEWS

Round Table on Rural Areas De- introduce new contents in villages - DJ President of CIGR concluded that: velopment in SEE courses, summer schools teaching at- 1. The problems of rural areas in the re- tractive disciplines, gerontology centers gion of Southeastern Europe and also Agricultural Engineering and its Role - to name but a few. This could boost worldwide are recognized. The most in Development of Rural Areas interest for rural areas, especially within significant problems in the region are; young people and create employment i. poverty, Organization of Agricultural Engineer- opportunities for educated qualified per- ii. migration to the cities, ing of Southeastern Europe - AESEE, a sons. iii. lack of appropriate infrastructure, member of CIGR since 2005, has recog- Difficult situation in the sector of ag- iv. size and fragmentation of farms. nized importance of rural development riculture, world wide, also influences 2. The society and agricultural engi- in the region and world wide. The round economy in rural areas. Agricultural neering profession should be aware table Agricultural Engineering and its production is multi-functional, having of these problems of welfare of rural Role in Development of Rural Areas has many non-economic effects. This should area inhabitants and provide solutions been initiated by AESEE and organized also be acknowledged when making in order to achieve comparable living by Turkish Chamber of Agricultural En- local, regional or global policies. Dis- conditions with those in cities. gineers, Izmir Branch, on 25th to 27th of turbance of agricultural production can 3. Agricultural engineers, besides their September in Izmir and village Sirince. have economical, societal and environ- common professional activities, should Ten participants from five countries, mental consequences. also create the awareness of the rural fully supported by the presence of CIGR How could agricultural engineering area problems in the society through President Prof. Dr. Luis Santos Pereira contribute? It was concluded that most educational process and media. have discussed a very actual problem of institutions in this field serve less than 4. Multi functionality and non-economic rural area retrogression. 10 % of population in rural areas. All ef- values of agriculture should be rec- At the beginning, all participants forts are concentrated towards increase ognized by the society, i.e. preventing agreed that most of rural areas, world of productivity on best organized large desertification, preserving the environ- wide, are endangered from economic, farms which are most profitable. Who ment and landscape. environmental, societal and demograph- will help the rest of 90 % of farmers? 5. Continuation of rural life enables ic point of view. It is typical that poverty How to help them? Some of the ideas preservation of cultural heritage and and lack of perspective in rural areas were: to restructure extension service, contributes to cultural diversity. generate migration and boom of poor to develop inexpensive agro products 6. A working group on this issue should suburban settlements with lots of prob- and agro food safety and quality tech- be setup in the frame of CIGR. lems for all inhabitants. Consequently, nique, to develop procedures and equip- 7. Agricultural engineering must sup- many problems occur in the cities and ment for post-harvesting processing on port development of on-farm process- rural areas. The extrapolation of present farms, up to the level of producing the ing up to getting shelf-ready products trend shows vision of enormous envi- super market shelf-ready commodities. especially of traditionally home made ronmental and societal disharmony. This can be accompanied by the local foods. Assurance and control of safety During a very open discussion, many production of machinery in small work- and quality of this production is a problems of rural areas and its impor- shops. Another issue can be the use of special challenge for agricultural engi- tance for whole society have been men- renewable energies for own needs and neering. tioned. Rural tourism is perceived as a for the market. All this can be consider- 8. Extension services of any model of good chance, but nevertheless, excessive able support for better living conditions organization should be supported in development could harm both local in rural areas. any means, but reinforced in the quali- culture and environment. Large scale In the time of globalization, the aware- ty, being able to help solving also other industrialization of rural areas has, in ness of cultural uniformity is ever more herewith identified needs or rural area. some examples, proved to be the wrong pronounced. In that respect, rural areas 9. Indigenous knowledge should also be remedy. Local festivals based on cultur- could be our last chance to rescue cul- respected and included in tools aimed al tradition, traditional food, handicraft tural diversity as the heritage of man- in participatory rural development. etc. support self-awareness of rural area kind and civilization. 10. A multi-disciplinary regional project inhabitants. The problem of inadequate Main round table’s impression was is needed to state problems of rural infrastructure was addressed with full that a complete and precise inventory areas more precisely, to define pos- understanding. Due to a much lower of rural areas’ problems is still missing, sible solutions and needed tools. Such population density, compared with cit- especially in the region of Southeastern a project will include diverse expertise ies, solving this problem is much more Europe. In order to define those prob- from the scientific fields of sociology, expensive in rural areas. Contemporary lems, set priorities and programs, a mul- demography, economy, technology, ICT tools have been identified as good tidisciplinary research shall be required. etc. And will be drafted in first half of aids in overcoming this problem, e.g. 2006. E-commerce and general communica- Participants of the Round Table from 11. Implementation of renewable ener- tion improvement. Brave ideas were to the AESEE member countries and the gies can be a good tool for develop-

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 95 From left to right: Agricultural Engineers Paul L. McConnie, Megh R Goyal, Rafael F. Davila, Francisco Monroig, Eric Harmsen, Carmelo A. Gonzalez and Hector Lopez. ment of rural areas through which on internal combustion engines”. tion of biofuels in the farm is different local materials and human resources The second topic was “New Raw following the increase in the cost of fossil can be used. Prof. Dr. Milan Martinov Material for Agricultural Machinery fuels in comparison with the perspectives is given the responsibility searching Manufacturing”, with two keynote pa- for agriculture. There are three different for funds and drawing a concept of a pers by Dr. Robert Adams, representing groups of countries: regional project on this topic. the CNH tractor and equipment manu- - countries with industrial agriculture facturer, “Reasons and impact of steel (e.g. in Argentina and Brazil in South price increase on agricultural machinery America); Presidency and Management industry” and by Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mar- - western industrial countries (e.g. the Committee - the Club of Bologna tensen, Maschinenfabriken Bernhard European Union EU); Krone KG, “Progress in typical materi- - less developed countries (many coun- Conclusions and Recommendations als for agricultural machinery”. tries around the world). In the first group of countries the cost 1. Foreword Conclusions of agricultural products is lower and The Session of the Club of Bologna Topic 1. The first paper (Alternative competitive and big plants for the trans- began with a very important matter, energy crops for agricultural machin- formation of the raw material could be the future of agricultural engineering. ery biofuels - focus on biodiesel.) was feasible. Very often the possibility to In the past, in the developed countries, presented by Dr. Gustavo Best, FAO convert the raw material in food and/or and now in the developing world, agri- Senior Energy Coordinator. There is a in biofuels may be a way to optimise the cultural mechanisation and engineering large variety of bioenergy sources, each income of agriculture. have been the main responsible for the one with social and scientific implica- On the contrary in the western indus- transformation of agriculture. tions on rural poverty, high-tech indus- trial countries the value of commodities A few months ago a bomb exploded in try, agronomy, new crop development is decreasing, with a consequent low the agricultural engineering world: FAO and selection, land tenure issues, biodi- profitability. Incentives are given for is closing the agricultural engineering versity impacts, rural employment, etc. the RES (Renewable Energy Systems) sector, as it may be seen looking the re- Biodiesel is a clean burning alterna- development, especially for the “green port “2006-07 - Supplement to the Di- tive fuel, produced from biological oils. electricity” and very often the idea to rector-general’s Programme of Work Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it produce crops for energy production is and Budget (Reform Proposals)”, by can be blended at any level with petro- studied with a great interest. In the EU FAO, published in August 2005 (web leum diesel to create a biodiesel blend. the renewable energy consumption on ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/meeting/ It is biodegradable, non-toxic and essen- the total gross energy is at present about 009/j5800e/j5800e_sup1.pdf ): tially free of sulphur and aromatics. 4 % and it is planned its increase to 5.8 The Club of Bologna unanimously ap- Biodiesel main origin are the follow- % in 2020 and to 6.5 ten years later. proved at the end of the Session on 13th ing crops: soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, At last in the less developed countries Nov. 2005 the FAO Recommendation, palmoil, linseed, canola, etc. The US the following points must be taken into which is reported at point 3. National Biodiesel Board concluded that account: economy is stagnating and sub- the energy balance for biodiesel may sidies are given in fossil fuels; energy 2. Conclusions and Recommendations be from 1.44 (not including a credit for needs are often solved by diesel genera- 63 experts from 25 countries in ad- byproducts) up to 3.2. Advantages of tors; rural development is problematic; dition to different international or- biodiesel are: it is environmentally supe- cost of energy efficiency (EE) for rural ganisations took part in the 16th Club of rior to other fuels (50 % less CO; 80 % communities is usually very high and

Bologna meeting, held on 12 and 13 No- less CO2; etc.); actually cleans engines; this justifies labour and investigation for vember 2005 within the XXXVI EIMA can be grown in arid, marginal, de- EE production. Show, under the aegis of CIGR and with graded lands; less toxic than table salt; The following advantages must be tak- the sponsorship of UNACOMA. byproducts may be used in agro- and en into consideration: oleaginous crops There were two topics under discus- livestock industry. are possible with all climatic conditions; sion, of which the first was Alternative“ In 2004 the main biodiesel producers the oil is extractable from the seeds with Fuels for Agricultural Machinery had been Germany, USA, France and It- very simple machines; the byproduct Utilisation”with keynote contributions aly. Production is increasing by 20-25 % from the pressing operation is a cake by three speakers: Dr. Gustavo Best, per year and has reached around 2.5 mil- and it is often interesting to use it as a FAO Senior Energy Coordinator, with a lion t. The future vision is positive and fertilizer or as a feedstock; diesel gen- paper on “Alternative energy crops for the international bioenergy programme erators sets may be directly used with agricultural machinery biofuels (focus is pointing to promote and monitor the vegetable oils. on biodiesels)”; Prof. Dr. Ing. Giovanni sustainable use of modern systems for a As a conclusion the use of raw veg- Riva, Università Politecnica delle sustainable development, energy secu- etable oils seems an interesting option, Marche, who spoke on “Utilisation of rity and climate change mitigation. when the quality of these oils is con- biofuels (especially vegetable oils) in the The second paper (Utilisation of trolled. It is a must to prepare standard farm”; Dr. Hartmut Heinrich, Director biofuels (especially vegetable oils) in lines for the use of pure vegetable oils of Research on Fuels and Oils, Volkswa- the farm) was presented by Prof. Ing. for diesel engines. gen AG, with a contribution on “Utilisa- Giovanni Riva from the Università Po- The third paper (Utilisation of biofu- tion of biofuels (especially biodiesels) litecnica delle Marche (Italy). The utilisa- els (especially biodiesels) on internal

96 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 combustion engines) was presented more than 20 % per year. nents are coated with hard metal parts. by Dr. Hartmut Heinrich, Director of For tractors and combines, CNH relies Light aluminium alloys are used to Research on Fuels and Oils, Volkswa- on steel products as the principle source reduce weight, especially when a front gen AG. The world energy demand is of components. For a tractor, ferrous or rear attachment requires to minimise rapidly increasing and non-conventional metal products represent 30% of costs; the weight transfer from one axle to the fuels (coal, CH4/H2, gas, new renew- for combines this dependence goes up other. Also gear housing of the various ables) will fill the future energy gap. to a 44 %. To overcome this point, it drives contribute to this end. The demand on future fuels must fulfil has been decided to implement a global Synthetic materials are employed in a safe supply, an easy handling and stor- commodity strategy focused on qual- versatile forms. Today, aesthetically age, a high energy density, an economic ity, technology, delivery and total costs, shaped panelling dominates the market: competitiveness in addition to the con- through a strategic approach to: standar- glass-fibre reinforced plastic; thermo- sideration of environment and climate disation, technical saving, global sourc- plastic materials; rotational moulding or protection. ing, alternative technologies. rotational sintering process polyethylene Future fuels should be such to be A disciplined process has been carried parts. blended into existing fuels and be diver- out to identify cost reductions from ma- In the future other new materials will sified on the primary energy side. The terial specifications through to manufac- be used: metal matrix composite steel scenario of the fuel evolution is from turing processes, with actions that could and ceramic materials, for wearing ma- diesel to synthetic fuels (based on natu- result from a change of a component or terials; piezoelectric materials, with the ral gas and coal), to sun-fuels (based on component system, including: delete size increasing when an electric current renewables) and to hydrogen (also based component functionalities; change mate- passes through; twinned martensite, on renewables). The EU scenario is fore- rial; standardise/communisation; reduce where a high load deformed part may seeing by 2020 8 % of biofuels, 10 % of number of manufacturing processes; return to the original shape by a simple natural gas and 5 % of hydrogen, with a increase tolerances; reduce weight; heating. total of about 23 %. simplify/change packaging; benchmark Due to its properties (material incom- against competitor solution. Recommendations patibilities, non fulfilment of stringent The second paper (Progress in typical Topic 1 exhaust gas legislation, non compatibili- materials for agricultural machinery) - Having recognised that China, India ty with diesel particulate filters and with was presented by Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mar- and other developing countries eco- preheaters) a pure biodiesel cannot be tensen, Maschinenfabriken Bernhard nomic uprising had a major influence on used and it is rejected by the automotive Krone KG. The recent most important the fuel market in the past few years and industry; but it can be added to crude oil milestones in the agricultural machinery that oil prices are forcing to develop new in the refinery. manufacturing can be listed as follows: energy sources; As a result in the EU 25 (the European combination of several process steps in - Having noted that biofuels (biodiesel Union with the 10 new members, admit- one machine; oil hydraulic drives and and bioethanol) are a necessary com- ted in 2004) it is possible to blend at controls; electronic controls; extreme in- ponent of future energy supplies and the moment up to 5 % biodiesel, but the crease in the performance of individual that they attract a growing interest by automotive industry is open for a 10% machines. politicians, the public, the farmers and blending in a few years. In the EU 25 Not long ago, a typical agricultural that the best option is the conversion of the diesel fuel demand in 2005 is 169 machine consisted almost exclusively biomass into liquid fuels; Mt, supposed to increase to 197 Mt in of “iron and steel”. This has changed - Having recognised that in the fu- 2010, of which at present biodiesel is 13 and the main reasons are: higher load ture energy scenario the contributions Mt and will reach 23 Mt in 2010. on the component due to increased from agriculture are a must and that performances; imperative light-weight following the Kyoto protocol for a clean Topic 2. The first paper (Reasons design on account of legal regulations development, it is necessary to develop and impact of steel price increase on and avoidance of soil compaction; in- a conservation agriculture with alterna- agricultural machinery industry) was crease of the resistance to wear due to tive crops for bioenergy, considering the presented by Dr. Robert Adams, repre- higher loads on components; increased emission control; senting the CNH tractor and equipment demands on lifetime of modern machin- - Having noted that the relationship manufacturer. Steel has been of para- ery; increased demands on design and between the oil and the energy crops mount importance and is heavily used ergonomics. prices and the tax situation in both prod- in the manufacturing of machinery and Let us consider the material groups: ucts in each country is very important equipment. Its supply and price were structural steels; alloyed steels; cast and that legislation is influencing some- not a problem up to a couple of years materials; light alloys; wearing materi- times in a positive and sometimes in a ago. Due to a strong steel consumption als; synthetic materials. Machinery size negative way the research and studies in China, India and other Asian areas, is increasing, but legal requirements on various biofuels and their local pro- prices recently grew up and available limit the total weight and/or the weight duction and diffusion and that subsidies stocks went down. As an example Chi- per axle. As a consequence fine-grained are not normally accepted by WTO, nese economy’s share of global market structural steels, high-quality alloyed although exceptions already exist; doubled to 4 % in the last decade, but steels and cast iron and steel are gener- - Having noted that manufacturers are she is consuming 27 % of world steel ally used. For machinery parts subject to normally conservative and not in favour products, with a demand increasing by wear, blades and other similar compo- of alternative fuels and that engine man-

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 97 ufacturer design will be driven by the transformation of biomass are essential consumption is achieved; large scale producers, i.e. the automotive to the development of agriculture in a - Recommend that quality of biofuels industry; future; in addition in a lot of countries should be standardised internationally - Having recognised that bioethanol marginal lands shall be used to prevent according to the needs of efficiency of and biodiesel are products actually ap- an impact to food security and conserve the combustion and with respect to the plied in some remarkable quantity and the limited farmland for grain produc- reliability and durability of the internal that a high level of efficient transforma- tion; combustion engines; tion from sugar cane to ethanol has al- - Reassert that on the contrary a broad - Acknowledge that the chances of ready been achieved in Brasil and that the cultivation of the alternative energy using pure plant oils - especially in de- German “100 tractor programme”, sup- crops according to the climatic and soil veloping countries with a deficit energy ported by the government, demonstrated conditions are a suitable solution for the supply - are rather seen for stationary that pure rape seed oil is not able to be cultivation of crops for non food produc- power plants and that stationary plants used economically for mobile machinery tion purposes in the countries with food can better handle not only pure plant right now, as about 35% of the machines over-production as well as an important oils but also pure biodiesel than mobile had severe break downs; help in the energy supply and protection machines. - Having recognised that EU is sup- of environment; porting the use of alternative fuels even - Underline that the relationship be- Topic 2 if pure biodiesel seems to be not well tween the prices of natural oil and bio- - Having noted the increasing cost of suited for modern diesel engines for pas- crops and tax situation determinate the raw materials and especially of steel; senger cars with particle filters, while possibility of developing these technolo- - Having recognised that it is not for trucks and agricultural machines the gies in each country and that it is further easy to forecast the future trend of steel situation is different and that a general necessary to promote bio-energy with prices; agreement on diesel engines fuels can research, development, dissemination - Having noted that China develop- be used in a mixture of 5 % biodiesel of knowledge and subsidised and non- ment had a major influence on the steel and 95 % conventional diesel, with in- taxed applications; market in the past few years, including creasing percentage of biodiesel for the - Confirm that future research and de- the availability and price of steel; future; velopment related to renewable fuel and - Having noted that the cost of high The members of the Club of Bologna: energy is very important and acknowledge tech materials such as fine-graded steels - Recommend that to find the most that bioenergy is coupled with a number increases more than proportionally effective system of transforming bio- of problems of “waste products”. These do with their performance and that for the masses into energy and biofuels seems not get enough consideration in the energy manufacturing of agricultural machin- to be the most feasible and sustainable balance. Agricultural engineers must take ery cost, weight and environment view alternative to provide a clean, renewable into consideration both the problem of points have to be considered; and environmentally friendly energy waste management and environment im- - Having recognised that for agricul- source, not only for agricultural machin- pact; tural machinery there are few alterna- ery but also for automotive and transport - Remind the conclusion of the “100 tives to steel as a material that provides means; tractor programme” in Germany, that strength and that the economic develop- - Underline that the processing of al- has to be studied and be taken into ac- ment and the requirements for weight ternative fuels (from plant to tank) must count to avoid the possibility for farmers reduction and operational life of equip- be improved and that BTL (biomass to to damage their tractors by using inap- ment make that a lot of attention goes to liquid) fuels shall be further developed propriate fuels; rational selection of materials for equip- in the (near) future; - Underline that with the worldwide ment; - Acknowledge that the approach for increase in biofuels, it is important that - Having noted that high tech ma- developing bioenergy utilisation should FAO takes a leading role in their promo- terials are today a standard in highly be based on local social-economic tion, to coordinate research and convene developed countries for agricultural conditions and that even if in EU the international meetings on the regula- machinery manufacturing and that the biodiesel is now to be blended in a 5 tions and trade aspects of biofuels in the utilisation of new materials will increase % percentage, in developing countries global markets; in the future, but the most important there will be more expansion of bio- - Underline that agricultural engineers factor in addition to technical consider- based fuels, as it is possible to imple- must collaborate with the big engine ation is their price, which will determine ment easier transformation process and manufacturers, but with the important the effective use of these new materials; input preservation; need to understand and develop process- - Having recognised that the quality - Underline that the production of bio- ing of biofuels crops in order to ensure and reliability of materials are important fuels need a careful planning of the agri- as much added value as possible; and that manufacturers are prepared to cultural activity at regional, national and - Reassert that in spite of the difficul- transfer the cost of good quality materi- international (in the EU) level and of the ties of using pure biodiesel, a scenario als on the customers; areas where biomasses are produced in may be successfully developed to in- The members of the Club of Bologna: order to optimise (reduce) the transpor- crease the percentage of biodiesel in the - Reassert the necessity to increase the tation costs, with the precondition of a marketed diesel fuels, in such a man- search for new materials, including new low energy input for cultivation; ner that a considerable market share of technologies to mould and/or to cast - Confirm that the cultivation and biodiesel versus the overall diesel fuel and/or to shape them, and recommend

98 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 optimisation procedures for design that promote, study and define strategies for reconsider its position regarding agricul- include the new materials, to make it the development of agricultural mecha- tural engineering and mechanisation, as possible for manufacturers to introduce nisation worldwide, taking into consid- these sectors are essential for the devel- these materials in a cost-effective way; eration technical, economic and social opment of agriculture in the developing - Acknowledge that the general trend advances and changes in agriculture on countries and for the general welfare of of material cost is favouring interesting an international level. their inhabitants.” chances for a general use of high tech The Club of Bologna, founded in 1989, materials; has about 120 members coming from - Underline that light weight materi- almost 50 countries of all five the conti- Carl-Albrecht Bartmer Elected als, manufactured with light metal al- nents. On 12th and 13th November 2005 as New DLG-President loys, should be applied to agricultural it has hold its 16th Meeting of the Full machinery when appropriate, especially Members with the participation of more Professor Dr. Achim to reduce the weight of equipment to than 60 people. Stiebing New Vice Presi- avoid soil compaction; Having known that the FAO is discuss- dent - Helmut Ehlen Con- - Underline that the Chinese boom ing (see the Report “2000-07 Supple- firmed as Vice President will probably return to a balance with ment to the Director-General’s Pro- (DLG). The German Agricultural So- slightly reduced steel prices, so that gramme of Work and Budget (Reform ciety (DLG/Deutsche Landwirtschafts- price contracts on steels could become Proposals)”: Gesellschaft) has elected its new again possible and the importance of - point 51, page 12 “Several areas president - Carl-Albrecht Bartmer of spot markets will decrease; would be significantly reduced....These L_bnitz a.d. Bode (Saxony-Anhalt), - Recommend that small and medium include: Germany. The Executive Committee sized manufacturers should be educated • .... elected Bartmer in Berlin on 11 January on materials trends and alternative ma- • agricultural engineering and agri- at its winter conference last week, which terials; cultural services information, which takes place once a year. Bartmer suc- - Confirm that to improve and develop would only be covered through the- ceeds Baron Philip von dem Bussche, new and better alternative materials, a matic networks with other institutions” who stood down following nine year’s condition is to encourage, to invest and - point 200, page 52 “Support activi- of service. Baron Philip von dem Buss- to carry out research and development ties to farm power and mechanisation che will continue to contribute with his both at university and in industry, to also or agricultural engineering would be wide-ranging expertise and experience reduce dependency on steel and suggest pursued essentially within the context of in his capacity as Member of the Board. to use a more intensively optimisation knowledge exchange and outreach pro- The Supervisory Board also confirmed methodology in design of farm machin- grammes directly in countries:”, Helmut Ehlen, a farmer of Ahrensmoor, ery supported by shape and parametric the Club of Bologna reminds that as one of two honorary vice presidents analysis; the main measures for increasing crop for three further year’s of service. Pro- - Reassert that consideration should be yields in developing countries are: fessor Dr. Achim Stiebing, chairman pointed to reliability, serviceability, time - seeding technique, through modern of the German Agricultural Society’s required for repair and maintenance, tillage and drilling, which could possi- DLG-Test Centre for Food was elected etc., to achieve an optimum design; bly increase yield by 15 -35 %; as vice president. He succeeds Professor - Underline that the question of ma- - seed quality (selected seeds) by Dr. Friedrich Kuhlmann, University of terial recycling and eco-technologies 30-150 %; Giessen, Germany, who has decided to should be faced and studied, as biode- - chemical products (fertilisers, spray- retire on age grounds. gradable materials are not at present a ing products) by 50-500 %; Carl-Albrecht Bartmer, 44, owns and practical alternative; - harvest (modern harvesting tech- manages an agricultural business of - Recommend a bigger use of bio- niques) by 20-35 %; 1.000 hectar. He is the youngest presi- materials and renewable materials in ag- - water (irrigation) by 50-500 %; dent in the history of the German Agri- ricultural machinery and other products - crops/year (with machinery for peak cultural Society and belongs to a breed manufacturing, to improve efficiency, periods) by 25-100 %; of young entrepreneurs who have shown reduce costs and give the possibility to - storing (modern drying and storing) commitment to the society in recent recycle them; by 10-50 %; years. During the last 15 years, Bartmer - Recommend that the research in- - transport ( use of adequate transport has shown extraordinary pioneering stitutions and the industry should be means) by 10-50 %. spirit in turning around his family busi- encouraged to work together in order to Of these eight listed techniques, five ness into a successful enterprise, which develop biological materials, to replace depend on machinery use. In addition dates back to 1735. Through his vision- the metal and plastic materials used in an FAO report, based on agricultural ary and contagious entrepreneurial the manufacturing of agricultural ma- statistics worldwide, stated that at world prowess and a cost-conscious approach, chinery and equipment. level the agricultural production highly he manages to combine key company depends from installed farm power, es- functions. The dedicated marathon 3. FAO Recommendation pecially when farm power is limited, as runner und horse rider is characterised “The Club of Bologna (www. it happens in developing countries. through his openness, perseverance and clubofbologna.org) is an independent, Having considered all the listed points, consistency. Bartmer previously held the non profit association with the aim to the Club of Bologna invites the FAO to position as Chairman of the DLG-com-

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 99 petence center for agriculture and food ty chairman for the department of food Specialist in fertiliser spreading, and as Chairman of the DLG Committee as it was called then. He has also served SULKY now offers its renowned VI- for farm management. He is Member of as chairman of the newly-formed DLG- SION DPB system [electronic DPA] on the Executive Committee and has been Test center for food since 2005. Through the DPX Prima fertiliser spreader “9-24 a Member of the Board of Management his research experience as well as his m”. for the last six years. Bartmer comes understanding of the strategic direction, The end-user benefits from a “large from a family in which entrepreneurial he has become an important advisor in screen” control box inside the cab which spirit and active collaboration with the the area of quality in the food industry. provides him with all the necessary German Agricultural Society are tradi- Following his apprenticeship in the meat information such as a memory store for tions. Following A-levels and agricul- sector, Professor Stiebing studied food the settings of up to 8 different fertilis- tural business apprenticeship as well as and bio technology at the University of ers, recording data like the tons spread academic agricultural studies in Goet- Applied Acience in Belin as well as at or area covered, displaying the actual tingen, Germany, he was offered the the Technical University also in Berlin. forward speed... opportunity to manage a seed-growing Following that, he held a research posi- Above all, thanks to both of its electric business in Schleswig-Holstein, North tion at the Federal Research Center for actuators, the VISION DPB device in- Germany. Further education in business Nutrition and Food in Kulmbach. In stantly modulates the rate shutter open- management together with an interna- 1991 he was nominated Professer at the ings depending on the forward speed tional outlook are for Bartmer corner University of Applied Science of Lippe [information supplied by the speed sen- stones in today’s business environment. and H_xter in Lemgo, responsible for sor fitted on the tractor]. meat technology. Addtionally he became For example, in a sloping field, both The international exchange of experi- Dean of the department food technology up and downhill bouts will not be over- ence within and across sectors is also of in 2002. His research and work areas dosed going up nor under-dosed com- prime importance for him. For several are technology, sensory perception of ing down. Therefore, we can say that years, Bartmer has been representing food, meat production, ready-meals and there is real optimisation of “fertilisers” the DLG society at a European level. convenience products as well as quality thanks to the DPX Prima VISION DPB! assurance concepts. Furthermore, this entry into the range With the election of Professor Dr. DPX, but with up to 2100 l capacity, is Achim Stiebling, for the first time in the available at 6112€* net of VAT, so at a society’s 120 year history there is a vice To Face Escalating Fertiliser very attractive price to face escalating president for the food industry. Profes- Prices: a “DPA Rate proportion- fertiliser costs! sor Stiebing is a recognised meat and al to forward speed“ system ac- * in the SULKY retail price list n°67 in quality specialist from the University of cessible to all effect in November 2005 Applied Science of Lippe and Hoexter in Lemgo. For 30 years, he has been con- SULKY-BUREL tributing with his expert knowledge to BP 92111 - 35221 Chateaubourg Ce- the DLG-society. In 1991 he took over dex, Tel: 0033 2 99 00 84 84,Fax: 0033 2 the scientific leadership of raw sausage 99 00 84 73 E-mail : info@sulky-burel. testing. In 1997, he became member of com, Site Web : www.sulky-burel.com the committee for agriculture and depu- ■■

Book Review

Standards for Engineering De- Detailed Description: Design and Manufacturing provides sign and Manufacturing Most books on standardization de- hands-on knowledge for incorporating scribe the impact of ISO and related standards into the entire process from Author(s): organizations on many industries. While design bench to factory poor. Dr. Wasim Ahmed Khan - Institute of this is great for managing an organiza- The book’s five self-contained sec- Business Administration, Karachi, Paki- tion, it leaves engineers asking ques- tions consider the scope of design and stan tions such as “what are the effects of manufacturing, standards for the design Prof. Abdul Raouf, S.I. - University standards on my designs?” and “how of discrete products, standards for the of Management & Technology, Lahore, can I use standardization to benefit manufacture of discrete products, stan- Pakistan my work?” Standards for Engineering dards for the use of discrete products, as

100 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 well as support standards, The authors article on all branches of soil science rials including fermentation and separa- survey in detail the major standards-set- - from mineralogy and physics to soil tion ting organizations and outline the pro- management and restoration Published by: cedure for developing standards. They • assesses the physical and hydrologi- Taylor & Francis Group consider standards from the perspective cal properties of soil in natural and agri- 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY of product, equipment, and end-user, cultural ecosystems 10016, USA using this as a platform to explain the UK Pound Price: 340.00 economic benefits of standardization. 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Buckmaster - The Pennsyl- plies the tools to incorporate standards Detailed Description: vania State University into every stage of design and manufac- The largest and most comprehensive Detailed Description: turing. guide on raw production technol- Others are now being taken for “En- UK Pound Price: 79.99 ogy with more than 3000 references and gineering Principles of Agricultural Published by: nearly 2000 photographs, figures, tables, Machines,”2nd edition. New sections CRC Press / Taylor & Francis Group, and equations. in this major update of the original text LLC, USA Examining the role of engineering in include an introduction to dimensional 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, delivery of quality consumer products, analysis, material on mechatronics, and Suite 3000, Boca Raton, FL33487, USA this expansive source covers the devel- a new chapter on precision agriculture. opment and design of procedures, equip- The book, which now includes a CD- Encyclopedia of Soil Science 2nd ment, and systems utilized in the pro- ROM, gives practical discussions of Edition duction and conversion of raw materials functional components as well as the into food and nonfood consumer goods- underlying theory. 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VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 101 Co-operating Editors

B Kayombo M F Fonteh A A K A M B S Pathak R J Bani I K Djokoto D K Some K Houmy J C Igbeka El Behery El Hossary

E U-Odigboh K C Oni N G A H A B Saeed A I Khatibu E A Baryeh S Tembo H A I de A Nääs Kuyembeh Abdoun Cetrangolo

-AFRICA- Joseph Chukwugotium Igbeka eral, ARGENTINA Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Univ. TEL+54-11-4524-8041/93, FAX+54-11-4514-8737/39 Benedict Kayombo of Ibadan,, Ibadan, NIGERIA E-mail: [email protected] Associate Professor of Soil and Water Engineering, TEL+234-2-8101100-4, FAX+234-281030118 Dept. of Agric. Engineering and Land Planning, E-mail: [email protected] Irenilza de Alencar Nääs Botswana College of Agriculture, University of Bo- Professor, Agricultural Engineering College, UNI- tswana, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, BOTSWANA. E.U, Odigboh CAMP, Agricultural Construction Dept.,P.O. Box TEL(+267)-3650125, FAX(+267)-328753 Professor, Agricultural Engg Dept., Faculty of En- 6011, 13081 -Campinas- S.P.,BRAZIL E-mail: [email protected] gineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu TEL+55-19-7881039, FAX+55-19-7881010 state, NIGERIA, TEL+234-042-771676, FAX042- E-mail: [email protected] Mathias Fru Fonteh 770644/771550, E-mail: [email protected] Asst. Professor and Head, Dept. of Agric. Engineer- A.E. Ghaly ing, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Dschang, Kayode C. Oni Professor, Biological Engineering Deparment P.O. Box 447, Dschang, West Province, CAMEROON Director/Chief Executive, National Centre for Agric. Dalhousie University, P.O. Box 1000, Halifax, Nova TEL+237-45-1701/1994, FAX+237-45-2173/1932 Mechanization (NCAM), P.M.B.1525, Ilorin, Kwara Scotia, B3J2X4, CANADA E-mail: [email protected] State, NIGERIA TEL+1-902-494-6014, FAX+1-902-423-2423 TEL+234-031-224831, FAX+234-031-226257 E-mail: [email protected] Ahmed Abdel Khalek El Behery E-mail: [email protected] Agric Engineering Research Institute, Agricultural Edmundo J. Hetz Reserch Center, Nadi El-Said St. P.O. Box 256, Dokki N.G. Kuyembeh Professor, Dept. of Agric. Eng. Univ. of Concepcion, 12311, Giza, EGYPT Associate Professor, Njala University Colle, Univer- Av. V.Mendez 595, P.O. Box 537, Chillan, CHILE sity of Sierra Leone, Private Mail Bag, Free Town, TEL+56-42-216333, FAX+56-42-275303 Ali Mahmoud El Hossary SIERRA LEONE E-mail: [email protected] Senior Advisor to the Ministry of Agriculture and TEL+249-778620-780045, FAX+249-11-771779 Chairman of (AGES)-Agengineering Consulting A.A. Valenzuela Group, Ministry of Agriculture - P.O.Box 195 Zama- Abdien Hassan Abdoun Emeritus Professor, Ag. Eng. Fac., University of lek 11211 Cairo, EGYPT Member of Board, Amin Enterprises Ltd., P.O. Box Concepcion,Casilla537Chillan, CHILE TEL00-202-335-9304, FAX00-202-3494-132 1333, Khartoum, SUDAN TEL+56-42-223613, FAX+56-42-221167 Amir Bakheit Saeed Roberto Aguirre B.S. Pathak Assoc. Professor, Dept. of Agric. Engineering, Fac- Project Manager, Agric. Implements Research and Associate Professor, National University of Colom- ulty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, 310131 Improvement Centre, Melkassa, ETHIOPIA bia, A.A. 237, Palmira, COLOMBIA Shambat, SUDAN, TEL+249-11-310131 TEL+57-572-2717000, FAX+57-572-2714235 Richard Jinks Bani Abdisalam I. Khatibu E-mail: [email protected] Lecturer & Co-ordinator, Agric. Engineering Div., National Prolect Coordinafor and Direcror, FAO Ir- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ghana, Legon, rigated Rice Production, Zanzibar, TANZANIA Omar Ulloa-Torres GHANA Professor, Escuela de Agricultura de la Region, Edward A. Baryeh Tropical Humeda(EARTH), Apdo. 4442- 1000, San Israel Kofi Djokoto Professor, Africa University, P.O.Box 1320, Mutare, Jose, COSTA RICA Senior Lecturer, University of Science and Technol- ZIMBABWE TEL+506-255-2000, FAX+506-255-2726 ogy, Kumasi, GHANA E-mail: [email protected] Solomon Tembo David Kimutaiarap Some 52 Goodrington Drive, PO Mabelreign,Sunridge, S.G. Campos Magana Professor, Deputy Vice-chancellor. Moi University, Harare, ZIMBABWE Leader of Agric. Engineering Dept. of the Gulf of P.O. Box: 2405, Eldoret, KENYA Mexico Region of the National Institute of Forestry and Agricultural Research, Apdo. Postal 429. Vera- Karim Houmy -AMERICAS- cruz, Ver. MEXICO Professor and head of the Farm Mechanization Dept., Institute of Agronomy and Velerinary Medi- Hugo Alfredo Cetrangolo Hipolito Ortiz-Laurel cine II, Secteur 13 Immeuble 2 Hay Riad, Rabat, Full Professor and Director of Food and Agribusi- Head of Agric. Engineering and Mechanization MOROCCO, Tel+212-7-68-05-12, Fax+212-7-775801 ness Program Agronomy College Buenos Aires Dept./ Postgraduate College, Iturbide 73, Salinas E-mail: [email protected] University, Av. San Martin4453, (1417) Capital Fed- de Hgo, S.L.P., C.P. 78600, MEXICO

A E Ghaly E J Hetz A A R Aguirre O Ulloa-Torres S G C H Ortiz-Laurel W J M R Goyal A K Valenzuela Magana Chancellor Mahapatra

102 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 G R Quick S M Farouk Daoulat M A Mazed M Gurung Wang S Illangantileke S M Ilyas A M Michael T P Ojha Hussain Wanjun

S R Verma Soedjatmiko M Behroozi- Saeid J Sakai B A Snorbar C J Chung C C Lee M Z M P Pariyar Lar Minaei Bardaie

TEL+52-496-30448, FAX+52-496-30240 Sarath Illangantileke haya, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka city, 813, JAPAN Regional Representative for South and West TEL+81-92-672-2929, FAX+81-92-672-2929 William J. Chancellor Asia, International Potato Center (CIP), Re- E-mail: [email protected] Professor Emeritus, Bio. and Agr. Eng. Dept., Univ. gional Office for CIP-South & West Asia, IARI of California, Davis, CA, 95616, U.S.A. (Indian Agric. Res. Institute) Campus, Pusa, Bassam A. Snobar TEL+1-530-753-4292, FAX+1-530-752-2640 New Delhe-12, 110002, INDIA Professor and Vice President, Jordan University of E-mail: [email protected] TEL+91-11-5719601/5731481, FAX./5731481 Science and Technology, P.O.Box 3030 Irbid, 22110, E-mail: [email protected] JORDAN, TEL+962-2-295111, FAX+962-2-295123 Megh R. Goyal E-mail: [email protected] Prof./Agric & Biomedical Engineering, Univer- S.M. Ilyas sity of Puerto Rico, P.O.Box 5984, Mayaguez PR, Director of Central Institute of Post Harvest Engi- Chang Joo Chung Emeritus Professor, Seoul National University, Ag- 006815984, U.S.A., TEL+1-787-265-4702 neering and Technology (CIPHET), Ludhiana. P.O., ricutural Engineering Department, College of Agri- E-mail: [email protected] P.A.U, Ludhiana - 121004, INDIA, Tel+91-161-808669, culture and Life Sciences, Suwon, 441-744, KOREA Fax:+91-161-808670, E-mail: [email protected] Ajit K. Mahapatra TEL+82-(0)331-291-8131, FAX+82-(0)331-297-7478 Present add: Agric. & Biosystems Eng. Dept., A.M. Michael E-mail: [email protected] South Dakota State Univ., P.O. Box2120 Brook- 1/64, Vattekunnam, Methanam Road, Edappally Chul Choo Lee ings, SD 57007-1496, U.S.A., TEL605-6885291, FAX North P.O., Cochin, 682024, Kerala State, S. INDIA 605-6886764, E-mail: [email protected] Mailing Address: Rm. 514 Hyundate Goldentel Bld. 76-3 Kwang Jin Ku,Seoul, KOREA Gajendra Singh TEL+82-(0)2-446-3473, FAX+82-(0)2-446-3473 Professor, AFE Program, Asian Institute of Technol- E-mail: [email protected] ogy, P.O. Box 4, Klongluang, Pathumthani 12120, -ASIA and OCEANIA- THAILAND Muhamad Zohadie Bardaie Professor and Deputy Vice Chancellor (Develop- Graeme R. Quick T.P. Ojha ment Affairs), Chancellory, Universiti Putra Malay- Consulting Enginner, 83 Morrisons Road, Peaches- Director General(Engg.) Retd., ICAR, 110, Vineet sia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Darul Ehsan, ter, Queensland, 4519, AUSTRALIA Kung Akbarpur, Kolar Road, Bhopal, 462 023, INDIA MALAYSIA TEL+91-755-290045 TEL+60-3-9486053, FAX3-9426471 Shah M. Farouk Email: [email protected] Professor (Retd.),Farm Power & Machinery Dept., S.R. Verma Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh Prof. of Agr. Eng, & Dean Eng.(Retd), 14, Good Madan P. Pariyar 2200, BANGLADESH Friends Colony, Barewal Road , Via Ayoli Kalan, Lud- Consultant, Rural Development through Selfhelp TEL+880-91-5695ext.2596, FAX91-55810 hiana 142027 Punjab, INDIA Promotion Lamjung Project, German Technical E-mail: [email protected] TEL+91-(0)161-463096 Cooperation. P.O. Box 1457, Kathmandu, NEPAL E-mail: [email protected] Daulat Hussain David Boakye Ampratwum Dean, Faculty of Agric. Engineering and Tech- Soedjatmiko Associate Professor, Dept.of Bioresource and Agri- nology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, My- President, MMAI(Indonesian Soc. of Agric. Eng. & cultural Engineering, College of Agriculture, Sultan mensingh-2202, BANGLADESH Agroindustry), Menara Kadin Indonesia Lt.29 Jl. HR. Qaboos University, P.O. Box 34, Post Code 123, TEL+880-91-52245, FAX91-55810 Rasuna Said X-5/2-3 Jakarta, 12940, INDONESIA Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, OMAN E-mail: [email protected] TEL+62-(0)21-9168137/7560544, FAX(0)21-527448 TEL+968-513866, FAX513866 5/5274486/7561109 E-mail: [email protected] Mohammed A. Mazed Member-Director, Bangladesh Agri. Res. Council, Mansoor Behroozi-Lar EITag Seif Eldin Farmgate, Dhaka, BANGLADESH Professor, Agr. Machinery, Ph.D, Tehran University Mailling Address: Dept. of Agric. Mechanization, E-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Agriculture, Karaj, IRAN College of Agriculture, P.O. Box 32484, Al-Khod, TEL+98-21-8259240, E-mail: [email protected] Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Manbahadur Gurung Oman, OMAN Store Officer, Bhutan Fruit Products Limited, Sam- Saeid Minaei tse, BHUTAN, TEL+975-65369 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agr. Machinery Eng., Linus U. Opera Tarbiat Modarres Univ., P.O.Box 14115-111, Tehran, Associate Professor, Agricultural Engineering & Wang Wanjun IRAN Postharvest technology, Director, Agricultural Past Vice Director and Chief Engineer/Chinese TEL+9821-6026522-3(office ext.2060, lab ext.2168) Experiment Station, Sultan Qaboos University, Academy of Agricultural Mechanization Sciences, FAX+9821-6026524, E-mail: [email protected] Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, OMAN 1 Beishatan, Beijing, 100083, CHINA TEL+86-(0)83-001-6488-2710, FAX001-6488-2710 Jun Sakai Allah Ditta Chaudhry E-mail: [email protected] Professor Emeritus, Kyushu University, 2-31-1 Chi- Professor and Dean Faculty of Agric. Engineering

D B E S Eldin L U Opera A D A Q Mughal R ur Rehmen B T N A Surya Nath R M Lantin Ampratwum Chaudhry Devrajani Abu-Khalaf

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 103 R P S A A M S S F Chang T S Peng S Krishnasreni S Phong- C Rojanasaroj V M Salokhe G Singh Venturina Al-Suhaibani Al-Amri supasamit

, Y Pinar I Haffar P V Lang A A Hazza a A P P Kic H Have G Pellizzi A A Jan Pawlak Kaloyanov Wanders and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisala- No. 391 Sinyi Road, Sec. 4, TAIWAN Pavel Kic bad, PAKISTAN Vice-Dean/Technical Faculty, Czech University Suraweth Krishnasreni of Agriculture Prague, 16521 Prague 6-Suchdol, A.Q.A. Mughal Senior Expert in Agricultural En-gineering, Depart- CZECH Vice Chancellor, Sindh Agriculture University, Tan- ment of Agricul-ture, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Tel+420-2-24383141, Fax+420-2-20921361 dojam, PAKISTAN Thailand Email: [email protected] Tel5792153,5794497,5798520,Ext.124, Fax9405791 Rafiq ur Rehman E-mail: [email protected] Henrik Have Director, Agricultural Mechanization Reserch Insti- Prof. of Agric. Machinery and Mechanization at In- tute, P.O. Box No. 416 Multan, PAKISTAN Surin Phongsupasamit stitute of Agric. Engineering, Royal Veterinan/- and Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Dept. of Me- Bherulal T. Devrajani Agricultural University, Agrovej 10DK2630 Tastrup, chanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chu- DENMARK Professor and Chairman, Faculty of Agricultural En- lalongkom University, Phyathai Road, Patumwan, gineering, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Bangkok 10330, THAILAND Sindh, PAKISTAN, TEL+92-2233-5594 Giuseppe Pellizzi Director of the Institute of Agric. Engineering of Chanchai Rojanasaroj the University of Milano and Professor of Agric. Nawaf A. Abu-Khalaf Research and Development Engineer, Dept. of Ag- Engineer, the Project Directorate in Palestinian Ag- Machinery and Mechanization, Via G. Celoria, riculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2-20133 Milano, ITALY ricultural Ministry, P.O.Box 405, Hebron, PALESTINE Gang-Khen, Bangkok 10900, THAILAND Telfax: 972-2-2227846/7 Tel+39-02-503-16871, Fax+39-02-503-168459 E-mail: [email protected] Vilas M. Salokhe E-mail: [email protected] Professor, AFE Program, Asian Institute of Technol- Surya Nath Aalbert Anne Wanders ogy, P.O. Box 4, Klang Luang. Pathumthani 12120, Staff Member, Dept. of Development Cooperation, Associ. Prof., Dept. of Agriculture, Papua New THAILAND Guinea University of Technology, Private Mail Basg, Netherlands Agricultural Engineering Research Insti- TEL+66-2-5245479, FAX+66-2-5246200 tute (IMAG), Wageningen, NETHERLANDS Lae, PAPUA NEW GUINEA, TEL+675-475-5162, E-mail: [email protected] FAX473-4477, E-mail: [email protected] Jan Pawlak Yunus Pinar Professor, head of the Dept. of Economics and Reynaldo M. Lantin Professor, and Head, Agric. Machinery Dept, Fac- Professor, College of Engineering and Agro-Indus- Utilization of Farm Machines at IBMER, Professor at ulty of Agriculture, University of Ondokuz Mayis, the Univ. of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Fac. of trial Technology University of the Philippines Los Kurupelit, Samsun, TURKEY Banos, Laguna 4031, PHILIPPINES Tech. Sci., POLAND TEL+63-(0)49-536-2792, FAX+63-(0)49-536-2873 Imad Haffar E-mail: [email protected] Oleg S. Marchenko Associate Professor of Agric. Engineering, Faculty Professor and agricultural engineer, Department of Agricultural Sciences, United Arab Emirates Uni- Head in All-Russia Research Institute for Mechani- Ricardo P. Venturina versity, Al Ain, P.O. Box 17555, UAE President & General Manager, Rivelisa publishing zation in Agriculture (VIM), 1st Institutsky proezd, TEL+971-506436385, FAX+971-3-632384 5, Moscow 109428, RUSSIA House, 215 F, Angeles St. cor Taft Ave. Ext., 1300 E-mail: [email protected] Pasay City, Metro Manila,PHILIPPINES Tel+7(095)174-8700, Fax+7(095)171-4349 Pham Van Lang E-mail: [email protected] Saleh Abdulrahman Al-suhaibani Director, Vietnam Institute of Agricultural Engineer- Professor, Agricultural Engineering Dept.,College John Kilgour ing, A2-Phuong Mai, Dong Da Hanoi, VIET NAM of Agriculture, King Saud University,P.O. Box 2460 Senior Lecturer in Farm Machinery Design at Silsoe Riyadh 11451, SAUDI ARABIA , College, Silsoe Campus, Silsoe, Bedford, MK45 4DT, Abdulsamad Abdulmalik Hazza a UK Professor and Head of Agricultural Engineering , Ali Mufarreh Saleh Al-Amri Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Sana a Univer- Professor, Dept. of Agric. Engineering, Colleg of , Milan Martinov sity, P.O.Box 12355, Sana a YEMEN Agricultural and Food Sciences, King Faisal Univer- Full Professor on Agricultural Machinery, Univer- Tel+9671-407300, Fax:9671-217711 sity, Al-Ahsa,SAUDI ARABIA sity of Novi Sad, Faculty of Engineering, Institute of E-mail: [email protected] E-Mail: [email protected],[email protected] mechanization and machine design, TRG D. Obra- dovica 6, 21 121 Novi Sad, PF55, YUGOSLAVIA Sen-Fuh Chang TEL+381-21-350-122(loc.298), FAX+381-21-350-592 Professor, Agric.-Machinery Dept. National Taiwan -EUROPE- E-mail: [email protected] University, Taipei, TAIWAN Anastas Petrov Kaloyanov Tieng-song Peng Professor & Head, Research Laboratory of Farm Deputy Director, Taiwan Agricultural Mechaniza- Mechanization, Higher Institute of Economics, So- tion Research and Development Center. FL. 9-6, fia, BULGARIA

O S J Kilgour M Martinov Marchenko

104 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.1 Back Issues (Vol.34, No.2, Spring, 2003-)

AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Cultivator and Manual Hoe in EN-nohoud R. Sahoo, M. K. Panda) ...... 45 ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA Area, Western Sudan (Mohamed Hassan Design, Construction and Performance (Vol.34, No.2, Spring, 2003) Dahab, Salih Fadl Elseid Hamad) ...... 27 Analysis of Two Hay Chopping Machines Relationship of Specific Draft with Soil and ‘Tapak-tapak’ Pump: Water Lifting Device (Hasan YUMAK) ...... 50 Operating Parameters for M. B. Plough (K. for Small Scale Irrigation and Rural Water 50 N. Agrawal, E. V. Thomas) ...... 9 Supply for Developing Countries (E. A. Trends in Agricultural Mechanization in Influence of Seedling Mat Characteristics Ampofo, M. A. Zobisch, E. A. Baryeh) ...... 31 Brazil-an Overview (E. C. Mantovani,I. A. and Machine Parameters on Performance Improved Harvesting of Straw (U. Ch. Eshk- Naas, R. L. Gomide) ...... 55 of Self-propelled Rice Transplanter (Ved araev) ...... 37 55 Prakash Chaudhary, B. P. Varshney)...... 13 Design and Development of Multi-fruit Grad- Farm Mechanization in LalgudiTaluk of Development and Evaluation of Manually- er (P. K. Omre, R. P. Saxena) ...... 39 Southern India (S. Ganapathy, R. Karu- operated Garlic Planter (I. K. Garg, Anoop Development and Construction of a Machine nanithi ...... 60 Dixit) ...... 19 for Waxing Fruits and Horticultural Prod- A Review of Aerators and Aeration Practices Performance Evolution of Self-propelled Rice ucts (H. M. Duran Garcia, E. J. Gonzalez in Thai Aquaculture (Santi Laksitanonta, Transplanter under Different Puddled Field Galvan) ...... 43 Gajendra Singh, Sahdev Singh) ...... 64 Conditions and Sedimentation Periods Comparative Grain Storage in India and (Ved Prakash Chaudhary, B. P. Varshney) . 23 Canada (K. Alagusundaram, D. S. Jayas, ◇ ◇ ◇ Ergonomics of Selected Soil Working Hand K. Nalladurai) ...... 46 Tools in South India (C. Ramana, D. An- Design Guidelines for Tractor Operator’s AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN anta Krishnan) ...... 34 Entry and Exit (Rajvir Yadav, A. H. Raval, ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA Impact of Precision Land Levelling on Water Sahastrarashmi Pund) ...... 53 (Vol.35, No.1, Winter, 2004) Saving and Drainage Requirements (Abdul Physical Energy Input for Maize Production Determining Soil Inversion Tillage Interval Sattar, A. R. Tahir, F. H. Khan) ...... 39 in Zambia (Ajit K. Mahapatra, R. Tsheko, in Rice Production (Abdul Razzaq, Liaqat Design, Development and Performance Eval- K. L. Kumar, Pascal Chipasha) ...... 57 Ali,Bashir Ahmad Sabir) ...... 11 uation of Rotary Potato Digger (Muham- Farm Tractor Conditions in Botswana (Ed- An Opto-electronic System for Assessing mad Yasin, M. Mehmood Ahmed, Rafiq- ward A. Baryeh, Obokeng B. Raikane)...... 61 Seed Drop Spacing of Planters (D. Dhalin, ur-Rehman) ...... 43 An Energy Modeling Analysis of the Integrat- C.Divaker Durairaj,V.J.F. Kumar) ...... 14 Effect of Variety and Moisture Content on ed Commercial Biodiesel Production from No-till Seed-cum Fertilizer Drill in Wheat the Engineering Properties of Paddy and Palm Oil for Thailand (Teerin Vanichseni, Crop Production after Paddy Harvesting Rice (K. Nalladurai, K. Alagusundaram, P. Sakda Intaravichai, Banyat Saitthiti, Th- (Er. Jagvir Dixit, R.S.R. Gupta, V. P. Behl, Gayathri) ...... 47 anya Kiatiwat) ...... 67 Sukhbir Singh) ...... 19 Assessment of Cereal Straw Availability in Slip-on-ring Spraying Devices for Spot Combine Harvested Fields and its Recov- ◇ ◇ ◇ Application of Chemicals to Control ery by Baling (Omar Ahmad Bamaga, T. AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Eriophyid Mite in Coconut (Dr.R .Manian, C. Thakur, M. L. Verma) ...... 53 ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA Dr. K.Kathirvel, Er.T.Senthilkumar, Present Status of Farm Machinery Fleet in (Vol.34, No.4, Autumn, 2003) Er.Binisam) ...... 23 Kyrgystan: Case Study (B. Havrland, Pat- Dibble Precision Seeder for Coated Rice Development and Testing of a Tractor-mount- ric Kapila) ...... 59 Seeds (Yang Mingjin, He Peixiang, Yang ed Positioner for Mango Harvesting (R.A. Equipment and Power Input for Agriculture Ling, Li Qingdong, Chen Zhonghui) ...... 9 Gupta, R.M. Satasiya, Pramod Mohnot, in Oman (David B. Ampratwum, Atsu S. Performance of a Prototype Okra Planter (P. N.K. Gontia) ...... 28 S. Dorvlo)) ...... 65 K. Sahoo, A. P. Srivastava) ...... 13 Manual Sugarcane Harvesting System vs. Effect of Seating Attachment to a Power Til- Influence of Different Planting Methods on Mechanical Harvesting System in Thailand ler on Hand-arm Vibration (S. Karmakar, Wheat Production after Harvest of Rice (Ding Qishuo, Borpit Tangwongkit, Ratana V. K. Tiwari) ...... 71 (K. K. Singh, S. K. Lohan, A. S. Jat, Tulsa Tangwongki) ...... 33 Rani) ...... 18 Efficiency of Cotton Stalk Puller as Influ- Modification of the Injection Planter for the enced by Forward Speed, Wheel Rota- Tropics (A. C. Ukatu) ...... 20 tional Speed and Wheel Tilt Angle (Dr. AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Comparative Performance of Manually-oper- R,Manian, Er.M. K. Rao, Dr. K. Kathirvel, ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA ated Fertilizer Broadcasters (D.S.Wadhwa, Er. T. Senthilkuamr) ...... 37 (Vol.34, No.3 Summer, 2003) H.M.Khurana) ...... 24 A Batch Dryer for Un-peeled Longan Drying Effect of Different Seedbed Preparation Design and Development of Power-operated (W. Phaphuangwittayakul, S. Limpiti, Z. Methods on Physical Properties of Soil Rotary Weeder for Wetland Paddy (Viren Alikhan) ...... 41 (Davut Karayel, Aziz Ozmerzi) ...... 9 M.Victor, Ajay Verma ) ...... 27 Spherical Biogas Plants for Rural Develop- Studies on Optimization of Puddled Soil A study of Soil Properties Relevant to the ment (Er. Purnendu Kumar Mohanty, Characteristics for Self-propelled Rice Design of Yam Harvesters in the Benue Mrs.Minati Mohanty) ...... 45 Transplanter (B. K. Behera, B. P. Varsh- Flood Plain of Nigeria (Isaac N.Itodo, J.O. A Method for Determining the Center of ney) ...... 12 Daudu) ...... 30 Gravity of a Tractor (Nidal H. Abu-Ham- Minimizing Error in Row-spacing While Stable Lifters for Harvesting Sugarbeet deh) ...... 49 Drilling Seeds (D. S. Wadhwa) ...... 17 (Ghanshyam Tiwari, Ajay Kumar Sharma) 35 Energy Requirement in Lac Production (Ni- Improvement and Evaluation of Crop Planter Performance Evaluation of a Combine Har- ranjan Prasad, K. K. Kumar, A. K. Jaiswal) 54 to Work on Ridges in Irrigated Schemes of vester in Malaysian Paddy Field (Swapan Status and Trend of Farm Mechanization in Sudan (S. El Din Abdel Gadir El-Awad) .... 19 Kumar Roy,Kamaruzaman Jusoff, W. I. Thailand (Suraweth Krishnasreni, Pinai Development of a System for Analyses of W. Ismail, Desa Ahmad, Anuar Abdul Ra- Thongsawatwong) ...... 59 Nozzle Spray Distribution for Students and him) ...... 38 Studies on Murrah He-buffaloes Using Im- Applicators’ Education (Adnan I. Khdair) .. 24 Post-harvest Practices of Turmeric in Orissa, proved Rotary Appratus (Sushil Sharma, Comparative of Weeding by Animal-drawn India (Uma Sankar Pal, Md. K. Khan, G. M. P. Singh) ...... 67

VOL.37 NO.1 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 105 The Present State of Farm Machinery Indus- Fablication and Performance Evaluation of M. Salokhe) ...... 55 try (Shin-Norinsha Co., Ltd.) ...... 71 Pre-Rasping Unit for Cassava Industries Fabrication and Testing of Tomato Seed Ex- The Tokyo University of Agriculture and (R. Kailappan, S. Kaleemullah, I. P. Suda- tractor (R. Kailappan, Parveen Kasur Baig, Technology in Brief (Akira Sasao) ...... 75 gar, CT. Devadas, M. Jawaharlal) ...... 33 N. Varadharaju, K. Appavu, V. Krishna- Higher Educational Programs of the Univer- Agricultural Tractor Ownership and Off- samy) ...... 62 sity of Tsukuba (Masayuki Koike) ...... 79 Season Utilisation in the Kgatleng District Computer-Aided Analysis of Forces Acting Main Products of Agricultural Machinery of Botsuwana (Cecil Patric, Edward A. on a Trailed Plough (Ying Yibin, Zhao Manufactures in Japan (Shin-Norinsha Bayeh, Mataba Tapela) ...... 41 Yun, Jin Juanqin) ...... 67 Co., Ltd.) ...... 81 Tillage Systems and Their Effect on Some The Effects of Some Operational Parameters Soil Properties, Crop Growth and Shoot on Potato Planter’s Performance (Ebubekir ◇ ◇ ◇ Yield of Grain-Amaranth (S. O. Afolayan, Altuntas) ...... 71 J. C. Igbeka, O. Babalola) ...... 46 The Use of Hot Air from Room Type Coolers AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Effect of Concave Hole Size, Concave Clear- for Drying Agricultural Products (Turhan ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA ance and Drum Speed on Rasp-Bar Drum Koyuncu, Yunas Pinar) ...... 75 (Vol.35, No.2, Spring, 2004) Performance for Threshing Sunflower Effect of Mechanization level and Crop Rota- On-Farm Evaluation of Current Wheat Till- (Somposh Sudajan, Vilas M. Salokhe, tion on Yield Energy Requirements (S. K. age Systems on Irrigated Vertisols in New Somnuk Chusilp) ...... 52 Dash, D. K. Das) ...... 80 Scheme, Sudan (Sheikh El Din Abdel Ga- Performance Evaluation of Planters for Cot- Simple Quality Evaluation of Chili Pepper dir El-Awad) ...... 9 ton Crop (K. Kathirvel, Aravinda Reddy, Based on Continuous Weight Measure- Development and Testing of a Seed-Cum- R. Manian, T. Senthilkuamr) ...... 61 ment During Dehydration Process (T. W. Fertilizer Drilling Attachment to Tractor- Spatial Distribution of the No-Till Opener In- Widodo, H. Ishida, J. Tatsuno, K, Tajima, Driven Cultivator (R. A. Gupta, Paramond duce Seed Row Incorporated Crop Residue E. Sakaguchi, K. Tamaki) ...... 84 Mohnot, R. M. Satasiya, R.B.Marvia) ...... 15 and Soil Loosing (E.M.H. Tola, K. koeller) 66 ■■ Development and Evaluation of Weeding Farm Mechanization in Lalgudi Taluk of Cum Earthing up Equipment for Cotton Southern India (S. Ganapathy, R. Karu- (Dr. R. Manian, Dr. K. Kathirvel, Er. Ara- nanithi) ...... 71 vinda Reddy, Er. T.Senthikuamr) ...... 21 Comparative Evaluation of Field Performance Design Parameters for Cocoa Pod Breaker (A of a Tractor Drawn Straw Reaper and a Issac Bamgboye, Odima-Ojoh) ...... 26 Flail Harvesting of Wheat Straw ...... 76 A Solar Tunnel Dryer for Natural Convection Study on the Development of Agricultural Drying of Vegetables and Other Commodi- Machines for Small-Scale Farmers “Pt. 1, ties in Cameroon (Joseph E. Berinyuy) ...... 31 Applied Technology for Morocco and Af- Rural Vegetable Oil Processing in Kenya Sta- rica” (Toshiyuki Tsujimoto, Hai Sakurai, tus and Reseach Priorities (D. Shitanda) .... 36 Koichi Hashiguchi, Eiji Inoue) ...... 79 Design and Development of Agricultural Wastes Shredder (J. B. Savani, V. R. Vaga- ◇ ◇ ◇ dia, R. K. Kathiria) ...... 41 Dynamometer Design for Traction Forces AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Measurement on Draught Horses (H. ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA Ortiz-laurel, P. A. Cowell) ...... 47 (Vol.36, No.2, Autumn, 2005) Reduction of Greenhouse Temperature Using A Mathematical Model for Predicting Output Reflector Sheet (V. P. Seth, Y. P. Gupta, V. Capacity of Selected Stationary Grain S. Hans) ...... 51 Threshers (V. I. O. Ndirika) ...... 9 Farm Accidents in South India: A Critical Study on the Development of Agricultural Analysis (Dr. K. Kathirvel, Dr. R. Manian, Machines for Small-Scale Farmers Pt. 2, Dr. D. Ananathakrishnan, Er. T. Senthiku- “Applied Technology to the Improvement of mar) ...... 55 an Animal-Drawn Plow for Morocco and Present Status and Future Strategy on Farm Africa” (Toshiyuki Tsujimoto, Hai Saku- Mechanization and Postharvest Technolo- rai, Koichi Hashiguchi, Eiji Inoue) ...... 14 gies for Rice Production and Processing in Development an Indsutrial Yam Peeler (A. C. Bangladesh (Md Sydul Islam, Md Abdul Ukatu) ...... 21 Baqui, M Abul Quasem) ...... 59 Design and Development of a Low-Cost Po- Mechanization of Polish Agriculture in the tato Grader (K. C. Roy, M. A. Wohab, A. Transition Period (Jan Pawlak) ...... 67 D. M. Gulam Mustafa) ...... 28 Extensive Review of Crop Drying and Dri- ◇ ◇ ◇ ers Developed in India (A. Alam, Harpal Singh, Ranjan Mohnot, H. L. Kushwaha) ... 32 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Insect Inhibitive Properties of Some Consum- ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA able Local Plant Materials on Grains in (Vol.36, No.1, Spring, 2005) Storage (D. S. Zibokere) ...... 43 Para-Ploghing Effect on Soil Retention (P. R. Evaluation and Performance of Raw Mango Jayan, C. Divaker Durairaj, V. F. J. Kumar) 9 Grader (Syed Zameer Hussain, S. C. Man- Effect of Storage Conditions on Emergence of dhar, S. Javare Gowda) ...... 46 Helthy Seeding of Soyabeen (G. H . Jamro, Engineering the Crop Establishment System L. A. Jamali, M. hatim, S. K. Agha)...... 15 for Paddy Wet Seeding (Eden C. Gage- Development of a Check Valve Mechanism as lonia, B. D. Tadeo, E. G. Bautista, J. C. an Attachment to a Power Tiller Operated Cordero, J. A. Damian, W. B. Collado, H. Seeder (D. Dhalin, C. Divaker Durairaj, V. Monobe, S. Ishihara, N. Sawamura, M. F. J. Kumar) ...... 18 Daikoku, R. Otani) ...... 49 Freely Rear Converging Linkage System for Performance of Cage Wheel with Opposing No-Till Planter (Santos G. Campos Magna, Circumferential Lugs amd Normal Cage Brian M. D. Wills) ...... 24 Wheel in Wet Clay Soil (S. Soekarno, V.

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