i
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL ...... iii
GUIDE TO CONTRIBUTORS ...... iv
THE INDIGENOUS GOATS OF NIGERIA L.O. Ngere, I.F. Adu and I.O. Okubanjo ...... 1
ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF CONSERVING ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES Charles Smith ...... 11
EVALUATION AND CONSERVATION OF NATIVE STRAINS OF CHICKEN IN THE SABRAO REGION B.L. Sheldon ...... 17
THE CRIOLLO CATTLE PROJECT OF SANTA CRUZ, BOLIVIA J.V. Wilkins, F. Rojas and L. Martinez ...... 21
ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE CONSERVATION OF FARM ANIMALS IN THE UNITED STATES Clarke Brooke ...... 33
PRESERVATION OF THE SPANISH HORSE IN NORTH AMERICA D.P. Sponenberg ...... 35
NEWS ITEMS ...... 39
CORRESPONDENCE ...... 45
REPORTS OF MEETINGS...... 47
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RECENT PUBLICATIONS ......
Animal Genetic Resources Information is published under the joint auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It is edited in the Animal Production Service of the Animal Production and Health Division of FAO and appears twice yearly. It is available direct from FAO or through the usual FAO sales agents. Le Bulletin d’informations sur les ressources g6n6tiques animales est publi& sous les auspices conjoints de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour I’Alimentation et I’Agriculture (FAO) et du Programme des Nations Unies pour I’Environnement (UNEP). Cette publication semestrielle est 6dit6e par le Service de la Production Animale de la Division de la Production et de la Sant6 Animales de la FAO. On peut se la procurer directement au siège de la FAO ou auprès des d6positaires et agents habituels de vente de publication de l’Organisation. El Boletin de Informaci6n sobre Recursos Gen6ticos Animales se publica bajo los auspicios de la Organizaci6n de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentaci6n (FAO) y del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (UNEP) . Se edita en el Servicio de Producci6n Animal de la Direcci6n de Producci6n y Sanidad Animal de la FAO y aparece dos veces al ano. Se puede obtener directamente de la FAO o a trav6s de stis agentes de venta habituales. Editor-Editeur: John Hodges Acknowledgement The editor would like to thank Mr. I.L. Mason for his contribution to the production of this issue. Remerciements- L’éditeur tient A remercier M. I.L. Mason pour sa contribution à la rédaction de ce numéro. Agradecimientos El editor desea agradecer al Sr. I.L. Mason por au contribución en la producción de este número. iii
EDITORIAL
Complete and reliable information on one hand, and effective communication on the other, are essential aspects of modern science and of the attempts to apply it in agriculture. Several aspects of the FAO/UNEP programme for animal genetic resources conservation and management are concerned with compiling, classifying and making available accurate descriptions of the world’s domestic animals and birds. One is the creation of Regional Data Banks for Africa, Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean, to hold characterizations of indigenous breeds and of the environments to which they are adapted. Another is the preparation of Monographs of the genetic resources of two of the world’s largest countries, China and the USSR, whose animals are not well known or documented for access in other countries. Additionally, the Breed Dictionary compiled by Mason and published by the Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics is being updated again, and should contribute greatly to accuracy of description. News items on these topics are included in this issue. Additionally, a list of Definitions used in Animal Genetic Resources is published, the international use of which should contribute to clarity of thought and communication. We are also pleased to publish the first letter to the Editor of AGRI, and we invite more. AGRI is available as a forum for debate of the difficult issues to be faced in some aspects of animal genetic resources. Readers are also encouraged to compile a list of their national colleagues and international acquaintances working with animal genetic resources who should be receiving AGRI, and then send it to the Editor of AGRI. Duplications will be eliminated here. By ensuring that this Newsletter is widely read and used, can we ensure that information and communication are fostered and enhanced.
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GUIDE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Animal Genetic Resources Information will be pleased to receive contributions up to 3000 words long in English, French or Spanish. If accepted they will be published in the original language with summaries in the other two. Reports, news and notes about meetings, conservation and evaluation activities, and techniques, would be appreciated. Manuscripts should be typed in double space and accompanied by a summary of not more than 5 percent of the original length. Photographs are acceptable but only high quality black and white prints. AGRI will also review new books on animal genetic resources. Correspondence is invited. All contributions should be addressed to: The Editor, AGRI, AGAP, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. Le Bulletin d’information sur les ressources génétiques animales souhaite recevoir des articles en anglais, en français ou en espagnol, de 3000 mots au maximum. Les communications publiées parattront dans la langue originate avec des résumés dans les deux autres langues. Les rapports, informations et notes concernant les réunions et les activités de conservation et d’évaluation et les techniques seraient particulièrement appréciés. Les manuscrits devront atre dactylographiés en double interligne et accompagnés d’un résumg ne dépassant pas cinq pour cent de la longuer de l’original. Le Bulletin accepte les photographies à condition qu’il s’agisse de bonnes ‘epreuves en noir et blanc. Le Bulletin rendra égal-ement compte des ouvrages nouvellement parus sur les ressources génétiques animales. Un èchange de correspondance est le bienvenu. Adresser toutes les contributions à I’adresse suivante: L’Editeur, AGRI, AGAP, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italie. El Boletin de Información sobre Recursos Genéticos Animales recibirá con mucho gusto colaboraciones de hasta 3000 palabras de extensión en espanol, francés o inglés. Si son aceptadas, las contribuciones se publicargn en el idioma original junto con resúmenes en los otros dos idiomas. Interesa recibir informes, noticias y notas sobre reuniones, actividades de conservación y evaluación, y cuestiones técnicas. Los originates deberán presentarse mecanografiados a doble espacio y acompanados de un resumen que no supere el 5 por ciento de la extensión original. Se aceptan fotografias, pero unicamente en blanco y negro y de buena calidad. AGRI tambirén publicará resenas de libros sobre recursos genéticos animales. Se solicita correspondencia. Todas las contribuciones deberán dirigirse a: El Editor, AGRI, AGAP, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italia.
ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES INFORMATION will be sent free of charge to those concerned with the conservation, management or utilization of domestic livestock. Anyone wishing to receive it regularly should send their name and address to The Editor, at the address on page vii. BULLETIN DIINFORMATION SUR LES RESSOURCES GENETIQUES ANIMALES sera envoyé gratuitement aux personnes intéressées par la conservation, I’éIevage ou 1’exploitation du bétail domestique. Les personnes souhaitant recevoir cette publication régulièrement it voudront bien faire parvenir leurs nom et adresse à I’éditeur, à I’adresse indiquge en page vii. BOLETIN DE INFORMACION SOBRE RECURSOS GENETICOS ANIt4ALES serg enviado gratuitamente a aquellos quienes sean interesados en la conservación, gestión o utilización
AGRI 3 vi del ganado dom6sticos. Si se desea recibirlo regularmente, se ruega comunicar nombre, apellido y dirección al Editor a la dirección indicada en la pagina vii. 1
THE INDIGENOUS GOATS OF NIGERIA
L.O. Ngere Animal Science Department University of Ibadan, lbadan, Nigeria I.F. Adu National Animal Production Research Institute Shika, Zaria, Nigeria I.O. Okubanjo Animal Science Department University of Ibadan, lbadan, Nigeria
SUMMARY The three breeds of goat in Nigeria - Sahel (Sh), Red Sokoto (RS) and West African Dwarf (WAD) - are described. The performance of the latter two is illustrated in the tables.
RESUME Les trois races caprines du Nigéria - Sahélienne (Sh) , Sokoto rouge (RS) et naine d’Afrique orientate (WAD) - sont décrites; des tableaux illustrent les performances des deux dernières races.
RESUMEN Se describen las tres razas de ganado caprino de Nigeria: Sahel (Sh), Red Sokoto (RS) y West kfrican Dwarf (WAD). En los cuadros se expone el rendimiento de las dos Gitimas.
1. INTRODUCTION Nigeria has about 33 percent of all goats in Africa and 52 percent of goats in the West Africa region. Most households in the rural areas own a few goats. A survey by the Federal Office of Statistics from 1965-75 showed that the average number of goats per household owning stock in the southern parts of the country was then about four; the number for the northern savanna zones may be higher. Except at government experimental farms, research institutes and universities, large herds of goats are rare. There are few commercial producers and communal ownership is equally rare. Table 1 shows the distribution of goats in the 19 States of the Federation. The commonest breed through the southern states is the West African Dwarf while the Red Sokoto goat is the predominant and more widely distributed breed for the northern states. Primarily, goats are used for meat and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture (FMA 1981) estimated that goats contributed about 17 percent (65 000 tonnes) of the total meat supply. The skin of the Sokoto Red goat is famous for its good quality leather which has excellent domestic and export value. In some parts of the country, e.g. Kaduna, Kano and Gongola States, goats are milked. In rural communities, goats also serve a variety of sociocultural purposes: quick source of cash, use in the preparation of speciality dishes, in sacrifices, and other traditional ceremonies. In spite of the importance of the goat in the livestock economy of Nigeria information on its performance and productivity remains scanty. This paper seeks to highlight the goat as an important animal genetic resource of Nigeria while supplying some baseline data on various aspects of its productivity.
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TABLE I GOAT DISTRIBUTION IN NIGERIA WITH REFERENCE TO STATES, LAND AREA, HUMAN POPULATION AND BREED
Goat density State Number Area Human. head/ head/100 Predominant (‘000) (km) POP(‘000) km inhabit. breed
Anambra 400 17360 3596.6 23.0 11.1 WAD
Bauchi 1500 67282 2431.3 22.2 61.7 WADXRS Bendel 450 38653 2461.0 11.6 18.3 WAD Benue 900 46096 2427.0 18.7 37.1 WAD Borno 2250 107508 1997.5 20.9 75.1 Sh Cross River 450 35570 3478.1 12.6 12.9 WAD Gongola 850 96909 2605.3 8.8 32.6 ShxRS Imo 300 12557 3672.7 23.9 8.2 WAD Kaduna 2600 70233 4098.3 37.0 63.4 RS Kano 4050 43083 5774.8 94.0 70.1 RS Kwara 600 61373 1714.5 9.8 35.0 WADXRS Lagos 50 3575 1443.6 14.0 3.5 WAD Niger 750 66233 1194.5 11.3 62.8 WADXRS Ogun 400 17414 1551.0 23.0 25.8 WAD Ondo 450 21145 2729.7 21.3 18.5 WAD Oyo 1100 36829 5208.9 29.9 21.2 WAD Plateau 1600 53971 2026.7 29.6 78.9 WAD Rivers 150 18160 1719.9 8.3 8.7 WAD Sokoto 1950 102531 4538.8 19.0 43.0 RS
Total/average 20750 918482 55670.2 23.2 36.1
Sources: C. Coffman, FI,D, Katsina, 1980 Federal Office of Statistics, Lagos, Nigeria West Africa 4th July 1977, p. 1386 (citing SMG announcement 17 May 1977)
2. BREEDS The Nigerian breeds of goat (see Table 2) have been described by Mason (1951) who recognized the main breeds as: The Sahel (Sh) : This breed is also called the “desert” goat. It is found in the Sahel region inthe north of the country. A large, long-legged breed with white, short and fine liair coat, it is adapted to nomadic life and grazing in semi-desert environments. The ears are short and both sexes have horns. Recorded mature weight ranges between 25 and 35 kg (Ngere et al. 1979). The Red Sokoto/Maradi (RS) goat is found mostly in Sokoto State but has spread eastwards and southwards through the savanna belts of Nigeria. As they moved from the primary focus states, the animals became less uniform in size, colour and bone structure: lighter shades of red gave rise to types described as the Kano brown, and further east, in Borno State, multicoloured and larger types are found. Southwards, to the southern guinea savanna and margin of the humid forest zones, many intermediate types of different colours and sizes also are found. Typically, this breed has a uniformly dark red-brown coat colotir. The ears are short and horizontal. Horns are present in both sexes. Mature weight averages between 23 and 30 kg (Ngere et al. 1979). (See Figure 1). 3
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TABLE 2 WEIGHT AND HEIGHT OF NIGERIAN GOAT BREEDS
Breed Mature weight (kg) Height at withers (cm)
Male Female Male Female
Sahel mean 30.4 28.1 83.1 74.6
standard deviation 3..2 2.4 4.2 3.7
range 25-37 21-35 74-90 70-88
Red Sokoto ditto 27.1 25.7 54.3 58.2 or Maradi 2.0 3.1 0.8 1.7
21-33 17-34 60-65 54-65
West African ditto 26.0 24.7 46.0 44.0
Dwarf 4.0 4.0 1.2 1.5
18-34 18-32 40-55 37-53
Source: Ngere et al. (1979)
West African Dwarf (WAD) : This breed is found throughout the humid forest belts of Nigeria. It is variable in size and many local types have been noted (Mecha 1977). Compared with the other two breeds, the most common type of this breed is thicker boned and has shorter legs. Black is the most common coat colour followed by white, brown and mixtures of all three. Some types have wattles. The ears are of medium length and horizontal. Horns are found on both sexes. The breed is noted for its hardiness and because it thrives in tsetse-infested humid forest and guinea savanna zones it is reputed to be resistant to trypanosomiasis, a pest that has limited the spread of cattle to the humid zones. As one moves northwards from the forest belts one encounters many transitional types which are characterized by their bigger size and varied coat colour. The typical mature weight of the commonest type is 20-25 kg (Ngere et al. 1979). (See Figure 2).
3. PRODUCTIVITY Discussions of productivity of indigenous stock are only satisfactory when thesystems under which they are kept are defined. Goats, like sheep, are associated closely with all farming communities in the country. The commonest system of management is extensive - the goats are left to roam about browsing roadside herbage and consuming residues discarded by humans such as yam and plantain peels and other kitchen wastes. Tethering or some form of confinement in compounds, especially during the cropping/harvest season, is also practised. When this is done, cut herbage, kitchen wastes, and crop residues are brought to the animals. Supplementary feed in the form of chopped cassava roots, plaintain and mixed grains is sometimes given. In the northern parts of the country, two other methods of husbandry are also encountered: the Fulani system in which the goats are herded along with cattle and the compound system practised largely by the Hausas who keep the animals inside their compound during the rainy season, feeding them freshly cut grass. During the dry season some farmers feed their animals on groundnut husks supplemented with groundnut or cottonseed cake. Others allow their animals 5 to roam about, or under supervision of children, eating crop residues and standing grass, the only supplements given being offals during the grain harvesting period. Under the local system, selective breeding based on performance records is not practised since few or no written records are kept. Breeding is not controlled and males run with females, although unwanted males are usually sold at an early age. When the animals are under greater control as in the compound system, “favourite” bucks are brought to mate with the does. The basis for choosing such favourites is largely vigour, coat colour and size. The lack of good records and properly defined conditions at the local level make it difficult to assess the productivity of the goats in the local. village units. Consequently, most of the information on productivity that follows was obtained from the government, institutional or university farms. In such institutional and government farms, the animals were under greater restriction and supervision. At the University of lbadan and the Shika Research Station, some shelter was provided. The animals were grazed in paddocks with natural grass or planted improved varieties, and at Shika shrubs were on the grazing fields. Supplementary concentrates were usually offered; and hay or silage provided during the dry season. Routine prophylaxis, dipping and deworming were carried out. Breeding was controlled and adequate records were kept. Goats under such restricted environments have not generally outperformed their free-ranging counterparts suggesting that there may still be some managemental inputs not well understood or applied.
4. REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE Records at lbadan and Shika show that Nigerian goats breed throughout the year, although more conceptions take place during the rains when feed is more abundant (Ngere and Mbap 1982). Table 3 summarizes available data from the two cooperating institutes on reproduction of the Red Sokoto (RS) and the West African Dwarf (WAD) goats. Available data indicate that both breeds are prolific. As judged by the kidding percentage (number of kids born/number of does kidding x 100), multiple births were highest by the third kidding. At the first kidding the values were 140.8 and 113 for the RS and WAD breeds respectively, these increased to 200 and 167 respectively by the third kidding, after which there was a gradual decline with increasing parity. With a kidding interval of about 8 months, and year round breeding, three kiddings in 2 years are possible. Thus the potential of increasing livestock productivity with Nigerian goats is very high, if the other factors that affect performance are favourable.
5. BIRTH WEIGHT AND VIABILITY Birth weight has economic value since advantage in this trait at birth can be maintained to market or final weight. Omoakin (1977) showed in an unpublished BSc dissertation, at the University of lbadan, that there was significant difference in birth weight of the Red Sokoto and the WAD goats. Further study of other factors which influence birth weight has shown that parity (which is related to age) influences prolificacy (Ngere and Mbap 1982) which in turn has a highly significant effect on birth weight. From Table 4 it can be seen that the mean birth weight of singles is significantly higher than those of twins or triplets’. Averaged over type of birth, there was no significant difference between males and females with respect to birth weight but when considered within type of birth, male singles were significantly heavier (P < .01) from male twins and male triplets, but there appeared to be no appreciable difference between male and female twins and triplets. To realize maximum benefit from high birth weight, the animal must of course survive to slaughter/sale. Studies with the two breeds at the University of Ibadan have led to some general conclusion: goats born single survived better than those from multiple births, and there were more losses pre-weaning compared to after weaning. The highest losses of kids occurred in lbadan around April which corresponds to the beginning of the rains. These results are summarized
AGRI 3 6 in Table 5. Kid losses can be considered; thus in a study at lbadan with 197 WAD and 106 RS kids, the total losses to weaning were 32.5 and 41.5 percent respectively.
TABLE 3 AVERAGE AGE AT FIRST KIDDING, OESTRUS AND RELATED PHENOMENA IN THE RED SOKOTO (RS) AND WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) GOATS
Trait RS (Shika) WAD(Ibadan)
Age at 1st kidding (months) number 51 371 mean 14.5 18.5 standard deviation 0.63 1.2 range 8-29 10-21 Wight at 1st breeding (kg) 19.2 7.5 standard deviation 2.2 0.7 Kidding interval (months) 7.9 8.4 standard deviation 1.9 1.1 Oestrus duration (days) - 2.3 standard deviation 0.1 range 1-3 Oestrus cycle (days) - 22.4 standard deviation 4 Time to post-partum oestrus (days) - 37 standard deviation 9 % of type of birth parity Up to 3 Up to 6 single 32.6 41 twin 58.8 46 triplets 7.2 12 quadruplets 1.8 1
TABLE 4A AVERAGE BIRTH WEIGHT (kg) OF KIDS BY TYPE OF BIRTH AND SEX FOR THE RED SOKOTO (RS) AND WAD GOATS
Type of birth Sex RS (Shika) WAD (Ibadan)
Single M 1.68 1.45 F 1.62 1.24 Twin M 1.59 1.22 F 1.50 1.25 Triplet M - 1.04 F - 1.06 7
TABLE 4B. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FACTORS INFLUENCING BIRTH WEIGHT IN THE WEST AFRICAN DWARF GOAT
Source Degrees of Freedom Sums of Squares Mean Square F-value
Corrected total 162 63.16 Model 5 11.30 2.26 6.84** Type of birth 2 8.80 4.40 13.3** Sex (type of birth) 3 2.50 0.83 2.5* Error 157 51.86 0.33
**P < .01 *P < .05
Data in both tables from author’s research at the University of lbadan and NAPRI, Shika
TABLE 5 PRE- AND POST-WEANING KID MORTALITY (%) WITH RESPECT To TYPE OF BIRTH (98 BIRTHS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN 1972-74)
Pre-weaiiing Post-weaning Total
Single 8.2 2.0 10.2 Multiple 20.4 10.2 30.6 Total 28.6 12.2 40.8
6. BODY MEASUREMENTS, SIZE AND GROWTH RATE External body measurements of animals have been extensively used to assess the growth of skeletal parts; they are also useful in describing in a general way changes in animal conformation with age. The problem of using these tools with Nigerian goat breeds lies in deciding which sample of the population can be considered typical in view of their great variability in size and wide span of their distribution. For example Mecha (1977), in a survey of 1178 WAD goats in the southeast of the country, classified the animals in his sample into 3 groups: height at withers >, 51 cm occurred in 6.2 percent, between 41 and 50 cm in 67.5 percent, and less than 40 cm in 26.3 percent. The values reported in Table 2 are from a survey which spanned the whole country and represent average measurements on mature animals in ten research centres (Ngere et al. 1979). Data on growth rate showed that the WAD kids in;Ibadan gained on average about 116 g and 141 g per week for females and males respectively up to I year of age. Comparable data for the RS in Shika were higher, i.e. 400-600 g/week to I year.
7. CARCASS AND MILK YIELDS Detailed carcass studies were carried out with 2-year old WAD bucks at Ibadan and the average values from this study are summarized in Tables 6 and 7. The dressing out percentage for RS at Shika was 45-48 percent. From an economic standpoint the total edible and saleable proportions are important indices of carcass value rather than the dressing percentage because in the tropics almost all parts of the animal are edible, including the soft bone and excepting the hair and the intestinal contents. Thus carcass information for tropical countries should include information on other items in addition to the dressing out percentage.
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TABLE 6 CARCASS DATA ON 2-YEAR OLD MALE WAD GOATS IN POOR, FAIR AND GOOD CONDITION
Trait Condition Mean Standard error
Poor Fair Good
Live weight (kg) 11.7 12.5 14.5 12.8 0.71 Hot carcass weight (kg) 5.4 5.7 6.7 5.9 0.17 Cold carcass weight (kg) 5.2 5.6 6.5 5.8 0.15 Dressing % 43.4 43.4 43.4 43.4 0.00 Gut (full) 2.6 2.7 3.1 2.8 0.16 Gut (empty) 1.2 1.7 1.6 1.5 0.15 Blood 0.48 0.52 0.53 0.53 0.03 Skin 0.80 0.90 0.99 0.90 0.06 Head 0.91 0.96 1.14 1.00 0.07 Pluck (heart, liver and lung) 0.36 0.37 0.43 0.39 0.02 Feet 0.38 0.38 0.43 0.40 0.02 Kidney fat 0.04 0.04 0.12 0.06 0.03 Visceral fat 0.06 0.12 0.20 0.13 0.04 Eye muscle area (cm2) 6.12 6.2 7.6 6.6p 0.48
Data from author’s carcass studies using local animals reared by traditional methods in lbadan area.
TABLE 7 COMPONENT PARTS OF WHOLESALE CUTS OF MALE GOATS AS % OF COLD CARCASS
Component Condition
Poor Fair Good
Leg 40.5 40.2 40.5 Loin 9.2 9.1 9.1 Rack 16.8 16.7 16.9 Shoulder 19.9 19.8 19.8 Lean 28.8 29.9 30.8 Fat 2.8 4.3 6.3
Total edible portion(excluding blood, skin and gut contents) 67.1 67.2 67.9 Total commercially saleable portion (excluding blood and gut contents)73.9 74.0 74.7
Data from author’s carcass studies using local animals reared by traditional m thods in Ibadan area.
The milk yield of the two goat breeds has been studied at lbadan and the results are shown in Table 8. By the fourth month after parturition milk yield from both breeds becomes negligible pointing to a probable need for creep feeding for the young kids from about the fourth month or even earlier.
8. DISEASE The most important diseases affecting goats in Nigeria are PPR (peste des petits ruminants), mycoplasmosis, pasteurellosis, helminthiasis, and ectoparasites (Sellers 1978). However the 9 three breeds of goats in Nigeria have their primary econiche and the fact that they thrive and are so extensively distributed in their zones might suggest that the disease factor may have been overstressed.
TABLE 8 AVERAGE MILK YIELD (kg) OF THE RS AND WAD GOATS IN IBADAN, WITH ADVANCING LACTATION
Week RS WAD Week RS WAD
2 2.8 3.0 12 2.5 1.2 3 3.0 3.8 13 1.0 1.0 4 4.8 4.6 14 0.5 0.9 5 5.7 4.8 15 0.1 0.7 6 5.7 4.3 16 - 0.4 7 4.8 3.4 17 - 0.2 8 4.0 2.6 18 - 0.1 9 3.8 1.9 19 - - 10 3.8 1.7 20 - - 11 3.2 1.5
Source: Akinsoyinu et al. 1977 and 1981
9. THE FUTURE There appears to be no doubt that goats will continue to play a very prominent role in the supply of animal protein to the rural communities in Nigeria in the foreseeable future, because of their hardiness, prolificacy and extensive distribution. Better husbandry practices can greatly enhance their contribution towards alleviating protein intake deficit in the country.
REFERENCES Akinsoyinu A.0., Mba A.U. and Olubajo F.O. Studies on milk yield and composition of West 1977 African Dwarf goat in Nigeria. Journal of Dairy Research 44:57-62. Akinsoyinu A.0., Tewe O.O., Ngere L.O. and Mba A.U. Milk yield and composition of the 1981 Red Sokoto goats. Health and Production 6:186. FMA. Report on the Green Revolution. Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Lagos. 1981 Mason I.L. The Classification of West African Livestock Commonwealth Agricultural 1951 Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks., England. Mecha J. External measurement on the West African Dwarf. Paper read at the Conference of 1977 the Nigerian Society for Animal Production, Zaria. Ngere L.O., Adu I.F. and Mani I. Report of Small Ruminant Breeding Subcommittee. NAPRI 1979 Bulletin No. 1. Shika. Ngere L.O. and Mbap S. Some aspects of reproduction of the West African Dwarf goat. Tro pical Animal Health and Production 14:61. 1982 Omoakin T.A. Unpublished BSc dissertation, University of lbadan. 1977 Sellers K.G. Problems facing the increased production of dwarf goats and sheep in the humid tropics. Paper presented at the General Conference of the Association of Advanced Agricultural Science in Africa, Ibadan. 1978
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ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF CONSERVING ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES
Charles Smith AFRC Animal Breed4-ng Research Organization West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JQ, UK
SUMMARY The methods of preserving animal genetic resources and the benefits and disadvantages are reviewed. The economic value of preserving germplasm in the face of uncertain needs and opportunities for use in the future is calculated. The conclusion is that the benefits greatly exceed the costs, and in many conditions in developing countries it would be desirable both to preserve and to improve indigenous breeds. International action is desirable to maximize efficiency and minimize risk.
RESUME Les méthodes de conservation des ressources génétiques animals, ai.nsi que les avantages et les inconvénients qui en résulteiit, sont passés en revue. Est-il économiquement rentable de conserver lea ressources génétiques alors que les possibilités d’utilisation future sont incertaines? La conclusion est que les avantages dépassent de beaucoup les couts et que, dans de nombreux cas, les pays en développement auraient intérèt à la fois à préserver et à améliorer les races indigènes. Une action Internationale est souhaitable pour assurer une efficacité maximum et réduire les risques au minimum.
RESUMEN Se pasa revista a los métodos para preserver los recursos genéticos animales, asi como los beneficios y las ventajas que entrañan. Se calcula el valor económico de la conservación de germoplasma en vista de las posibles necesidades y oportunidades de utilización en el futuro. La conclusión a que se llega es que los beneficios exceden con mucho de los costos, y de que, en muchas sittiaciones, convendría preservar y mejorar las razas indigenas en los parses en desarrollo. Es deseable la acción en el piano internacional para auinentar al máximo la eficiencia y minimizar los riesgos.
1. INTRODUCTION The costs of conservation of breeding stocks arc-, small relative to the national- economic value of livestock production. Thus if there is some probability that conserved stocks may be useful in the future, their conservation will be justified economically. There is usually some uncertainty about future conditions in production and marketing arid in the economic criteria of performance. Thus the maintenance and development of genetic diversity for a range of production-economi-c conditions will provide flexibility in use and insurance to cover an unpredictable future. Quite large numbers of stocks may be conserved, and developed, on the gamble that one or more of them will be useful in th(- future. In developing countries, WiLli uncertainty about future production conditions and systems and with particular unfavorable environments, conservation and Improvement of adapted local genetic stocks could be especially worthwhile. International efforts to organize and fund conservation in these countries is required before it is too late. Conservation can be justified for many reasons, whether historical, cultural, aesthetic, recreational, biological, scientific, agricultural or economic. Here we shall concentrate on the
AGRI 3 12 economics of conservation, reviewing the methods of conservation available, their relative costs and the possible economic benefits which many accrue in the future from conservation. In general the possible benefits on a national scale could be very large, relative to the costs, thereby justifying an appreciable effort in genetic conservation and improvement of conserved stocks.
2. METHODS OF CONSERVATION A few performance traits in farm animals are controlled by identified genes with large effects. Such genes can be stored in gene pools or composite groups, because the genes can be extracted from the pool and backcrossed into other breeding populations. Many genes can be kept in a single gene pool with a simple random mating system (Weller and Soller 1981). However most performance traits seem to be controlled by a number of genes, and show continuous variation rather then distinct genetic types. Thus it would be difficult, or impossible, to reselect special performance features of a conserved stock out of a gene pool or composite population. So genetic stocks need to be kept in purebred form, if their special performance characteristics are to be preserved. There are three main methods to conserve, or preserve, breeding stocks. These are: i. Live breeding stocks ii. Frozen semen iii. Frozen embryos These differ in feasibility, in cost and in effectiveness. Live breeding stocks have advantages in conservation because the animals can be seen (to maintain interest) , and evaluated, and developed and improved. However they suffer from inbreeding, from possible contamination, from natural selection and from risk of loss from disease. They also tend to be more expensive to maintain. Semen from most farm species can now be frozen satisfactorily and stored indefinitely without appreciable loss of fertility. Embryos can be frozen in cattle and sheep, but for pigs and chickens and many other less common livestock species it is not yet possible. Breeding stocks or frozen stores must be large enough to provide a good representation of the conserved stock and to prevent much genetic drift, or inbreeding. Surprisingly, quite moderate numbers of breeding animals are needed (Smith 1984). Thus, to restrict the rate of inbreeding to 0.2 percent per year (a rate common to many breeds with current breeding systems) , a breeding herd of 10 males and 26 females would be adequate for cattle, as shown in Table 1. With shorter generation intervals, the numbers are larger for sheep, and for pigs, rising to 72 males and 72 females per stock per year for chickens. For frozen semen, collection from 25 sires would be adequate for all species. Similarly, for embryo transfer, some 25 embryos each from 25 donors would be sufficient for conservation purposes. These numbers might well be increased to afford a safety margin, and to allow periodic testing evaluation work of the conserved stock to review their commercial value. To avoid risks of loss in storage and by disease, stocks and stores should be split between at least two locations.
3. COSTS Estimates of the costs of maintaining live breeding stocks and of collecting and storing frozen semen and embryos were made with the help of UK colleagues involved in artificial insemination and embryo transfer (Smith 1984). These are summarized in Table 1. They refer to techniques, facilities and costs in the UK, and may well differ in other countries, for example in developing countries (Parez 1984). Collection costs are still very high for frozen embryos and are appreciable for frozen semen, but annual storage costs are low. Costs of maintaining live breeding stocks are moderate, except for pigs (because of their high reproductive rate and value per animal) . However, these costs are 13 incurred annually and accumulate over time. For periods over five years, storage by frozen semen is the least expensive, and has many advantages (Smith 1977). Where feasible a limited stock of frozen embryos should also be conserved, so as to give purebred females. This avoids backcrossing (4-5 generations) and allows selection and improvement during substitution of a conserved stock.
TABLE 1 ESTIMATED COSTS FUR CONSERVING A BREEDING STOCK FOR DIFFERENT SPECIES
Cattle Sheep Pigs Chickens
1. Live breeding stock Numbers (males/females) 10/26 22/60 44/44 72/72 Annual cost t 5000 3000 12000 3000 2. Frozen semen Number of sires 25 25 25 25 Progeny possible per sire 40 40 120 200 Collection cost Z 9200 8700 25200 11200 Annual storage cost E 200 200 400 200 3. Frozen embryos Number of donors 25 25 Embryos per donor 25 25 Not Not Collection cost E 75000 50000 possible possible Annual storage cost E 500 500
4. POSSIBLE BENEFITS Conventional animal improvement methods assume that the current conditions of production and the current economic objectives will remain unchanged in the future. This leads logically to the choice of the best stock, or stocks, and further to selection and improvement within these stocks for these same objectives. However, conditions of production may alter and market requirements may change over time. If there is uncertainty about future conditions and requirements, then it may be worthwhile to maintain genetic diversity as an insurance cover against future contingencies. Some probable, or possible, changes might be predicted and breeding stocks could be conserved or developed to fit these alternatives. But many changes may be unpredictable, and the best option in face of uncertainty may be to conserve many genetic stocks with different attributes, known and unknown. This strategy is made possible by the low cost of conservation relative to the value the stock would have in the future if it contributed to economic efficiency of production. The benefits from improvement accrue to the consumer (e.g. Bird and Mitchell 1980) so a national viewpoint is taken here. The value of improvement then depends on the size of the industry and on the gain in economic efficiency obtained by using a conserved stock. Taking the UK as an example, the value (V) of each of the livestock sectors is given in Table 2, along with the costs of conservation of a stock for 20 years by the three methods of conservation. The benefits from even a one percent gain in economic efficiency (O.OIV) exceed the costs of conservations by two to three orders of magnitude. This shows that even if there is a very small chance that a stock will be useful in the future, it would be worthwhile to maintain it because the potential returns are so large relative to the costs of conservation. More detailed figures for this rationale are given in Smith (1984). With more lines conserved, or alternative stocks developed, the less will be the uncertainty about meeting future needs. Smith (1985) has shown that extra benefits may be
AGRI 3 14 obtained and many lines should be maintained, if uncertainty about future needs can be reduced. Indeed, rather than a passive role, an active role in selection and development of conserved stocks would be indicated.
TABLE 2 ANNUAL VALUE (V) OF UK LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND ESTIMATED 20 YEAR COSTS (C) FOR CONSERVING BREEDING STOCKS BY DIFFERENT METHODS
20 year conservation cost (£ thousand)**
Product Annual value Live breeding Frozen Frozen (£ million)* stock semen embryos
Milk and milk products 1900 100 13 85 Beef and veal 1500 100 13 85 Sheep meat and wool 400 60 13 60 Pig meat 800 240 33 - Chickens (meat) 400 60 15 - Chickens (eggs) 500 60 15 -
*CSO Annual Abst. Stat. 1982. Farmgate prices.
**From Table 1.
Considerable uncertainty exists about future production and marketing conditions in developing countries, so the scope for and the benefits from conservation are likely to be greater than for developed countries. The adaptation of indigenous stocks to unfavourable local conditions may be crucial to efficient animal production in these areas.
5. ORGANIZATION Since the consumer (the State) is likely to benefit from conservation, the State should support it and see that it is done. It is difficult for farmer breeders or breeding companies to support conservation because their main concern is to produce competitive breeding stocks for current markets. Otherwise they will be forced out of business. Their viewpoint must be short term, affected by current market needs. However there is much enthusiasm and interest in many countries by motivated individuals and conservation groups. For example, the Rare Breeds Survival Trust in the UK (e.g. Steane 1983) supports individuals, fosters cooperation and organizes shows and sales of rare breeds. In other countries, e.g. Italy, such groups receive official support, recognizing the needs and possible benefits from conservation. Such initiatives and groups may suffice for conservation in developed countries. The situation is quite different in developing countries. Money is needed for improvement and development and none may be available for conservation. Many local adapted breeds are in danger of being lost as more productive breeds from temperate climates are introduced. Often there are insufficient comparative tests over a range of production environments to evaluate local breeds. Their special attributes of acclimatization, in disease resistance, and their tolerance of poor nutrition and environments may be lost. Here the probability of the future use of conserved stocks will be much higher (perhaps in new synthetic breeds or in crossing programmes with more productive breeds), as improved performance may depend on disease resistance and acclimatization of the local breeds. This seems to be the main area for concern, and so for the input of international effort to assist in conservation. 15
6. DISCUSSION The need for conservation has been a recent concern of animal geneticists (Mason 1974; Maijaia et al. 1984; Simon 1984). This has arisen because of the possible loss of many breeds which have become rare, in face of competition from more productive specialized breeds. The trend exists at both national and international level. For example, poultry genetic stocks are largely held by a few international breeding companies, and pig breeding is following a similar trend. In cattle, North American Holstein-Friesian stocks now dominate for milk production over much of the world, and are replacing local breeds. The concern is that by concentrating on a few genetic stocks, improved for intensive production systems, we may lose genetic diversity and flexibility. With uncertainty about future conditions and needs, it would seem prudent to conserve genetic stocks as an insurance against future contingencies. A factor limiting the possible use of conserved stocks is that the main current breeds are being continually improved genetically for commercial production. So it may be increasingly difficult for unimproved stocks to compete or to contribute in crossing. It may thus take substantial changes in the conditions and methods of production, in disease, or in the market requirements for conserved stocks to make up for their increasing deficiency relative to current stocks. Thus a more active role, rather than a passive role, might be adopted in conservation. Land (1981) has proposed the development of biological extremes, both for scientific value and to cover a range of possible future needs. More recently, Smith (1985) has shown that there may be substantial benefits from developing many stocks improved for different sets of economic objectives, if the uncertainty about future conditions can be thereby reduced. The main conclusions from this paper are straightforward. The costs of conservation are small relative to possible future economic benefits in national production. In developed countries enough conservation is probably already being done and this should continue. In developing countries the loss of locally adapted breeds is more serious and is occurring more quickly. An international effort to organize and fund conservation in these countries is required before it is too late.
REFERENCES Bird P.J.W.N. and Mitchell G. The choice of discount rate in animal breeding investment 1980 appraisal. Anim. Breed. Abst. 48:499-505. Land R.L. An alternative philosophy for livestock breeding. Livestock Prod. Sci. 8:95-198199. Maijala K., Cherekaev A.V., De,lrillard J.M., Reklewski Z., Rognoni G., Simon D.L. and 1984 Steane D.E. Conservation of animal genetic resources in Europe. Livestock Prod. Sci. 11:3- 22. Mason I.L. Conservation of animal genetic resources. Ist World Congress of Genetics1974 Applied to Livestock Prod. Madrid 2:13-21. Parez M. Harvesting, processing, storage and subsequent use of animal cells in developing countries. -1984 FAO/UNEP Joint Expert Panel on Animal Genetic Resources, Conservation and Management. FAO, Rome. Simon D.L. Conservation of animal genetic resources. Livestock Prod. Sci. 11:23-36. 1984 Smith C. Use of stored frozen semen and embryos to measure genetic trends in farm live— 1977 stock. Z. Tierzuctit. Zuchtungsbiologie 94:119-127. Smith C. Estimated costs of genetic conservation in farm animals. FAO/UNEP Joint Expert1984 Panel on Animal Genetic Resources, Conservation and Management. FAO, Rome. Smitli C. Scope for selecting many breeding stocks of possible economic value in the1985 future (In preparation). Steane D.E. European conservation: the next ten years. The Ark, September 1983. 1983
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Weller J. and Soller ‘4. Random mating and selection to produce multi-marker strains. 1981 Theor. App. Genetics 59:73-77. 17
EVALUATION AND CONSERVATION OF NATIVE STRAINS OF CHICKEN IN THE SABRAO REGION
B.L. Sheldon CSIRO Research Laboratories P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
SUMMARY The small amount of information available on native strains of chicken in the SABRAO region is surveyed. The need for well controlled experimental comparisons is emphasized as well as the need to obtain as complete a picture as possible of each population genotype. The desiderata for conservation programmes are discussed.
RESUME L’article passe en revue les maigres informations disponibles sur lea souches indigènes de volaille dans la région de la SABRAO, en insistent sur la nécessité de procéder à des comparaisons expérimentales bien contròlées et de définir une image aussi complete que possible de chaque génotype de population. L’article indique également lea objectifs à viser dans les programmes de conservation.
RESUMEN Se examina la poca información existente sobre las razas autóctonas de aves domesticas en la región de la SABRAO. Se hace hincapié en la necesidad de efectuar comparaciones experimentales bien controladas y de obtener una imagen lo mis completa posible de las caracteristicas genéticas de la población. Se examinan los elementos convenientes para los programas de conservación.
1. INTRODUCTION The basic, agreed premise is that conservation of native species, breeds and strains is necessary because of the threat to their survival, hence to their long-term availability and usefulness to future generations of the human population. While the Fourth Expert Consultation on Animal Genetic Resources (Poultry Breeding) (FAO 1973) seemed to be in some doubt about the future utility of, or need for, populations so inferior to modern improved poultry populations under modern favourable environments, the weight of its recommendations was firmly in favour of conservation. The overriding consideration is that our present state of knowledge does not enable us to decide which population is valuable or not for the future. The only real barrier then to taking action to give effect to such a generally accepted position is lack of information. We do not have an inventory of all the native breeds and hardly any clue on their popu . lation structure, i.e. to what extent the breed is subdivided into isolated or semi- isolated local strains. Even if we knew this, we would still not know to what extent the breeds or local strains differ genetically. Therefore, decisions cannot be made on whether to pool or hold as separate populations. The straightforward management decisions on population size, number of effective parents, generation length, etc. follow almost automatically from quantitative genetics theory once information of the above kind is known.
2.INFORMATION CURRENTLY AVAILABLE An exhaustive survey of the literature still needs to be done but will obviously need the cooperation of colleagues in each country to bring to light significant data in the local literature.
AGRI 3 18
In the absence of such original sources the Proceedings of the Ist Workshop on Animal Genetic Resources (SABRAO 1980) provide a suitable starting point. Contributors from 12 countries with indigenous populations of chickens gave reports on national animal genetic resources at that Workshop. Seven of these reported only one truly indigenous or native breed without describing any differences between local types (Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka). However, of these the Philippines and Malaysia also reported the Cantonese breed imported from China, while the Philippines included the Nagoya breed (of mixed native and exotic origin) from Japan. One report (Korea) did not include any indigenous chickens. One (Japan) referred in passing to numerous native (pet) breeds and to Tanabe (1971) for details. Of the other three, India was reported as having 18 native breeds, Indonesia two breeds, and Thailand two breeds of Jungle Fowl (Burmese red and Tonkinese red) as well as three mixed native breeds, according to Suwan (1960), or perhaps only two (Nishida et al. 1974). Clearly the inventory has to be completed first. The proposed SABRAO survey should go a long way towards achieving this. Some of these reports at the Ist SABRAO Workshop gave performance data of a general kind such as relative body size, egg size, egg production, fertility and hatchability as well as the usual morphological features such as plumage colour, comb type, wattle type, spurs, sex dimorphism, etc. However, this sort of survey-type or non-experimental information does not constitute a genetic evaluation, which needs to be a controlled comparison of breeds, preferably using a common reference line, and under specified environmental conditions. Kingston’s (1979) recording of production, mortality, etc. of native chickens in five West Java villages is probably one of the more reliable studies of performance at the village level, but of its nature could be no more than suggestive of genetic differences in the different village flocks. Kingston also recorded much higher growth rates for these birds under an improved environment, an evaluation procedure which has been much more common than attempting to measure performance accurately at the village level. Both this result, and those of Wartomo and Atmodjo (1977) and Supraptini and Harimurti (1977) reporting much improved egg production of village birds under improved feeding and management, suggest that the genetic potential of village chickens is greater than their village performance indicates. The egg production of these chickens under improved conditions was of the same order as White Leghorns in Australia 35 years ago and in America 40-50 years ago. However, while these results are interesting, they are not relevant to the future use of such birds under those conditions. The future of the village chicken must lie closer to the environment to which it is already adapted. Two other features of the information in the reports at the lst SABRAO Workshop are significant. Firstly, all or most of them confirmed the speed with which imported exotic hybrids are becoming an even higher proportion of the total chicken population in each of these countries. In most cases there is no immediate threat to the survival of the native chicken population, if it is considered homogeneous. But appropriate studies would almost surely reveal genetic heterogeneity. Therefore some local strains are probably at risk or may have even been lost already. Secondly, several countries have programmes for upgrading village chickens by introducing impoved exotic hybrid cockerels or even both sexes, apparently without adequate evaluation of the short or long term effects. In these situations, of course, the threat to the local strain is immediate and urgent conservation action indicated.
3. INFORMATION NEEDED FOR GENETIC EVALUATION In relation to performance the first requirement is for some well controlled experimental comparisons, such as Al-Soudi and Al-Jebouri (1979), and preferably in a range of relevant environments. However, evaluations of this kind can become more in the nature of a screening test for immediate utilization or discarding. This was how the improved gene pool contracted so 19 much under the pressures of modern poultry breeding in North America, Europe, Australia, etc. In fact, such an evaluation does not provide an in depth assessment of the total genotype of that population, which is what is needed for conservation decisions. For instance a population could have a particular combination of genes which only shows up to advantage when it is crossed to a particular other breed or local strain. While there is no certain way at present to identify such a situation except by evaluating the cross performance, probably the next best thing for detection of genetic differences is to get as complete a picture as possible of the population genotype, i.e. by observing it for as many loci as possible and in sufficient numbers to get reliable estimates of the gene frequencies. Over 250 loci are now known in the chicken (Somes 1978; 1980) , of which some 15 or more are blood groups and over 30 are other useful biochemical marker loci. When the many known morphological and pigment loci are included, a very large number could be used on which to base discrimination. In fact, as reported by Nozawa (1980), Nozawa and Nishida (1970) have been doing this sort of study for the morphological and pigment markers and Fujio (1972) for the B blood group locus, while Okada, Hasiguchi and Tanabe have initiated studies of electrophoretic and blood group markers. If this approach can be extended on a sufficient scale, an objective assessment of similarities or dissimilarities between populations, hence of conservation needs, will be possible. Cooperation of research groups equipped to do such work will be needed to achieve this. Until that time detection of threatened populations and decisions on whether to conserve or not will have to be both very local and very subjective.
4. ASPECTS OF MANAGEMENT OF CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES In the present absence of adequate genetic evaluation information it is difficult to tell what size programmes will be needed. However, in view of the current large but diminishing size of native chicken populations, it is unlikely that conservation programmes would need to be large at this stage. Experience elsewhere (Sheldon 1981) would suggest that the conservation programme will be pushed into the background unless its momentum can be maintained and its costs defined and minimized. Whether it is better for a single institute to carry the main responsibility within a country, or for the programme to be decentralized but coordinated, will depend on local circumstances. A regional, international centre may be feasible, but will of course be subject to quarantine requirements. Regional cooperation on exchange of information and experience through SABRAO or other agencies will be essential for efficient management and maintaining momentum and enthusiasm. Experience in poultry conservation programmes in other parts of the world will also be relevant, e.g. Zlochevskaya (1978) , Crawford (1980), Penionzhkevich et al. (1980) , Sindelfir (1979) , Sheldon (1981) . As indicated by some of these authors, a conservation programme will be more efficient if it is dynamic and emphasizes use of the gene pool for research, etc. rather than having a museum or zoo philosophy. It is not intended to discuss in detail questions of effective population size of conservation groups. However, Sheldon et al. (1979) considered that the size of important or unique breeds should be maintained at a minimum of 200 male and 200 female parents per generation, while 50 males and 50 females would be adequate for a less important breed or of a strain of an important breed. The improving availability of the frozen semen technique should be considered also in some less important situations or where the strain being considered is a candidate for a gene pool with other strains rather than for preservation intact.
REFERENCES Al-Soudi K.A. and Al-Jebouri M.A.J. Production potential in subtropic climate of native
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Iraqi chicken compared to White Leghorn, New Hampshire and their crosses. World’s Poultry Science Journal 35:227-235. 1979 Crawford R.D. Inventory of Canada’s poultry genetic resources. Poultry Science 59:1596- 1597. 1980 FAO. Report of the Fourth FAO Expert Consultation on Animal Genetic Resouces (Poultry Breeding). FAO, Rome. 1973 Fujio Y. Blood groups and immigration route of Japanese chicken. Report of the Research Group on Native Farm Animals No. 5. 1972 Kingston D.J. The role of the scavenging chicken in Indonesia. Proceedings Second Poultry Science and Industry Seminar, Ciawi, Bogor. pp. 12-25. 1979 Nishida T., Otsuka J., Nishiiiakagaws H. and Hayashi Y. Morphological studies on the native fowl and red jungle fowl in Thailand. Report of the Society for Researches on Native Livestock No. 6, pp. 132-143. 1974 Nozawa K. Phylogenetic studies on the native domestic animals in East and South East Asia. Proceedings of SABRAO Workshop on Animal Genetic Resources in Asia and Oceania. Tropical Agriculture Research Center, Japan. pp. 23-43. 1980 Nozawa K. and Nishida T. Gene constitution of native chicken in south western islands of Japan, Taiwan and Korea. JIBP/UM/GENE POOL seminar record, pp. 75-95. 1970 Penionzhkevich E.E., Pimenov B.V. and Kopylov V.N. [The principles of the conservation and use of a poultry gene pool]. Zhivotnovodstvo No. 3, pp. 21-23. (In Russian; abstract in Animal Breeding Abstracts 48(5646)) 1980 SABRAO. Proceedings of Workshop on Animal Genetic Resources in Asia and Oceania. Tropi- cal Agriculture Research Center, Japan. 1980 Sheldon B.L. Conservation of poultry genetic resources with particular reference to Australia. Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of SABRAO, Kuala Lumpur. (In press) 1981 Sheldon B.L., Fraser R.A., Morris J.A. and Sheridan A.K. Report of Expert Panel on Con servation of Poultry Genetic Material. SCA Technical Report Series No. 4. Canberra1979
Sindelir J. The less known breeds of the domestic fowl. Chovatel 18(10):222-225. (In Czech; abstract in Animal Breeding Abstracts 48(6377)) 1979 Somes R.G. Jr. Registry of poultry genetic stocks. Storrs Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 446. University of Connecticut, Storrs. 1978 Somes R.G. Jr. Alphabetical list of the genes of domestic fowl. Journal of Heredity 71: 168- 174. 1980 Supraptini Manjoer Sri and Harimurti Martojo. Productivity of native chickens and native x Rhode Island Red in a confinement system. Proceedings of First Poultry Science and Industry Seminar. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor. 1977 Suwan Vasok Kasikij. Poultry production in Thailand. Proceedings of 9th Pacific Science Congress (1957) 2:183-185. 1960 Tanabe Y. Improvement and Reproduction of Chickens. Yoken-do, Tokyo. 1971 Wartomo Hardjosubroto and Atmodjo Supiyong P. The performance of Kampung and Kedu chickens. Proceedings of First Poultry Science and Industry Seminar. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor1977 Zlochevskaya K.V. [Current work on the preservation and use of gene pools of rare native breeds of domestic poultry] Byulleten’ Vsesoyuznogo NauchnoIssledovatel’skogo Instituta Razvedeniya i Genetiki Sel’skokhozyaistvennykh Zhivotnykh, No. 29, pp. 25-31. (In Russian; abstract in Animal Breeding Abstracts 47(1525)) 1978 21
THE CRIOLLO CATTLE PROJECT OF SANTA CRUZ, BOLIVIA
J.V. Wilkins Livestock Adviser British Tropical Agricultural Mission Casilla 359, Santa Cruz, Bolivia F. Rojas Centro de Investigaci6n Agricola Tropical Casilla 247, Santa Cruz, Bolivia L. Martinez Centro de Investigaci6n Agricola Tropical Casilla 247, Santa Cruz, Bolivia
SUMMARY Plans to improve the milk production ability of the Criollo in Bolivia are outlined. The background problems are stated, and experiments to improve by crossbreeding are described. The Criollo improvement project which makes use of the purebred Criollo was planned in two stages. The first was the attempt to measure the performance of Criollo cows purchased from commercial herds, and milked without their calves. The second stage was the comparison of performance with the results of the crossbred trial. The intentions and plans to progeny test the Criollo bulls are summarized and the hopes of producing bulls for sale and use on temperate breeds of cow are described. The problems encountered in the project are stated, and the results are viewed in the context of work with Criollo in other countries.
RESUME Les plans d’amélioration des aptitudes laitiares des bovins créoles en Bolivie sont brièvement exposés. Les problémes de base sont indiqués et les essais par croisement sont décrits. Le projet d’amélioration des bovins créoles, qui utilise des créoles de race pure, a été conqu en deux étapes, la premiere consistent A mesurer les performances de vaches crgoles achetées dans des troupeaux commerciaux et traites sans leurs veaux, et la seconde A comparer les performances avec les résultats des essais de croisement. Les objectifs et l’organisation des tests de descendance effectués avec des taureaux créoles sont briavement indiqugs et l’on espzre produire des taureaux pour la vente et l’utilisation sur des races de vaches des zones tempérges. Les problames rencontrés dans le projet sont examinés et les résultats sont considérés dans le contexte des recherches effectuées sur les bovins créoles dans d’autres pays.
RESUMEN Se esboran los planes para aumentar la capacidad de producción lechera del ganado de raza criolla de Bolivia. Se señalan los problemas básicos y se describen los experimentos para mejorar el cruzamiento con otras razas. El proyecto de mejoramiento del ganado criollo, en el que se utilizan animales de pura raza, se planificó en dos etapas. En la primera se trató de medir el rendimiento de las vacas criollas adquiridas a establecimientos comerciales y que fueron objeto de ordeño sin ternero. La segunda etapa fue comparar el rendimiento con los resultados de ensayo de cruce. Se resumen las intenciones y planes para ensayar la progenie de los toros criollos y se señalan las expectativas de obtener toros para la venta y para la fecundación de
1 This is the second of two papers on the Criollo cattle of the Americas. The first part was published in AGRI 1/84.
AGRI 3 22 vacas de razas de zonas templadas. Se senalan los problemas con que se ha tropezado en el proyecto, y se consideran los resultados en el contexto de los trabajos con ganado criollo en otros paises.
The environment and dairy production systems of the Bolivian lowlands near the city of Santa Cruz have been described by Wilkins et al. (1979) . The zone has a mean altitude, annual temperature and annual rainfall of 400 m, 240C and 1100 mm respectively. This study concluded that: a. the importation of pure Holstein and Brown Swiss cows for milk production was not economic; b. that half and three quarter Brown Swiss or Holstein cattle had lower calf mortality, higher fertility and tended to yield more milk/cow/year than pure Brown Swiss or Holstein cattle; c. that seven eighths Brown Swiss or Holstein cattle had similar calf mortality, fertility and milk yields to those of pure Brown Swiss or Holstein; d. that three quarter bred cows should be mated to a tropical dairy breed in order not to produce cows with more than 75 percent blood of a European dairy breed. Subsequent mating plans were not discussed although it was concluded that a need existed for a tropical dairy breed in Bolivia. It was stated that this breed should have a good dairy temperament so that the resultant crossbred cows could be milked in the absence of their calves and it was noted that a programme for the conservation and improvement of the Bolivian Criollo had commenced with the object of producing such a breed. No reasons for the results were suggested in that study but the modest performance of exotic cattle was attributed by Wilkins et al. (1981) to problems of nutrition and tick infestation.
1. NUTRITIONAL LIMITATIONS The problem of low digestibility of pastures of the humid tropics (Stobbs 1975) is exacerbated by reduced appetite caused by high temperature and humidity (Bianca 1965) . The feeding of alfalfa or even good quality maize silage to supplement concentrates could overcme this nutritional problem but alfalfa cannot be grown because of disease and pests, and silage making involves extremely high machinery costs. The available pastures and forages of the humid tropics are not suitable for the production of high milk yields (Stobbs 1975; Vivier 1977; Minson 1980; Whiteman 1980). While high milk yields have been obtained within the tropics these have been achieved only where the environment has been ameliorated by such factors as altitude, coastal breezes, artificial modification and the feeding of a ration of high nutrient density. The major dairying area of the tropics is Queensland, Australia, where the average yield in 1980 was only 2132 kg per cow from 527 344 animals (Lloyd 1981). Wilkins et al. (1979) suggested that a target yield of 2300 kg of milk per cow per year was both feasible and economic in the area of Santa Cruz if it was based on the feeding of pastures and forages available in the zone, supplemented by 200 kg of concentrates/cow/year.
2. PROBLEMS INDUCED BY TICKS A major limiting factor to production is the debilitating effect of parasites of which ticks are the most costly and difficult to control. Experience in the area has shown that tick infestation of European breeds is generally high, while low in zebu and criollo cattle. Infestation levels of crossbred cattle appear to be positively related to the percentage of European blood. The difference in mortality between the genotypes in the study is largely attributed to relative tolerance of the tick borne diseases, anaplasmosis and babesiosis. Data from the study suggested that the probability of recovery of calves from disease was 23 negatively associated with percentage of blood of European dairy breeds. In many cases zebu and criollo calves are known to have contracted anaplasmosis and babesiosis without manifesting easily observable symptoms. While continuous upcrossing of basic zebu/criollo cattle with bulls of European dairy breeds was demonstrated to have undesirable results, no corresponding evidence existed in Bolivia to support the results of studies in Costa Rica (Alvarez et al. 1977) and in Colombia (Rubio 1976) that mating pure or high grade animals of European dairy breeds with Criollos would produce progeny that were superior to both parent breeds. In order to replicate these studies in Bolivia, a programme was commenced at the same time as the Criollo project was initiated in which a herd of Brown Swiss cows belonging to the Centro de Investigaci6n de Agricola Tropical at the Saavedra Experimental Station, 80 km northeast of the city of Santa Cruz was inseminated during 20 months with both Criollo and Brown Swiss semen. The cows were inseminated alternately as they came into oestrus so the selection was such as to ensure an equal number of conceptions per genotype per month for the 20 months. The Brown Swiss semen of four bulls was obtained from the United States and semen of five Criollo bulls was obtained from the herd of CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Although the Costa Rica bulls were not progeny tested it was believed that they were genetically superior to a random selection of bulls after 25 years of selection by dam record. Because of space limitations, both Brown Swiss and F I males were eliminated in the first week of life and the trial involved females only.
3. CROSSBREEDING TRIAL 3.1 Feeding, Management and Pastures The calves were reared at pasture and were separated from their mothers at 3 days of age. They were bucket fed milk commencing at 4 litres per day declining to I litre per day in the eighth month when they were weaned having consumed 510 litres. The calves were fed concentrates ad lib to two months and then restricted to I kg per day subsequently until they were eight months old after which age they were maintained on pasture alone. The pastures available were Brachiaria decumbens, Panicum maximum in association with Glycine wightii, Hyparrhenia rufa and Paspalum notatum. The calves were first sprayed against ticks at three months of age and thereafter at intervals of 28 days to prevent an excessive infestation in the Brown Swiss animals. 3.2 Results of Crossbreeding Trial 3.2.1 Calf mortality Between 23.3.79 and 31.12.80 18 Brown Swiss and 20 crossbred female calves were born of which 5 Brown Swiss and 2 crossbred calves died under six months of age (27.8 and 10 percent mortality) . This difference is not statistically significant at the 5 percent level due to the small numbers involved but is in accordance with the results of the previous study in the zone (Wilkins et al. 1979). 3.2.2 Growth rate Mean growth rate is indicated in Table 1. All animals are now over 18 months of age but the data after this age are incomplete as the youngest animals are not included. The differences in weights between genotypes at 548 days and at 730 days and the differences of first calving age are significant at the I percent level. The difference in age at first calving due to the slow growth of the Brown Swiss makes the planned contemporaneous lactations unobtainable. First lactations have not yet been completed but it is very probable that fir-94, lactation yield of the two genotypes will not differ significantly and will be in the’@:rd@r of 1850-1950 kg.
AGRI 3 24 25
TABLE 1 MEAN WEIGHTS AND AGE OF FIRST CALVING OF BROWN SWISS AND CRIOLLO BROWN SWISS HEIFERS AT SAAVEDRA EXPERIMENTAL STATION, BOLIVIA
Weight (kg) Brown Swiss Crossbred
Birth 36.1+ 6.2 33.4 + 5.7 250 days 151.9 + 22.6 163.9 + 19.0 365 days 181.4 + 24.1 198.7 + 22.1 548 days 231.5 + 31.4 270.1 + 30.8 750 days 299.5 ; 31.9 342.1 -+ 35.4 At first calving 361.9 + 39.9 360.6 + 24.4 Age at first calving (days) 1085.3 + 142.9 927.2 + 76.0
4. THE CRIOLLO PROJECT The project was planned in two stages, the first of which was to determine the performance of purchased Criollo cows that were to be milked in the absence of the calf. After four years the performance of the herd would be evaluated together with the results of the crossbreeding trial. A decision would then be made to terminate the project or to expand in size until progeny testing by contemporary comparison became possible. No third possibility was envisaged. 4.1 First Stage 4.1.1 Methodology Apart from those records obtained in the study of Wilkins et al. (1979), no others existed in the area; therefore Criollo cows had to be bought without the assistance of production data. Despite this lack of knowledge, the avowed intention was to buy fifty cows of apparently superior type and transport them to the Saavedra Experimental Station where they were to be mated with Criollo semen from Costa Rica. The poorest cows were to be sold and replaced by further purchases. Funds for the purchase of cows, equipment, semen, drugs, vaccine and a two-horse trailer suitable for transporting cattle were made available by the British Government. Funds were also provided for the purchase of two Bolivian Criollo bulls. The Centro de Investigaci6n Agricola Tropical provided land, staff and facilities at Saavedra. 4.1.2 Selection and purchase In order to obtain as wide a genetic base as possible, no more than two cows were bought from any one farm and cows of apparent milking ability were bought, even if aged, in preference to immature heifers. The object was to buy the best Criollo cow in any farmer’s herd and it rapidly became obvious that the project wished to buy those cows that the farmer did not wish to sell. Most of the owners were smallholders and were strongly opposed to selling their best cows both because of their value as milk producers and because they were extremely fond of them. Funds were available to pay a more than satisfactory price but each successful purchase represented a considerable display of determination and tenacity of purpose - on both sides. In some cases, the buyers were placed in an ethical dilemma because the money to be obtained from the sale of a Criollo cow was going to be used for a purpose which almost certainly would result in a decline in income for the farmer. However most livestock owners were very shrewd and when one buyer observed to the farmer that with the money that he was being offered for the Criollo cow he could buy a pure Holstein, the owner replied that in the conditions on his farm, his cow would give more milk than any Holstein with less problems. In brief, it would be difficult to overstate the problems of purchasing these cattle particularly when the extreme physical difficulties of actually reaching many of these farms is also considered. Cows were bought within a 300 km radius but the furthest successful purchase was made after a journey of 18 hours by four-wheel drive vehicle followed by four hours on horseback. While all this is of more social and
AGRI 3 26 geographical interest than genetic, such aspects should be considered before embarking on a similar programme elsewhere. In an ideal situation these problems could have been avoided by inseminating the cows on the onwers’ farms and purchasing the calves by contract but in view of the difficulties of communication between farm and centre, this was not feasible. In order to locate the cows, all organizations working with farmers were asked to assist and the project is greatly indebted to many institutions who gave valuable advice and information. Having located an animal it was thoroughly inspected. While Criollos are generally resistant to ticks, variation in the characteristic exists within the breed (as it does with zebus) and no cow is considered for purchase if it is infested with these parasites. All cows for purchase must be in good health, apparently fertile and without physical deformities although an aged cow of apparent high quality may be bought with a blind quarter as interest lies in the next generation, and not in the commercial production of milk and the purchase of such a cow is justified if it produces one or two calves by an outstanding bull. As Rabasa et al. (1976) have observed, Criollo cattle may have any colour that exists among Bos taurus animals and, although red is the favoured colour of most Criollo breeds, no association between colour and production characteristics had yet been demonstrated. Therefore any colour was at first considered acceptable although this view has now been modified and a preference exists for a uniform colour which is most commonly red in Criollo cattle. The reason for this preference for a uniform colour is that Holstein cattle in the area suffer from severe sun burn on those parts of their backs where the skin is not pigmented i.e. where the hair is white. Uniform colour appears to be dominant to patching so that, for example, the mating of an all red zebu or Criollo bull and a Holstein cow normally results in all black progeny with completely pigmented skin. However, the mating of a Criollo bull with patches and a Holstein cow results in progeny with patches with little or no pigmentation. It is now known that patching is recessive in Criollos and the mating of an all red Criollo, that is carrying this recessive gene, with a Ftolsteiii cow results in Holstein coloured progeny. Of the eight Turrialba bulls used to date, two are known to carry this recessive. Thus while preference has been recently given to purchasing all red cows it is now certain that it will be extremely difficult to achieve an all red herd and may be too costly in genetic terms to attempt. More importance is placed on the type of coat than on colour and those with short brilliant coats are selected that indicate both health and adaptation to the tropical environment. In the absence of milk lactation records, milk production is estimated by recording yield on the day of visit and estimating lactation stage by apparent calf age. The nutritional state of the herd is also taken into account. While this might appear to be very unsatisfactory it has to be remembered that the variation within the population is extremely high, the mean being low. The data already collected suggest that the average lactation yield in unselected Criollo cows is less than 400 litres when milked with the calf at foot and the object is to purchase animals that yield double this amount. It is estimated that for every cow selected for purchase, some 100 cows are inspected. Most of the cows purchased were pregnant and 90 percent of these were pregnant to bulls that were not Criollos and the resultant crossbred calves were sold after weaning. 4.1.3 Performance of purchased cows As already, stated, it was the intention to milk all cows in the absence of the calf and eliminate all low yiel.ders under this system. It very rapidly became obvious that this policy must be abandoned as only two of the first fifty purchased would milk satisfactorily without the calf at foot. It was hoped that this lack of success was due at least partially to the fact that these mature cows were accustomed to being milked with the stimulus of the presence of their calves and that selection for milk production in the absence of the calf must await the second generation when first calving heifers would be milked under this system. In the first four years of the project, thirty of the original cows have been eliminated and replaced. 27
The cows are milked twice per day with the calf at foot and do not receive concentrates. The herd is artificially inseminated and a vasectomized bull is not used. 4.1.4 Results Performance of the herd of purchased cows is shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2 PERFORMANCE OF PURCHASED CRIOLLO COWS AT THE SAAVEDRA EXPERIMENTAL STATION
Mean weight at calving (kg) 404.0 + 43.0 Mean lactation yield (kg) 760.0 + 267.3 Mean lactation length (days) 267.7 + 39.5 Mean calving interval (days) 462.8 + 91.2
The calves suckle throughout the lactation and have an average daily gain during the first 250 days of 635 g and 561 g for males and females respectively and it is estimated that average milk consumption by the calf is approximately 700 kg. Total mean lactation yield is therefore about 1450 kg. Because all the cows bought in the first year were pregnant to bulls other than Criollos at time of purchase, the first Criollo females born on the project have not yet completed their first lactations. For this reason the only results available are those for growth rate shown in Table 3. The difference is speed of growth between those bought in utero with unknown Bolivian Criollo sires and those with Turrialba sires is so great (statistically significant at the I percent level) that the difference is attributed to the suggestion that the Bolivian Criollos may be inbred and/or that there is heterosis effect when the Turrialba semen is used on Bolivian cows.
TABLE 3 PERFORMANCE OF CRIOLLO CATTLE BORN AT THE SAAVEDRA EXPERIMENTAL STATION, SANTA CRUZ, BOLIVIA
Turrialba sires Bolivian sires Weight (kg) Males Females Males Females
Birth 31.2 +6.6 27.2 + 3.9 25.5 + 6.1 24.6 + 2.9 250 days 175.2 + 24.4 157.1 + 18.5 160.4 + 28.0 139.3 + 20.1 365 days 243.5 + 25.4 199.2 + 19.5 205.0 + 19.4 176.4 + 17.0 548 days 313.2 + 42.9 253.9 + 30.3 - 237.2 + 17.1 730 days - 327.2 + 36.2 - 295.4 + 33.3 At first calving - 363.6 + 21.1 - 325.3 + 30.7 Age at first calving (days) - 896.8 + 94.2 - 936.3 + 66.9
The suggestion that the Bolivian calves are inbred is encouraged by the fact that calf mortality in the Bolivian calves was 12 percent (25 born, 3 died) and 5 percent in calves by Turrialba sires (97 born, 5 died). The growth rate of the Criollo heifers cannot be validly compared with the growth rate of the contemporary Brown Swiss and Criollo/Brown Swiss females given in Table 1 because these two latter groups were not suckled by their dams. However it is interesting to note that the expected superior rate of gain of the suckled Criollo calves over the Brown Swiss calves to 250 days of age was maintained until first calving. After weaning the management of the three groups was identical and all were grazed together. It should be noted that the Turrialba herd has
AGRI 3 28 29 never been selected for speed of growth. Few of the Criollo heifers have completed their first lactations but it is apparent that mean first lactation yield of the Turrialba sired heifers will significantly exceed the mean yield of the purchased Criollo cows. It is not of course known if this is due to improved environment during the rearing period, to true genetic gain or to heterosis or more probably a combination of these.
5. FUTURE PLANS A consultant, Mr. Ian Mason, visited the project in February 1982 and recommended the commencement of the second stage of the programme in which the herd is expanded to 300 adult females in order to permit the progeny testing of bulls (Mason 1982). It is hoped that much of this progeny testing can take place in other herds perhaps using cows of breeds other than Criollo. For example, it might be possible to prove Criollo bulls in Holstein herds. It must be remembered that the original object of the Criollo project was to produce bulls for crossing with Holsteins or Brown Swiss. Nevertheless, it is clear that the herd must increase to at least 300 breeding cows and that private breeders must be encouraged to conserve and multiply the breed in order to have an impact on the livestock industry of the country. Fortunately, the value of the Criollo is well accepted and there is a waiting list to purchase bulls although the majority of these are required in Holstein and Brown Swiss herds to improve vigour and tolerance of the environment. The size of herd has to be increased to four times its present size under the proposed plan. It is recommended that this expansion takes place relatively slowly and it is not envisaged that the herd will reach its ultimate size until 1991. This plan of slow growth has been criticized but is defended on the grounds that the necessary land drainage, forest clearing, pasture establishment, cattle purchase, building construction and staff recruitment and training can take place at a practicable rate.
6. DISCUSSION One fundamental aspect of the project that is under consideration is the feasibility, at last during the next ten years, of selection for the ability to give milk in the absence of the calf. In the original justification for the selection for this characteristic in Criollo cattle (Wilkins and Pereyra 1976) listed the following advantages to be accrued from such a programme. i. It would permit cheaper calf rearing methods. ii. It would result in higher fertility (Biswal and Rao 1960; Arora et al. 1971). iii. It would permit more efficient and less labour intensive milking operations. iv. The death of a calf would not result in the termination of the lactation as normally happens when the cow is milked with the calf at foot (Amble et al. 1967; Ngere et al. 1973). These arguments remain valid although they must be balanced with the counter arguments that exist: While bucket rearing of calves permits the feeding of milk substitutes, many farmers in the tropics do not have access to them or their cost is so high, because of transport costs and purchases made in small quantities, that the substitutes are frequently not cheaper than milk. Model calculations show that because beef prices are so low relative to milk prices in Bolivia, the slaughter of male calves at birth is economically advisable. However the prices of farm products are changing rapidly in relation to each other and the small farmer must be advised to diversify his production in order to avoid the risks involved in producing a single product. Dual purpose production may thus be more advisable than specialized dairy production even though it is at present less profitable. Dual purpose production also reduces animal health problems as calf mortality is lower when the calf suckles (Everitt et al. 1968; Gehlon and Sekhon 1969) and
AGRI 3 30 the incidence of mastitis is reduced (Everitt et al. 1968; Preston and Urgate 1972; Edwards et al. 1982). Both Everitt et al. (1968) and Preston and Urgate (1972) demonstrated that milk yield in enhanced by restricted suckling. The reduction in fertility induced by suckling is perhaps the most serious argument against a system in which the calf suckles throughout the lactation. However high frequency of suckling is the cause of depression of oestrus and if the cow only suckles the calf at milking times, the depression should be minimal. The higher fertility ascribed to zebu cows in India who were milked in the absence of the calf may be in part attributed to the effect of very short lactations and low yields of milk that occurred when the system of milking the cow in the absence of the calf was introduced. The authors have observed that oestrus symptoms are not so clearly manifested when the calf is suckled twice daily but this is only important if controlled mating or artificial insemination are used. A bull appears to detect the oestrus period without difficulty even when the symptoms are not obvious to an observer. Wilkins (1979) has argued that the selection of a tropical dairy breed for crossbreeding with a European dairy breed must be undertaken in a management system in which the cow is milked in the absence of the calf in order to ensure good dairy temperament in the tropical breed and subsequently in the crossbreds. The five Criollo bulls that were mated to Brown Swiss cows in the crossbreeding trial already described were from the herd in Turrialba, Costa Rica, where the cows have always been milked in the absence of the calf. However, the bulls are not progeny tested and heifers with poor milk let down and short lactations are still appearing in the herd (Deaton. Private communication). The fact that all the daughters of these bulls out of the Brown Swiss cows that have calved to date are yielding milk satisfactorily in the absence of the calf may therefore suggest that the elimination of the characteristic of being unable to give milk without the stimulus of the calf may not be essential for producing crossbreds for specialized dairy production. This needs further investigation as in crossbreeding with Red Sindhi’s in the United States (Branton et al. 1966) and with Sahiwals in Australia (Hayman 1974) bad dairy temperament was a considerable problem and was considered to be the major cause of the unsatisfactory results in the United States. The project was originally entitled the “Conservation and Improvement of the Bolivian Criollo” and it has been observed that it cannot be a conservation programme for Bolivian Criollo cattle if only exotic Criollo bulls are used in the programme. Funds exist for the purchase of Bolivian bulls and the rules for their purchase have been laid down. They should have female relatives (preferably daughters) whose milk production indicates that the bull is probably of superior genetic merit. To date, only two Bolivian bulls have been acquired and these will be progeny tested with bulls from elsewhere. However no attempt is being made to conserve the Bolivian Criollo in this programme and indeed if conservation of a breed is defined as the conservation of a population in its original heterozygous state, no attempt is being made to conserve the Latin American Criollo because the selected population under the present programme will differ more from the original population with each generation. The initial step in improvement has been made by benefitting from the years of selection performed in Turrialba, Costa Rica, and previous to that in Nicaragua where much of the Turrialba herd originated (De Alba 1978). The search will continue for Bolivian Criollo bulls but it is planned that these will be tested in teams with bulls whose semen will be imported from Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. Little more can be achieved with semen from Turrialba as all but one of the current bulls in use are related to the Turrialba progeny already born in Bolivia. The Bolivian Criollo Project in Santa Cruz is attempting to benefit from selection already performed in all the dairy Criollo herds in Latin America that appear to have genetic material that will improve the performance of the project’s herd. However, while this policy is probably the most desirable for the project, it might be argued that for the long term well being of the 31 selected Latin American dairy Criollo population, that must number less than 8000 cows in nine countries, careful mating plans should be agreed internationally so that the existing variation in characteristics between these nine national sub-populations is not reduced further by indiscriminate or unconsidered international transfer of genetic material.
BIBLIOGRAPHY J., Deaton 0. and Mun@oz H. Veinticinco a@os de selecci6n en un hato lechero del tr6pico h6medo. ALPA, Memoria 13 (1978). 149. 1977 Amble V.N., Krishnan K.S. and Soni P.N. Analysis of breeding data of some Indian herds 1967 of cattle. ICAR Tech. Bull. No. 6. Arora K.L., Tomar S.S. and Singal S.P. Factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of1971 Hariana cattle - the duration of post partum breeding interval. Indian Vet. J. 48:1015-1019. Bianca W. Cattle in a hot environment - A review. J. Dairy Res. 32:291-345.1965 Biswal G. and Rao A.M. Effect of weaning on red sindhi cows. Indian Vet. J. 37(8):3791960 387. Branton C., McDowell R.E. and Brown M.A. Zebu-European crossbreeding as a basis of dairy1966 cattle improvement in the USA. Southern Coop. Series Bull. 114. 40 p. Edwards S., Nicholls M.J., Vallejos F. and Ibata G. Mastitis survey in Bolivia. Trop.1982 Anim. Hlth. Prod. 14:93-97. Everitt G.C., Phillips D.S.M. and Whiteman D.P. Suckling: effects on the calf and cow.1968 Proc. Ruakura Farmers Conference Week. New Zealand. De Alba J. Progress in the selection of the Latin American Dairy Criollo. Wld. Anim. 1978 Rev. (FAO) 28:26-30. Gehlon M.S. and Sekhon G.S. Practicability of weaning of calves in Hariana cattle. 1969 Indian Vet. J. 46:1062-1065. Hayman R.H. The development of the Australian Milking Zebu. Wld. Anim. Rev. (FAO). 1974 11:31-35. Lloyd P.L. Regional Milk Production 1970-80. Queensland Agric. J. 107(5):256. 1981 Mason I.L. El programa criollo de CIAT y la Misi6n Britgnica en Agricultura Tropical. 1982 Documento de Trabajo No. 25. CIAT, Casilla 247, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. 16 p. Minson D.J. Nutritional differences between tropical and temperate pastures. In: 1980 Grazing Animals, F.H.W. Morley (ed). Elsevier Scientific Publishing, Amsterdam. p. 143- 157. Ngere L.O., McDowell R.E., Bliattacharya S. and Guha H. Factors influencing milk yield in 1973 Hariana cattle. J. Aiiim. Sci. 36:457-@465. Preston T.R. and Urgate J. Rearing dairy calves by restricted suckling. Wld. Anim. Rev. 1972 (FAO) 3:28-30. Rabasa C., Sal Paz A.R., Sal Paz F., Bergmann F. and Rabasa S.L. Genetics de pelajes en 1976 bovinos criollos. Mendeliana 1(2):81-90. Rubio R. Ganado costeno con cuernos. In: Razas criollas colombianas. Manual de asisten 1976 cia tgcnica 21. ICA, Bogotg 1976. Stobbs T.H. Factors limiting the nutritional value of grazed tropical pastures for beef1975 a n d milk production. Tropical Grasslands 9(2):141-149. Vivier M. Recherches sur 1’61evage bovin en zone tropicale humide. Premier Colloque1977 International, Bouak6, Cbte d’Ivoire. 697 p. Whiteman P.L. Tropical Pasture Science. Oxford University Press, New York. 392 p.1980 Wilkins J.V. and Pereyra G. El desarrollo de una raza criolla de doble prop6sito en 1976 Bolivia. Mimeo. 16 p. Wilkins J.V., Pereyra G., Ali A. and Ayala S. Milk production in the tropical lowlands
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1979 of Bolivia. Wld. Anim. Rev. (FAO) 32:25-32. Wilkins J.V. Cattle production in Santa Cruz: Research and Development. BTAM, Casilla 1979 359, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. 42 p. Wilkins J.V., Martinez L. and Rojas F. Advances in livestock investigation and develop 1981 ment in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Tropical Animal Production 6:85-92. 33
ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE CONSERVATION OF FARM ANIMALS IN THE UNITED STATES
Clarke Brooke Department of Geography Portland State University Portland, Oregon 92707, USA
SUMMARY The American Minor Breeds Conservancy and the National Council on Gene Resources are organizations in the United States whose activities are either wholly or in part directed to the conservation of rare and threatened breeds of farm animals. Past and current projects, goals, and the kinds of services provided by the AMBC and the NCGR are presented in brief form.
RESUME L’ “American Minor Breeds Conservancy” et le “National Council on Gene Resources” sont des organismes américains qui consacrent tout on partie de leurs activités à la conservation des races d’animaux domestiques rares et menacés. ‘Leurs réalisations passées et présentes, leurs objectifs et les services qu’ils fournissent sont brièvenient décrits.
RESUMEN El “American Minor Breeds Conservancy” y el “National Council on Gene Resources” son organizaciones de los Estados Unidos de América cuyas actividades estan orientadas totalmente o en parte a la conservación de razas de animales domésticos raras y amenazadas de extinción. Se presentan en forma abreviada proyectos anteriores y actuales, objetivos y tipos de servicio proporcionados por dichas organizaciones.
The preservation of endangered and less-cominon breeds of farm animals has not attracted much attention or support in the United States. The situation is mainly the result of a lack of understanding of the importance of minor breeds conservation. Indifference to the problem was the main reason for the failure several years ago to present the case for breed survival to the Agriculture Committee of the US House of Representatives. Initially it was believed that the Committee would hear testimony in support of a rare breeds protection act to establish a federally funded research centre for the maintenance of small populations of threatened breeds. liut before the hearing was formally scheduled it became clear t:liat t@-iet,f2 ,id:; little s(il)l)urt in the Committee for this, and consideration of the question of federal, legislation on endangered stocks of farm animals was postponed indefinitely. However, there is hope for the survival of some of the threatened breeds In the United States. There are populations of minor breeds at some of the research facilities of the state universities (for example, Utah State Universi.ty’s holdings of domestic and foreign breeds of sheep and goats) , and some of the less-cominorl breeds are on public display at historic farm museums. In adition to these, two relatively new organizations in the United States are working toward the conservation of farm-animal genetic resources. THE AMERICAN MINOR BREEDS CONSERVANCY is a non-f)rof-tt, membership organization established in 1977 for the purpose of preserving and promoting endangered breeds of livestock in North America. The directors of the AMBC have set as a priority goal a
AGRI 3 34 comprehensive survey of minor breeds in the United States and Canada. Funds to support this project are currently being sought. Three of the five founding directors of the AMBC are people who have been actively associated with Old Sturbridge Village, a living historical farm and museum located near Sturbridge, Massachusetts. In the late 1960s and early 1970s intensive efforts were made to obtain for permanent exhibit at the Village the kinds of livestock found on the early farms of New England. Old breeds were sought for parent stock to produce the nonspecialized kinds of livestock that were typical in the region during most of the 19th century. Shorthorn and Devon were crossed to yield the “common cattle” shown at Old Sturbridge Village. The “common pig” was crossbred from Tamworth and English black swine. Fourteen sheep purchased from a flock of an old breed of Merinos found in Florida constituted an exhibit of sheep that resembled Vermont Merinos. The “dunghill fowl” of the period were a composite breed from Speckled Sussex, Silver Gray Dorking, and Dominique poultry. The American Minor Breeds Conservancy came into being as a result of these endeavours at Old Sturbridge Village, for it became evident that many of the breeds, formerly popular, had become rare or extinct, and that an organized effort was needed to preserve what remained of the old breeds in North America. The AMBC News is published quarterly by the Conservancy. This four-page newsletter contains short articles on breeds and breeding (e.g. “Cotswolds: promoting a minor breed”. “St. Croix sheep”, “Mulefoot hog”, all from Autumn 1982 issue) , notes on breed registry, new publications, and letters from members. The total membership is about 200, Canadians and Americans for the most part. The AMBC News welcomes for publication information from people who have knowledge of a rare or minor breed of livestock in North America. Address: American Minor Breeds Conservancy, Box 225, Hardwick, Mass. 01037, USA. THE NATIONAL COUNCIL ON GENE RESOURCES was founded in 1980. According to its Director, Dr. David Kafton, its main goal is to ensure that the animal, plant, and microbial gene resources upon which society depends are properly managed, conserved and used. Of primary interest are commercially valuable taxa, including domesticated plants and animals. The Council seeks to bring together representatives of public and private organizations in order to improve communications, resolve problems, and establish financial, political, and working arrangements for the conservation of gene resources. Funding can be provided by public and private grants, donations, and sales of its publications. At present, operations of the NCGR are supported by a grant of $ 1.5 million from the State of California. Projects that have been undertaken by the Council, including the recently completed “California Gene Resources Project”, are relevant to the State’s needs. The Council provides information concerning policy and technicalrelated gene resource issues. Its services include information acquisition, analysis, report writing and publication, dissemination, and marketing. User cost varies according to the service. Current activities include organization of symposia and conferences, and presentations to legislators and to public and private agricultural, forestry, and fisheries organizations. Reports of NCGR activities are available on request. Enquiries should be addressed to Dr. David Kafton, Director, National Council on Gene Resources, 2855 Telegraph Avenue, Suite 20, Berkeley, California 94705, USA. 35
PRESERVATION OF THE SPANISH HORSE IN NORTH AMERICA
D.P. Sponenberg Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
SUMMARY Remnants of the vast populations of Spanish horses in North America are currently being registered and bred by a number of breed organizations. The number of foals registered yearly is around 100 individuals. As this number is widely spread geographically and not closely related, the genetic outlook for the breed is good. Blood group studies have not been done, but evidence from coat colour aliele frequencies suggests that the claim to purity and uniqueness compared with other North American breeds is valid.
RESUME Les survivants des grands troupeaux de chevaux espagnols en Amérique du Nord sont actuellement inscrits et reproduits par un certain nombre de sociétés d’élevage. Le nombre des poulains recensés chaque année est de l’ordre d’une ceritaine. Comme ces animaux sont largement répartis du point de vue géographique et ne sont pas étroitement apparentés, les perspectives génétiques pour la race sont bonnes. On n’a pas fait d’études des groupes sanguins, mais les observations effectuées sur la fréquence des allales qui commandant la couleur de la robe donnent A penser que les tenants de la pureté et de l’originalité de cette race, par rapport aux autres races nord-américaines, one effectivement raison.
RESUMEN Actualmente son objeto de registro en América del Norte los restos de las grandes poblaciones de caballos de raza española y varias organizaciones de mejormiento genético los están criando. El número de potros que se registran anualmente es unos 100. Como estan ampliamente distribuidos desde el punto de vista geográfico y no están estrechamente emparentados, las perspectives genéticas de la raza son buenas. No se han realizado estudios sobre grupos sanguíneos, pero los indicios en cuanto a las frecuencias del alelo del color del pelo ponen de manifiesto que son válidas las afirmaciones en cuanto a la pureza y caracter único de la raza en comparición con otras de América del Norte.
1. INTRODUCTION The North American continent has, in general, developed fewer unique breeds of livestock than other regions. The vast area of North America, high mobility of the populace and a rather short history of domesticated livestock have all contributed to make the development of local, specialized breeds of livestock the exception rather than the rule. One exception to this generality is the existence in North America of relic populations of European breeds that have either become extinct in Europe, or whose European populations have been selected differently from those relic populations in the New World. The latter situation has occurred with the Spanish horse in North America. The Spanish horse (Mustang) accompanied the conquerors and colonizers from Spain to the Americas during the 1500s (Denhardt 1975; Dobie 1952) . The methods of extensive livestock management, along with raids on Spanish settlements by native Americans, were responsible for a great many horses becoming feral. The populations of feral horses became more widespread
AGRI 3 36 as a result of the very active trading (and stealing) by the various native American tribes. The immense numbers in Texas can be documented by the fact that Philip Nolan was able to assemble a herd of 1000 head at the end of the eighteenth century (Denhardt 1975) . Peg Leg Smith was able to steal 3000 head in California in the mid 1800s (Dobie 1952). Following the removal of the native Americans to reservations and the fencing of the open ranges, the Spanish horses tended to be regarded unfavourably by most people. As a result attempts were made to use non-Spanish stallions to generate saddle and work horses from Spanish mares. In some instances the feral Spanish horses were simply killed.
2. BREED ASSOCIATIONS The earliest attempt to salvage a portion of the Spanish ancestry of the horses was in the development of the American Quarter Horse. This breed had heavy influences of non-Spanish breeds and cannot be considered to have saved the genetic strain. This is especially true now, as crossing to Thoroughbreds is common. Other breeders that started with horses from a largely Spanish base decided to concentrate on selected colours. In so doing they allowed crossing to other breeds, notably Thoroughbreds and Quarter Horse, but also others. These colour breeds include the Appaloosa, Pinto, Paint, and to some extent the Palomino. The f irst attempt to gather horses or pure Spanish ancestry occurred in the mid-1900s. This culminated in the formation of the Spanish Mustang Registry (SMR) in 1957. Horses were, and still can be, registered on the basis of known history of purity (admittedly difficult for feral horses) and by visual inspection. The Spanish Mustang Registry has registered about 1000 horses total since 1957 and 102 new horses in 1982 alone. The Spanish Barb Breeders Association (SBBA) began in 1972, and concentrated on Spanish horses that more plainly showed the Barb influence. They have registered a total or around 120 horses. They are currently importing breeding stock from African Barb strains, and South American criollo strains. These will no doubt result in some excellent specimens, but cannot be considered to be preserving the North American Spanish horse as a genetically pure strain. The South West Spanish Mustang Association (SSMA) is concentrating on slightly different bloodlines from the SMR. However, most of the 500 or so horses they have registered are also registered by the SMR. The American Indian Horse Registry (AIHR) has three divisions. Two of these are for horses that have non-Spanish ancestry. The third is devoted to pure Spanish horses. Again, most of these horses also qualify for the SMR and SSMA, and many are registered in two or three organizations. About 35 horses have been registered as pure Spanish by the AIHR. The American Mustang Association (AMA) registers horses of feral ancestry, but is not designed to concentrate on the Spanish bloodlines. It therefore includes much non-Spanish material within its registrations. The American Mustang and Burro Registry is similar to the AMA in its scope. Of the organizations registering horses the SMR, SSMA, and AIRR are currently trying to preserve the purity of the Spanish horse in North America. None allows crossing to other breeds. Many horses are registered in two or all three of the associations. Each recognizes a few horses that the others do not, as determining just exactly which are pure is sometimes a matter of opinion.
3. BREED CHARACTERISTICS Most horses of the breed are between 135 and 145 cm tall at the withers (straight measure). A few are shorter or taller than these limits. Most are of a medium build, but some are fairly heavy. They tend to have narrow chests. Short backs along with sloping croups and low-set tails are very typical of the breed (Figures I and 2). 37
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Most of the horses’ heads have a straight profile that drops off at the nose (Figures I and 2). Many also have dished foreheads. Some breeders claim that the horses always have five lumbar vertebrae. This has not been scientifically documented, and in the criollo (a related but distinct breed from South America) many horses have six lumbar vertebrae instead of five (Cabrera 1945). This characteristic needs to be documented more precisely in the North American horses before the claim of five lumbar vertebrae for the entire breed is made. Chestnuts (callosities) on the rear legs are frequently absent, and are small when present. Ergots are also usually small, or can be absent. The colours are extremely variable, and the breed is very interesting from the aspect of coat colour genetics. Genes that are present in the breed include bay, black, chestnut, dominant dilution (dun), palomino dilution, pangar&, grey, roan, rabicano, frosty, overo, sabino, tobiano (this one is doubted as pure Spanish by some breeders) , and various appaloosa colour patterns. Blood group studies have not been done in the breed, but would assist in documenting the purity, The frequencies of the same colours are certainly different from the other common breeds in North America, reflecting genetic differences. Especially common are the black allele (a), and the rabicano allele (Ra). Overo (o) and sabino (Sa) are also common, which is very atypical of other breeds. While this is no proof of uniqueness or purity, when combined with some of the unique morphological traits it does point to authenticity of the breed. The breed is currently used as a pleasure breed with several functions. Long distance riding is one popular use, but general equitation and pleasure riding are also common uses. It is fairly common for some lines in the breed to produce horses with a comfortable riding gait similar to that of the Paso breeds of South America. Some horses are used for driving or light draught. The future of the breed as it presently exists seems assured. Numbers have been built up, and unrelated families are readily available for breeding. Few horses are now registered by inspection only, and most have accurate pedigree information. This should aid in keeping the breed pure. Three of the associations, SMR, SSMA and AIHR, are dedicated to keeping the North American Spanish horse pure, and the breeders are careful to avoid introductions to outside blood. To the extent that this attitude prevails the breed’s future is secure.
REFERENCES Cabrera A. Caballos de America. Editorial Sud Americana, Buenos Aires. 1945 Denhardt R.M. The Horse of the Americas. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 1975 Dobie J.F. The Mustangs. Bramhall House, New York. 1952 39
NEWS ITEMS
FAO/UNEP ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES DATA BANKS - A PROGRESS REPORT INTRODUCTION 1 This note summarizes the work started during 1983 for the creation of 3 Regional Data Banks to hold characterizations of animal genetic resources in Africa, Asia and Latin America. It also looks forward to the work ahead, and outlines the likely steps needed to achieve a unified system offering maximum value to users in the future. 2. The creation of data banks for animal genetic resources in Africa, Asia and Latin America was recommended by the FAO/UNEP Expert Consultation in Rome in 1980, and was subsequently included for funding in the joint FAO/UNEP project for Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Management, and in the FAO Regular Programme Budget. 3. Work started in 1983, when FAO decided to establish Pilot Trials separately in each of the three regions, to gain experience in preparing characterizations of indigenous breeds of livestock and poultry. These trials aim also to define a routine for collecting original data from both published and unpublished reports, and for the extraction from them of the essential information for preparing the characterizations of individual breeds. No attempt is being made in the pilot trials to buy or to set up special computing equipment. The emphasis is upon the exploration of a technique and standard format to produce the breed characterizations together with estimates of the time and staff skills needed for this task. 4. FAO has arranged a contract with the Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics for hard copy abstracts to be provided for the pilot trials for the local breeds being studied.
TIME FRAME 5. During 1983, contracts for I year were signed by FAO with institutions in three countries of Asia (Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand), in two countries of Latin America (Venezuela and Mexico) and with the Interafrican Bureau of Animal Resources (IBAR of OAU) in Africa. The results from these trials will be available for regional evaluations in the autumn of 1984. The best experiences will then be used to design a unified global format for the characterizations. It will also be necessary to plan the locations of the Regional Data Banks. There will be many factors to take into account in making these decisions, and the regional organizations working closely on this project (IBAR/OAU; SABRAO; ALPA) will make essential inputs. It will also be appropriate during 1985, to investigate equipment options to be used for the data banks, in the light of the agreed format and routine which will, by then, be decided. Trials with possible equipment will be needed to gain experience of different types suited to the work with Animal Genetic Resources Data Banks. 6. It is therefore foreseen that at the end of 1985 sufficient experience will have been gained to establish the Regional Data Banks and to expand the programme to include many more breeds and countries.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS 7. At the meeting of the Joint FAO/UNEP Expert Panel in October 1983, the Panel made some technical recommendations regarding the Animal Genetic Resources Data Banks. In summary they are: a. Highest priority should be given to the identification and characterization of genetic resources and their adaptation; Regional Data Banks are a key part of this. The
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Panel commended FAO for initiating this work with thorough studies of methodology to ensure that a globally compatible system, using a common format, is created. b. Regional Data Banks should be established as soon as the methodological studies are complete. c. Descriptor lists for each species should be created. d. A uniform system of criteria should be developed for indicating the value of information included in the data bank. e. Competent scientific screening and compilation of all data entering data banks should be ensured, so that garbage is excluded. 8.In addition to the regional methodological studies already described above, FAO is currently arranging for scientists to undertake the creation of Descriptors.
DESCRIPTORS 9.Descriptors (of species or environments) are a series of items with defined meanings, which are universally used to prepare data bank characterizations of: i. Breeds of a given species, covering the phenotypic and genetic parameters of the breed. ii. Environments in which breeds of a given species are found, covering the natural and artificial features relevant to genetic analysis, including such items as climate, topography, endemic disease risk, feed and water supply and management systems. 10. The purpose of descriptors is to facilitate valid comparison, classification or enumeration of breeds within a species in the context of the environments existing in different countries and regions of the world. 11. Plant breeders and geneticists who already have experience in data banks have created their own lists of descriptors for some domestic plants. Animal geneticists have a smaller task, for there are relatively few species of animals which have been domesticated. A descriptor list will be needed for each animal species. Without the universal use of a common descriptor list, attempts to achieve a globally compatible system will fail, and regional data banks will have limited value. 12. Leaders in each of the pilot studies are now engaged in designing their own descriptor list for each species. The lists from each region will be brought together at the end of the trial period, when a small group for each species will be set up by FAO, with the task of designing the definitive list for the species. This is felt to be a preferable method during the pilot trials, rather than using an arbitrary list drawn up by one person, which would have placed limits on the experiences in the trials. 13. Descriptors for the environment to describe the adaptation of a breed will also be needed. These probably need not be species specified. In each pilot trial, the people concerned are being encouraged to create their own list of environmental descriptors to meet the needs of their own local conditions. At the same time, FAO is arranging for a separate study of environmental descriptors among specialists in this field. Their findings will also be available when the consultations take place at the end of the pilot trials.
FAO/UNEP REGIONAL CRYOGENIC GENE BANKS One of the components of the FAO/UNEP Project for Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Management is the creation of Gene Banks for indigenous breeds of Africa, Asia and Latin America. At the meeting of the Expert Panel in 1983, it was accepted that the most reasonable and economically feasible means of creating and maintaining gene banks in the developing regions of the world is by cryogenic storage, rather than by live animals. There will obviously be exceptions to this generalization, but they are likely to be national rather than regional. FAO and UNEP will provide technical help and guidance when requested for the establishment of national live animal reserves. Meanwhile, however, the main thrust of the programme is the 41 creation of Regional Cryogenic Gene Banks. As a first step, immediately after the Expert Panel meeting, FAO arranged a pilot study in Africa to seek resolution to some of the practical problems. It was decided to work with the Gobra breed initially in Senegal. Semen from this indigenous breed is being collected, and frozen, and then moved to other countries to provide opportunity to evaluate some of the problems. In particular the aims of the pilot study are: a. To record and analyse problems of a technical nature in connection with the harvesting of genetic material in the form of frozen semen in circumstances where frozen semen processing laboratories and skilled staff are not available. b. To identify problems associated with the certification of disease-free status in semen harvested from males not kept continuously at an Al centre; to propose solutions to these problems; and to create a record system of health tests carried out on the animals and in the herds and regions concerned, to indicate to users in the future the health/disease risk status of the semen. c. To make available 1500 doses of semen with the relevant documentation, of donor bulls’ identification, performance traits as available, and records of the investigations forming the basis for the declaration of health/disease status of the semen produced. The work is being carried out by the Laboratoire de ContrOle des Reproducteurs, Maisons- Alfort, France, under the direction of Dr. M. Parez.
BREED DICTIONARY In 1969 the Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland, published the second (revised) edition of “A World Dictionary of Breeds, Types and Varieties of Livestock” which was compiled by I.L. Mason. The first edition had been published in 1951. The dictionary covers ass, buffalo, cattle, goat, horse, pig and sheep. For each breed the English name is followed by area of distribution, uses, relationship to other breeds, colour, horns (and for sheep tail and fleece type), origin, presence of herdbook, names in other languages, synonyms and misspellings, varieties, derived breeds, herdbooks and breed societies in other countries, etymology of the name, status, e.g. ..rare” or “nearly extinct”. A third edition is now in preparation. The compiler would be most grateful for any useful information to help in his task. He would be particularly grateful for books, papers or pamphlets describing specific breeds or groups of breeds. But he would also like firsthand unpublished information of the same sort especially if it drew attention to errors and omissions in the second edition. All information should be sent to: I.L. Mason, 8 Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh EH1 2NA, UK.
ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES OF THE USSR In 1980, at the FAO/UNEP Technical Consultation in Rome, on the Conservation and Management of Animal Genetic Resources, it was recommended that FAO and UNEP should seek agreement with the Government of the USSR for an inventory of all breeds of livestock and domestic birds in the USSR. It was pointed out that there are most extensive genetic resources available in the USSR, which are not well documented for use in the West or in Developing Countries. Initiatives have been made, and responded to by the USSR, resulting in a visit to the USSR by the FAO Animal Production Officer (Animal Breeding and Genetic Resources) in June 1984, when plans were finalized and agreed. The work of gathering all the appropriate information is in progress, and Soviet geneticists are writing full descriptions of the breeds and of the environments to which they are adapted. The information will be published by FAO/UNEP in a monograph, with many photographs, maps and tables, in Russian and English, and later it is hoped also to publish in French and Spanish. The monograph will include over 180 breeds of 15
AGRI 3 42 domestic species. The scientific editors of the monograph are Academician L.K. Ernst and Academician N.G. Dmitriev of the All-Union Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences; the Soviet coordinator responsible for implementing the project is Dr. S.N. Baibakov of the Centre for International Projects in Moscow; final preparation of the manuscripts, editing and publication will be in the hands of FAO, and funds are being provided by UNEP. It is planned to publish the Russian and English editions by the end of 1985.
ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES IN CHINA A similar recommendation to that mentioned above was also made in 1980 at the FAO/UNEP Technical Consultation concerning the Animal Genetic Resources of China. A first step to meeting this request is in process. The book “Livestock Breeds of China” by Professor Cheng Pie Lieu, which has been published in Chinese by China Academic Publishers of Beijing, is currently being prepared for publication in English by FAO. The translation into English was first made by the author, and the manuscript is being edited on behalf of FAO by Dr. Helen Newton Turner of Australia, who has longstanding contacts with Professor Cheng Pie Lieu. Publication in English is expected in 1985.
TWO NEW PUBLICATIONS FROM FAO/UNEP ON ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES The proceedings of the FAO/UNEP Expert Panel on Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Management, which was held in October 1983, are now published in two parts as follows: Part I Conservation by Management, Data Banks and Training. Animal Production and Health Paper 44/1. Part 2 Cryogenic Storage of Germplasm and Molecular Engineering. Animal Production and Health Paper 44/2. Copies may be requested from Animal Production and Health Division, FAO Rome, or through FAO Sales Agents.
DEFINITIONS PERTAINING TO ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES The following is a preliminary list and further definitions will be published periodically. 1. CONSERVATION The management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Thus conservation is positive, embracing preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration and enhancement of Lhe natural environment. (This definition of CONSERVATION originates with the World Conservation Strategy, which was prepared by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), and the following collaborative organizations: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Environment Prgramme (UNEP), and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). 2. PRESERVATION That aspect of CONSERVATION by which a sample of an animal genetic resource population is designated to an isolated process of maintenance, by providing an environment free of the human forces which might bring about genetic change. The process may be in situ, whereby the sample consists of live animals in a natural environment, or it may be ex situ, whereby the sample is placed, for example, in cryogenic Storage. 43
3. CONSERVATION BY MANAGEMENT That aspect of CONSERVATION by which a sample, or the whole of an animal population is subjected to planned genetic change with the aim of Sustaining, Utilizing, Restoring or Enhancing the quality and/or quality of the animal genetic resource and its products of food, fibre or draught animal power. 4. THREATENED (SPECIES OR BREED) A term used to describe an animal genetic resource population which is subject to some force of change, affecting the likelihood of it continuing indefinitely, either to exist, or to retain sufficient numbers to preserve the genetic characteristics which distinguish it from other populations. THREATENED is a generic term embracing more precise descriptions such as Endangered, or Vulnerable. (It is also used in the context of the World Conservation Strategy.) 5. GENE BANK A physical repository, in one or more locations, where the samples of animal genetic resource populations which are being preserved are kept. These may include animals, embryos, oocytes, sperm, DNA, etc. 6. DATA BANK The fund of knowledge comprising the CHARACTERIZATIONS which describe the genetic attibutes of animal breeds or species and the various environments in which they occur; these CHARACTERIZATIONS being stored both as numerics and words in a data/word processing system which provides for the addition of further information, for amendment and for analytical use. 7. CHARACTERIZATION The numeric/word description of: i. the genetic attributes of an animal species or breed which has a unique genetic identity; and ii. the environments to which species or breed populations are adapted or known to be only partially or not adapted. The CHARACTERIZATION is a succinct statement, being the distillation of all available knowledge both previously published or unpublished, which contributes to the reliable prediction of genetic performance in defined environments. It is different from the mere accumulation of existing reports or individual findings on genetic performance on specific occasions. 8. DESCRIPTORS (OF SPECIES OR ENVIRONMENTS) A series of items with defined meanings for a species and its environments, which are universally used to prepare data bank CRARACTERIZATIONS of: i. breeds of a given species, covering the phenotypic and genetic parameters of the breed; ii. environments in which breeds of a given species are found, covering the natural and artificial features relevant to genetic analysis, including such items as climate, topography, endemic disease risk, feed and water supply, and management systems. The purpose of DESCRIPTORS is to facilitate valid comparison, classification or enumeration of breeds within a species in the context of the environments existing in different countries and regions of the world.
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CORRESPONDENCE
The Editor Animal Genetic Resources Information FAO, Rome Dear Sir, MENDELIAN INHERITANCE IN ANIMALS Since July 1980, work has been proceeding on a project with the following aims. 1. To continually update a computer database consisting of a. a bibliography of all known Mendelian characteristics in animals b. all known nucleotide sequences of animals. 2. To publish updated editions of the bibliography plus nucleotide sequences at regular intervals, using computer typesetting. 3. To make the combined database available for interactive searching on national and international computing networks. 4. To maintain a library containing a copy of each reference in the bibliography. 5. To provide copies of particular references to enquirers who do not have access to the relevant journal. Currently, there are approximately 5500 references in the bibliographic database, which can be searched using, for example, the names of particular abnormalities or species names. While much work remains to be done on the database, it has now been developed to the stage where it may be of use to readers of AGRI. Accordingly, I would be interested to hear from any readers who may wish to: 1. obtain a copy of the database for mounting on their own computer, 2. obtain access to the database via a national or international computing network, or 3. have searches conducted in Sydney on their behalf, with printouts and copies of relevant papers being sent by mail. Since a clerical assistant is required to continually update the database, and since the project must be self-supporting, I would also be interested to recieve suggestions from readers in relation to how much they would be willing and able to pay for access to the database. F.W. NICHOLS Senior Lecturer in Animal Genetics Department of Animal Husbandry The University of Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
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REPORTS OF MEETINGS
WORKSHOP ON PROLIFIC SHEEP The second Workshop on Prolific Sheep was arranged by the ARC Animal Breeding Research Organization (ABRO) in Edinburgh, UK, from 7 to 9 July 1983. There were about 40 paper..,i from 20 countries. The papers were divided into three main groups: genetic variation, physiology of genetic variation in fecundity, and utilization of fecund sheep. Experiences about several prolific breeds (including Finnsheep, Romanov, Chios, Booroola Merino, D’man), as well as different components of fecundity, crossbreeding and selection for fecundity were discussed. Special attention was paid to single genes for prolificacy and their utilization. Such genes had been found in Booroola Merino, Icelandic sheep and Indonesian sheep. The physiological aspects discussed included the endocrine basis of genetic variation, mechanism of action of genes controlling reproduction, detection and assessment of physiological criteria of merit, testis size and other physiological criteria in genetic selection for fertility, and correlation between female and male fertility. On the subject of using fecund sheep, discussion included nutritional requirements at different stages, management and grazing problems. Experiences on the use of the Booroola Merino were presented from Australia, New Zealand and France. Most of the material presented will be published in the Journal of Reproduction and Fertility in 1984.
XV INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GENETICS, NEW DELHI, 12-21 DECEMBER 1983 The presidential address by Dr. Swaminathari has the title “Genetic conservation: microbes to man”. Only two pages out of 32 are devoted to livestock genetic resources. They refer chiefly to the work of FAO and UNEP but also contain a warning that the emphasis of some geneticists solely on the improvement of indigenous breeds without the use of exotic improved strains is just as shortsighted as the wholesale destruction of local breeds by crossing with imported ones. In Symposium VF, “Genetic resources - a new look”, J.M. Rendel suggested that to mitigate the dangers inherent in the current decline in the number of breeds, the livestock supplying an industry (e.g. the Friesian breed in Britain) should be divided into genetically isolated populations equal in number to the number of breeds which once served it. This will reduce the risk of the chance fixation of deleterious genes (e.g. those giving suscpetibility to disease). It will also preserve sufficient variance to allow continued response to selection. In Symposium IVB, “Newer approaches to animal genetics and breeding” Acharya and Bhat discussed the genetic aspects of evolutionary crossbreeding dairy cattle and sheep in India and concluded that formation of new breeds should begin by selecting among the Fl crosses of European x local breeds. Earl Bell reviewed the results of genetic nio
AGRI 3 48 animals (inlcuding silkworm, honey bee, tribolium, dog, mouse, and the sof t-f urred rat) . Many are concerned with biochemical polymorphisms. Those of most direct bearing on genetic resources include the following: Livestock and fish genetic resources of northeast India (including mithun, yak and mahseer) ; Crossbreeding to increase the milk production of local cattle of Kerala (50-75 percent Brown Swiss blood were best both for milk yield and fertility) ; The “Hoa Mai” duck hybrid (Cherry Valley x Vit co - a local variety in north Viet Nam); Comparative suitability of Jersey and Brown Swiss breeds for crossbreeding with nondescript zebu cows in heavy rainfall areas (in Kerala no difference between crossbreds in milk yield and age at first calving).
LES MOUTONS COLORES ET LA DEFENSE DU PATRIMONIE GENETIQUE ANIMAL Un congrès mondial sur les moutons colorés et leurs produits vient de se tenir en Nouvelle Zé1ande, en janvier 1984. Ce congrès est le deuxième du genre, le premier s’étant tenu à Adelaide, Australie, en 1979. Dans 1 ‘ intervalle des deux congrès , la production des laines naturellement colorées et toutes les activités dérivées, en particulier artisanales, n’ont fait qlie crottre de manière continue en Australasie. Il semble, en effet, que la beauté et la qualité de ces laines soient un puissant incitatif d’activités humaines valorisantes. Ces deux congrès étaient organises par des sociétés de moutons colorés qui sont au nombre de sept dans le monde: 5 en Australia (800 membres au total), I en Nouvelle Zé1ande (500 membres), et 1 aux USA (700 membres). Le prochain congras se tiendra à Eugene (Oregon, USA) en 1989. Soucieux d’assurer une base scientifique A leurs activités, les organisateurs de ces congras se sont entour&s de spgcialistes de toutes les disciplines concernées, en particulier de généticiens. C’est là que nous rejoignons le thème de la défense des ressources génétiques animales. A la suite du congrés de 1979 il était en effet apparu qu’un goulet d’étranglement existait au niveau de la terminologie des gènes de couleur; celle-ci n’était pas unifige et prgtait ainsi à confusion. C’est ainsi qu’avait été mise au programme du congrès de 1984 la question de la “nomenclature génétique colorée du mouton”. Le petit groups formé de représentants des sociétés de moutons colorés, de technicians et de scientifiques, qui s’est réuni le 28 janvier 1984 A Massey University dans ce but-là, a, semble-t- il, parfaitement rempli son office et mgme au-dela. II a été en effet fonds un Comité de nomenclature génétique standardisée du mouton et de la chèvre, sur le modale du comité existant pour la souris de laboratoire depuis 1943. Le Président de ce comitg est le Professeur A.L. Rae, de Massey, connu pour sea travaux en matiare de ggngtique du mouton. Le Secrétaire est le Dr. Wickham également de Massey. Les autres membres fondateurs sont : les Drs. S. Adalsteinsson (Islande) , Melinda J. Burrill (USA) , H. Blair, T. Broad (Nouvelle Zfilande) , C.H.S. Dolling (Australie) , P. Hoogachagen (Pays— Bas) , J.J. Lauvergne (France) , R. Lundie et A.R. Quatermain (Nouvelle Zé1ande). Le Comité se propose : 1. d’élaborer des ragles de nomenclature ggnfitique générales et particuliares. 2. de dresser et de tenir à jour la liste des loci et allales homologugs. 3. d’Stablir lea ragles de constitution des lingées marqueuses (pour lea tests génétiques) et d’en tenir à jour la liste homologuée. D’ici quelques mois, une lettre d’information “Sheep and Goat Genetic Newsletter” devrait commencer à ètre diffusée. 49
A terme, une telle initiative introduit une rigueur scientifique qui, à part le cas de la souris, nlest encore pas entiarement de mise (mgme chez des espaces de Mammifares plus “travaillées” génétiquement que les moutons et les chèvres que sont le chat, le chien et lea animaux à fourrures). Elle devrait avoir un impact certain sur lea conceptions et lea politiques de conservation et d’utilisation des ressources génétiques ovines et caprines. Pour n’en donner qu’un exemple, la necessaire constitution de lignées marqueuses, contenant un allale fixé ou plusieurs allales ségrégants à des fins de test d’allélisme on de linkage, conduira à la conservation en bloc de toutes les potentialités génétiques de la race qui sera choisie pour porter ces genes marqueurs. Pour plus de détails, addresser à : G. Wickham - Animal Production, Massey University, Palmerston North, Nouvelle Z&Iande (zone australasienne) Melinda J. Burrill - California State Poly University, Animal Science Department, 3801 W. Temple Avenue, Pomona, California 917é8, USA (zone américaine). J.J. Lauvergne - Laboratoire de Génétique Factorielle CNRZ, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France (zone européenne).
SUMMARY This conference was held in New Zealand in January 1984 and was sponsored by the coloured sheep societies of which there are 5 in Australia (800 members) , one in New Zealand (500 members) and one in USA (700 members) . A Committee for the Standardized Genetic Nomenclature of the Sheep and the Goat was formed; its membership is given as well as the names and addresses of three continental representatives. A “Sheep and Goat Genetics Newsletter” is planned for 1985. The next coloured sheep congress is planned for Eugene, Oregon, in 1989.
PROCEEDINGS OF 2ND WORLD CONGRESS ON COLOURED SHEEP AND THEIR PRODUCTS A 400 page book containing all the papers presented at the 2nd World Congress on Coloured Sheep and Their Products is published. It contains 55 papers by 40 authors covering every aspect of the coloured sheep industry, including papers by leading geneticists, and marketing and handcraft experts from UK, USA, NZ and Australia. It also contains four pages of coloured photos showing the various coat patterns found in coloured sheep. To obtain a copy of “Coloured Sheep and Their Products” send NZ$ 27.00 approx, E12.50 (this includes surface postage) by bank draft or money order to: Mrs. J. Keating, Sales Officer, 8 Garrison Street, Carterton, New Zealand.
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MILK PRODUCTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES This conference was organized by the University of Edinburgh Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine and was held in Edinburgh, UK, from 2 to 6 April 1984. There were nearly 200 participants of whom over 100 were from developing countries. The topics included the following: Nutritional Value of Milk; International Production, Trade and Economics; Dairy Cattle Feeding and Nutrition; Genetics and Breeding; Management and Health; Climate and Housing; Production Systems; and milk from Buffalo, Goats and Sheep. In the section on Breeds and Breeding, papers were presented by Hodges (FAO Rome) on “Strategies for dairy cattle improvement in developing countries”; Turton (Edinburgh) on “Progress in the development and exploitation of new breeds of dairy cattle in the tropics”; Hultnas and Hodges (FAO Rome) on “Problems and prospects for expanded use of AI in developing countries”; and Galina and Escobar (Mexico) on “Artificial insemination in Zebu cattle”.
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All the papers and discussions are to be printed in the proceedings, which will be available from Dr. A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian, Scotland.
THIRD WORLD RABBIT CONFERENCE, ROME, 4-8 APRIL 1984 Until recently the rabbit was looked on primarily as a laboratory animal or as a pest. There is now increasing interest in the rabbit as a meat producer, especially for subsistence farming and backyard husbandry in developing countries. The trend is exhibited in the proceedings of this conference, and particularly in the genetics section which alone is considered here. Of the 14 short papers no less than 12 are concerned with characters of production or reproduction. The main paper on the genetics of the rabbit is by Matheron and Poujardieu, both of France. This is appropriate because of the 140 research papers published since the 2nd World Rabbit Conference (Barcelona 1980), no less than 38 emanate from France, with 22 from USA, and 11 each from Czechoslovakia and Italy. This analysis forms the first part of the review. The subjects of the papers reviewed include adaptation, quantitative genetics, formal genetics, breeds and meat production. The second part of the review summarizes the work on quantitative genetics presented at the round table on the rabbit at the 2nd World Congress on Genetics applied to Livestock Production (Madrid 1982). The third part is the most stimulating; it discusses future prospects for the breeding and genetics of the rabbit as a productive animal. The first need is a reliable supply of breeding animals of known genetic merit, especially in western Europe where demand exceeds supply. There is no obligation to publish the selection scheme used or the actual performance of the selected lines and too often a breeder’s reputation rests primarily on his successful salesmanship. Secondly conservation of breeds and strains is becoming desirable. Local breeds are needed to exploit the hybrid vigour which they exhibit when crossed, especially with improved breeds. Among these latter the spread of the New Zealand and Californian Whites is endangering other breeds. It is urgent to undertake a survey and evaluation of all the breeds still existing throughout the world. Thirdly an effort must be made to develop breeds and breeding systems suitable for tropical countries which have no tradition of rabbit keeping. For instance the improved breeds could be screened for resistance to heat and humidity. Finally an opportunity exists and must be grasped for rabbit geneticists to have the rabbit recognized as a livestock species in its own right and also to show that the study of rabbit genetics can benefit the other livestock species.
GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF TRYPANOTOLERANT LIVESTOCK A meeting was held in Freetown, Sierra Leone, from 30 April to 3 May 1984 with representatives of the 3 member countries of the Mano River Union (Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone). It was organized by the Secretariat of the Mano River Union, with financial and technical support from FAO. The agenda was technical and lectures were presented by representatives from FAO (C. Hoste), ILCA (International Livestock Centre for Africa) (H. Maehl) and ITC (International Trypanotolerance Centre) (B. Touray). The aim of the meeting was to prepare an inter-governmental workplan for collaboration in the genetic improvement of trypanotolerant livestock in the 3 countries. Some background information on the purpose of the meeting is as follows: 1. The Mano River Union came into being in 1973. At the request of the Union, a Preparatory Assistance Mission was provided by FAO under the Programme for the control of African Animal Trypanosomiasis and Related Development. This mission, which visited the Union Member States in May/June 1982, recommended that consideration be given to the development of trypanotolerant livestock through collaboration of existing herds in the three Member States. 51
2. The ruminant population of the Member States of the Union is approximately 1.7 million goats and sheep, and 2.2 million cattle. These animals are largely tolerant to important regional diseases such as trypanosomiasis and streptothricosis . 3. The performance of these indigenous livestock is inadequately reported and progress in organizing breeding programmes has been limited. Improvement of cattle by genetic selection is a slow process. It is worthwhile because once made the advance remains without further effort. Rapid improvement can be made by attention to feeding and management and to disease control, and these measures must be taken for every generation and every year. 4. To make selection effective, however, a large herd of several hundred breeding cows is desirable. None of the Member States has a herd of sufficient size, although they are aiming to build up larger herds. In the meantime, the same effect could be achieved by cooperation in the breeding programmes between the herds which are available. There are 12 centres which could be involved in such a collaboration programme. 5. It is also considered important that livestock selection in the environment prevailing in the villages should be included in the programme and the way on how this can best be undertaken was also considered by the meeting. The report of the meeting is being prepared by the MRU Secretariat.
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RECENT PUBLICATIONS
ANIMAL BREEDING PROGRAMS: SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO THEIR DESIGN. D.L. Harris, T.S. Stewart and C.R. Arboleda. Agricultural Research Service, North Central Region, USDA, Peoria, Illinois 61615. AAT-NC-8 February 1984. This publication presents a systematic nine-step approach to designing comprehensive animal breeding programmes. Step 1. Describe the production system In this description, use numerical specification and include environments and marketing situations that are to be targets of the breeding programme. Specify livestock species, products and purposes, and geographical and climatic areas of interest, and emphasize the benefit and cost considerations. This description should include the normal life cycle of parents and production animals specifying ages for breeding; time of offspring production; expected fertility and fecundity; ages or weights for weaning, intensive feeding, marketing, and slaughter; and all other relevant and important points in the life cycle. The nature of feed, labour, land, buildings and equipment requirements, and the corresponding costs in the various stages, are necessary to describe the system fully. Step 2. Formulate the objective of the system - simplified or comprehensive The simplified form should be expressed as a single linear or quadratic function, involving the component traits with coefficients that represent the relative economic importance of the production unit characteristics involved. The comprehensive form must take account of two aspects of the programme not included in the simplified form, namely (i) costs of the evaluation and selection programme (steps 5 and 6), and (ii) effectiveness of the purebreeding or crossbreeding programme (step 3) and the expansion programme (step 8). Step 3. Choose breeding system and breeds The choice of breeding system will influence the performance characteristics of the production units and the costs of producing the production animals through the expansion system of step 8. The major alternative systems include the following: (i) purebreeding with an established breed or strain; (ii) purebreeding with a new synthesized population; (iii) rotational crossbreeding with a specified number of breeds or strains; (iv) rotational crossing to produce the parent females to be terminally mated to sires of a different breed or strain (or cross); (v) a specific terminal cross involving two or more breeds or strains. Step 4. Estimate selection prarameters and economic weights The estimates must be developed by literature search or direct evaluation. The selection parameters usually include phenotypic and additive genetic variances and covariances among the relevant characteristics. The needed economic weights are the numerical values of the coefficients in the linear or quadratic equation that quantifies the simplified objective of step 2. Step 5. Design animal evaluation systems Subject to constraints of reproduction and longevity, an evaluation system should be designed to measure and record relevant characteristics at appropriate times to include in the selection criteria in step 6. Different types of alternative evaluation schemes might be considered. For example, alternatives might differ by the presence or absence of progeny tests and by whether progeny tests are purebred, crossbred to tester, or reciprocally crossed. Multistage selection should be considered when there are many traits measurable at different stages in the life cycle. Data from the production system might be useful in the testing system. Step 6. Develop selection criteria Each selection criterion should be developed as an appropriately weighted mathematical function of the relevant direct and indicator traits of individuals and near relatives. An essential part of the selection criterion should be adjustment factors, such as those for age-of-dam effects,
AGRI 3 54 to correct for identified extraneous environmental variation to make the selection criteria more accurate. Step 7. Design matings for selected animals Include in this portion of the design the proportions to be selected at each selection point for the life cycle of each sex of each breed or strain. Designing the mating system includes deciding among inbreeding, assortative mating, or random mating strategies. Inherent in these decisions are the specifications of the mating ratio of females to males and the number of breeding seasons for which selected individuals are to be used. Step 8. Design systems for expansion Design a system so that genetic improvements developed in the testing, selecting, and mating system can be disseminated into the production system(s) effectively and economically. The choice of transfer strategy necessarily involves breeding population size. The decision requires consideration of both the number of improved animals produced and the expected genetic improvement. Step 9. Compare alternative combined programmes This step allows broad decisions not possible in the earlier steps. This nine-step approach is also a basis for developing computer models for analysing alternative breeding and selection systems. Principles and procedures, including iterative and branched approaches, and the difficulties in designing and implementing coordinated breeding strategies in segmented industries are also reviewed.
SHEEP AND GOATS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THEIR PRESENT AND POTENTIAL ROLE. WINROCK INTERNATIONAL. THE WORLD BANK, WASHINGTON DC. 1983 The objectives of this study, which was carried out by Winrock International for the World Bank, were to assess the role of sheep and goats in the food production systems of developing countries, examine their advantages and disadvantages, analyse the constraints limiting their further contribution to the welfare of small farm/low income rural producers, prescribe measures for overcoming these constraints, and make recommendations related to potential World Bank involvement in support of sheep and goats. In this note only the items of genetic interest are mentioned. The populations of sheep and of goats in developing countries increased both absolutely and relative to those in developed countries during the period 1972-81. Their productivities of meat and of milk are discussed in detail. Both the advantages and the disadvantages of small ruminants largely stem from their small size. The breed types identified in Mason (1969) “A World Dictionary of Breeds, Types and Varieties of Livestock” are listed alphabetically and summarized by region, purpose and type. Tile majority of the goat breeds originated in the developing countries. Genetic improvement strategies are discussed. The recommendations include the following: • Development of comprehensive data bases on biological and economic characteristics of sheep and goats should be supported. • A file of technical personnel with interest and experience in sheep and goats should be compiled and regularly updated. The primary purpose of these data bases would be to organize available information to support project design and implementation. Biological research priorities include: • Characterize native types of sheep and goats for production and fitness traits and determine the extent to which differences are due to additive and non-additive genetic variance. • Evaluate strategies for combining the superior traits of different breeds with particular 55
attention to breeds which have evolved in the tropics. • Evaluate the apparent advantages and disadvantages of sheep and goats versus cattle.
THE CAMEL. R.T. WILSON. LONGMAN, LONDON AND NEW YORK. 223 P. 1984 This is the definitive book on the one-humped camel. It is all-inclusive, accurate and readable. Being based on the author’s long first-hand experience in Africa and the Middle East (particularly Sudan and Mali), it is authoritative. All-embracing coverage is guaranteed by the extensive review of the literature - both English and French with Italian, German and Spanish not neglected. The book is very suitable as a textbook - the material is well digested and facts are set out clearly in diagrams and tables; there is a glossary of technical and scientific terms and the overall length of the book is not excessive. At the same time it is very well referenced (a bibliography of over 2000 references) so it is a suitable first source for research workers. It is also full of practical advice for the animal husbandman and agricultural adviser. The chapter headings are as follows: Origins and domestication, Distribution, numbers and importance, Types and breeds, Anatomy, Physiology, Reproduction and breeding, Foods and feeding, Diseases and parasites, Husbandry and management, Productivity, The future for the camel. The text is illustrated by many photographs, line drawings, graphs and maps. Many are unattributed; if this means that they are the author’s own he must be congratulated on his artistic skill. His literary taste is indicated by the interesting and relevant quotations which head each chapter; they range from the sacred (Mohammed) to the profane (“The sexual life of the camel/ Is stranger than anyone thinks The publisher and printer have done an excellent job. The book is almost entirely confined to the one-humped camel. One of the few references to the two-humped is, unfortunately, inaccurate - its distribution on the map is shown much too far south, e.g. it is placed in Tibet instead of Mongolia. Apart from this slip the book can be highly recommended to anyone concerned with animals in a camel country as well as to expatriates who may be assigned to a project in such countries.
ETHNOZOOTECHNIE NO. 33. RACES DOMESTIQUES EN PERIL This issue is the report of the third meeting of the Société d’Ethnozootechnie (November 1983) devoted to the theme of endangered breeds in France. The first was in 1974 and the second in 1978. Over half the text is taken up by é reports which inventorize the endangered breeds and describe conservation measures being undertaken for cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and small stock (poultry and rabbits). Native cattle breeds with less than 1000 breeding females at the end of 1983 are: Armoricaine, Béarnaise, Breton Black Pied, Casta (Aure et St Girons) , Ferrandaise, Froment du L&on, Lourdaise, Mirandaise (Gasconne Aréolé), and Villard de Lans. In addition the following breeds have only a few thousand females: Bazadaise, Bleue du Nord, Flemish, Vosgienne. Sheep breeds with estimated total numbers of less than 1000 include the Ardes (?) , Commune des Alpes ( ?) , Landaise, Ouessant and Rambouillet. Those with less than 10 000 head also include the Berrichon de l’Indre, Boulonnaise, Brigasque, Castillonnaise, Précoce, Solognote, Mourerous, Ralole, Rouge du Roussillon, and Thònes et Martod. The Poitevine and Rove goat breeds have less than 1000 head and other local breeds listed are the Catalan, Corsican, Massif Central, Provengale, Pyrenean and the population of the west (cha-vre des fossés). Among pig breeds the Normandy, Limousine, Gasconne and Basque each had less than 200 sows at the end of 1983. The remaining papers are as follows: Méthodes de gestion des petites populations. H. de Rochambeau. To reduce to a minimum the inevitable inbreeding in small populations animals should be divided into breeding groups and males circulated between these groups. The number of males should be
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maximized and they should be replaced rapidly. Le cas des races bovines I tra-s petits effectifs. L. Avon. The breeding methods actually used in France for 8 of the breeds with the lowest numbers are described. La conservation des races menacées: quels éleveurs? A. Audiot, A. Gibon and J.C. Flamant. The attitude to conservation of different types of breeder is discussed. The types are: amateurs or hobbyists, peasants, neo-rural - who have an intellectual approach, and ‘leaders de race’ (pedigree breeders at the top of the pyramid). Méthodes d’estimation des differences entre races. R. Aupetit. A brief description of the use of data on biochemical polymorphisms to estimate relationships. Le Bureau des Ressources Génétiques. M. Chauvet. The Bureau of Genetic Resources was established in early 1983. It is attached to the Scientific and Technical Mission of the Ministry of Industry and Research. It consists of only a few people and its function will be to coordinate, encourage and expand work in France on genetic resources. It will also have an information role and it will represent France officially at the international level. Two important aspects are emphasized: (1) The collection and conservation of genetic resources in danger of disappearance is of course the most urgent thing. But the study and utilization of the resources are also first priorities; therefore it is better to speak of management of genetic resources instead simply of conservation. (2) No bureau, no centre of genetic resources or gene bank, can alone carry this burden in the face of general indifference. The good management of genetic resources is a collective responsibility and therefore a change of mentality is necessary.
ILCA RESEARCH REPORTS Until 1982 the two main series of scientific publications of the International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, were Systems Studies and Mono&rAphs. These two series have now been superseded by Research Reports. Of the first 11 Research Reports only two concern genetic resources. “Evaluation of the productivities of Djallonké sheep and N’Dama cattle at the Centre de Recherches Zootechniques, Kolda, Senegal” was published as Research Report No. 3 in 1982. Its authors were A. Fall, M. Diop, J. Sandford, Y.J. Wissocq, J. Durkin and J.C.M. Trail. “Crossbred dairy cattle productivity in Arsi Region, Ethiopia” was published as No. 11 in September 1983 jointly by Arsi Rural Development Unit (Asela) and ILCA. The results are sufficiently interesting to justify reproduction here of the abstract of the report. It should be noted that “Arsi” refers to the local small shorthorned zebu and that “Zebu” is used to cover a mixed group of Fogera, Barca and Boran animals. “Analyses were carried out on a range of performance traits and productivity estimates for indigenous Arsi and Zebu cattle and eight different grades of these crossed with Jersey and Friesian, maintained for milk production. Data covered the period 1968 to 1981, and the animals were kept at Asela station and on surrounding smallholder farms in the Arsi Region of Ethiopia. Major points to emerge concerning overall productivity were the clear superiority of all crossbreds over the indigenous breed groups; the similarity in performance of the 75% Bos taurus and the 50% Bos taurus; the similarity in performance between indigenous Arsi and Zebu; and the major advantages of calving in the wet season compared with the rest of the year. Production levels on smallholder farms were similar to those on Asela station and, based on annual milk yield, the rankings of the four crossbred groups kept on smallholder farms were the same as their rankings on Asela station.”
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SCIENCE VOL. 11, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1984 This issue should be of special interest to the readers of AGRI because it is almost entirely devoted to articles on animal genetic resources. It starts with a guest editorial on Conservation 57 of Animal Genetic Resources by John Hodges which briefly outlines the work of FAO and UNEP. Then follows Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources in Europe: Final Report of an EAAP Working Party by K. Maijala, A.V. Cherekaev, J.-M. Devillard, Z. Reklewski, G. Rognoni, D.L. Simon and D.E. Steane. This report has already been reviewed in AGRI 1/84 P. 33. The next five articles are the papers presented at the session on animal genetic resources at the 33rd EAAP meeting in Leningrad in 1982, as follows: Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources - A Review, by D.L. Simon Genetic Aspects of Conservation in Farm Livestock, by C. Smith Methods of Conserving Gametes and Embryos of Farm Animals, by J.-P. Renard Aspects of Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources - Italian Experiences, by G. Rognoni Genetic and Economic Differences among Methods of Gene Conservation in Farm Animals, by G. Brem, F. Graf and H. KraUsslich The next two articles are: A Comparison of Holstein Friesians, Dutch Friesians and Dutch Red and Whites. I. Production characteristics. II. Economic synthesis with different pricing systems for milk and meat, by J.K. Oldenbroek. Under Dutch production systems the Holstein Friesians produced about 20 percent more milk and about 10 percent more fat and protein than the Dutch Friesians while the Dutch Red and Whites produced about 7 percent less of both. In beef and veal production the HF had a lower feed conversion rate than the DF and a lower fleshiness score and dressing percentage. The DRW were slightly superior to the DF. The DF were superior to the other two breeds in fertility (calving %, inseminations per pregnancy, age at first calving, calving interval). The relative economic advantage or disadvantage of each breed was strictly a function of the relative price for milk and meat.
A HISTORY OF HEREFORD CATTLE AND THEIR BREEDERS. E. HEATH- AGNEW. DUCKWORTH, LONDON. As the first major work on Hereford cattle published in England since 1909 this is an important book. It is written by a man who is both historian and Hereford breeder so it is authoritative and well-written. But it is strictly, as the title suggests, an account of pedigree breeders and their cattle. There is no hint of genetic history even dwarfism is dismissed in one sentence. Although colours and polledness are discussed there is no account of change in selection aims or in performance over the years or of the commercial uses of the breed. More surprisingly there is nothing about the new countries to which the breed has been exported in the last 40 years. One quotation will suffice to illustrate the author’s unquestionning allegiance “... the European exotic imports who came in on the craze for lean meat and will vanish when it has passed, while the Hereford remains as a solid foundation on which to base future progress.”
STRATEGY FOR IMPROVING BEEF AND DAIRY CATTLE IN THE TROPICS. R.E. MCDOWELL. CORNELL INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURE MONOGRAPH 100. 34 P. 1983 In 1967 Cornell University initiated a network of cooperators which now consists of 12 organizations in 10 countries studying genetics and improvement programmes in tropical and subtropical environments. Over half a million records from 15 countries on cattle, buffaloes and goats are now held. This pamphlet summarizes some of the results and suggests future methods for improvement, chiefly of cattle. Some of the conclusions are as follows: 1. When environmental effects account for less than 40 percent of the variation in milk yield, and when level of production is 4000 kg or greater and year effects are not exceptionally large, then statistical procedures for estimates of genetic and environmental effects in common use in temperate climates are acceptable in tropical and subtropical
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conditions. 2. Under poor feeding conditions and low yields environmental effects are great (especially year-to-year differences) and heritability, repeatability and sire variation are low. With small numbers of daughters sire evaluations are not repeatable. Under these conditions progeny testing of sires is not recommended and selection should be based on cows to serve as bull dams. Turnover of bulls should be rapid. 3. Selection aims should always bear in mind the wishes and opinions of the farmers themselves, e.g. the importance of draught ability in many places. 4. Crossbreeding may not give the expected results because of maternal effects or environmental limitations. Results should be evaluated in terms of overall economic returns so as to include the effects of increased inputs, decreased fertility, disease incidence and increased mortality and not only milk yield and growth rate of survivors. 5. For selection programmes in beef production, the use of yearling weight is preferred to that of birth or weaning weight.
THE DAIRY COW OF THE FUTURE. INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR IDF-EAAP, WARSAW, POLAND, 11-13 AUGUST 1982. F6DGRATION INTERNATIONALE DE LAITERIE - INTERNATIONAL DAIRY FEDERATION BULLETIN, DOCUMENT 163. 1984 The first two sessions deal with basic prospects for the year 2000 (populations, production and feeding) and with systems of production. Section III is entitled “Production traits selection aims for the year 2000”. Its papers are as follows. Selection for direct production traits, by A. Zarnecki Current selection aims, methods of sire and dam evaluation and breeding programmes are briefly reviewed on the assumption that future productivity will be determined by existing trends. Measurement and importance of traits other than production, by B.W. Wickham and J.W. Stichbury Current evidence suggests that milkfat yield will be the major source of economic progress in the New Zealand population, with other traits contributing no more than 20 percent of the value of the genetic gain. Of these the most important is cow temperament in the milking shed. Section IV is “Breeding plans for the future cow” with three papers: Breeding plans for dual purpose cows, by D. Fewson The current systems using large populations and performance and progeny testing are discussed and endorsed. Breeding structure of the dairy cattle industry in the US, by A.E. Freeman Breeding plans for synthetic breeds, by B. Kinghorn In constructing and maintaining a synthetic breed, the breeder should exploit both crossbreeding and selection effects. This can be done by incorporating crossbreeding effects into the selection index. An approach to constructing such a “multibreed selection index” is presented. This is based on the breeding value of individuals, and involves purebred and heterosis values, heritability of the trait of interest, genetic correlations between environments and the time scale of selection aims. By using such an index, selection trend is towards the optimum synthetic genotype or, alternatively, rotational crossbreeding is automatically set up where this is optimal. 59
DOMESTICATION, CONSERVATION AND USE OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES. EDITED BY L. PEEL AND D.E. TRIBE. VOLUME AL IN WORLD ANIMAL SCIENCE SERIES. PUBLISHED BY ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS. 1983 Although this is not the first volume to be published in the Elsevier World Animal Science Series, it is designated number 1 in the sequence, presumably because it aims to provide an introduction to the whole subject of animal science. It is an ambitious task to address the concepts of the Domestication, Conservation and Use of animal resources in one book. Most people would have no difficulty reconciling their expectations on Domestication with the appropriate chapters in this book. The topic of Conservation is, however, more diffuse and is often interpreted differently by individuals; some take it to mean simply preservation, whereas others accept the definition of the World Conservation Strategy (WCS), which is worth quoting in this context. It is: The management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Thus conservation is positive, embracing preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration and enhancement of the natural environment. In this book, the term Conservation is not defined but the interpretation appears to be rather narrower than the WCS definition, and concentrates rather upon aspects of the preservation of genetic variation which might otherwise be lost to mankind. The editors have tried to make up for this limited view by attempting to cover, in the same volume, the Use of animal genetic resources. What does the reader expect to find addressed under the term Use? It is an extremely wide concept, and the editors have inevitably limited themselves to reviewing only certain aspects of man’s use of animals. These topics, though extremely valuable and relevant, do not appear to have any particular rational basis for inclusion. Many potential readers may therefore have difficulty anticipating, from the title alone, exactly what to expect in this book. It is therefore appropriate to list the chapter headings. Domestication is covered in Europe, the Americas, Australia, Oceania, Asia and Africa; this is followed by a rather brief chapter on Conservation and a chapter on Evolutionary Adaptations. Then follow 9 chapters which deal with various aspects of the Use of Animal Resources: The Institutionalization of Research, Ethics, Wild Animals, Modifying Growth, Animal Production and Energy Resources, Animals and the World Food Situation, Animal Products and their Competitors, Livestock in Economic Development and Grazing Animals in the next few decades. The chapter on Conservation is particularly disappointing, as not only does it concentrate upon aspects of preservation, but is out of date in a rapidly moving field. The work described reflects the thinking of the sixties and early seventies; the latest reference is 1977. Much has happened since then in individual countries, but more especially in the global and regional approaches arising from the joint efforts of FAO and UNEP in the late seventies and early eighties. The topic of Conservation, as now being defined and developed by the United Nations and other international agencies, has not been adequately addressed in this book, and merits further attention in a later volume in the Elsevier series. On Use of animals one has to ask why other topics which can equally be viewed as valid, were neglected. For example, the following areas are mentioned only in passing: the use of animals for recreation; animals as part of a cultural heritage and as contributors to or limitation upon life styles in different societies and environments; the use of animals for fibre production; or for pharmaceutical products. The decision to include a chapter on Modifying Growth is particularly difficult to understand. It is a specialized account of anabolic agents, their effective use, mode of action, toxic effects and benefits, replete with the references expected in a scientific
AGRI 3 60 paper. It is described in the chapter heading as “An example of possibilities and limitations”, but it fails, before closing to address the general theme of which it is intended to be an example. (It remains a thoroughly precise and specialized review on anabolic agents. The reader is left to work out for himself the reason for its inclusion.) Perhaps it is intended to serve as an example of the many ways that man manipulates animal function to enhance their use. If so, it would have been of greater interest to write about the philosophy of this approach, and to list the many areas of animal biology currently being explored and exploited in this way. As examples, it would probably have been of greater moment to identify the frontiers of man’s use of animals which are being extended by molecular engineering, or alternatively to take reproduction as an example of animal function upon which almost all effective use rests. Despite the difficulties in anticipating the content of the book from the title, it is a valuable publication. Its strengths lie particularly in bringing together a series of authoritative and informative chapters on Domestication, covering all continents; and combining these with a collection of perhaps unrelated but individually valuable chapters on the current Use of animal resources. The inclusion of a chapter on 4 centuries of developing animal research is valuable. it could also have been appropriate to review the other institutions concerned with animal use, including the scientific societies, the paragovernment agencies, the United Nations agencies and others seeking to use animal science in practice in developed and developing countries. This book is rightly listed as the first in the series, for in attempting to cover such a broad panorama of animal production, the editors have succeeded in giving a sense of historic trend from the early days of domestication to the twentieth century, with its unique problems and opportunities, both in exploiting animal biology and in organizing animal use for mankind. 61
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