DOCSLIB.ORG

Historical Introduction

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Historical Introduction CHAPTER 1 Aristotle and Theophrastus on plant-animal interactions COSTAS A. THANOS Institute of General Botany, University of Athens, Athens 15784, Greece Key words: Aristotle, Theophrastus, zoology, botany, plant-animal interactions, biology Abstract. Aristotle and Theophrastus, the last great philosophers and scientists of Greek Classical Antiquity, are the founding fathers of Zoology and Botany, respectively; they should also be honoured as the co-founders of Biology. They were close friends and life-long collaborators who evidently decided to pursue an organized study of the living world, probably in Lesbos at 344 BC (the landmark for the creation of the Science of Biology). The product of their division of labour, the voluminous zoological and botanical works of Aristotle and Theophrastus, respectively, were actually used contemporaneously as university textbooks by the students of the Lyceum. Besides numerous comparisons and analogies, mostly on general issues, between animals and plants, both Aristotle and Theophrastus deal with various cases of plant-animal interactions, covering virtually all aspects of the field. Their scientific approach is notable, although the barriers to knowledge imposed by their era did not permit a significant contribution on issues like plant sex and pollination. Their important accomplishments on plant-animal interactions include herbivory and poisonous plants, plant pests and use of manure, insect-repellence and gall formation, fig caprification and apiculture, seed dispersal and seed infestation. Introduction physician at the court of Amyntas C', father of Philip B'. At the age of 17, Aristotle moved to Aristotle (384-322 BC) and Theophrastus (371- Athens where he studied and subsequently taught 286 BC) should be considered as the last great in Plato's Academy. Although by far the most philosophers of Greek Classical Antiquity. They brilliant among Plato's pupils, Aristotle was not represent, in particular, the culmination of the appointed as the new director of the Academy natural philosophy of the Ionian scientific after Plato's death (347 BC). Apparently as a result tradition which was inaugurated on the Aegean of his non-designation and with a team of coast of Asia Minor, several centuries earlier, and colleagues and followers, he travelled to Assos of reached its climax on the opposite coast, at the Troad (Asia Minor) and founded a new school brightest cradle of Ionian civilization, Athens. It there. Unfortunately, the venture came to an should be borne in mind, however, that both abrupt end three years later with the assassination Aristotle and Theophrastus were not Ionians but of the patron of the school, Hermeias, the Macedonian (Dorian) and Aeolian, respectively; hegemon of Assos. accordingly, they never became full citizens of It is at that difficult moment in Aristotle's life Athens. During their lifetime they experienced the that Theophrastus seems to have played a decline of the City-State system of Classical prominent role; probably, at his suggestion Greece and its eventual replacement by a more or (Morton, 1981), the two men moved to the nearby less unified Greek State dominated by the northern island of Lesbos, in the North Aegean Sea. Greeks (the Macedonians), under the leadership of Theophrastus (his original name was Tyrtamos) Alexander the Great. was born at the Lesbian town of Eresus and his Aristotle was born at Stagira of Chalcidice father, Melantas, was a local fuller. It is probable (Macedonia) and his father Nicomachus was a that at an early age (ca. 355 BC) he went to 3 M. Arianoutsou and R.H. Groves, Plant-Animal Interactions in Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems, 3-11, 1994 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Printed in the Netherlands. 4 Athens and enrolled in the Academy, where he Animals, in 10 Books), Περί ζώωv μoρίωv, PA was acquainted and associated with Aristotle. Ac- (De Partibus Animalium, Parts of Animals, in 4 cording to Morton (1981), Aristotle evidently took Books), Περί ζώωv κιvήσεως, MA (De Motu to the highly intelligent, industrious and good- Animalium, On the Movement of Animals, 1 natured young man, who became his close friend Book), Περί πoρείας ζώωv, IA (De Incessu and life-long collaborator. Animalium, Progression of Animals, 1 Book), After an apparent rest at Lesbos for two years Περί ζώωv γεvέσεως, GA (De Generatione (344-342 BC), Aristotle received an invitation by Animalium, Generation of Animals, in 5 Books). Philip B', king of Macedonia, to serve as a tutor The first work could be compared to what is for his teen-aged son, the future Alexander C' the currently considered a General Zoology text, Great. So Aristotle returned to his native country whilst the second is the earliest treatise on Animal where he spent several years at the royal court, in Physiology (the latter works covering more the capital Pella, teaching the young prince ‘τo ευ specialized fields). The also extant work Περί ζηv’ (in free translation ‘the quality of life’). φυτώv (De Plantis, On Plants, in 2 Books) that is Although there is no direct information, it seems included in Aristotle's minor works, is definitely highly probable that during his sojourn in Pella not by him. It was almost certainly written more and afterwards in Stagira (when Alexander came than 3 centuries later by Nicolaus of Damascus of age), Aristotle was accompanied by (1st century BC) and according to Morton (1981) Theophrastus. reflects the level to which Peripatetic science was In 335 BC, immediately after the struggle over later reduced. domination of Greece was finally decided in Theophrastus, though not admired as a major favour of Macedonia, Aristotle returned to Athens, philosopher (of the stature of Aristotle, Plato or together with Theophrastus, and founded the Democritus), was also a voluminous writer and is Lyceum. After Alexander's death (323 BC), credited by Diogenes Laertius (3rd century AD) Aristotle had to flee Athens for Chalcis, Euboea with 227 treatises. Apart from his well known where he died a few months later. Theophrastus Characters, his only other extant works are: Περί became the second director of the Lyceum and the φυτώv ιστoρίας (Historia Plantarum, Enquiry into Peripatetic School (the name of the school was Plants, HP, in 9 Books) and Περί φυτώv αιτιώv derived by the habit of lecturing while strolling (De Causis Plantarum, Causes of Plants, CP, in 6 around the gardens of the Lyceum) which reached Books). These works are the first, truly scientific its apogee of success during his 37 years of botanical writings and correspond roughly to administration. The function of this institution was modern textbooks of General Botany and Plant to train the leaders, officials and experts of the Physiology, respectively. Among his non-extant new era (Morton, 1981). Like its rival Academy, works, 6 Books on the behaviour of animals are the Lyceum was a true University of its epoch: an also included. up-to-date curriculum emphasizing the Peck (in his 1965 Introduction to HA) observational sciences, numerous lecturers, as discusses all the relevant bibliography (in many as two thousand students and a spacious, particular Thompson, 1910) concerning the dates well designed campus with buildings and open-air of the treatise and concludes that Aristotle's facilities, a very important library, a museum and natural history studies were carried out, or mainly the first botanical garden. carried out, between his two periods of residence Aristotle is generally considered one of the in Athens, and especially during the 2-year stay at greatest Ancient Greek philosophers and during Lesbos (344-342). A similar conclusion is reached his rather short lifespan he wrote on virtually by Morton (1981) who suggests that Aristotle had everything (in possibly as many as 400 works). not studied animals systematically until 344 BC Besides his philosophical treatises, he has left a when he moved to Lesbos. Kiortsis (1989) cites as number of voluminous works on natural history, writing dates the following: for HA 347-342 BC, the most important among them being the for PA 330 BC and for GA 330-322 BC. following (all of them fortunately extant): Περί τα Mitropoulos (in his Introduction to HA) believes ζώα ιστoρίαι, HA (Historia Animalium, History of that Aristotle's zoological works have been written 5 in collaboration with several colleagues and well, the origins of the two men must have played disciples (Theophrastus, Strato, Eudemus and a role in that decision. Aristotle's father was a other Peripatetics). In his opinion, Theophrastus physician and he himself had some medical may have contributed much and, in particular, the knowledge; Theophrastus, on the other hand, was spurious 10th Book of HA may belong exclusively closer to agriculture and forestry and evidently to him. On the other hand, Balme (in his 1988 was aware, from his father, of many technical Introduction to the third volume of HA) concludes aspects of handling clothes and leather. I assume that there seems to be no compelling reason to that the outlines of their major biological treatises believe that HA was written before the other had been thoroughly discussed and worked out biological treatises. In his opinion, all the during their stay in Lesbos; the bulk of their work available evidence suggests that Aristotle wrote would be already completed within the following HA I-IX as a study of animal differentiae; he decade, just in time for the inauguration of their collected the data initially from other treatises and Lyceum. If we accept that all these natural history then proceeded to complete the study from new books are simply University textbooks for the use reports, a process which was still unfinished at his of the Lyceum students, it is obvious that such death. The likeliest period for the bulk of his work treatises would continually be updated and is his stay at Lesbos (344-342 BC) and subsequent corrected (and this would account partially for the years (until 336 BC).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Syllabus a History of Animals in the Atlantic World
    Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, El Primer Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno, ed. Rolena Adorno (Copenhagen: Royal Library Digital Facsimile, 2002), 1105. Special topics: A history of animals in the atlantic world History 497, section 001 Abel Alves Spring Semester 2011 Burkhardt Building 216 Monday, 6:30-9:10 PM [email protected]; 285-8729 Burkhardt Building 106 Office Hours: Monday, 5:00-6:30; also by appointment Prospectus The anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss once wrote that animals are not only “good to eat,” they are “good to think.” Throughout the course of human history, people have interacted with other animals, not only using them for food, clothing, labor and entertainment, but also associating with them as pets and companions, and even appreciating their behaviors intrinsically. Nonhuman animals have been our symbols and models, and they have even channeled the sacred for us. This course will explore the interaction of humans with other animals in the context of the Atlantic World from prehistoric times to the present. Our case studies will include an exploration of our early hominid heritage as prey as well as predators; our domestication of other animals to fit our cultural needs; how nonhuman animals were used and sometimes respected in early agrarian empires like those of Rome and the Aztecs; how Native American, African and Christian religious traditions have wrestled with the concept of the “animal”; the impact of the Enlightenment and Darwinian thought; and the contemporary mechanization of life and call for animal rights. Throughout the semester, we will be giving other animals “voice,” even as Aristotle in The Politics said they possessed the ability to communicate.
    [Show full text]
  • Ichthyocolla: Medicinal 'Fish Glue'
    Although applied in some contexts to a wide variety of ARTICLE bony fi shes, both freshwater and marine, in historical medicinal contexts ichthyocolla most commonly refers Ichthyocolla: medicinal ‘fi sh glue’ to the swim bladder of the Beluga Sturgeon, Huso huso (Linnaeus 1758) (Family Acipenseridae), sometimes re- Christopher J. Duffi n ferred to as the Isinglass Sturgeon (Figure 1). Th e source of beluga caviar (roe from the female), this fi sh is ana- Abstract dromous, migrating from salt waters into freshwater in Ichthyocolla is a collagen-rich medicinal simple, origi- nally derived from many parts of the parent fi sh, but more commonly restricted to Acipenseriform swim bladders imported from Russia in early modern times. Used to treat headache, tetanus and leprosy in classical times, the medieval Arabic tradition saw it utilised against haemorrhoids. Th e colloidal nature of the pro- Figure 1. Huso huso (Linnaeus, 1758) (Family Acipens- cessed material was exploited in early modern medicine eridae), the Beluga Sturgeon; complete fi sh in right lateral where it was used to treat haemorrhoids, leucorrhoea, view. (Source: From Stephenson (1838) Medical Zoology diarrhoea, and dysentery. Remarkable for its adhesive and Mineralogy, Plate 21, fi g. 2) properties, it was used topically to bind the separated lips of wounds together, to stabilise broken ribs, and in medicinal plasters. order to spawn. Late maturing, it can grow up to 7 me- tres in length, weigh up to 1,500 kilograms, and live Introduction for over 100 years. Now critically endangered due to Th e creation of a systematic inventory of the contents overfi shing and poaching, trade in Beluga Sturgeon is of surviving late seventeenth and early eighteenth cen- heavily restricted.
    [Show full text]
  • Aristotle -- Parts of Animals. Movement of Animals. Progression of Animals
    THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D. EDITED BY fT. E. PAGE, O.H., LITT.D. t E. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. t W. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d. L. A, POST, L.H.D. E. H. WARMINGTON, m.a., f.b.hist.soo. ARISTOTLE PARTS OF ANIMALS MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS ARISTOTLE PARTS OF ANIMALS WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY A. L. PECK, M.A., Ph.D. FELLOW OF Christ's college, cambriook AND DNIVERSITY LECTURER IN CLASSICS AND A FOREWORD BY F. H. A. MARSHALL, C.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S. MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY E. S. FORSTER, M.A. PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE I'NIVERSITV OF SHEFFIKLD CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS HAR\^ARD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD MCMLXI First printed 1937 Revised and reprinted 1945, 1955 Revised and reprinted 1961 Printed in Chreat BrUain CONTENTS PAQB PARTS OF ANIMALS Foreword ....... 3 Introduction ...... 8 Text and Translation .... 52 MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS Introduction ...... 43 Text and Translation .... 440 Index to Parts of Animals . 543 Index to Movement and Progression of Animals. ...... 552 From quotations which I had seen, I had a high notion of Aristotle's merits, but I had not the most remote notion what a wonderful man he was. Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very diiferent ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle. Charles Darwin to William Ogle, on the publication of his translation of The Parts of Ani- mals, 1882.
    [Show full text]
  • The Nature of Nature in Ancient and Medieval Worlds STS.003, Fall 2010
    The Nature of Nature in Ancient and Medieval Worlds STS.003, Fall 2010 Unit 2: Nature Oxford English Dictionary definition of nature removed due to copyright restrictions. See: OED.com. Unit 2: Nature (1a) Are humans part of nature? Are they distinct from nature? Do they make nature? (1b) Are living things, in particular species, changing or unchanging? (2) Science and commerce Overview The Nature of Nature Ancient Natural History: from Aristotle to Pliny The Middle Ages: Reconciling God, Aristotle, and Personal Experience Science and Wonder: When Did Natural History Become Scientific? Nature: Presence and Permeability Photo courtesy of BBCworldservice on Flickr. Photo courtesy of MarkyBon on Flickr. Nature: Subsistence and Knowledge Science? Supernatural Nature? Photo courtesy of Blaž Vizjak on Flickr. Photo courtesy of kevindooley on Flickr. What Is the Matter of Nature? Photo courtesy of Snap® on Flickr. Photo courtesy of Loving Earth on Flickr. Aristotle: Matter vs. Form Photo courtesy of mattfoster on Flickr. Photo courtesy of davidjthomas on Flickr. Actual vs. Potential Photo of a chambered nautilus removed due to copyright restrictions. Image of “History of Animals, Books I-III,” Aristotle, removed due to copyright restrictions. Photo of an octopus removed due to copyright restrictions. The Soul Nutritive: plants Sensitive: animals Rational: humans Mortal or immortal? Do species change? Image of “The First Fossil Hunters Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times,” Adrienne Mayor, removed due to copyright restrictions. Photo courtesy of IslesPunkFan on Flickr. Cyclops? Empire, Commerce, and Knowledge Ptolemy, Map of the World, c. AD 150 Pliny the Elder Natural History c. AD 70 Reviewed 2000 books 20,000 facts Marvels and mundane Pliny the Younger “Letter to Cornelius Tacitus,” c.
    [Show full text]
  • The Advent of Animals: the View from the Ediacaran SPECIAL FEATURE
    The advent of animals: The view from the Ediacaran SPECIAL FEATURE Mary L. Drosera,1 and James G. Gehlingb,c aDepartment of Earth Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521; bSouth Australia Museum, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia; and cUniversity of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia Edited by Neil H. Shubin, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, and approved December 9, 2014 (received for review April 15, 2014) Patterns of origination and evolution of early complex life on this relationships within the Ediacara Biota and, importantly, reveals the planet are largely interpreted from the fossils of the Precam- morphologic disparity of these taxa. brian soft-bodied Ediacara Biota. These fossils occur globally and However, although fossils of the Ediacara Biota are not easily represent a diverse suite of organisms living in marine environments. classified with modern taxa, they nonetheless provide the record Although these exceptionally preserved fossil assemblages are typi- of early animals. One of the primary issues is that they are soft- cally difficult to reconcile with modern phyla, examination of the bodied and preserved in a manner that is, in many cases, unique to morphology, ecology, and taphonomy of these taxa provides keys to the Ediacaran. An alternative venue for providing insight into these their relationships with modern taxa. Within the more than 30 million organisms and the manner in which they fit into early animal evo- y range of the Ediacara Biota, fossils of these multicellular organisms lution is offered by examination of the paleoecology, morphology, demonstrate the advent of mobility, heterotrophy by multicellular and taphonomy of fossils of the Ediacara Biota.
    [Show full text]
  • Conrad Gessner's Paratexts
    Conrad Gessner's Paratexts The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Blair, Ann. 2016. "Conrad Gessner's Paratexts." Gesnerus 73, no. 1: 73. Published Version http://www.gesnerus.ch/fileadmin/media/ pdf/2016_1/073-122_Blair.pdf Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:34334606 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Open Access Policy Articles, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#OAP Ann Blair, Dept of History, Harvard University Abstract: Throughout his prolific publishing career Conrad Gessner composed abundant paratexts which offer valuable insight into his methods of working. Gessner wrote many dedications, only a minority of which were addressed to major patrons of his day. Instead he used them to thank dozens of physicians and scholars for sending him information, images, and manuscripts for his ongoing projects. Gessner acknowledged new arrivals in successive publications and invited further contributions explicitly. In "to the readers" and other passages Gessner called attention to his future publication plans and his skill in working with printers and in editing manuscripts of recently deceased scholars, thereby also encouraging new commissions. Gessner was also a master indexer and innovated especially in drawing up the first index of authors cited for his edition of Stobaeus in 1543 and a new all-purpose index in his Stobaeus of 1559. Many other aspects of Gessner's paratexts warrant further study.
    [Show full text]
  • Six Major Steps in Animal Evolution: Are We Derived Sponge Larvae?
    EVOLUTION & DEVELOPMENT 10:2, 241–257 (2008) Six major steps in animal evolution: are we derived sponge larvae? Claus Nielsen Zoological Museum (The Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen), Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark Correspondence (email: [email protected]) SUMMARY A review of the old and new literature on animal became sexually mature, and the adult sponge-stage was morphology/embryology and molecular studies has led me to abandoned in an extreme progenesis. This eumetazoan the following scenario for the early evolution of the metazoans. ancestor, ‘‘gastraea,’’ corresponds to Haeckel’s gastraea. The metazoan ancestor, ‘‘choanoblastaea,’’ was a pelagic Trichoplax represents this stage, but with the blastopore spread sphere consisting of choanocytes. The evolution of multicellularity out so that the endoderm has become the underside of the enabled division of labor between cells, and an ‘‘advanced creeping animal. Another lineage developed a nervous system; choanoblastaea’’ consisted of choanocytes and nonfeeding cells. this ‘‘neurogastraea’’ is the ancestor of the Neuralia. Cnidarians Polarity became established, and an adult, sessile stage have retained this organization, whereas the Triploblastica developed. Choanocytes of the upper side became arranged in (Ctenophora1Bilateria), have developed the mesoderm. The a groove with the cilia pumping water along the groove. Cells bilaterians developed bilaterality in a primitive form in the overarched the groove so that a choanocyte chamber was Acoelomorpha and in an advanced form with tubular gut and formed, establishing the body plan of an adult sponge; the pelagic long Hox cluster in the Eubilateria (Protostomia1Deuterostomia). larval stage was retained but became lecithotrophic. The It is indicated that the major evolutionary steps are the result of sponges radiated into monophyletic Silicea, Calcarea, and suites of existing genes becoming co-opted into new networks Homoscleromorpha.
    [Show full text]
  • Dioscorides the Greek
    THE HERBAL OF DIOSCORIDES THE GREEK DIOSCORIDES i COPYRIGHT NOTICE As this version essentially constitutes a new work, the editor/translator hereby asserts copyright. Permission of the publisher is required for any excerpts or copies made from the text. The illustrations are deemed in good faith to be in the public domain. © Tess Anne Osbaldeston First published in 2000 ISBN 0-620-23435-0 Printed in 12/14 Zapf Calligraphic [Palatino] Published by IBIDIS PRESS cc PO Box 81169 Parkhurst Johannesburg South Africa 2120 +27 11 788 2270 international paper fax +27 82 771 7130 international messages [email protected] e-mail ISBN 0-620-23435-0 9 780620 234351 0 0> Bursera gummifera after FAGUET— 1888 [opposite] ii THE HERBAL OF DIOSCORIDES THE GREEK DIOSCORIDES DE MATERIA MEDICA BEING AN HERBAL WITH MANY OTHER MEDICINAL MATERIALS WRITTEN IN GREEK IN THE FIRST CENTURY OF THE COMMON ERA A NEW INDEXED VERSION IN MODERN ENGLISH BY TA OSBALDESTON AND RPA WOOD iii Cucumis turcicus - Cucurbita pepo from FUCHS — 1542 iv THE HERBAL OF DIOSCORIDES THE GREEK CONTENTS EDITORIAL PREFACE — vii ORIGINAL DEDICATION — viii BIBLIOGRAPHY — xiii INTRODUCTION — xx ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS — xl THE BOTANICAL ILLUSTRATIONS — xlii PRINTED BOOKS — il GAZETTEER OF DIOSCORIDES’ WORLD — lxviii BOOK ONE: AROMATICS — 1 OILS — 34 OINTMENTS — 48 GUMS from TREES — 78 FRUIT from TREES — 149 FRUIT TREES — 153 BOOK TWO — 183 LIVING CREATURES — 184 FATS — 212 FRUMENTACEA: CEREALS — 229 LACHANA: VEGETABLES — 243 HERBS WITH A SHARP QUALITY — 304 BOOK THREE: ROOTS — 363 ROOTS OF AKANTHODA or PRICKLY PLANTS — 377 BOOK FOUR: OTHER HERBS & ROOTS — 541 BOOK FIVE: VINES & WINES — 741 WINES — 747 OTHER WINES — 759 METALLIC STONES — 781 INDEXES ALTERNATE NAMES — 832 ILLUSTRATIONS — 847 LATINISED GREEK NAMES — 851 MEDICINAL USES etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Activity Pack: Evolution
    Activity Pack: Evolution This pack is designed to provide teachers with information to help you lead a trip to Colchester Zoo focusing on Evolution Contents Page How to use this pack 1 Map of the Colchester Zoo 2 Background Information 3 Pre-Trip 5 Ideas, Activities and Worksheets At the Zoo 9 Ideas, Activities, and Worksheets Post-Trip 14 Ideas, Activities, and Worksheets How to Use this Pack: This Evolution Pack was designed to help your students learn about the history of evolutionary theory and classification, and prepare them for a trip to Colchester Zoo. The pack starts with information about the history of evolution to help provide support for your sessions. There is also a map from the zoo that will help you plan your day, and your route around the zoo. We recommend all teachers read through this, and give copies to adult helpers attending your school trip. For feed and encounter times please head to the website. The rest of the pack is broken into: pre-trip, at the zoo, and post-trip. Each of these sections starts with some general ideas, and then there are a variety of pre-made activities and worksheets. Activities are typically hands on ‘games’ that introduce and reinforce concepts. Worksheets are typically paper hand-outs teachers can photocopy and have pupils complete independently. Teachers can pick and choose which they want to use since all the activities/worksheets can be used independently (you can just use one worksheet if you wish; you don’t need to complete the others). The activities and worksheets included in this pack are for KS3 and 4 students.
    [Show full text]
  • Medicine and Philosophy in the Modern
    A Escola Médica de Pádua REBOLLO, Regina Andrés. A Escola Médica de Pádua: medicina e filosofia no período moderno. História, Ciências, Saúde – Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, A Escola Médica de v.17, n.2, abr.-jun. 2010, p.307-331. Pádua: medicina e Resumo Trata-se de contribuição parcial ao filosofia no período entendimento da história da recepção e transmissão dos textos clássicos moderno hipocráticos e galênicos na Itália do período moderno. Observando-se rotuli e puncti da Escola Médica da The Paduan School of Universidade de Pádua, que registram as disciplinas e os conteúdos Medicine: medicine and ministrados no período compreendido entre 1500 e 1600, pode-se conhecer o philosophy in the modern era currículo oficial dessa famosa escola. A consulta a tais documentos mostra o compromisso da formação médica oficial com a tradição, em especial com Hipócrates, Galeno, Avicena e Aristóteles. Palavras-chave: história da medicina; currículo médico paduano; medicina dos séculos XVI e XVII. Abstract This is a partial contribution to an understanding of the history of the reception and transmission of classical Hippocratic and Galenic texts in Italy's modern period. By examining rotuli and puncti of the School of Medicine of Padua University, which record the subjects and content taught in the period between 1500 and 1600, one can study the official curriculum of this famous school. Perusal of these documents shows the commitment of official medical training to tradition, especially with respect to Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna and Aristotle Regina Andrés Rebollo Keywords: history of medicine; Paduan medical curriculum; medicine of the Professora da Universidade São Judas Tadeu sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
    [Show full text]
  • An Overview of Animal Diversity 655
    kingdom, which of course includes yourself. But animal di- versity extends far beyond humans and the dogs, cats, birds, and other animals we humans regularly encounter. For ex- 32 ample, the diverse organisms in Figure 32.1 are all animals, including those that appear to resemble lacy branches, thick stems, and curly leaves. To date, biologists have identified 1.3 million extant (living) species of animals. Estimates of the actual number of animal species run far higher. This An Overview vast diversity encompasses a spectacular range of morpho- logical variation, from corals to cockroaches to crocodiles. of Animal Diversity In this chapter, we embark on a tour of the animal king- dom that will continue in the next two chapters. We will con- sider the characteristics that all animals share, as well as those that distinguish various taxonomic groups. This information is central to understanding animal phylogeny, a topic that is a lively arena of biological research and debate, as you will read. CONCEPT 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers Listing features shared by all animals is challenging, as there are exceptions to nearly every criterion for distinguishing an- imals from other life-forms. When taken together, however, several characteristics of animals sufficiently describe the group for our discussion. Nutritional Mode ᭡ Figure 32.1 Which of these organisms Animals differ from both plants and fungi in their mode of are animals? nutrition. Plants are autotrophic eukaryotes capable of gener- ating organic molecules through photosynthesis. Fungi are EVOLUTION heterotrophs that grow on or near their food and that feed by KEY CONCEPTS absorption (often after they have released enzymes that di- gest the food outside their bodies).
    [Show full text]
  • Conrad Gessner's Paratexts*
    Gesnerus 73/1 (2016) 73–122 Conrad Gessner’s Paratexts* Ann Blair Summary Throughout his prolific publishing career Conrad Gessner composed abun- dant paratexts which offer valuable insight into his methods of working. Gessner wrote many dedications, only a minority of which were addressed to major patrons of his day. Instead he used them to thank dozens of physicians and scholars for sending him information, images, and manuscripts for his ongoing projects. Gessner acknowledged new arrivals in successive publica- tions and invited further contributions explicitly. In “to the readers” and other passages Gessner called attention to his future publication plans and his skill in working with printers and in editing manuscripts of recently de- ceased scholars, thereby also encouraging new commissions. Gessner was also a master indexer and innovated especially in drawing up the first index of authors cited for his edition of Stobaeus in 1543 and a new all-purpose ­index in his Stobaeus of 1549. Many other aspects of Gessner’s paratexts ­warrant further study. Keywords: Conrad Gessner, paratexts * Warm thanks to Anthony Grafton, Urs Leu, and Hubert Steinke for their very helpful ­feedback on a draft, to Hubert Steinke for his patient editorial support, and to Urs Leu and Sandra Weidmann for consultations concerning E-rara. Ann Blair, Department of History, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA (amblair @fas.harvard.edu) Gesnerus 73 (2016) 73 Downloaded from Brill.com10/03/2021 05:05:11PM via free access The paratexts of Conrad Gessner’s many publications form a rich corpus in which to watch Gessner at work and reflecting on his work.
    [Show full text]