NATURAL

Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science

Dominique Cardon

PM Archetype Publications CONTENTS

Foreword xui

Acknowledgements xv

About this book xix

Abbreviations and acronyms xxi

PARTI. THE ART OF 1

Chapter I.The experience of centuries 3

Dyeing techniques and their chemical principles 4

Direct dyeing • Vat dyes indigo and shellfish purple • Moidantdyes

When to - fibre, yarn oi cloth? 6 Fibre or fleece dyeing • Yainoi skein dyeing • Piece dyeing Recipes prepaiation of fibres, and dyes 10 Preparation of the fibres • Mordanting • Dyeing Kusaki zome a Japanese synthesis of ancient tradition and modern chemistry 17

Chapter 2. The discovery and mastery of mordants and mordanting 20 Aluminium moidants 20

Native alums • Manufactured alums • Plants as sources of aluminium lion mordants 39

Ferrous sulphate copperas oi green vitriol • Iron acetate • Black mud Copper mordants 47 Tin mordants 47

Chromium mordants 48

PART 2. DYE-PLANTS 51

Chapter 3. Reds, violets, russets: safflower and quinone dyes 53

Safflower 54 Safflower {Cai thamus tinctonus L Compositae) Naphthoquinone dye plants 60 Purple dyeing Boraginaceae Alkanet or dyei s bugloss (Alkanna tinctoria (L ) Tausch) • Hany onosnia {Onosma echioidesL) • Soghagul (Ai nebia euclv oma (Royle) I M Johnston) • Zi cao or murasakt {Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zuccai mi) • Carolina puccoon or hairy puccoon {hthospermum carolimense (Walt exJF Gmel) MacMill) • Jinin mutum (Arnebia hispidissima (Sieber ex Lehm) DC) Fawn dyeing Juglandaceae walnuts of Europe, Asia and America Walnut {Juglans regia L ) • Black walnut { L) • Butternut tree {Juglans cintrea L) • Peruvian or Ecuador walnut {Juglans neoh opica Diels)

CONTENTS v Fawn/brown dyeing Ebenaceae the African equivalents of walnut dyes Magic gwarn {tudea divmorum Hiern) • Blucbush {Diospyros lyaouUs Dcst) (I ythiaceae) the universal dye-plant 83 Henna or Egyptian pnvet {Lawsoma mirmis L ) Anthraquinone dye plants 86 Russet-dyeing Polygonaceae rhubarbs, docks and sorrels Medicinal or Chinese lhubaib {Rheum officinale Baillon and Rheum palmatum L) • Garden rhubarb {Rheum xhybudum Murray) • Himalayan rhubarbs {Rheum austtalcD Don Rheum moot uoftiamim Royk, Rheum nobilc Hook 1 & Thorns) • Monk's rhubarb {Rumcx alpmus I ) • Patience dock {Rumcx patiLtitui L) • Broad leaved dock {Rumcx obtusijolius L ) • Curly or yellow dock {Rumcx crtspus L) • Gaiden sonel oi sour dock {Rumcx acctoui L ) • Mekmoko {Rumcx abyssintcus Jacq) • Canaigre or tanners dock {Rumcx hymcnosepalu\ Iorrcy) Reddish brown to purplish dyeing Rhamnaceae- buckthorns, pttti and laba Aldei buckthorn {Frangula alnus Miller) • Common buckthorn {Rlunuiuis tathaituu L) • Evergieen buckthorn {Rhamnus alaternus L ) • Red crccpci piid oi uiktapita {Ventilago madraspatana Gaertnei) • Laba {Vtntdago neoealedoniea Schlechtei)

Chapter 4. A world of reds: Rubiaceae plants rich in red anthraquinone dyes 107

The queen of the reds dyei's madder 107 Dyer s madder { tinctoi um L ) European Rubiaceae with red colorants 122 Wild madder {Rubia peiegrma L ) • Dyei s woodruff {Aspciula tinctoi ici I ) • Sweet woodruff {Galium odoiatum (L ) Scop ) • Yellow lady's or Our I ady's bedstraw {Galium verumL) • Gi eat lady s or hedge bedstraw {Galium mollugo L ) • Scotch mist {Galium sylvaticumL) • Northern bedstraw {Galium boieale I ) Asian Rubiaceae with led coloiants 129 Madders {Rubia spp) Indian madder or munjeet {Rubia coidifolia L ) • Naga maddei {Rubia sikkitnensis Kur/) • Japanese madder oi akane {Rubia rtA.d»c Nakai) Other Rubiaceae of Asia and Oceania

Chay root {Oldenlandia umbellata I ) • Indian mulberry, al or mengkudu {Mot inda citufolia L ) • Mengkudu hutan or mengkudu akat {Monnda umbellata I )

African Rubiaceae with red coloi ants 150

Ouanda{Monndageminata DC) • Bumstone tree oi oiuwo {Morinda lucida Benth ) • Bongo {Danaisftagrans (Lam ) Pers) • Bongontany {Pcntamsia vewmcoides (Baker) K Schum)

Rubiaceae of New Zealand with orange colorants 156 Raurekau • {Coprosma australis (A Rich ) Robinson Othei Coprosma spp American Rubiaceae with red colorants 159

Dye or stiff marsh bedstraw {Galium tinctoi mm L ) • Raizde tenir or relbun {Rclbumum

hypocarpium (L ) Hemsl ssp hypocaipium) • Othei Relbumum spp

Chapter 5. A wealth of yellows: plants containing flavonoids 167

Yellow dye-plants of major economic importance from craft to industrial scale 168 Yellow dye plants containing luteolin Weld or dyer's mignonette { luteola L Resedaceae) • Sawwort {Serratula tinctorial Compositae) • Dyer's broom or dyer's gieenweed {Genista tmctoria L

• Leguminosae) Flax leaved daphne or Mediterranean mezerton {Daphnegmdium L Thymelaeaceae) • Othei species of Thy melaeaceae Avignon and Persian berries- Rhamnaceae giving yellow dyes Dyei's or rock buckthorn {Rhamnus saxatilis Jacq) • RhamnuslyaoidesL • Other buckthorn fruit sources of yellow dyes Yellow Young fustic, Venetian sumac or wig tree {Cotinus coggygna Scop Anacaidiaceae) • Dyer's or old fustic mulberry {Madura tinctona (L ) D Don ex Steud Moraceae) • Black or quercitron oak {Queicus velutina Lam Fagaceae)

vi NATURAL DYES Flavonoid yellow dye-plants of Asia 202 Luteolin-contaming grasses (Gramineae) Kobunagusa {Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb) Makino) • Chinese grass or eulalia {Miscanlhus tinctortus (Sieb & Steud ) Hackel) Dyes used by the desert nomads from Arabia to central Asia Aifaj {Rhantei turn cpapposum Ohv Compositae) • Yellow larkspur {Delphinium senubaibatum Bien exBoiss Ranunculaceae) • Bastaid hemp {Datisca tannabma I Datiscaceae) Asian yellow-dyeing Leguminosae and kamala (tuphorbiaceae) Japanese pagoda tree or Chinese yellow benies {Sophota japonica L ) • Bastard teak or Bengal kino {Butea monosperma Taubert) • Wais 01 wild hops {Flemmgiagrahamiana Wight &Arn) • Kamala or monkey face tree {Mallotusplulippensis (Lam ) Mull Arg) Yellow dyewoods of Asia (Moraceae) Jackfruit {Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam and Artocarpw; aspei ulus Gagnepain) • Kayu kuning01 soga tegeran {Macluia cochinchinensis (Lour) Corner) American yellow dye-plants containing flavonoids 223 Another yellow dyewood of the Moraceae family Osage orange {Madura pomifeia (Rafinesque) C K Schneider) American yellow-dyeing Compositae Canadian golden rod {Solidago canadensis I ) • Common or rubber rabbitbrush {Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pallas ex Pursh) Bntton) • Ch illka ch illka {Bacchans sahcifoha (Ruiz & Pavon) Pers) • Colombian chilca {Bacchans lattfolia (Ruiz & Pavon) Pers) • Quito chiha {Bacchans quitenns HBK) • Pahuau or tickseed {Coieopsis

sp ) • Kiko or uchuj ppirka {Bidens ti iphnervia Kunth)

Chapter 6. Flavonoids, but not yellow 241

Plant sources of anthocyanin colorants 242 Fruit • Mowers • Leaves Anthocyanin dyes from fruits Bilberry whortlebeiry blaeberry {Vaecimum myrtillusL Ericaceae) • Otherspecies of bilberry used for dyeing • Elder {Sambucus nigra I Capnfohaceae) • Dwarf elder, danewoit {Sambucus ebulus L Capnfohaceae) • Grapevine {Vitis vimfeia L Vitaceae) • Other berries used for dyeing Anthocyanin dyes from flowers Hollyhock {Alcea losea L Malvaceae) • Roselle or karkadeh {Hibiscus sabdai iffa L Malvaceae) Leaves as sources of anthocyanin dyes Red sorghum or dyers guinea corn {Sorghum bicoloi (L ) Moench subsp bicolor Giamineae) • Chica or cricket vine {Arrabidaea chica (Humb & Bonpl) B Verl Bignoniaceae) Logwood 263 Logwood tree {Haematoxylum campechianum L Leguminosae) Trees with soluble redwoods brazilwoods (Leguminosae, Caesalpimoideae) 274 Sappanwood {Caesalpinia sappan I ) • Pernambuco or brazilwood {Caesalpima echinata Lamaick) • Peachwood, nicaragua wood {Haematoxylum biasiletto Karsten) Trees with insoluble redwoods red sandalwood, narrawood, barwood, camwood 289 Leguminosae, PapiUonoideae, Dalbergiac Red sandalwood, sanderstree {Pteiocarpus santalmus L ) • Nanawood, Andaman redwood

• African coralwood or African or padauk {Pterocarpus indicus Willd) Barwood, padauk {Pterocaipus soyauxu Taubert) • Tukula or mkulungu {Pteiocarpus tmctonus'Welw) Leguminosae, PapiUonoideae, Sophoreae Camwood {Baplua nitida Af/el ex Lodd )

Chapter 7. Yellow, but not flavonoids 301 Carotenoid dyes from flowers and fruits 301 {Crocus sativus L Indaceae) • Cape jasmine or Gaidema {Gardenia augusta (I ) Mei rill Rubiaceae) • Night jasmine or tree of sorrow {Nyctanthes arboi tristis L Oleaceae) • Indian toon or Indian mahogany {Toona ciliata M J Roemer Mcliaceae) • Annatto {Bixa orellana I Bixaceae) • Tinba {Cochlospermum tinctonum Perr ex A Rich Cochlospermaceae)

CONTENTS vn 318 The most populai yellow coloiant in the world Tunnei ic {Curcuma longa L Zingiberaceae) 322 A yellow trail connecting Africa, Asia and America alkaloid dyes Asian sources of berbenne yellows DC Beibendaceae) * Other of Chinese 01 Japanese barbeiry {Beiberis thunbergu species amuiemc Berbeus and Mahonta used foi dyeing in Asia » Amur coik tree {Phellodcndron Piene Rupr Rutaceae) • Huangteng {Fibiawea tinctoi m Lour and Ftbiaurca rceisa Memspermaceae) in Amenca and Africa Plant sources of berbenne and other yellow alkaloid dyes Nutt Berbendaceae) • Other Amencan Oiegon grape {Mahoma aquifohum (Pursh) America • Goldthread ti species ofBeibeiis and Mahoma used as dyes in {Coptis ifaha canadensis I (L ) Sahsbuiy Ranunculaceae) • Bloodroot or red puccoon {Sanguinarta Papaveiaceae) • Gangamau {Cryptolepts wngumolenta (Lindl) Schlti Asclepiadactae)

335 Chapter 8. Cocaigne to cowboys: indigo plants, indigo blues Chemistry of natural indigo the foimation of mdigotm and i elated substances from indigo plants 337 • of foimation Indigo producing substances in the plants Chemical process indigo constituents of natural indigo Dyeing with natural indigo 339 Dyeing with fiesh leaves of indigo plants • Methods foi extiacting and pieserving plant • vats of India indigo • Dyeing with woad or gara balls couched woad or sukumo Indigo • • chemical and • Indigo vats of Central and South Amenca The urine vat The

vat • The vats of the future? Indigo plants 353 354 The major plant souices of indigo

a Indigo plants {Indigofei spp , Leguminosae, Papihonoideae) • Indian indigo or common indigo {Indigofera tinctona L ) Platanillo {Indigojcra suffruticosa Miller) • Jiquilite {Indigofeia michehana Rose) • Natal indigo {lndigofcia ai recta Hochst ex A Rich) • Indigofei a coeiulca Roxb

Woads {Isatts spp , Cruciferae) Woad {Isatis tinctona L) • Chinese woad oi tea indigo {hahs indigotica Fortune ex Lindley)

Knotweeds {Persicana/Polygonum spp , Polygonaceae) Dyei s knotweed {Peisicana tinctona (Alton) Spach) Indigo plants of southeast Asia 386 Indigo-producing Wi ightta spp Apocynaceae Pala indigo or dyer's oleandei {Wnghtia tinctona R Blown) • Lanshu {Wnghtia laevis J D Hooker) • Watei jasmine {Wiightia ichgww (Teijsmann & Bmnendijk) Bentham) • Other Wnghtia spp mentioned as souices of indigo Indigo-producing Acanthaceae-Acanthoideae of Asia Rum or Assam indigo {Stwbtlanthei custa (Nees) Imlay) • Indigo and blue dye plants or the hill tubes of the Golden Triangle Indigo producing Asclepiadaceae Tarum akai or Java indigo {Maisdcnta tinctona R Biown) Indigo plants of tropical Afi ica 397

Indigo-producing Philenoptera spp , Leguminosae, Papihonoideae Gara or Yoruba indigo or indigo vine {Philenoptera cyancsceni (Schumach & Thonn ) Roberty) • Gambian indigo {Philenopteia laxifloia (Guill & Peir) Roberty) Indigo and blue dye-plants of tropical America 401 Blue-dyeing Acanthaceae-Acanthoideae Mohuitlt or sacalinta {Justiaa sptcigera Schdl) • Cuaja tinta or tinta mantes {Justicta co/on/eraVAW Graham) Indigo producing American Eupatoneae Paraguay indigo oryryvu retyma {Koanophyllon tinctonum Aimda ex H Kosl) • Other blue dyeing American Eupatoneae The indigo plant of the Lama people of Peru Yangua or llangua {Cybistax antisyphilttica (Martius) Martms)

vm NATURAL DYES Chapter 9. Into darkness: tannin plants 409 Brown and black dyes fiom Fagaceae 410 Pedunculate oak {Qucrcus wburl) Dut mast or sessile oak {Queniis pctraea (Mittuschka) Liebl) • Other species of oaks used foi tanning and dyeing • Gill or Aleppo oak {Queicus infectona Ohv) • Other oak galls used for dyeing • Valomanor valonea/walloon oak {Quereiis ithaburensis Decile subsp macrolcpis (kotsch>) Hedge & Yalt) • Chestnut or sweet chestnut {tastanta saliva Miller)

Reds that grow by the river' alders {Alnus spp Betulaceae) 422 Sticky alder {Alnusglutinosa (L ) Gaertner) • Grey alder {Alnus incana (L) Moench) • Red or Oregon alder {Alnus rubra Bongard) • Other species of alders used lor dyeing Brown and black dyes from conifeis (Pinaceae) 427 Eastern or Canadian hemlock {Isuga canadensis (L ) Can ) • Western hemlock {Tsuga hcterophylla (Raf) Sargent) Brown and black dyes from Anacai diaceae 431 Sicilian sumac {Rhus coiiana L ) • Tizia or Moroccan sumac {Rhuspentaph)lla (Jacq)Dcsf) • Chinese sumac {Rhusjavanica L ) • Staghorn sumac {Rhus t)phina L) • Smooth sumac {Rhusglabia L) • Frigrant sumac {Rhus aiomalica Alton) • Cyprus turpentine {Pistacia teiebinthus L ) • tiee {Pistacia lentiscus L ) • Pistacia galls • California pepper tiee {Sclunus nwlleL) • Quebracho Colorado santiagueno or eoionillo {Sclvnopsis quebiacho Colorado (Schltdl) FA Barkley &T Mey) • African grape or npeku{Lannea miciocai pa Engl &K Kiause) • Kuntunkum or kobewu {Lannea batten (Ohv) Engl) • Other species of Lannea used for dyeing Brown and black dyes from Combretaceae bogolan and myrobalans 448 Alncan birch or ngalama {Anogcissus lewcatpa (DC) Guillemin & Perrottet) • Indian sumac or bakli {Anogcissus latifoha Wall) • Cangaia {Combrctum glutmosum Peirottet) • Chebuhc myrobilan {Terminalia chebula Retz) • Bellenc myiobalan or bedda nut tree {Terminalia belhnca (Gaertner) Roxb ) • Terminalia spp used for dyeing in Africa Mangrove dyes and tannins 456 Yellow mangiovc or tengat {Ccnops (ciga/(Perr) C Robinson Rhi/ophoraceie) • Red mangrove {Rhizophora mangle L Rhizophoraceae) • Other mangroves used as sources of tannins ind dyes Brown and black from the pod dyes and tannins from Leguminosae 461 Egyptian mimosa or babul acacia {Acacia mlotica (I ) Willd ex Del) • Wattles acacias used is tmnins and dyes • Divi divi {Caesalpima conana (Jacq) Willd) • Tara or spiny holdback {Caesalpima spinosa (Mol) Kuntze) • Other species of Caesalpima with tannin nch pods Cutch, betel, cola and cu nau dye and chewing mattei 469 Cutch tree {Acacia (L f) Willd Leguminosae)* Gambler bush {linear mgambir

• Roxb Rubiaceae) • Dye yam or cu nau {Dtoscoiea cmhosa Lour Dioscoreaceae) Betel oi areca palm {Areca catechu L Palmae) • Cola nitida {Cola nitida (Vent) Schott & Endl Steicuhaceae) Pomegranate the dyei s'golden apple 481 Pomegimate {Punica gianatum L Punicaceae)

Chapter 10. Dyes from lichens and fungi 485

Orchils and litmus a chemical process 487 Manufactuie of orchils, dyeing methods used with lichens and fungi 489 Orchil from identifying orchil lichens to dyeing with the different kinds of orchils What is meant by orchil? • How to recognise an orchil producing lichen • Orchil preparation Del modo defar I onzello • The parelle d Auveigne and its Scottish cousin cudbear • Litmus Dutch or Flemish orchil • Fiench purple Dyeing with 'crotal' or crottle lichens the boiling water method Dyeing with fungi Orchil lichens 495 Roccellaceae 'Weeds' or 'sea orchils', Roccella spp , Orchil lichen {Roccella tinctona DC) • Canary orchil {Roccella cananensisDarb em

CONTENTS ix Vain) • Iimav\eed(Kotce//rf/iu//o>7»i7<(I ) DC) • Roccella phyeopsis Ach • I \olic species of Roccella imported into Furope during the 19th centur) 'Land' orchils parelle, eoicur, korkje and rock tripes Crab s e>e lichen {Ochroledua parclla (L ) Massal Pertusanaceae) • Pat ilk dAmeignc (Pertuwnadealbescens bnchs Peitusanactae) • Couur or cudbeai lichen {Oeliiolechia laitaiea (L ) Massal Pertusanaceae) • Rock tripe {Lavillia pustulata (L ) Meial Umbilicallaceae) • Peppeied moon lichen {Melanelia juliginosa (Fi Fx Duby) I ssl Paimehaceae) Crottles and lichens for dyeing by the boiling watei method 514 Crottles the lichens of Scottish and Irish tweeds

Light ciottle 01 salted shield lichen (Paime/in siixuii/is (I ) Ach Paimehaceae) • Daik crottle {Parmclia omphalodes (L ) Ach Parmehaetae) • Othei species ol Parmdia used in dyeing • Lungwort or oak-rag {iobaim pulmonana Hoffm Iobanaceae) • Yellow wall lichen oi yellowcrotal {Xanthonapanetwa (1 ) Ih Fr Ieloschistaceae) Dye lichens of the Native Americans (Parmehaceae) Wolf moss {Lethana vulpina (L ) Hue) • lumbleweed shield lichen {Xanthopai inclia cWo70c/iroa (luck) Hale) • Beard lichens {Usnca P Browne ex Adanson including U caveinosa Tuck, U fdipendida Staton, U Jloiida {I) Web ex Wigg em Cleit, U hirtti (I )

F H U Stnt U scabiata • I ichen in Pei u and Wigg , subflondana Nyl) dyes Chile Fungi for dyeing 525 Polypores in historic dye recipes (Polyporales) Larch agaric {Laneifomcs officinalis (Vill ex Fi) Kotlaba & Pou/ai Polypoi aeeae

• s 1) Tinder bracket {Tomes jomentanus (I ex Fr) Fr Polyporaceae s 1) • Mulberi y polypore {Polypoius inon (Polhni) Fr Polypoiaceae) • Shaggy biaeket oi hispidus canker {Inonotushispidus (Bull ex Fr) Karsten Hymenochaetaceae) • Indian paint fungus {Cchinodontium tinctoi mm Ellis & Everh Cchinodontiaceae) Cinnamon biackel {Hapalopilusiutilans(Pers ex Fr) Karsten Polypoiaceaes 1) • Cinnabar biaeket {Pycnoporus cinnabai mus (Jacq ex Fr) Karsten Conolaceae) Mordanting fungus of the deserts Desert shaggy mane or false shaggy mane {Podaxis pistillai is (L Pers) Ir Podaxaceae) The rainbow fungi

Dye maker's false puffball {Pisolithw; arhizus (Scop Fi) Rauschei t Sclerodermataceae) • Bloodred webcap {Coitmanus sanguineus (Wulf Fr)S F Gray Coitinanaceae) • Paxillus atrotomentosus (Batsch exFr) Fr Paxillaceae) • Slimy spike cap {Goniphidiusgliitinosus ex Fr • (Schaef Ft) Gomphidiaceae) bolete {Suillus vanegatwi (Sw ex Ti) O Kt/e Boletaceae) • Bovine bolete {Suillus bovinus (Sw ex Fr) O Ktze Boletaceae) • Larch bolete {Suillusgrevillei (Klotzsch) Singer Boletaceae) • Red cracking bolete {Xeroeomus chrysenteion (Bull) Quelet Boletaceae)

PART 3. DYEING : PURPLE-GIVING MOLLUSCS AND RED DYE SCALE 551

Chapter 11. Purple from molluscs 553

Chemistry of purple 554 Precursois of purple in molluscs • Chemistry of colour production from different purple molluscs

Purple-dyeing techniques 557 Direct • dyeing Purple dyeing in Pliny direct dye or true''? • Technical developments in purple dyeing the evidence of archaeological discoveries and dye analyses ple-producing molluscs 565 Purple molluscs used by the ancient civilisations of the Mediterranean and the Middle East

Spiny dye-murex {Bolmus brandans (Linnaeus, 1758) Muncidae, Muncinae) • Banded dye murex {Hexaplex (Trunculanopsis) trunculus (Linnaeus, 1758) Muncidae, Muncinae) • Red mouthed rockshell {Stramomta haemastoma (Linnaeus, 1766) Muncidae, • Rapamnae) Thais savignyi (Deshayes, 1844) Muncidae, Rapaninae) Purple molluscs used by the ancient civilisations of the British Isles and Brittany Sting winkle or oyster drill {Ocenebia ei inaceus (Linnaeus, 1758) Muncidae, • Ocenebnnae) Dog whelk {Nucella lapillus (Linnaeus, 1758) Muncidae, Ocenebrinae)

x NATURAL DYES Purple molluscs used by native American peoples Wide mouthed rockshell of the Pacific coast {Phcopurpura patula subsp pansa (Gould, 1853) Muncidae, Rapamnae) • Wide mouthed rockshell of the Atlantic coast {Plicoputpura patula (Linnaeus, 1758) Muncidae Rapamnae) • Kiosque rockshell {Thais kiosquiformis (Duclos, 1832) Muncidae, Rapamnae) e Red mouthed rockshell of the eastern Pacific {Stramomta bisenahs (de Blainville, 1832) Muncidae Rapamnae) • Chanque, loco oi pata de burro (Concholepa<; concholepas (Bruguiere 1789) Muncidae, Rapamnae) • Chocolate rockshell (Stramomta chocolata (Duclos, 1832) Muncidae, Rapamnae) • Timidad rockshell (Thais coronata (Lamarck, 1816) Muncidae, Rapamnae) Purple in Japan Akanishi (Rapana venosa (Valenciennes, 1846) Muncidae, Rapamnae) • Chmmenbora (Rapana bezoar (Linnaeus, 1767) Muncidae, Rapamnae) • Ibomshi (Thais clavigera (Kuster, 1860) Muncidae, Rapamnae) Purple in Asia, prospects for further research

Chapter 12. Vermilion, and : scale sources of 607 anthraquinone dyes

A mystery resolved dyer's 609 Dyers kermes ( (Planchon, 1864) Homoptera Coccoidea Kermesidae) American (Homoptera Coccoidea Dactylopndae) 619 Domestic (Dactylopius coccus (O Costa, 1835)) • Wild South American cochineal (Dactylopius ceylomcus (Green, 1896)) • Sylvester cochineals (Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell, 1893) and Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell, 1896)) The crimson-dyeing scale insects of the (Homoptera Coccoidea ) 635 Polish or ( polonica (Linnaeus, 1758) and Poiphyrophora cnthmi (Goux, 1938)) • Armenian carmine scale insect or Armenian cochineal (Porphyrophora hamelu (Brandt, 1833)) • Sophora carmine scale insect (Poiphyrophora sophorae (Aichangelskaja, 1935)) • Egyptian carmine scale insect (Porphyrophora htrsutissima (Hall, 1924)) insects (Homoptera Coccoidea Tachardndae) 656 Common or Indian lac insect (Ken ta lacca (Kerr, 1782)) • Chinese lac insect (Kerna chmensis (Mahdihassan, 1923))

Appendix: chemical structures of the dyestuff groups 667

Notes 711 List of references 736 Index of scientific names of dye sources 770 Index of vernacular names of dye sources 774

CONTENTS xi