Work and Shoot

Professional and Embodied Politics Broderick D.V. Chow

I’d been “locking-up” for months before I learned how to do it properly. A lock-up is the start- ing point of countless matches. The left hand grasps the back of the part- ner/opponent’s neck. The right grabs or drapes over the partner’s bicep. The two wrestlers mirror each other in a hold that establishes — to the crowd, at least — who is stronger, who is dominant. Left foot forward, right foot behind, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width: estab- lish a strong base. Circle the ring (always counter-clockwise), work “loose,” don’t forget to “sell.” Watching two pro-wrestlers lock-up in the ring, muscular and intimidating bodies com- peting for dominance, the closest analogous image is of two stags rutting.

Broderick D.V. Chow is Lecturer in Theatre and Drama at Brunel University, London, UK, where he teaches theatre history and leads the musical theatre strand of the BA Theatre program. His research concerns the intersections of performance practices, politics, economy, and industrial change, especially in the world of work. He has also written on choreographic practices, parkour (free-running), the Olympics, and actor training. Broderick is currently preparing an autoethnographic project and monograph on the fitness industry, masculinity, and the neoliberalization of work. He is coeditor (with Alex Mangold) of Žižek and Performance (Palgrave, 2014). [email protected]

TDR: The Drama Review 58:2 (T222) Summer 2014. ©2014 72 New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Professional Wrestling 73

2 - Work Songs, Songs, Work Without Without mov- 1 Stanford Encyclopedia of of Encyclopedia Stanford (where a predicate and its negation are true at the (where a predicate and its negation are true 3 the feeling of strength tested against the strength of another. another. the strength of of strength tested against the feeling communities of shared practice, rather than shared identity. rather than shared identity. communities of shared practice, ? Now you can respond to the other person,” says G.B. With a true pro- With says G.B. ok? Now you can respond to the other person,” — In professional wrestling, the word “work” is used in a number of ways, and this network is used in a number of ways, “work” the word In professional wrestling, All quotes, whether remembered or transcribed, unless otherwise indicated, are from my fieldwork at The School School The at fieldwork my otherwiseunless transcribed, or from are indicated, remembered whether quotes, All in-person informal follow-up as well as 2012, August to 2011 August from Kingdom, United London, East in dated. are notes from transcribed Quotes 2013. May to 2012 December from conversations online and performance dance-theatre the created I and Wells, Tom collaborator, my 2012, throughout Indeed, drawing on a physical method based in contact improvisation and wrestling. The work has been presented in the the in presented been has work The wrestling. and improvisation contact in based method physical a on drawing (2013). Materials” + articlemy in documented is and “Time Germany, and Kingdom United article the in subject the on Priest’s Graham see “paraconsistency,” of discussion a For on work latest his in “paraconsistency” discusses also Žižek Slavoj philosopher The 2013). ([1996] Philosophy (2012:1010). Hegel I circle the mats with my partner, locking-up with eyes before we lock-up with arms, and arms, we lock-up with with eyes before locking-up mats with my partner, I circle the We are doing the usual drills on a Monday night. We pair off on the mats, and tonight, and tonight, the mats, pair off on We drills on a Monday night. are doing the usual We In of this extraordinary theatre of the body. This story illustrates the embodied politics 1. 2. 3. of meanings hints at my political reading. “Worked” fights emerged in early-20th-century fights emerged in early-20th-century “Worked” of meanings hints at my political reading. then, on some sensed, but nearly invisible signal, we charge into each other, bodies crashing, bodies crashing, each other, we charge into nearly invisible signal, but some sensed, on then, some- There is also are. are there before we Our bodies hold. their way into the arms finding “,” about thing satisfying It reminds me of the way wrestling in ancient Greece was a pure form of physical “agon,” or “agon,” physical was a pure form of in ancient Greece me of the way wrestling It reminds the way initially, This was, in the present. principle embodied It is an ancient political struggle. locking-up. my body understood is six G.B. works with me. trainer, the head G.B., number of wrestlers, because there is an odd running up both arms and physique and an enormous tattoo with a bodybuilder’s foot two, is G.B. In person and as a teacher, and upper back to cover both pectorals. across his shoulders we and as he is intimidating, physically, Yet “cheeky-chap.” a sort of Essex kind and supportive, of the in the way I know: left hand to back and we lock-up, he says, “Go!” I am wary. face off, Again.” up. “loosen he says, “Stop,” struggle for dominance. bicep, right hand grabbing neck, why’re you blowing out every- “Listen, again and admonishes me. and he stops go again, We 2012). (14 May Like this” yeah? Light touch. It ain’t real, thing on the lock-up? quality of touch surprises me with its The the proper way to lock-up. demonstrates G.B. ing, “There, lightness. All the exertion and muscular bearing down or test of strength. there is no fessional wrestler, “real,” The struggle is perceived not because it is or con. a fake “sell,” strain turns out to be a to wrestle, Not for the first time in my learning but because it is communicated to the audience. “worked.” I realize that I have been school in I began learning to wrestle at a small but growing professional wrestling August 2011, I was from a background in physical theatre and dance, Coming East London. Bethnal Green, of professional wrestling to my artistic practice. initially interested in the potential applications What I found was a physical practice that was far more interesting than its status as a curious What I found was a physical practice that pro-­ While seemingly violent and antagonistic, and often maligned popular entertainment. a cor by the lock-up, This is illustrated the other. wrestling is actually a practice of caring for “paraconsistent logic” poreal embodiment of same time). It is a hold that is not a hold, a struggle against the other that is at the same time It is a hold that is not a hold, same time). of issues I began to read past wrestling’s spectacular surface and became cognizant cooperative. of shared theatrical labor that allows for partici- connected to corporeality: its status as a form In doing regardless of difference. of friendship, pants to model and practice a political principle of kinship or wrestling opens the possibility for affiliations outside of accepted structures so, political identity Figure 1. (facing page) J., an experienced wrestler, demonstrates a body-slam on another trainee, at The The at trainee, another on body-slam a demonstrates wrestler, experienced an J., page) (facing 1. Figure Chow) D.V. Broderick by (Photo 2011. Summer School,

74 Broderick D.V. Chow as genuine, isbrokenbyagenuineevent, andactualharmorinjurymayoccur. tional butnoncooperativeviolence;themomentwhen “,” theportrayalofstagedevents ing somethingthatisrealandnotfixed. Thisoftenreferstomomentsofaccidentalorinten- the word “shoot,” anothertermderivedfromcarnivallanguage(i.e., “straight shooter”), mean- cues. “Work” inthissense, reallymeans “working together.” The counterpointtothetermis is aphysicalimprovisationinwhichoneworkerrespondstoanother’ssomatic, visual, andaural confidence tricksoftravelingcarnivals, fairs, andmedicineshows. Mostsignificantly, “working” “selling” thestagedviolenceasreal, ausagethatrevealstheoriginsofwrestling’sargotin tlers,” but “workers.” One “works,” thatis, attacks, aspecificbodypart. One “works” thecrowd, ing theoutcomeofmatches(the “finishes”) inadvance. Today, wrestlersarenotcalled “wres- American wrestling, aspromotersdiscoveredtheywereabletomakemoremoneybydetermin-

“characters” inaliterary sense, nordoIintendto “speak for” anyone elseotherthanmyself. to detailthewordsandvoicesofothermoreexperiencedtrainees, butcrucially, theyarenot tling schoolisrepresentedas The School. Itisimportant, fortheunderstandingofpractice, background details, barringbriefphysicaldescriptions where required. The nameofthewres- the primarydataofmyresearch. Ihaverepresentednames ofwrestlersasinitialsandIgiveno ical capacitiesofmybody. Therefore, inthisarticleIpresentmybody’sprocessoflearningas to performancescholarswhotrainintangoortrapeze:agenuine curiositytoexplorethephys- ies. Ihaveabackgroundinphysicaltheatre, and mymotivationtolearnwrestlingwassimilar enter intowrestlingasanaïf, exploringahiddencommunity ofsecretknowledgeandmyster graphic, itisnotethnographicinthesenseoftryingto depictanunfamiliar “world.” Ididnot body isboththetoolofmyresearchanditsprimarysiteinquiry. Ifmyresearchisethno- “The pointisthatlanguageandsightarelimitedinwaystactilesensationsnot” (71). and thusmissescrucialpointsaboutwrestling. DeGarisproposesa “sensuous ethnography”: he argues, performsherprivilegedoutsiderpositionbyrefusaltogetintheringherself work forwhathereferredtoasits “transcendental subjectposition” (DeGaris1997:66). Mazer, wrestler andethnographicresearcherwhowasoneofMazer’sinformants, criticizesMazer’s it islackinginoneimportantarea. Ina1997article, LaurenceDeGaris, aformerprofessional expanded intoamonograph(Mazer1998), hasalreadydonemuchofthisgroundwork, though “The Doggie World ofProfessional Wrestling” inTDR Mazer’s ethnographicstudyofJohnnyRodz’swrestlinggyminNew York Citypublishedas “it’s awayofallowingsomethingtohappen.” learn. Your tendencyistopush, to “be stiff.” “But workingloose, workingtogether,” shesaid, ups inthisway. Shedidn’tknoweither, butsuspectedthatitwasbecause theyweredifficultto Speaking toanothertraineelater, IpuzzledoverwhyitwassoimportantforG.B. todrilllock- rect lighttouchbecameastiringfullyexertingmyself. Myforearmsandshouldersburned. work, the corporealactofmakinganddoing. Therefore, Itheorize “work” inrelationtowrestlingas as variablecapitalthatissecretedawayintheexchange-valuesofcommodities), butlaboras circle, wrestlingacknowledgesandvalueslabor. lence giveswrestlingitsuniquefrisson, butalsomakesworkingintoanethicalpractice. present possibilityofshoot, Iwouldargue, makeswrestlingexciting. The potentialforrealvio- 4. Following DeGaris, corporealityandtactilesensations aretheobjectsofmyresearch. My The methodologyemployedinthisarticleisnot, strictlyspeaking, ethnography. Sharon After 20, maybe30repetitionsofthelock-up Work Alex broke his tibia, “shoot” can simply be the result of a hastily tied boot. match I watched at the Progress June Wrestling 2012), in which Velocity promotion in Islington, London ( Viper A worker may suddenly “shoot it out” as a result with his partner of ill feeling between them, or as in a tag-team that is, theconditionsoflaborinwrestling. impliesapoliticsbeyondwhatisactuallyrepresentedinthering. Within thesquared- Not whatMarxcallsabstractlabor(labor-power — again, again, again in 1990, andsubsequently — trying togetthecor 4 The ever-­ The — - -

Professional Wrestling 75 - flying” (moves flying” Learning to create this spectacle is a three-day-a-week business. G.B., the head trainer and G.B., business. Learning to create this spectacle is a three-day-a-week stretching, a challenging combination of cardiovascular exercise, start with conditioning, We For me, the focus is always the body. By looking at the way wrestlers build and train their way wrestlers build and train their By looking at the is always the body. the focus For me, that require leaps, often from the top rope of the ring, including “moon-saults” and “splashes”), “splashes”), and “moon-saults” including of the ring, often from the top rope that require leaps, and pins. “hurricanrana”), “power-bomb,” throws (“,” a fairly well-known “heel” (bad guy) in British wrestling, runs The School with G.V., another The School with G.V., runs in British wrestling, (bad guy) “heel” a fairly well-known take place as ongoing drop-in meetings: Monday evenings for and classes professional wrestler, for pros and those on the verge of their first Wednesdays intermediate, Tuesdays beginners, “pri- and the trainers also run Class sizes on these evenings vary from 10–12 to 25–30, bookings. one week per month, The ring is erected training sessions with very small groups of 4–6. vates,” but otherwise train- popular wrestling show, the same week the gallery presents its extremely including aspiring The trainees are diverse, ing takes place on two-inch-thick foam mattresses. and people simply looking to performance artists, dancers, actors, and working pro-wrestlers, A high proportion (around 30 percent) of is around 60/40. The split of men and women get fit. but there are many oth- Many identify as British, trainee wrestlers appear to be people of color. and or queer, lesbian, Some identify as gay, or abroad. ers from other nationalities within the EU from the muscular physiques types vary enormously, Body “straight.” others seem hegemonically The median age seems to be overweight or very thin. to the very WWE wrestlers, common in over 50 and one or two teenagers (The School is an although there are wrestlers around 25–35, 18-plus environment). Conditioning the body is essen- and core training. isometric and bodyweight strength training, “not feeling like you’re but for a certain body shape, not merely to acquire tial to pro-wrestling, After an hour of push- as another trainee remarked. gonna die every time you carry someone,” gallery is as warm as the small and some freestyle dancing to house music, planks, crunches, ups, “bumps” the trainers drill students in After conditioning, a sauna and we are dripping with sweat. “chain-wrestling” rolls, similar to break-falls in such as ), (how to fall safely, “high-­ more spectacular moves including and (improvising moves with a partner), The Ethics of Fake Fighting The Ethics of Fake Learning to Fall The School was actually a small that it felt appropriate to discover On my first day of training, a railway arch in East London. tucked under alternative art gallery, performance space and professional wrestling and theatre cross paths throughout both their histories. After all, European wrestling in mod- Like , meaning. Spectacle is wrestling’s substance and its of the plea- Part and theatres. fairgrounds, ern times was originally presented in circuses, bodies and feats of strength of athletes such as sure for audiences was admiring the developed “Russian the an Estonian strongman who wrestled under the name Georg(e) Hackenschmidt, or “catch-as-catch-can” of the Lancashire style For the spectators (Rickard 1999:130). Lion” gambling on the outcome of a America, in late-19th-century wrestling “collar-and-” Irish (Beekman 2006). match was less important than a good show Work pose of writing is to struggle with communicating something that is known through the body: through the body: something that is known communicating is to struggle with pose of writing years things it has taken and some of these Brazil with my body, things I learned in “There are I writing when say that they were without But that is not to articulate in writing. to learn to 1995:xi). (Browning dance” speak them through could only of wage labor and capital shape, not only how processes and forces we can understand bodies, practices can be forms of resistance. but also how physical their bodies, and injure discipline, of resistance. the disciplined body is also a site tells us, As Michel Foucault My subject-position is therefore similar to Barbara Browning’s in her 1995 study of Brazilian study of Brazilian Browning’s in her 1995 similar to Barbara is therefore My subject-position the pur Like Browning, never her intention. was “fieldwork” she tells us that where samba, 76 Broderick D.V. Chow taught throughdemonstration, imitation, andcorrection. Inthecaseofa backbump, theblind moves canbepassedonthrough sharedtouch, whenyoufall, youfallsolo. Propertechniqueis Underground journeybacktomyhomeinCamden: edge madeflesh. What isphysicallycounterintuitiveanddifficultbecomesinternalized andembodied;knowl- fact seemslikeafairlyincidentalpartofwrestlingmatchrevealsitsimportance: ders werebruisedandtenderfromrepeatedcontactwiththefloor. Therepetitionofwhatin the barre. BythetimeG.B. freedustobeginworkingwiththenextfourtrainees, myshoul- retreat toouroriginalpositionswiththewearinessofaveteranballerinatakingherplaceat ble ormis-timeoneoftherolls, wewouldheartheshout, “Again!” andwewouldsilently ing toavoid, collidingwitheachother. Overandover, eitherI, oranothertrainee, wouldfum- and threeothertraineesbegantoshoulderrollfromonecornertheother, avoiding, ortry- shouted, “again!” Positionedinthefourcornersofmat, withoutcountorsignal, myself tice right?”). Butthisvaguenessactuallypointstoanimportantaspectofwrestlingasaprac- and unnecessarymystificationinthepreviousexample(“energy,” “that ‘ping,’” “youfeelthat, it!” 2011). (1 November ner post. “You feelthat, right? You feelthat ‘ping’?” “Yeah.” “See the canvas(thismoveiscalledanIrish Whip). The trainee’sbackcrashesintothepaddedcor other,” hesays, andthen, grabbingtheforearmofanexperiencedtrainee, swingshimacross “You’re likeaconductor refer to Vsevelod Meyerhold). G.B. illustrateskinaestheticawarenesswithananalogytomusic. “timing,” and “biomechanics” (thoughtheirusageofthisterm, Ibelieve, doesnotconsciously and otherbodies. The trainersdonotusetheseterms, butinsteadspeakof “ring awareness,” and proprioceptiveawareness and workingtogethertoimprovisearoundthis. Wrestling thereforeemphasizeskinaesthetic wrestling islargelyimprovised, withworkerscomingupaloosestructureand “finish” “Bumps” areinsomeways themostchallengingtechniquetoteachinwrestling. While other (9 July2012) it down, and(b)it’sstillreally difficultto overcome the fact thatit’sunnatural to fall backwards. into constituentparts. Iunderstand thatintellectually, stuff, but(a)that’showIlearn by breaking “Transformering” it trapezius andreardeltoidsconnectwiththefloor]are especiallybad. G.V. says I’m are alldisarticulated. Myback bumps[abackwardsfallontothemat, inwhichthelower The thingIfind myself needingtoovercome isfearandlack ofconfidence. Itmeans mymoves My ownstrugglewaswith “falling,” ascapturedinajournalentrywrittenhastilyonthe 2011) (8 November can’t beworryingaboutyourrollgoingthewrongplace. It’sgottabecomepartofyou. him, andthenhe’scomingatyoublowingpowderglitterinyourface[...] You a rana[hurricanrana]andthere’sthreeotherguysinthere, andyouhavetojumpover hands go up]See, youcan’tbethinkingwhenyou’reinthere, ifP. iscomingatyouwith end showhehadwrestled in] You rememberthetag-teamSunday? Who wasthere?[Some see everythingthat’sgoingonevenifyoucan’tit. [Recountingamatch fromaweek- don’tactuallyhityou!Ringawareness, yeah? Timing. It’slike...youhaveto there isn’tnotimetothink, youjustgottagetoutofthewaysothatotherbloke’s Why doyouthinkImadethemrollssomanytimes?Intheheatofmatch One Tuesday eveningitseemedG.B. hadturnedintoabrutalballet teacher. “Again!” he Anyone whoprefersspecificinstructionsintheirlessonmightbridleatthevagueterms G.V. callswrestlers “stuntmen forthetheatre.” Butunlikestuntworkorstagedcombat, — it isaformoftacitphysicalknowledge. — I guesshemeansI’mbreaking apartwhat shouldbeasinglefluidmotion — you’re conductingalineofenergyfromonesidetheringto — the perceptionofbody’spositioninginrelationtoitself — that’s timing! You canfeel - Professional Wrestling 77 in a way” (9 May 2013). (9 May 2013). in a way” incorporating moves and pins they enjoy and incorporating moves 5 Other scholars have elaborated upon the narrative structures of matches in great detail. As my work concerns concerns work As my detail. great in matches of structures narrative the upon elaborated scholars have Other for (2005) Jenkins (1996), Campbell (2005), Garis De to reader the refer I bodies, between happens what instead on. so and furtherheat” “heel on information Later in the month, G.V. drilled us on back bumps in a different way: on his clap we would a different way: on his us on back bumps in drilled G.V. month, Later in the Learning to chain is about more than executing the move “correctly,” it is about develop- it “correctly,” the move Learning to chain is about more than executing Because the outcome, or “finish,” of a match is already determined in advance, it seems advance, of a match is already determined in “finish,” or Because the outcome, drive were doing two shows a night on the weekends we’d I remember when me and C. car, and be working out the match in the all the way from London to Birmingham, on our boots ...and of course we’d be late and pulling you do a clothesline there,” “Okay, (21 May 2012) you were announced. in the car and running in just in time before 5.

fall backwards and bump safely. Having to respond on cue, without “thinking,” I discovered “thinking,” without on cue, Having to respond and bump safely. fall backwards with what I mentally refused to cooperate with a body that my earlier frustrations that despite The experience was akin to learning to already knew far more than I did. my body understood, and the next I could. I couldn’t, One minute ride a bike. Together and Working Working “get over”) based on or over” decides in advance who will win (“go The wrestling promoter might stretch over several certain workers or a planned storyline that audience response to so the workers them- is not a director in the theatrical sense however, The promoter, events. matches according to the structure Workers structure of the match. selves devise the internal “heel”), and evil (“face” basic logic of good and backwards fall so challenged my everyday modes of vertical orientation that even months into that even months into vertical orientation everyday modes of fall so challenged my backwards even though fall first, hands to break my using my the move, I was still cheating my training sternly. G.B., said bump really dangerously,” “You fingers. injury to my wrists and this risked Similarly, De Garis notes that many older workers despair of the increasingly choreographed De Garis notes that many older Similarly, conducted in which dress rehearsals are sometimes nature of wrestling matches for television, before broadcast (De Garis 2005:207). “legitimate” are The majority of moves employed in chain wrestling ing kinaesthetic empathy. performed adapted to ensure they can be moves from Greco-Roman or Freestyle wrestling, his partner’s hand, one wrestler grasps “wrist-lock” in a For example, safely and repeatedly. if applied This move can, is bent at a painful angle. twisting the arm in such a way that the wrist the defending wres- In pro-wrestling, disarm an attacker. as in a street fight, with enough force, The attacking wrestler maintains what injury. in order to prevent tler keeps his elbow bent, as the light touch, as well which mimics the shape, grip, “Playstation” the trainers refer to as a A wrist-lock can be transitioned into a of two hands manipulating a video-game controller. The attacker must in which the defending partner’s arm is bent behind his back. ­“hammer-lock” and back, maintain a light grip on the partner’s hand; but with the hand hidden behind the communicating pain the move, “sell” the workers are able to maintaining close bodily proximity, The only site where pressure/tension is to the audience through faces and flexed musculature. not exerted in such a move is the hand itself. that will best showcase their abilities. Still, matches are mainly improvised, with “chain wres- with improvised, matches are mainly Still, their abilities. that will best showcase derived from legitimate grappling sports, often stringing together a set of moves, that is, tling,” technique. being the primary and most important improvisational (and rehearsing) the match to avoid any unnecessary to improvise them at all; choreographing The School maintain that not Some workers at potential for injury might seem more logical. by rehearsal was due to a lack of time: scripting a thorough choreography backed take pride in being able to improvise and work under pres- many workers also However, the more likely you are to just “the more you plan your match, One told me: sure in this way. the reaction is legit...and...real, then If it’s not written, run through it. 78 Broderick D.V. Chow in an aggressive move. (Photo by Broderick D.V. Chow) on the slammer’splacing his hand or arm thigh, revealing the collaboration even Fall 2011. The worker being “thrown” assists the worker doing the “throwing” by Figure 2. S., a newbie, is lifted into a scoop slam by another trainee, The School, and wasstartingtobebookedbyotherpromotions. partner andpresentitinthering. IwaspairedwithJ., whohadbeenwrestlingforayearor so completely withanotherperson. work wemightsaythatitisaprocessofbeinginflow, becomingabsorbedcollaborativelyand tinct selfandratherbecomeonewiththeactivity” (2008:44). Applying thisconcepttowrestling Svendsen summarizes: “When wearefullyimmersedinworkloseoursenseofhavingadis- others. Flowiscompleteabsorptioninataskandtheidealstateofunalienatedwork, asLars mindfulness andfocusthatheobservedinjazzmusicians, childrenatplay, andskiers, among single-mindedness recallsMihalyCsikszentmihalyi’sconceptof “flow” (1975), astateofdeep

6. J: Magistral?[Inod]OK. (28May2012) B: Icandosomepins... do thatspotG.B. showedus, thenfinish...What doyouknowhowtodo? you bustout, welock-up, thenchainforabit...I dunno, thenfrontface-lock, fightout, we J: Okay, sowhydon’twestartwithheadlock, thentake-down, I’llgetyouinheadscissors, My ownmomentofabsorptioncamewhenweweretoldtogo andprepareamatchwith A magistral is a graceful looking pin in which one worker rolls forward under the other. 6 (17 January2012). This kindof R good! [To let ithappen. Yeah, butitwas ing!” T. remarked. “I justlike, didn’t knowwhatwashappen- and incompletecontrol. “I him downontothematssafely shoulders, whothenslammed down andhoistedontoR.’s progressed, T. wasflippedupside experience. As theirchaining ing withR., whohadmuchmore of abouttwomonths, waswork- On oneoccasion, T., atrainee in workingwithanotherperson. ness andafeelingofabsorption There’s alossofself-conscious- most enjoyablepartoftraining. included, thesejamsarethe trainees at The School, myself takes hisorherplace. Formany tags anothertrainee, whothen of theringandwrestleuntilone Two traineesgointothecenter to acontactimprovisation “jam.” these movesinaformatsimilar to improviseandincorporate mats (ortheapronofring) gather ontheperimeterof learning anumberofmoves, we In eachtrainingsession, after .] Niceone, mate” Professional Wrestling 79 - Smith recalls: These exchanges, Smith These exchanges, you get a little pop inside yourself too.” yourself inside pop little a get you — 7 his observations on work between wrestlers points to the ethical nature of wres- his observations on work between wrestlers 8 Wrestling work, therefore, can be thought of as a practice of trust and care. In the ring, In the ring, trust and care. can be thought of as a practice of therefore, work, Wrestling A “pop” is a spontaneous audience reaction, though as A. told me, referring to a rather spectacular move in her her in move spectacular rather a to referring me, told A. as though reaction, audience spontaneous is a “pop” A superhero little a like feel match: first “You straightforwardly too as Aristotelian. across comes anger fear and evoke to strive wrestlers that argument Smith’s reading. complex more a presents kayfabe audience of analysis 2005 contrast, Mazer’s In Working “loose” distinguishes pro-wrestling praxis from other legitimate forms of combat pro-wrestling praxis from other distinguishes “loose” Working violence because it is counterintuitive to the loose also takes a long time to perfect, Working sets of emotions workers must generate. Smith draws attention to the two contrasting 7. 8. tling praxis. First and foremost, he highlights that wrestling requires trust, providing a rather that wrestling requires trust, he highlights First and foremost, tling praxis. “finishing a Recounting show in the United States. moving sketch from a grassroots wrestling ‘Do you have me?’ “He said, one wrestler says: ladder, performed from a 10-foot metal move” it’s alright...put your arm here.’” ‘No, I said, and I told him I had him. points out, take place in quiet whispers as the crowd roars, “Kill him! Kill him!” as the crowd roars, take place in quiet whispers points out, (168). “The two performers then flew into the air and did a flip while embracing” wrestlers put their bodies at great risk and trust that their partners will have the embodied worker does not mean one worker paternalistically Being a safe knowledge to protect them.

Working Loose Working My partner and I felt in genu- match a few weeks later went far less well. Another in-training either to pick a gimmick and play a match as had been told We each other. ine competition with a dramatic storyline made me for The extra level of having to sell guy). a heel or face (good get my training. I genuinely started to struggle against D. As G.B. tried to dissect the match tried to dissect the match As G.B. genuinely started to struggle against D. I get my training. “He was going all over trainees: told the rest of the D. Loads of things.”), (“What went wrong? gotta slow down, “You says: G.B. It felt really panicky and dangerous.” stiff. and really the place, My face burned. (18 June 2012). you’re learning” [...] Don’t worry about it, learn to work loose. stressed the importance Both trainers constantly wrestling and MMA. sports such as amateur The verbal explanations of certain holds “loosen up!” yelling from the sides: of working loose, sometimes resorting to hilariously vulgar meta- emphasized a loose grip and malleable body, “After you get the guy in August 2011: said at one of my first training sessions in As G.V. phors. Keep them loose. you make a circle with your fingers. and you wanna twist his arm, wrist-lock, feeling of The image and Anal.’” ‘Slack I call this grip barely want to touch the guy’s arm. You as a loose sphincter was undeniably helpful. the opening made between one’s two hands “contain his propensity for actual vio- Mazer notes that a wrestler must that is being displayed. in order to make his performance of violence lence and [...] restrain his desire for dominance independent American In his study of (1998:10). accessible to and engaging for the audience” to the ordinarily hard “antithetical notes that pro-wrestling praxis is Smith Tyson R. wrestling, “It takes a match, told me after my failed a female trainee, A., (2008:162). body of the athlete” up with I found out recently that all the guys used to say don’t get paired long time to learn. stiff.” because she’s gonna be her, feelings among audi- “evoke passionate emotions to “frontstage” they must generate Outwardly, they or between each other, Inwardly, (162). justice)” ence members through acts of injustice (or the nature of audi- While Smith’s analysis over-simplifies must feel mutual empathy and trust. ence response, The level of improvisation required was substantial. While we started off well, after chaining after chaining off well, While we started was substantial. improvisation required The level of (the in a front face-lock Grabbing me next. what came I could not remember for a few minutes The cue was enough out.” “Fight in my ear: he whispered how it had been planned) opposite of the got to We everything and continue. to forget my self-consciousness, for me to overcome excitement and and I felt a flush of in approval, other trainees hollered The magistral. the finish, “pop.” first pride: my 80 Broderick D.V. Chow move moresafe to protectoneselfmakesthemovemoredangerous. To layoneselfopentodangermakesthe body toomuch, “as if[Iwas]tryingtoprotectmyself” street, Iwouldprobablynotshoulder-check him. M. noticedthatIhadatendencytoturnmy rials hewearsaleatherdogcollarandiscomparedtopitbull. Were Itoencounterhimonthe shorter thanme, buttwiceaswide, andcoveredintattoospiercings. Inhispublicitymate- tact withyourpartner. IwaspairedwithM., anup-and-comingworker. At fivefootfour, M. is your chestsothatthelarge, muscularpartoftheupperforearmandfrontdeltoidmakecon- maneuver safelyrequiresyouto, attheverylastsecondbeforeimpact, raiseyourleftarmacross wrestlers setoffrunning, crashintoeachother, andbackbumpontothemat. Executingthe one intermediateclassinlateMay2012, wepracticed “shoulder-checks,” amoveinwhichboth protects orshieldstheother;rather, itisaprocessofmutually atively write: “Precarity islifelivedinrelation toafuturethatcannot be proppedsecurelyupon of workers tojoinEquity, theactor’sunion(Frontier Wrestling Alliance 2011). contractors,” theycannotunionize, thoughtherehavebeensome effortsinBritaintoencourage professional wrestlers” (Mujanovic ; 2011). Legally, becauseworkersarehiredas “independent poration “has gonetosignificantlengthsbreakupany potentialemergenceofaunionfor opportunity forcollectiveaction, eveninthehighesttiers. Forexample, the WWE asacor formers ($25–$75)butitisverycommontoreceivenopayat all” (2008:160). There isalsolittle and thesizeofhouseattendance. Somepromotions payasmallstipendforthatnight’sper wrestling scene: “If thereiscompensationforperforming, itdependsonthegivenpromoter required totravellongdistancesbetweenshows. Smith writes, concerningtheUSindependent Wrestlers have nolaborcontractfrompromoters, oftenreceivepoorremuneration, andmaybe there isnosafetynetforinjuredwrestlersexceptindividually purchasedinsurancepackages. ure, anddrugabuse(narcotics, painkillers, andanabolicsteroids). Injuriesarecommon, and tlers havediedbeforetheageof65,” astatistic thatincludesheadinjury, suicide, heartfail- (2011) pointsoutthatintheUnitedStates “since 1985, welloverahundredprofessionalwres- their bodieswithoutadequateremuneration, insurance, orjobsecurity. JasminMujanovic; produces itsownresistance, byinventingapracticethatgeneratescollectiveagency. however, theremovalofworkers’autonomytodetermineconditionsworkand labor also ested intheirproductandleftwrestlersatmercy” (2006:ix–x). Inadialecticalreversal, tion: “[After World War I]promotersrecognizedthatpredeterminedfinisheskeptfansinter as sporttopro-wrestlingtheatricalspectaclebeganinamomentofdirectcapitalistexploita- In hishistoryofprofessionalwrestling, ScottBeekmannotesthatthetransitionfromwrestling Discipline andPrecarity The Political Economy ofProfessional Wrestling Shoot softness; wrestlersembodyfriendshipwhilecommunicatingantagonismandaggression. affinities. Thepowerful, hypertrophicbodyofthewrestlerisputtoservicepliabilityand tice anditsdemandsforsafetycareoftheothersuggestanalternativesystemvalues ticipation withinmoderninstitutions. At thesametime, theimprovisatorynatureofprac- Michel Foucault([1975]1991)calls “docile” bodies, bodiesadaptedthroughdisciplineforpar certain bodytype)alongwiththerepetitionofmoveswouldsuggestthatworkersdevelopwhat conditioning requiredbytrainingsessions(supplementedadditionaltodevelopa ethics ofopenness. hands ofanother. This other, ofcourse, mightbeastranger. The ethicsofpro-wrestlingarean TDR The laboreconomyofwrestling canthereforebedescribedas “precarious.” Ina2012issue Today morethanever, wrestlerslaborunderconditionsthatplaceenormousdemandson This accountoftrainingdemonstratesthatwrestlingpraxisbuildsacontradictorybody. The on “Precarity andPerformance” (2012), NicholasRidoutandRebeccaSchneider evoc- — but italsorequiresagreatdealoftrust, asoneisplacingone’ssafetyinthe

— of concerntohimbecauseattempting becoming vulnerable. During - - - - Professional Wrestling 81 - but what it do, Not what it can do, other forms of performanceof forms other or ballet as such — labor power as commodity (Harvey — luck 2009:33), or take part in “extreme wrestling” wrestling” “extreme or take part in may work injured (Kluck 2009:33), Wrestlers 9 Of course, wrestling is not unique in its demands on the body the on demands its in unique not is wrestling course, Of extreme forms of performanceof forms art the body. on strain extreme similar put But unlike the precarious nature of a shift-worker in the service industry, wrestlers are driven wrestlers in the service industry, nature of a shift-worker But unlike the precarious the body of the worker makes visible the work- According to Marxist theorist David Harvey, In the economy of wrestling, bodies of wrestlers are reproduced and endlessly circulated as bodies of In the economy of wrestling, 9.

by a desire to “make it in the business.” Like acting and other forms of performance, wres- of performance, Like acting and other forms it in the business.” “make by a desire to by Sophie Hope and Louise Owen (2013) a term used “passion industry,” tling can be seen as a those striving to make it in pro- like where, and creative industries, to describe the cultural and creative practice and will are driven by their passion for artistic workers fessional sports, The wrestler/worker prefig- and unpredictable working conditions. therefore endure difficult forces workers in all industries way in which precarious and unstable work ures and models the sur Workers a freelance world. procedures in order to survive in to adopt certain disciplinary If a wrestler and audience response. generally based on popularity vive through repeat bookings, in wrestling “getting over” as determined in advance as victorious, he or she will be is popular, competitive, wrestling is intensely is not a true contest, While what happens in the ring lingo. audition for the aiming at the Holy Grail: an as workers compete with each other for bookings, trainers noted that Both The School. was repeatedly emphasized at “get over” How to WWE. “that’s as was the most important aspect of wrestling, (character and costume) “gimmick” one’s noted, another wrestler within the business, Discussing competition what makes you money.” but if you don’t it’s selling...you can be really skilled, “[A] good wrestler is not just the skills, with put- if you don’t keep that link with your audience online, know how to present yourself, But prob- (9 May 2013). if you don’t do all that then it’s a bit wasted” ting your promo online, yourself is the body. ably the most emphasized part of selling looks like. capital er’s insertion into the circulation of variable that reveal the commodity status of the laboring body the visible marks In wrestling, 2000:103). As and excessive muscle gain. dislocations, broken bones, bruises, of the worker include scars, experienced informal conversations with situation, evidenced by my observations of the training America (see Garfield 1996, and testimonials by pro-wrestlers in Britain and North wrestlers, in which the working sub- no gain,” “no pain, workers often adopt a narrative of Kluck 2009), physical pushing past individual of the performance, ject (over)identifies with the physical labor limitations. the past” (2012:5). More concretely, as a condition of labor, precarity refers to flexible and tem- to flexible refers precarity of labor, as a condition More concretely, (2012:5). the past” work- (2011) includes those “The Precariat” Guy Standing calls What porary employment. job capitalism such as enjoyed under Fordist forms of security not and cannot claim ers who do neoliberal eco- Under pay. and maternity working hours or contracts, stable pensions, security, affecting service-sector universal condition, become an increasingly precarity has nomic policy, other industries and workers in the creative and salaried workers, temporary migrant workers, and atti- affects, information, (those forms of labor that produce labor” “immaterial forms of [2000]). material commodities; see Hardt and Negri as opposed to tudes, or “death matches” (which involve blood-letting with any combination of smashed fluorescent (which involve blood-letting “death matches” or routes to self- among other creative or staple guns, razors, ladders, barbed wire, light tubes, commitment to physical training and muscular develop- But most common of all is the injury). Excessive weight training produces the “working on your body”). simply calls ment (what G.V. hard surface of the body that is paradoxically meant to work in a soft and gentle way. and hypermuscular images sold as post- tanned, shaved, exposed, their stripped, commodities, A hypermuscular ideal and on other branded merchandise. in video games, as action figures, ers, WWE match commen- In their study of is not secondary but central to wrestling as a spectacle. point out and Danielle Soulliere and James Blair (2006) find that commentators repeatedly tary, 82 Broderick D.V. Chow is akindofradicallyopenhospitality, whichJacquesDerrida(Gandhi’smajortheoretical refer against, possessivecommunities ofbelonging” (2006:9). A politics offriendship, inotherwords, gestures thatrefusealignment along thesecureaxesoffiliationtoseekexpressionoutside, ifnot ent. Ratheritrefersto, aspostcolonialtheoristLeelaGandhiwrites, “all thoseinvisibleaffective a socialrelationmarkedbyfeelings ofwarmthorhappiness, thoughsuchfeelingsmay bepres- relationship Iwanttoconceptualize hereasfriendship. of affiliationthroughpractice, ratherthanthroughshared identity, modelsatypeofpolitical siders, butinanother, bybecomingcompetentinthepractice, onecanbeadmitted. This sort ual free-agents, wrestlingisaguild-likestructure. scientific productiontechnique” ([1974]1998:131). Counteractingalaboreconomyofindivid- and not, asHarryBravermanpointsout, themanager orengineer, wasthe “chief repositoryof can beseenasakintothepre-Taylorist organization ofindustriallabor, inwhichthecraftsman, lated solelyamongwrestlers, andhenceevadescapture bypromotersorthelargerindustry. It to “work” (aformoftacitembodiedknowledge) isanalternativeformofcapitalthatcircu- alternative valuesthataredifficulttocommodify:affects, affinities, relationships. Knowinghow tling Ihavedescribediswherethelaborofwrestlingresistsits ownexploitationbyproducing between bodies. Within thestructures ofthebuyer’smarketlabor, theactualpraxisofwres- attack inthatsamebody” (1988:56). The counter-attack inthiscaseisnotsolo, butaresistance with theirbodies, theyworktheirbodies, andtheirbodiesshowthework. almost unheardof, leadstotheadoptionofdisciplinaryproceduresbody. Wrestlers work talist (promoter). The precariousnatureofthislaboreconomyinwhichsteadyemploymentis examples ofthewage-laborerwhosellshisorher “form-giving fire” (Marx1857)tothecapi- The designationofwrestlersas “workers” shouldbynowseemapt. Wrestlers areparadigmatic Power andresistance throughfriendship quickly made... Basically, thebodyshowscommitment” (5December2012;9May2013). tanned, andaguywholookslikeeitherbittooskinny, orhasabitofbelly, thechoiceis doesn’t work.” Or: “If [the WWE] hasachoicebetweenguythatawesomemuscles, tall, you looklikeanyonewhocould’vejustputonpants[underwear]andcomeinthering, thenit it asapartofwrestlinglife: “You’re supposedtolooklikeyou’restrongandeverything, andif haps somewhatcriticalofthepressuretrainersputoncertaintrainees, butothersaccepted and acceptanceofthepressuretomaintainacertainbodilyideal. Somewrestlerswereper the bestbrandsofproteinpowdersandcreatine. cated orevendiscussed, thoughtherewasmuchdiscussionamongtrainees(myselfincluded)of point duringmytrainingdidIobserveanabolicsteroidsorotherillicitsupplementsbeingadvo- murder-suicide ofChrisBenoitandhisfamily(seeRonson2007). Imustemphasizethatatno the heartofanabolicsteroidabuseinindustry, whichisthoughttohaveleadthetragic capital. Itisthissimplistic1:1relationshipbetweenmassandvaluethatonemightargue at my “bodily capital,” thoughinacrudeandliteralway. The moremassIgained, thegreatermy of myincreasedeffortsinweighttrainingandbodybuildingthepreviousmonth, Iincreased been gymming?Good! You lookgood!Keepatit!” As Wacquant (2004)wouldsay, asaresult absence, G.V. commentedtoG.B.: “His bodylooksgood. Histricepsaremassive![To me]You is thedifferencebetweenbookings&sidelines!” Onmyreturntotrainingafteramonth’s to workontheirbodiesabitmorenow!Gym!Greatskills&Look[sic] G.V. ontheprivateFacebookgroupofwrestlingschoolthatread, bluntly: “Everyone needs “cut,” “ripped,”and “pumped.” compare themuscularityofmalewrestlers, praisingcertainwrestlerswithadjectivessuchas Guilds areessentiallycommunitiesofsharedpractice. In onesense, theyareclosedtoout- Foucault says: “power, afterinvestingitselfinabody, findsitselfexposedtoacounter- Discussing theimportanceof “look” withothertraineesIfoundaninterestingambivalence One evening, uponreturninghomefromtraining, Iopenedmylaptoptofindaposting by Friendship inthissensedoesnot mean - - Professional Wrestling 83 might not — even or perhaps especially when it — invariably generates its heat as much from its it is uncommon to see more than one very — — solidarity between immigrant and US citizen solidarity between immigrant — This research raises some crucial questions to be addressed in further work. Firstly, any read- Firstly, This research raises some crucial questions to be addressed in further work. This reading of the praxis of wrestling sheds new light on one of the problems of the genre: of wrestling sheds new light on one This reading of the praxis Wrestlers as laborers (like actors, dancers, musicians, and performance artists) prefigure the and performance musicians, dancers, actors, as laborers (like Wrestlers ing of wrestling work as inclusive is problematized by the representation of women wrestlers. wrestlers. ing of wrestling work as inclusive is problematized by the representation of women female wrestlers “The performance of As Mazer writes: “Tapping out...” “Tapping Conclusions up the potential for com- and opens principle of friendship, practices the political Wrestling It is important that this relationship rather than identities. munities based on shared practices, through verbal exchanges; while one might understand rather than happens through the body, distinguishes Williams Raymond a wrestler knows what it feels like. solidarity as a principle, what he and structures of lived experience, between structures as institutional or organizational, My focus is on wrestling’s structure of feeling. (1977:127–35). “structures of feeling” calls is most like the performance of male wrestlers on men’s implied (if not actualized) erotics as from its athletics and from its legitimizing effect female wrestlers are explicitly gendered as In large television promotions, (1998:118). wrestling” to the most egregious sexist stereotypes (“blond bimbo,” and their gimmicks often pander such, with Paul male bodies are equally exposed in wrestling, Some might argue that “gold digger”). However, as it were. “cheesecake,” to Chyna’s “beefcake” the Levesque providing H” “Triple the overall marginality of women’s wrestling its use of racist, xenophobic, sexist, and homophobic stereotypes. Because wrestling requires and homophobic stereotypes. sexist, xenophobic, its use of racist, exchange to take place out- it provides the means for a physical extreme care and cooperation, Argentinian wrestler of Italian an In the early 1940s, language. side of identity and spoken City by a wrestling promoter and quickly York was brought to New Rocca, Antonino descent, “macho” promoters gave him a stereotypically handsome wrestler, A tall, rose to prominence. in order to draw in the local immi- playing up his ethnic heritage shamelessly Italian gimmick, and trust taking place between Rocca the practice of physical cooperation Yet grant community. and his US opponent/partners before any determina- before any turns up, or what to who “Let us say yes in evocative terms: ence) defined wonder how While one might (2000:77). ” before any identification any anticipation, before tion, that I am reminded ability can be inclusive, level of physical requiring such a high any practice “A an embodied shibboleth: “language,” of wrestling as a kind frequently described the trainers same they don’t speak the even if Mexico, to wrestle a guy from Japan will be able wrestler from the Induction into August 2011). 25 (G.V., each other before” never touched language and’ve ethnicity. work erases differences of nationality and world of (wrestling) have taken place were friendship based solely on identity. One might therefore read the history friendship based solely on identity. have taken place were Wozniak most offensive stereotypes (see Maguire and of wrestling not as a compendium of the have found and the immigrant the excluded, but rather as a place where the marginal, 1987), The diversity of the wrestling school I attended friendship with others though a shared practice. sexism, colored by casually racist jokes, the atmosphere of bravado, Therefore, bears this out. is complicated other situation would be read as offensive, taunts that in any “Grapple Gay” and and care for the other’s body. safety, by another corporeal level of intimacy, Precarity but their practice models possibilities for resistance. ideal worker under post-Fordism, promoting individual self-interest and fulfillment. “free agents,” basically defines all workers as as individual (and competitive) rather than collective. Responsibility for survival is conceived of is coop- because of its highly physical and potentially dangerous nature, wrestling work, Yet is about trust: laying down one’s as I have experienced it, Work, erative to an unusual degree. In this In opening myself up to another I also protect myself. health and safety for another. friendship leads to solidarity. sense, 84 Broderick D.V. Chow Figure 3. Trainees in the ring, Summer 2011. (Photo by Broderick D.V. Chow) gonna bookyou! Noonewantstobeknownas someonewho’sdangerous.” G.B. toldme: “You gettheseguys, theydon’tknowhowtowork, how totellastory in asense, workcouldnot exclusivelybesetagainst ferent way.” vado, noone’sarrogant, yousweattogether, youmakemistakes, yougettoknowpeopleina dif- was appreciationoftheboundary-breakingnatureworking with others: “There’s allthisbra- tion, itseemsworkasanalternativemodeofvalueisgenerally appreciated. And certainlythere body, but[fans]don’trealizetheinvolvement” (9May2013). Regardlessofmyconceptualiza- that [fans]don’tsee, asmuchtheyrealizeit’sallfaked. This isreallyworkingtogetherwiththe ing togetherwithapartner?” Iasked. “Well...no. That’s stillmyfavoritepart...andit’ssomething wrestler thoughttogivesexualfavorsapromoter). “Does thistakeawaythevalueinwork- abounding (wrestlingforfreeandundercuttingotherworkers; beinga “ring rat,” thatis, afemale far worsethanIhadrepresented;withgossipaboutunderhanded techniquesingettingbooked as too “romantic.” A., forinstance, toldmethat thecompetitivenatureofBritishwrestlingwas of wrestling’slaboreconomy. These conversations threwinsomeinterestingcomplications. few ofthetraineesaboutmyconceptualizationwrestlingworkasresistancewithincontext and thewrestlingscene. After completinganearlydraftofthisarticle, Ispokeatlengthwitha thoughts withothertrainees, whowouldhelpmeinconstructingageneralpictureofwrestling, on whatmybodyhadlearnedandmakingattemptsattheorizingthepractice. Iwoulddiscussmy After eachtrainingsession, Iwouldwriteupmyfieldnotesonthelongtrainjourney Postscript: TroublesomeAmateurs subsequent researchmightaddresswhatworkcando. of wrestlingworkasamodelforotherformspoliticalaction. Ihaveaddressedwhatworkis; ity mightinsteadproducefriendshipandsolidarity. Butthequestionarisesofultimatevalue Others notedthatmanypromoters did Mostly, theothertraineeswerehesitantaboutagreeing withmyreading, whichonedescribed care aboutwrestlers’knowledge ofwork, andthat the competitivenatureofgetting booked. ized byexploitationandprecar system, thatrelationscharacter of wrestling’seconomic diction described theinternalcontra- to them. Inessence, Ihave conditions butratheradapts ity; itdoesnottransform relies oncapitulationtoauthor a practiceofsolidaritylargely resistance, wrestlingworkas club.” lyzed ithere, ismostlya “boy’s embodied politicsasIhaveana- if wrestlingworkasaformof tlers mustbedonetodetermine the experienceofwomenwres- The School, furtherresearchon 40 percentofthetraineesat While womenmadeuparound there isvastgenderinequality. the levelofbigpromotions, at that, card —demonstrates short “divas” matchona WWE Secondly, asamodelfor — ­ — reflecting reflecting no one’s its - - - Professional Wrestling 85

grassroots, with grassroots, The Journal of American Culture American Culture of The Journal Trans. Rachel Bowlby. Stanford: Stanford Rachel Bowlby. Trans. Wrestlers in Britain, more than in the United in Britain, Wrestlers 4, 1:75–94. 4, Practices Choreographic Work Songs.” Work 16, 1:65–74. 16, Sociology of Sport Journal than the general conditions I have described. While poor pay and infrequent work is poor pay and While described. conditions I have than the general makes a living in Britain from wrestling. While there were varying degrees of pay, degrees of pay, there were varying While wrestling. in Britain from no one makes a living in 1985. salaries comparable to full-time jobs. In Britain, wrestling is effectively all wrestling In Britain, full-time jobs. salaries comparable to worse University Press. University Press. Penguin. Random House. 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York: New What is most interesting is that the labor conditions of British wrestling are in some ways of British wrestling the labor conditions interesting is that What is most World of the cancellation of ITV’s World promotions having disappeared with the heyday of television Sport is a value that lies outside of wage “work” tacit and embodied knowledge of the argued above, from well- the ultimate goal of making a living lacking then, a purely economic sense, In labor. and develop- wrestlers invest much more in the training paid promotions or television success, in Britain is professional wrestling In this way, earn. ment of their labor than they are likely to in the sense of it being a labor of love. “amateur” of nonpro- making it a form for its own sake, States might be said to engage with the practice it creates a spectacle to be con- Firstly, twice. it seems, value, produces “Work” ductive labor. that exists it creates alternative value for the performers But secondly, sumed by an audience. be in on. ever the audience is not and cannot, This value is something only in the doing. - to me that abso of wrestlers confirmed a number US independent promotions, prevalent in lutely earn a few hundred workers could Some experienced match. earn as little as £30 a one could - could survive on wres work meant that few infrequency of the but the a weekend, pounds in get to try out and them hope to like, “Some of had day jobs: if not all, tling alone and most, are quite happy to just do this kind but lots of wrestlers and bigger things, WWE, get a spot at ( from the wrestling is therefore quite different British of Sunday thing” 4 February 2013). 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