STATE of the RIVER REPORT for the LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER BASIN: Water Quality, Fisheries, Aquatic Life, and Contaminants Page 1

SSTATE OF THE RRIVER RREPORT FOR THE LLOWER SST.. JJOHNS RRIVER BBASIN,, FFLORIDA:: WWATER QQUALITY,, FFISHERIES,, AAQUATIC LLIFE,, && CCONTAMINANTS 22000088

Prepared for

Environmental Protection Board City of Jacksonville, Florida St. James Building 117 West Duval Street Jacksonville, Florida 32202

University of North Florida Jacksonville University 1 UNF Drive and 2800 University Boulevard North Jacksonville, Florida 32224 Jacksonville, Florida 32211

August 4, 2008

LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT August 4, 2008 STATE OF THE RIVER REPORT FOR THE LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER BASIN: Water Quality, Fisheries, Aquatic Life, and Contaminants Page 1. BACKGROUND...... 1 1.1. Introduction to the River Report ...... 1 1.1.1. Purpose ...... 1 1.1.2. Goals and Objectives...... 1 1.1.3. River Health Indicators and Evaluation...... 1 1.2. St. Johns River Basin Landscape ...... 4 1.2.1. Geopolitical Boundaries ...... 4 1.2.2. Existing Land Uses...... 4 1.2.3. Ecological Zones ...... 4 1.2.4. Unique Physical Features ...... 6 1.3. Human Occupancy of the Region (pre1800s)...... 9 1.3.1. Native Americans...... 9 1.3.2. Europeans ...... 9 1.4. Early Environmental Management (1800s to 1970s)...... 9 1.5. Modern Environmental Management (1980s to 2000s) ...... 11 2. WATER QUALITY ...... 16 2.1. Overview ...... 16 2.2. Dissolved Oxygen...... 17 2.2.1. Description and Significance: DO and BOD...... 17 2.2.2. Factors that Affect DO and BOD...... 18 2.2.3. Data Sources...... 18 2.2.4. Limitations...... 18 2.2.5. Current Status and Trends...... 18 2.2.6. Future Outlook...... 23 2.3. Nutrients ...... 23 2.3.1. Description and Significance: Phosphorus...... 23 2.3.2. Description and Significance: Nitrogen ...... 24 2.3.3. Data Sources...... 24 2.3.4. Limitations...... 25 2.3.5. Current Status and Trends: Phosphorus...... 25 2.3.6. Current Status and Trends: Nitrogen ...... 28 2.3.7. Future Outlook...... 33 2.4. Turbidity ...... 33 2.4.1. Description and Significance:...... 33 2.4.2. Data Sources...... 36 2.4.3. Limitations...... 36 2.4.4. Current Conditions...... 37 2.4.5. Trend and Future Outlook...... 37 2.4.6. Recommendation...... 37 2.5. Algal Blooms ...... 37 2.5.1. Description and Significance...... 37 2.5.2. Limitations...... 41 2.5.3. Current Conditions...... 41 2.5.4. Trend...... 41 2.5.5. Future Outlook...... 41 2.5.6. Recommendations...... 41 2.6. Bacteria (Fecal Coliform)...... 41 2.6.1. Description and Significance...... 41

i LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT August 4, 2008 2.6.2. History...... 42 2.6.3. Data Sources...... 45 2.6.4. Limitations...... 45 2.6.5. Current Conditions:...... 45 2.6.6. Future Outlook...... 45 2.6.7. Recommendation...... 45 3. Fisheries ...... 46 3.1. Introduction...... 46 3.1.1. General Description ...... 46 3.1.2. Data Sources &Limitations...... 46 3.1.3. Health of Fish and Invertebrates...... 47 3.2. Finfish Fishery...... 48 3.2.1. General Description ...... 48 3.2.2. Long‐term trends...... 48 3.2.3. Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus)...... 49 3.2.3.1. General Life History...... 49 3.2.3.2. Significance...... 49 3.2.3.3. Trend...... 49 3.2.3.4. Current Status and Outlook...... 50 3.2.4. Spotted Seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus)...... 50 3.2.4.1. General Life History...... 50 3.2.4.2. Significance...... 50 3.2.4.3. Trend...... 50 3.2.4.4. Current Status & Outlook...... 51 3.2.5. Largemouth Bass (Micropterus.salmoides)...... 51 3.2.5.1. General Life History...... 51 3.2.5.2. Significance...... 51 3.2.5.3. Trend...... 51 3.2.5.4. Current Status & Outlook...... 52 3.2.6. Channel & White Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus & Ameiurus catus) ...... 52 3.2.6.1. General Life History...... 52 3.2.6.2. Significance...... 52 3.2.6.3. Trend...... 52 3.2.6.4. Current Status and Future Outlook ...... 52 3.2.7. Striped Mullet (Mugil cephalus)...... 53 3.2.7.1. General Life History...... 53 3.2.7.2. Significance...... 53 3.2.7.3. Trend...... 53 3.2.7.4. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 53 3.2.8. Southern Flounder (Paralichthyes lethstigma)...... 53 3.2.8.1. General Life History...... 53 3.2.8.2. Significance...... 54 3.2.8.3. Trend...... 54 3.2.8.4. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 54 3.2.9. Sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus) ...... 54 3.2.9.1. General Life History...... 54 3.2.9.2. Significance...... 54 3.2.9.3. Trend...... 54 3.2.9.4. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 55 3.2.10. Atlantic Croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) ...... 55 3.2.10.1. General Life History...... 55 3.2.10.2. Significance...... 55 3.2.10.3. Trend...... 55 3.2.10.4. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 55

ii LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT August 4, 2008 3.2.11. Baitfish ...... 56 3.2.11.1. General Life History...... 56 3.2.11.2. Significance...... 56 3.2.11.3. Trends...... 56 3.2.11.4. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 56 3.3. Invertebrate Fishery...... 56 3.3.1. General Description ...... 56 3.3.2. Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus)...... 57 3.3.2.1. General Life History...... 57 3.3.2.2. Significance...... 57 3.3.2.3. Data Sources ...... 57 3.3.2.4. Limitations...... 57 3.3.2.5. Trend...... 57 3.3.2.6. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 58 3.3.3. Penaeid shrimp (White, pink & brown) (Litopenaeus setiferus, Farfantepenaeus duorarum & F. aztecus) ...... 58 3.3.3.1. General Life History...... 58 3.3.3.2. Significance...... 58 3.3.3.3. Data Sources ...... 58 3.3.3.4. Limitations...... 59 3.3.3.5. Trend...... 59 3.3.3.6. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 59 3.3.4. Stone Crabs (Menippe mercenaria)...... 59 3.3.4.1. General Life History...... 59 3.3.4.2. Significance...... 60 3.3.4.3. Data Sources ...... 60 3.3.4.4. Limitations...... 60 3.3.4.5. Trend...... 60 3.3.4.6. Current Status & Future Outlook...... 60 4. AQUATIC LIFE ...... 62 4.1. Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) ...... 62 4.1.1. Description ...... 62 4.1.2. Significance...... 62 4.1.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 63 4.1.4. Current Status...... 63 4.1.5. Future Outlook...... 63 4.2. WETLANDS ...... 65 4.2.1. Description ...... 65 4.2.2. Significance...... 65 4.2.3. Data Sources...... 65 4.2.3.1. Data Sources for Wetland Spatial Trends...... 65 4.2.3.2. Data Sources for Wetland Permit Trends...... 65 4.2.4. Limitations...... 67 4.2.4.1. Limitations of Wetland Spatial Analyses...... 67 4.2.4.2. Limitations of Wetland Permit Analyses...... 67 4.2.5. Current Status...... 68 4.2.5.1. Current Status of Wetlands in the Lower Basin...... 68 4.2.6. Historical Perspective of the Wetland Status...... 68 4.2.6.1. Historical Data on Florida’s Wetlands...... 69 4.2.6.2. Historical Data on Wetlands in the LSJRB ...... 69 4.2.7. Current Trend...... 69 4.2.7.1. Trend in Total Wetlands Acreage...... 69 4.2.7.2. Trends in Wetland Vegetation...... 69 4.2.8. Wetland Permit Trends...... 70

iii LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT August 4, 2008 4.2.8.1. Trends in Wetland Acreage Impacted/Mitigated...... 70 4.2.8.2. Trends in Wetland Mitigation...... 71 4.2.9. Future Outlook...... 73 4.3. Macroinvertebrates ...... 74 4.3.1. Description ...... 74 4.3.2. Significance...... 74 4.3.3. Data Sources...... 74 4.3.4. Limitations...... 74 4.3.5. Trend...... 75 4.3.6. Current Status...... 75 4.4. Threatened & Endangered Species ...... 76 4.4.1. The Florida Manatee (Endangered) ...... 77 4.4.1.1. Description ...... 77 4.4.1.2. Significance...... 78 4.4.1.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 78 4.4.1.4. Current Status ...... 78 4.4.1.5. Future Outlook...... 80 4.4.2. Bald Eagle (delisted 2007)...... 81 4.4.2.1. Description ...... 81 4.4.2.2. Significance...... 81 4.4.2.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 81 4.4.2.4. Current Status ...... 81 4.4.2.5. Future Outlook...... 81 4.4.3. Wood Stork (Endangered) ...... 83 4.4.3.1. Description ...... 83 4.4.3.2. Significance...... 83 4.4.3.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 84 4.4.3.4. Current Status ...... 84 4.4.3.5. Future Outlook...... 85 4.4.4. Shortnose Sturgeon (Endangered)...... 85 4.4.4.1. Description ...... 85 4.4.4.2. Significance...... 86 4.4.4.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 86 4.4.4.4. Current Status ...... 86 4.4.4.5. Future Outlook...... 86 4.4.5. Piping Plover (Threatened)...... 86 4.4.5.1. Description ...... 86 4.4.5.2. Significance...... 87 4.4.5.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 87 4.4.5.4. Current Status ...... 87 4.4.5.5. Future Outlook...... 88 4.4.6. Florida Scrub‐Jay (Threatened) ...... 88 4.4.6.1. Description ...... 88 4.4.6.2. Significance...... 89 4.4.6.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 89 4.4.6.4. Current Status ...... 89 4.4.6.5. Future Outlook...... 89 4.4.7. Eastern Indigo Snake (Threatened) ...... 90 4.4.7.1. Description ...... 90 4.4.7.2. Significance...... 90 4.4.7.3. Data Sources & Limitations...... 90 4.4.7.4. Current Status ...... 90 4.4.7.5. Future Outlook...... 90 4.5. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species...... 91 4.5.1. Description ...... 91

iv LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT August 4, 2008 4.5.2. Significance...... 91 4.5.2.1. Ecosystem Concerns...... 91 4.5.2.2. Human Health Concerns...... 91 4.5.2.3. Social Concerns...... 92 4.5.2.4. Economic Concerns...... 92 4.5.3. Data Sources...... 93 4.5.4. Limitations...... 93 4.5.5. Current Status...... 93 4.5.6. Trend...... 100 4.5.7. Future Outlook...... 101 5. CONTAMINANTS...... 103 5.1. Background...... 103 5.1.1. Chemicals in the Environment ...... 103 5.1.2. Impact Assessment...... 103 5.1.3. Limitations of Toxicity Assessments...... 104 5.2. Data Sources and Limitations ...... 104 5.3. Data Analysis ...... 104 5.4. Metals ...... 105 5.4.1. Background: Metals ...... 105 5.4.2. Status and Trends: Metals ...... 106 5.4.3. Mercury in the LSJR Sediments...... 107 5.5. Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)...... 108 5.5.1. Background: PAHs...... 108 5.5.2. Trends: PAHs ...... 109 5.5.3. PAHs in Oysters ...... 110 5.5.4. Status: PAHs ...... 110 5.6. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)...... 111 5.6.1. Background: PCBs...... 111 5.6.2. Trends: PCBs...... 111 5.6.3. Status: PCBs...... 112 5.7. Pesticides...... 112 5.7.1. Background: Pesticides ...... 112 5.7.2. Status and Trends: Pesticides...... 113 5.7.3. DDTs in LSJR Sediments...... 114 5.8. Conclusions...... 114 6. REFERENCES...... 116

v LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT August 4, 2008 Preface

The State of the River Report is the result of a collaborative effort of a team of academic researchers from Jacksonville University and the University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL. The purpose of the project, funded primarily by the Environmental Protection Board of the City of Jacksonville, was to review various previously collected data and literature about the river and to place it into a format that was informative and readable to the general public. The report consisted of three parts‐‐‐the brochure, the full report, and an appendix. The short brochure provides a brief summary of the status and trends of each item or indicator (i.e. water quality, fisheries, etc.) looked at for the river. The full report and appendix were produced to provide those interested with more detail regarding the results summarized in the brochure. In the development of these documents, many different sources of data were examined, including data from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, St. Johns River Water Management District, Fish and Wildlife Commission, City of Jacksonville, individual researchers, and others. The researchers reviewed data addressing many different aspects of the Lower St. Johns River. The most legitimate and stringent research available was used to assemble the report. When a draft of all documents was produced, an extensive review process was undertaken to ensure accuracy, balance, and clarity. We are extremely grateful to the following scientists and interested parties who provided invaluable assistance in improving our document.

Vince Seibold, City of Jacksonville Dana Morton, City of Jacksonville Christi Veleta, City of Jacksonville Kristen Beach, City of Jacksonville John Hendrickson, SJRWMD John Higman, SJRWMD Dean Dobberfuhl, SJRWMD Dean Campbell, SJRWMD Teresa Monson, SJRWMD Russ Brodie, FWRI Justin Solomon, FWRI Lee Banks, FL DEP Patrick O’Connor, FL DEP Neil Armingeon, St. Johns River Riverkeeper Paul Steinbrecher, JEA Tiffany Busby, Wildwood Consulting Marcy Policastro, Wildwood Consulting Mike McManus, The Nature Conservancy Richard Bryant, National Park Service Mark Middlebrook, The Middlebrook Company Maria Mark, The Middlebrook Company Stephan Nix, University of North Florida Kelly Smith, University of North Florida Dale Casamatta, University of North Florida Robert Richardson, University of North Florida

We have appreciated the opportunity to work with the environmental community to educate the public about the unique problems of the Lower St. Johns River, and the efforts that are under way to restore our river to a healthy ecosystem.

We would also like to thank the following undergraduate students for their contributions toward the development of this report:

vi LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT August 4, 2008 Laura Elston, Jacksonville University Bobbi Estabrook, Jacksonville University Jessica Goodman, Jacksonville University Julia Goodman, Jacksonville University Julie Hammon, Jacksonville University Leon Huderson, III, Jacksonville University Jingu Gene Kang, Jacksonville University Ryan Keith, Jacksonville University Rebecca Lucas, Jacksonville University Andrea Pertoso, University of North Florida David Roueche, Jacksonville University

Sincerely,

Dan McCarthy, Principal Investigator, JU Pat Welsh, Co‐Principal Investigator, UNF Heather McCarthy, JU Gretchen Bielmyer, UNF Gerry Pinto, JU Stuart Chalk, UNF Lucy Sonnenberg, Millar Wilson Lab at JU Ray Bowman, UNF Quinton White, JU April Moore, UNF

vii LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 1. BACKGROUND can serve as a benchmark for the public to compare the future health of the river. From this baseline, the public and policymakers can see the current health of the river 1.1. Introduction to the River Report in its historical context. This better ensures that management efforts and resources focus on areas that This State of the River Report for the Lower St. Johns River need the most improvement first, and there is a standard Basin is the result of a consolidated effort directed by a against which to gauge the success of current and future team of academic researchers from Jacksonville management practices. University (JU) and the University of North Florida (UNF) in Jacksonville, Florida. This Report has 1.1.3. River Health Indicators and Evaluation undergone an extensive review process including local The State of the River Report describes the health of the stakeholders and an expert review panel with the Lower St. Johns River Basin based on a number of broad expertise and experience in various disciplines to indicators in four major categories: address the multi‐faceted nature of the data.

The State of the River Report was funded through the WATER QUALITY Environmental Protection Board (EPB) of the City of ¾ Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Jacksonville, Florida, as one component of a range of far‐ ¾ Nutrients (Nitrogen & Phosphorus) reaching efforts initiated by Jacksonville Mayors John ¾ Turbidity Delaney and John Peyton and the River Accord partners ¾ Algal Blooms (including St. Johns River Water Management District, ¾ Bacteria (Fecal Coliform) JEA, Jacksonville Water and Sewer Expansion Authority

(WSEA), and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)) to inform and educate the public FISHERIES regarding the status of the Lower St. Johns River Basin ¾ Finfish Fisheries (LSJRB), Florida (Figure 1.1). ¾ Invertebrate Fisheries

1.1.1. Purpose AQUATIC LIFE The State of the River Report’s purpose is to be a single ¾ Submerged Aquatic Vegetation clear, concise document that reduces a vast amount of ¾ Wetlands scientific information and evaluates the current ¾ Macrobenthic Invertebrates ecological status of the Lower St. Johns River Basin. ¾ Threatened and Endangered Species ¾ Nonindigenous Aquatic Species 1.1.2. Goals and Objectives

The overarching goal of the State of the River Report is to CONTAMINANTS summarize the status and trends in the health of the ¾ Metals LSJRB through comprehensive, unbiased, and scientific ¾ Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) methods. ¾ Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) ¾ Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) The tangible objectives of the River Report project include the design, creation, and distribution of a concise, easy‐to‐understand, and graphically pleasing The State of the River Report is based on the best available document for the general public that explains the data for each river health indicator listed above. How current health of the LSJRB in terms of water quality, each indicator contributes to, or signals, overall river fisheries, aquatic life, and contaminants. health is discussed in terms of its 1) Current Status in 2008 and 2) the Trend over time. Secondary objectives include the production of a baseline record of the status of the St. Johns River that

1 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 The Current Status for each indicator is based on the most recent data records and designated as “satisfactory” or “unsatisfactory.” This designation often considers whether the indicator meets State and Federal minimum standards and guidelines.

The Trend is derived from statistical analyses of the best available scientific data for each indicator and reflects historical change over the time period analyzed. The Trend ratings for each indicator are designated as “conditions improving,” “conditions stable,” “conditions worsening,” or “uncertain.” The Trend rating does not consider initiated or planned management efforts that have not yet had a direct impact on the indicator.

2 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008

Figure 1.1 Geopolitical Map of the Lower St. Johns River Basin

3 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008

1.2. St. Johns River Basin Landscape

The LSJRB in Northeast Florida has long been recognized as a treasured watershed‐ providing enormous ecological, recreational, socioeconomic, and aesthetic benefits. However, during recent years, it has also been recognized as a threatened watershed critically in need of resource conservation, water quality improvement, and careful management.

1.2.1. Geopolitical Boundaries

For management purposes, the entire St. Johns River watershed is commonly divided into five basins: the Figure 1.2 Total percentages for land, wetland, and deepwater habitats within the Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida. (Source: SJRWMD Wetlands and Upper Basin (southern, marshy headwaters in east Deep Water Habitats GIS Maps, 1972‐1980; SJRWMD 2007a) central Florida), the Middle Basin (the area in central Florida where the river widens, forming Lakes Harney, Within the LSJRB in 2004, the dominant land uses were Jesup, and Monroe), the Lake George Basin (the area upland forests (35%) and wetlands (24%), and 18% was between the confluence of the Wekiva and St. Johns and considered urban and built‐up (Figure 1.3). Since the that of the Ocklawaha and the St. Johns), the Lower 1970s, the proportion of the total basin designated as Basin (the area in Northeast Florida), and the Ocklawaha upland forests and agriculture have decreased, while the River Basin (the primary tributary for the St. Johns proportion designated as urban and built‐up has River). The health of the LSJRB is the focus of this State increased (see Appendix 1.B.; SJRWMD 2007a). of the River Report. 1.2.3. Ecological Zones As a constant, this Report defines the LSJRB in accordance with the SJRWMD definition: “the drainage The LSJRB is commonly divided into three ecological area for the portion of the St. Johns River extending from zones based on expected salinity differences (Figure 1.3; the confluence of the St. Johns and Ocklawaha rivers Hendrickson and Konwinski 1998). Malecki, et al. 2004 near Welaka to the mouth of the St. Johns River at describes these zones in the quote below. Mayport” (SJRWMD 1989; Figure 1.1). The freshwater lacustrine zone in the southern region The LSJRB includes portions of nine counties: Clay, stretches from south of Palatka to north of Green Cove Duval, Flagler, Putnam, St. Johns, and small portions of Springs with an average salinity of 0.5 parts per Volusia, Alachua, Baker, and Bradford Counties (Brody thousand (ppt). The riverbed broadens into the tidal 1994). Notable municipalities within the Lower Basin oligohaline lacustrine zone, with an extensive include Jacksonville, Orange Park, Green Cove Springs, floodplain, which is shallow and slow‐moving, and Palatka (Figure 1.1). spanning from Doctors Lake north to the Fuller Warren Bridge in Jacksonville with a mean salinity of The LSJRB covers a 1.8 million‐acre drainage area, 2.9 ppt. Finally, the northern region from the Fuller extends 101 miles in length, and has a surface area of Warren Bridge north to the Atlantic Ocean is water approximately equal to 115 square miles considered mesohaline riverine, becoming deeper, fast‐ (Adamus, et al. 1997; USEPA 2008). moving, and well‐mixed with a mean salinity of 14.5 ppt (Malecki, et al. 2004). 1.2.2. Existing Land Uses

The LSJRB consists of approximately 68% uplands and 32% wetlands and deepwater habitats (Figure 1.2, see Appendix 1.A.).

4 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008

Figure 1.3 Map of the Ecological Zones of the Lower St. Johns River Basin

5 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 sections of the river (Benke and Cushing 2005). Such 1.2.4. Unique Physical Features variations in salinity have profound hydrological and ecological effects. The amount of flow from springs is The St. Johns River is unique and distinctive due to a dramatically affected by droughts and is highly variable number of exceptional physical features. (Campbell 2008).

The St. Johns River is the longest river in Florida. The St. Johns River drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Stretching 310 miles and draining approximately 9,430 The average discharge of water at the mouth of the St. square miles, this extensive river basin drains about 16% Johns River is 8,300 cubic feet per second (Miller 1998) or of the total surface area of Florida (DeMort 1991; Morris 5.4 billion gallons per day (Steinbrecher 2008). Natural IV 1995). water sources for the St. Johns River are rainfall, underground aquifers, and springs. Continual input The St. Johns River flows northward. Most major from springs and aquifers supplies the river with water rivers in North America flow in a southward direction. that discharges into the Atlantic Ocean, despite drought This means that the Upper St. Johns actually lies south of periods or seasonal declines in rainfall (Benke and the Lower St. Johns (DeMort 1991). Cushing 2005).

The St. Johns River is one of the flattest major The Lower St. Johns River is a tidal system with an rivers in North America. The headwaters of the St. Johns extended estuary. The tidal range at the mouth of the River are less than 30 feet above sea level. The river river at Mayport, Florida is about six feet (McCully flows downward on a slope ranging from as low as 2006). The Atlantic Ocean’s tide heights are large 0.002% (Benke and Cushing 2005) to about 1% (DeMort compared to the slope of the St. Johns River, and at 1991). This slope is governed by the exceptionally flat times, can produce strong tidal currents and mixing in terrain of the drainage basin. This extremely low the northernmost portion of the river. The St. Johns gradient, about one inch per mile, causes the water of River is typically influenced by tides as far south as Lake the St. Johns River to flow very slowly (DeMort 1991). George (106 miles upstream) (Durako, et al. 1988). This holds back drainage, slows flushing of pollutants, During times of drought (when little rainwater enters and intensifies flooding and pooling of water along the the system) or extreme high tides, river flow‐reversal river creating numerous lakes and extensive wetlands can occur as far south as Lake Monroe (160 miles throughout the drainage basin (Durako, et al. 1988). The upstream) (Durako, et al. 1988). Tidal reverse flows occur retention time of the water (and its dissolved and daily in the LSJR, and net reverse flows can occur for suspended components) in river is on the order of three weeks at a time (Morris IV 1995). to four months (Benke and Cushing 2005). High retention times have severe impacts on water quality. The St. Johns River can be influenced by wind direction and wind speed. South winds (blowing to the The Lower St. Johns River is a broad, shallow north) accelerate the flow of water toward the ocean, if system. The average width of the Lower St. Johns River the flow is not opposed by a strong tidal current. from Lake George to Mayport is one mile, although the Similarly, north winds can push river water back flood plain reaches a maximum width of ten miles upstream (Welsh 2008). Strong sustained north winds (Miller 1998). The average depth of the river is 11 feet (from fall nor’easters or summer hurricanes) can push (Dame, et al. 2000).The wideness of the river can result in saltwater up the river into areas that are usually fresh. different water flow patterns and conditions on Although considered a natural occurrence, reverse flow opposing banks of the river (Welsh 2008). of the river can impact flora and fauna with low salinity tolerances and cause inland areas to flood. The St. Johns River receives saltwater from springs. Major springs that feed into the St. Johns River Drainage The St. Johns River is a dark, blackwater river. Basin include Blue Springs, Salt Springs, and Silver Southern blackwater rivers are naturally colored by Springs. Inputs from salty springs cause localized areas dissolved organic matter derived from their connections of elevated salinity (>5 ppt) in otherwise freshwater

6 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 to swamps, where plant materials slowly decay and penetration (and, therefore, warming and release these organic materials into the water (Brody photosynthesis) to a very shallow layer near the surface 1994). The Dissolved Organic Matter limits light of the river.

Figure 1.4 The Population of Northeast Florida during the Colonial Period, 1492 to 1845.(Sources: Population estimates for the Timucua Tribe in Northeast Florida were taken from Milanich 1997, and ʺNortheast Floridaʺ is defined as all lands inhabited by Timucua. Population estimates for European Colonists were taken from Miller 1998, and ʺNortheast Floridaʺ loosely includes settlers in ʺthe basin of the northward‐flowing St. Johns River from Lake George to the mouth, as well as the adjacent Atlantic Coast and the intervening coastal plainʺ (Miller 1998). Complete data table provided in Appendix 1.C.)

7 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008

Figure 1.5 The Population of Northeast Florida from the time Florida was granted statehood to the 2000 U.S. Census including Future Population Projections to 2030. (ʺNortheast Floridaʺ includes population counts from Clay, Duval, Flagler, Putnam, and St. Johns Counties. Sources: Population counts for the years 1850‐1900 were provided by Miller 1998. Counts from 1900‐1990 were extracted from Forstall 1995, and 2000 counts from the USCB 2000. Note: U.S. Census data was not available for Flagler County in 1900 and 1910.Population estimates for 2010, 2020, and 2030 were extracted from the Demographic Estimating Conference Database (EDR 2008), updated August 3007. Complete data table provided in Appendix 1.C.

8 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 became St. Augustine, and few colonists ventured 1.3. Human Occupancy of the Region beyond the walls of the guarded city. In retrospect, the footprint of these Spanish settlers on Florida was light. (pre‐1800s) Apart from introducing nonindigenous citrus, sugarcane, and pigs (the wild boars of today), they 1.3.1. Native Americans altered the environmental landscape very little along the St. Johns River watershed as compared to what was to The Lower Basin of the St. Johns River watershed has come (UNF 2007; Warren 2005). been occupied, utilized, and modified by humans for over 12,000 years (Miller 1998). As the Ice Age ended, In 1763, the British took control of Florida. Immediately, the first Floridians, the Paleoindians, inhabited a dry, John and William Bartram, serving as naturalists to King wide Florida hunting for food and searching for George III of England, were commissioned to survey the freshwater sources. Gradually, the glaciers melted, sea natural resources of Florida that were now available for level rose, and Florida was transformed. By 3,000 B.C., English use and benefit. The writings of this father and the region resembled the Florida of today with a wet, son provide evidence that the First Spanish Period left mild climate and abundant freshwater lakes, rivers, and behind a wild and largely untouched land full of springs (Purdum 2002). The conditions were favorable untapped resources and potential (Bartram 1769; for settlement, and early Indians occupied areas Bartram 1955; Harper 1998). throughout the state. In fact, historians estimate that as many as 350,000 Native Americans were thriving in During the 20 years that the British occupied Florida, Florida (including 200,000 Timucuans in the Lower landscape modifications for colonization and agriculture Basin of the St. Johns River), when the first French and were intensive. Large tracts of land were cleared for Spanish explorers arrived in the 1500s (Figure 1.4; plantations intended for crop exportation, and timber Milanich 1995, 1997). was harvested and exported for the first time (Miller 1998). During the American Revolution, Florida became Unlike the Native American groups to the south, the a haven for British loyalists, and the population of Timucua Indians in northern Florida began to cultivate Florida ballooned from several thousand to 17,000 crops such as corn, beans, and squash, in addition to (Milanich 1997). The Spanish reacquired Florida in 1783, traditional hunting and gathering (Purdum 2002). These most of the British settlers left the area, and the state Native Americans did modify the land to their population declined again to several thousand (Figure advantage, such as burning and clearing land for 1.4). The Spanish continued plantation farming within agriculture and constructing drainage ditches and large the LSJRB, but did not as successfully exploit the land as shell middens (Milanich 1998). But, by today’s the British (Miller 1998). Spain held Florida until the standards, these impacts on the landscape were small in region was legally acquired by the United States in 1821. scale and spread out over a vast terrain. At this time, exploration and exploitation of the St. Johns River Basin began in earnest. The numbers of Native Americans in Florida plummeted during the 16th and 17th centuries, as many were killed by European diseases or conflicts (Davis and 1.4. Early Environmental Arsenault 2005). By the 1700s, the original Native American population in Florida had virtually vanished Management (1800s to 1970s) (Figure 1.4). The history of environmental management of the St. Johns River watershed, and water resources in Florida in 1.3.2. Europeans general, is a complex, convoluted, but relatively short The first permanent European colony in North America history. Major milestones of environmental management was Fort Caroline, founded in 1564 by the French near in Florida have taken place within just the last century, the mouth of the St. Johns River (Miller 1998). One year with much of the story occurring during our living later, the Spanish conquered the French, and from 1565 memory (Table 1.1). The story of water management in to 1763, the still‐wild territory of Florida flew the flag of Florida unfolds as a tale of lessons learned, a shift from Spain (UNF 2007). The epicenter of the Spanish colony reigning to restoring, from consuming to conserving.

9 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 Like the tides, management efforts in the watershed widespread after WWII (Davis and Arsenault 2005). have surged and retracted over the last 100 years. Many Florida’s population exploded around the 1950s and has landmark policies and programs have been initiated in continued to skyrocket ever since (USCB 2000; Figure response to environmental changes deemed intolerable 1.5). to the public and the policymakers who represent them. By the 1960s, a century of topographical tinkering was Noticeable, but small‐scale changes occurred in the St. taking its toll. Ecosystems across Florida were beginning Johns River Basin during pre‐Columbian times, when to show signs of stress. Sinkholes emerged in Central Northeast Florida was occupied by the Timucua Indians Florida (the Upper Basin of the St. Johns River) (Milanich 1998). However, it was not until the Colonial indicating a serious decline in the water table (SJRWMD Period, particularly during the British occupation in the 2007b). Flooding, particularly during storm events, was late 1700s, that the environment experienced larger‐scale destructive and devastating. Loss of wetlands peaked alterations. Such landscape modifications as the during this time, as wet areas were rapidly converted to conversion of wetlands to agriculture and the clearing of agriculture or urban land uses (Meindl 2005). Water forests for timber surged again in the mid‐1800s after works, such as the Kissimmee Canal and Cross Florida Florida was granted statehood (Davis and Arsenault Barge Canal, continued into the 1960s, but public 2005). opposition against such projects was mounting (Purdum 2002). Most of the earliest changes to the landscape of the LSJRB were utilitarian in purpose, but the late 1800s and During 1970‐71, Florida experienced its worst drought in early 1900s were fraught with changes driven by the history, and the attitudes toward water began to shift profitable, even whimsical, tourist industry. Tourists from control and consumption to conservation (Purdum were fascinated with promotional accounts describing 2002). During 1972, the “Year of the Environment,” the this land of eternal summer, filled with wild botanicals Federal and State governments passed a number of and beguiling beasts (Miller 1998). The growing village significant pieces of environmental legislation (see Table of Jacksonville became the initial portal to Florida, and a 1.1.). The laws of the early 1970s, such as the National thriving tourist industry flourished as steamboats began Environmental Policy Act, Endangered Species Act, and to shuttle tourists down the St. Johns River. By 1875, Clean Water Act, showcase a turn in our approach to Jacksonville was the most important town in Florida resource use and our attitudes regarding ecosystem (Blake 1980). First tourists, and then developers and services, nature, and the environment. From this time agricultural interests, were enticed to the rich and forward, environmental management began to take a largely unexploited resource that was early Florida shift towards consideration of the outcomes of our (Blake 1980). By the early 1900s, the population of actions. Northeast Florida was increasing at a slow steady rate (see Figure 1.5). The Clean Water Act (CWA) has been one of the most enduring and influential pieces of legislation from the Impacts to the environment mirrored the steady 1970s. The CWA addressed key elements that affect the population growth during the early 1900s. long‐term health of the nation’s rivers and streams. The Entrepreneurs, investors, and government officials in CWA required states to submit a list of their “impaired” Florida at this time were thoroughly focused on the (polluted) waters to the U.S. Environmental Protection drainage and redirection of water through engineering Agency (EPA) every two years (or the EPA will develop works (Blake 1980). the list for them). States determine impairment primarily by assessing whether water bodies meet specific The immigration of new settlers was moderate during chemical and biological standards or exhibit safety risks Florida’s first century as a state, because the region still to people. Once a state has an approved (or “verified proved inhospitable and rather uninhabitable to the 303(d)”) list of impaired waters, it must develop a unadventurous. Not only was the region full of management plan to address the issues that are causing irritating, disease‐carrying mosquitoes, Florida was just the impairment. This process of identifying and too hot and humid. But, that all changed when air improving impaired waters through the CWA has conditioners for residential use became affordable and

10 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 played a major role in modern environmental that source (Pollutant Load Reduction Goal or “PLRG”). management from the 1980s through the 2000s. Once the required load reductions are determined, then a Basin Management Action Plan (“BMAP”) must be developed to implement those reductions. Monitoring 1.5. Modern Environmental programs must also be designed to evaluate the Management (1980s to 2000s) effectiveness of load reduction on water quality.

The deluge of new environmental legislation in the Since 1999, the U.S. EPA, Florida DEP, SJRWMD, and 1970s caused a backlash during the 1980s from a numerous public and private stakeholders have been property rights perspective (Davis and Arsenault 2005). working through this TMDL/BMAP process slowly to At the same time, readily observable symptoms of reduce pollution into the LSJR and its tributaries. As of environmental degradation continued to surface. The St. July 2008, the verified 303(d) list of LSJR impairments Johns River began having periodic blooms of blue‐green requiring TMDLs consists of a total of 153 impairments algae, lesions in fish, and fish kills (FDEP 2002). Each of in 89 water bodies (some water bodies have multiple these conditions was a visible expression of degraded parameters identified as impaired; (FDEP 2004). These water quality in the river and represented changes that impaired statuses are due primarily to unsatisfactory were not acceptable to the public and policymakers. levels of dissolved oxygen, coliforms, nutrients, and metals. In response to these impaired water body Since the 1990s, water quality improvements have been designations, several TMDLs have already been adopted achieved in Florida through the seesawing efforts of in the LSJRB, including those for nutrients in the main policymakers and public and private stakeholders. The stem and fecal coliforms in the tributaries. Where policymakers push on the legislative side (via TMDLs have been adopted, BMAPs are in currently in governmental regulatory agencies), while public/private development. A main stem nutrient BMAP and the interests push on the judicial side (via lawsuits in the tributary coliform BMAP are due for completion in 2008. Courts). Back and forth, these groups seesaw on this Additional TMDLs are scheduled for adoption within long (and often costly) ride, forging 1970s laws to fit the next few years (FDEP 2008b). modern conditions and circumstances. Consequently, the last two decades are marked by this zigzag between Current and future efforts to improve the health of the lawsuits and laws. The result has been incremental and LSJR (and other water bodies in Florida) will continue to adaptive water quality management. focus on implementation of the TMDL provisions of the CWA. As this process presses forward, Florida’s public For years one aspect of the CWA was overlooked until and policymakers may continue to find themselves on an influential court decision in 1999. Several Florida the litigation‐legislation seesaw, as both groups attempt environmental groups won a significant lawsuit against to balance environmental concerns with an exploding the U.S. EPA, pushing the agency to enforce the Total population’s desire to dwell and prosper in the Sunshine Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) provisions in the Federal State. CWA. For many water bodies, including the LSJR, the development and implementation of a TMDL is required by the CWA as a means to reverse water quality degradation. In the TMDL approach, state agencies must determine for each impaired water body: 1) the sources of the pollutants that could contribute to the impairment 2) the capacity of the water body to assimilate the pollutant without degradation and 3) how much pollutant from all possible sources, including future sources, can be allowed while attaining and maintaining compliance with water quality standards. From this information, agency scientists determine how much of a pollutant may be discharged by individual sources, and calculate how much of a load reduction is required by

11 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008

Table 1.1 Timeline of environmental milestones, lower St. Johns river basin, Florida: From European colonization to 2008

DATE EVENT During the British occupation of Florida, John Bartram, the “Botanist to the King,” and his son William Bartram 1765‐1766 toured the St. Johns River (Davis and Arsenault 2005). Naturalist William Bartram chronicled his travels up the St. Johns River producing detailed descriptions of pre‐ 1773‐1777 statehood, Northeast Florida. “Bartram’s observations remain an invaluable tool for environmental planning— restoring paradise—in northeastern Florida” (Davis and Arsenault 2005). 1821 Adams‐Onis Treaty: United States legally acquired Florida (Blake 1980). Second Seminole War: Many steamboats were first brought to the St. Johns River for combat with the Indians, 1835‐1842 but continued to operate out of Jacksonville for civilian purposes after the war (Buker 1992). 1845 Florida granted statehood. Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act: stated that Florida could have from the Federal government any swamp or 1850 submerged lands that they successfully drained (Leal and Meiners 2002). Florida’s first water pollution law established a penalty for degrading springs and water supplies (SJRWMD 1868 2007b). Famed author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe, wintered in Mandarin and wrote essays extolling 1870‐1884 the beauties of the St. Johns River and attracting tourists to Florida (Blake 1980). 1870s Increasing number of tourists visited Florida via steamboats up the St. Johns River. 1875 Jacksonville was the most important city in Florida (Blake 1980). 1884 Water hyacinth introduced into the St. Johns River near Palatka (McCann, et al. 1996b). Water hyacinth had spread throughout most the St. Johns River Lower Basin and was hindering steamboat 1896 navigation, causing changes in water quality and biotic communities by severely curtailing oxygen and light diffusion, and reducing water movement by 40‐95% in Palatka (McCann, et al. 1996b). 1912 Intracoastal Waterway from Jacksonville to Miami was completed (SJRWMD 2007b) Bacteria pollution was first documented in the St. Johns River (largely due to the direct discharge of untreated 1950s sewage into the river). Sinkholes occurring in Central Florida (within the Upper Basin of the St. Johns River) indicating a serious drop in 1966‐1967 the water table (Purdum 2002). The City of Jacksonville received a letter from the Florida Air and Water Pollution Control Commission and State Board of Health, who “ordered the City within 90 days to furnish plans and an implementation schedule Dec. 5, 1967 to end the disposal of 15 million gallons per day of raw sewage into the St. Johns River and its tributaries” (Crooks 2004). 1967‐1968 Voters approved the consolidation of the Jacksonville and Duval County local governments. Initial flooding of the Rodman Reservoir. The Rodman Dam was completed and dammed the lower Ocklawaha 1968 River. National Environmental Policy Act: requires Federal agencies to consider the environmental impacts and 1970 reasonable alternatives of their proposed actions. “Cleanup of the St. Johns River was impressive, but many of its tributaries remained heavily polluted; landfills were opened, but indiscriminate littering of wastes continued; polluting power plants and fertilizer factories 1970s closed, but other odors remained” (Crooks 2004). “Discharges occur to river of primary treated effluent or raw sewage. Periodic blue‐green algal blooms and fish kills” (FDEP 2002). 1970‐1971 Florida experiences its worst drought in history (Purdum 2002). Florida Water Resources Act: established regional water management districts and created a permit system for 1972 allocating water use. 1972 Federal Clean Water Act: required that all U.S. waters be swimmable and fishable. 1972 Land Conservation Act: authorized the sale of state bonds to purchase environmentally imperiled lands. Environmental Land and Water Management Act: initiated the “Development of Regional Impact” program and 1972 the “Area of Critical State Concern” program. 1972 Comprehensive Planning Act: called for the development of a state comprehensive plan.

12 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 DATE EVENT 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act: generally prohibits the killing or hurting of marine mammals in U.S. waters. 1973 Endangered Species Act: conservation of threatened and endangered plants and animals and their habitats. “Press release announced that the St. Johns River south of the Naval Air Station to the Duval County Line at Mar. 1973 Julington Creek had been deemed safe for water contact sports” (Crooks 2004). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and FDEP (then the Dept. of Natural Resources) implemented “maintenance 1973‐1974 control” of invasive aquatic plants (namely water hyacinth). Maintenance control replaced crisis management and kept water hyacinth populations at the lowest feasible level. The Federal government funded a shipping terminal on Blount Island (Crooks 2004). Completion of this 1977 Jacksonville Harbor Deepening Project (involved disposal of gravel and rock). Seventy seven sewage outfalls closed, and the St. Johns River became safe for recreational use again (Crooks 1977 2004). Movement to regional wastewater treatment systems providing higher levels of treatment than before. St. Johns River Day Festival marked the completion of the St. Johns River cleanup, with reports of some types Jun. 18, 1977 of aquatic life returning to the river (Crooks 2004). “Outbreak of Ulcerative Disease Syndrome in fish occurs from Lake George to mouth of river. Exhaustive Mid ‐ late 1980s studies are conducted, but specific cause is not determined” (FDEP 2002). Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Act: Recognized the LSJRB as an area in need of special 1987 protection and restoration (SJRWMD 2007b). “The Florida Department of Environmental Regulation delegated authority to permit dredging and filling of 1988 wetlands to the St. Johns River Water Management District” (SJRWMD 2007b). “With funding from the SWIM program, the St. Johns River Water Management District began restoration of 1988 the Upper Ocklawaha River Basin and the Lower St. Johns River Basin” (SJRWMD 2007b). 1990s “Blue‐green algal blooms occur in freshwater portion of the river” (FDEP 2002). The Florida Times‐Union began a monthly series of investigative reports entitled “A River in Decline. ”This series reported: 17% of septic tanks were failing. 1991 In 1990, 47% of tributaries failed to meet appropriate health standards for fecal coliform. In 1990, 50% of privately owned sewage treatment plants violated local regulations. Eighty percent of pollutants in Jacksonville’s waterways could be attributed to storm water runoff (Crooks 2004). The Florida Department of Environmental Regulation “downgraded formerly pristine areas of Julington and Durbin Creeks in southern Duval County from GOOD to FAIR water quality due to storm water, sewage, and Early 1990s other runoffs from the rapidly growing suburb of Mandarin.” Half of the wetlands in this area were destroyed during this time period (Crooks 2004). Blooms of an exotic freshwater, toxin‐producing, blue‐green algae called Cylindrospermopsis occurred (FDEP Late 1990s 2002). The Lower St. Johns River Basin Strategic Planning Session (the “River Summit”) led to the development of a 5‐ 1997 year “River Agenda” plan. FDEP submitted the 1998 303(d) List of Impaired Water bodies to the U.S. EPA for approval. The 1998 303(d) Sept. 17, 1998 list included 53 water bodies in the LSJR. Several Florida environmental groups brought a lawsuit against the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1998 (EPA) for its failure to enforce the Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) provisions in the Federal Clean Water Act (Florida Wildlife Federation, Inc., et al. v. Browner, No. 4:98CV356 (N.D. Fla.)). July 30, 1998 St. Johns River is designated as an American Heritage River (FDEP 2002). Nov. 24, 1998 The U.S. EPA Region 4 approved the Florida 1998 303(d) List of Impaired Waters. Lawsuit against the U.S. EPA settled with a Consent Decree, which required the EPA and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) to begin implementation of the TMDL provisions of the CWA. 1999 The Consent Decree requires EPA to establish TMDLs if the State of Florida does not (13‐year schedule to establish TMDLs). Florida Legislature enacted the Watershed Restoration Act (Florida Statutes, § 403.067) to provide for the 1999 establishment of Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for pollutants of impaired waters as required by the CWA. 1999 FDEP formed a local stakeholders group to review the TMDL model inputs.

13 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 DATE EVENT Florida adopted a new science‐based methodology to identify impaired waters as c. 62‐303, F.A.C. April 26, 2001 (Identification of Impaired Surface Waters Rule). Following an unsuccessful rule challenge by various individuals and environmental groups (Fla. DOAH case No. June 10, 2002 01‐1332R), the Impaired Surface Waters Rule (c. 62‐303, F.A.C.) became effective. FDEP appointed the Lower St. Johns River TMDL Executive Committee to advise the Department on the July 2002 development of TMDLs and a Basin Management Action Plan (BMAP) for the nutrient impairments in the Main Stem of the LSJR. Four Florida environmental groups filed suit in Federal Court against the U. S. EPA for failure of EPA to Dec. 3, 2002 approve/disapprove Florida's Impaired Waters Rule as being consistent with the Clean Water Act (Florida Public Interest Research Group Citizen Lobby, Inc., et al., v U.S. EPA et al.) 2002 FDEP appointed a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) and officially began to identify impaired waters. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began the St. Johns River Harbor Deepening Project. The project initially 2002 “deepened about 14 miles of Jacksonville’s main shipping channel from the mouth of the river to Drummond Point to a maintained depth of 40 feet” (JAXPORT 2008b). 2003 “River Summit 2003” takes place, and the River Agenda is revised. (FDEP 2003) Sept.4, 2003 FDEP determined that most of the freshwater and estuarine segments of the LSJR were impaired by nutrients, and a verified list of impaired waters for the LSJR was adopted by Secretarial Order. Sept. 30, 2003 The nutrient TMDL for the LSJR was originally adopted by Florida (Rule 62‐304.415, F.A.C.). April 27, 2004 Florida’s nutrient TMDL was initially approved by the U.S. EPA Region 4. St. Johns Riverkeeper and Linda Young (Southeast Clean Water Network) filed suit against the U.S. EPA on the Aug. 18, 2004 basis that the Class III marine daily average dissolved oxygen criterion would not be met at all times under the TMDL. U.S. EPA found that the nutrient TMDL for the LSJR did not implement the applicable water quality standards Oct. 21, 2004 for dissolved oxygen and rescinded its previous approval of the nutrient TMDL for the LSJR. The Executive Committee identified the water quality credit trading approach for the Basin Management May 24, 2005 Action Plan (BMAP). FDEP developed draft TMDL documents for Butcher Pen Creek Fecal Coliform TMDL, Durbin Creek Fecal Coliform TMDL, Cedar River Fecal and Total Coliform TMDL, Goodbys Creek Fecal Coliform TMDL, Hogan Creek June‐July 2005 Fecal Coliform TMDL, Miramar Creek Fecal Coliform TMDL, Moncrief Creek Fecal and Total Coliform TMDL, Ribault River Fecal Coliform TMDL, Williamson Creek Fecal Coliform and Total Coliform TMDL, and Wills Branch Fecal and Total Coliform TMDL. July 2005 The Tributaries Assessment Team was formed to assess potential sources of fecal coliform in the tributaries. Large clumps of surface scum, caused by the toxic blue‐green algae Microcystis aeruginosa, bloomed from Lake Early fall 2005 George to Jacksonville. Some samples exceeded World Health Organization recommended guidelines (SJRWMD 2007b). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is extending the harbor deepening from Drummond Point to JAXPORT’s 2005‐2008 Talleyrand Marine Terminal from 38 ft to a maintained depth of 40 ft. Blooms of algae continue in the St. Johns River.“Algal blooms are caused by a combination of hot, overcast 2006 days, calm wind and excessive nutrients in the water, such as fertilizer runoff, storm water runoff and wastewater” (SJRWMD 2007b). Jan. 23, 2006 U.S. EPA established a new nutrient TMDL for the LSJR that would meet the dissolved oxygen criteria. Site Specific Alternative Criteria (SSAC) for dissolved oxygen in the LSJR (Florida Administrative Code 62‐ May 25, 2006 302.800(5)) was adopted by the Florida Environmental Regulation Commission and submitted to the U.S. EPA for approval. The SSAC was developed by FDEP in cooperation with the SJRWMD. July 6, 2006 The monitoring plan discussions for the LSJR Main Stem BMAP began. St. Johns River Riverkeeper and Clean Water Network filed a suit in federal court challenging the U.S. EPA’s July 13, 2006 approval of Rule 62‐302.800 (in effect, the Site Specific Alternative Criteria). (St. Johns River Riverkeeper, Inc., et al. v. United States Environmental Protection Agency, et al., No. 4:2006‐CV‐00332 (N.D. Fla.)) The Tributaries Technical Working Group was formed to address fecal coliform impairments in 55 LSJR water July 28, 2006 bodies. July 2006 The River Accord: A Partnership for the St. Johns is established.

14 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – BACKGROUND August 4, 2008 DATE EVENT The project collection process for the LSJR Main Stem BMAP started, which provided the list of efforts that will Sept. 2006 implement the TMDL reductions and restore the river to water quality standards. U.S. EPA approved Site Specific Alternative Criteria (SSAC) for dissolved oxygen in the marine portion of the St. Oct. 10,2006 Johns River. The U.S. Army Corps studied the impacts of blasting and dredging to deepen the navigation channel to a 2007 maintained 45 feet from the mouth of the river to Tallyrand terminals (USACE 2007a). Completion of the study is expected in 2010. The Executive Committee determined the LSJR Main Stem BMAP load allocation approach, which assigned Feb. 1, 2007 reduction responsibilities to wastewater plants, industries, agriculture, cities and counties with urban storm water sources, and military bases with storm water sources. The St. Johns River Water Management District launched the LSJRB public awareness initiative, “The St. Johns: April 2007 It’s Your River,” in order to help the public understand their personal impacts to the river and their responsibility for the river’s condition (SJRWMD 2007b). August 3007 Urban storm water loads were identified and quantified by local jurisdictions for the LSJR Main Stem BMAP. The first draft of the LSJR Main Stem BMAP was completed and presented to the Executive Committee and Oct. 2007 stakeholders group. U.S. EPA and FDEP are expected to develop TMDLs for a number of verified impaired segments of the LSJR 2008 Main Stem for several parameters (including nutrients, iron, lead, copper, nickel, cadmium, and silver). U.S. EPA approved/established the following TMDL for nutrients in the LSJR: “The dissolved oxygen shall not average less than 5.0 in a 24‐hour period and shall never be less than 4.0. Normal daily fluctuations above these levels shall be maintained. The total nitrogen TMDL for the marine water segments is 1,376,855 kg/year. Jan. 17, 2008 The total nitrogen TMDL for the freshwater segments is 8,571,563 kg/year.” The total phosphorus TMDL for the freshwater portion of the LSJR is 500,325 kg/year. These TMDLs represent a reassessment of EPA’s January 2006 TMDLs, based on the Site Specific Alternative Criterion (SSAC) for dissolved oxygen for the marine portion of the LSJR that was adopted by the State and approved by the U.S. EPA. Feb. 2008 FDEP released the Lower St. Johns River Nutrient TMDL ‐ Revised Draft. FDEP revised the Surface Water Quality Standards (c. 62‐302.530, F.A.C.) to match the U.S. EPA April 2, 2008 approved/established the following TMDL for nutrients in the LSJR (outlined above). Earthjustice (representing the Florida Wildlife Federation, Conservancy of Southwest Florida, Environmental Confederation of Southwest Florida, St. Johns River Riverkeeper, and Sierra Club) filed a lawsuit against the U.S. EPA July 17, 2008 “for failing to comply with their nondiscretionary duty to promptly set numeric nutrient criteria for the state of Florida as directed by section 303(c)(4)(B) of the Clean Water Act” (Earthjustice 2008; (Florida Wildlife Federation, Inc., et al. v. Johnson et al., 4:2008‐CV‐00324 (N.D. Fla.)).

15 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 2. WATER QUALITY have changes in water quality that reflect changes in land use, industry and population along it. Part of the TMDL analysis is the identification of sources and 2.1. Overview categories of nutrients or pollutants in the watershed and the amount of pollutant loading contributed by each Water quality, more than any other measure of river of these sources. Sources are broadly classified as either health, is difficult (if not impossible) to reduce to a single “point sources” or “nonpoint sources”. Historically, factor, much less a single number. Each tributary, and point sources mean discharges that typically have a even different sections of a tributary, or the main stem of continuous flow via a specific source such as a pipe. the LSJRB are characteristically different and unique. To Domestic and industrial wastewater treatment facilities identify characteristically similar segments in each (WWTFs) are examples of point sources. In contrast, the separate water body, under the CWA process, Florida term “nonpoint sources” has been used to describe other DEP has assigned a water body identification number intermittent, often rainfall‐driven, diffuse sources of (WBID). pollution, including runoff from urban land uses, runoff from agriculture, runoff from tree farming (silviculture), WBIDs are unique identifiers that offer an unambiguous runoff from roads and suburban yards, discharges from method of referencing water bodies within the State of failing septic systems, and even atmospheric dust and Florida. The CWA process mandates that each water rain deposition. Point sources are registered and body must be assessed for impairments for its stated permitted under the EPA’s National Pollutant Discharge uses, and if it is determined to be impaired for those Elimination Program (NPDES), and the 1987 changes to uses, a TMDL standard must be established. The LSJR is the Clean Water Act included a redefinition which now a Florida Class III water body, with designated use(s) of includes storm water and drainage systems which were recreation, propagation, and maintenance of a healthy, previously considered nonpoint sources under the well‐balanced population of fish and wildlife. For permitted NPDES program. The Florida Legislature assessment purposes, FDEP has divided the LSJRB into created the Surface Water Improvement and assessment geographic polygons with a unique WBID Management program (SWIM) as a way to manage and for each watershed or stream reach. For example, the address nonpoint pollution sources, the program is main stem of the LSJRB is divided into multiple outlined at segments. See Figure 3, page 5 in http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/watersheds/swim.htm. http://www.epa.gov/region4/water/tmdl/florida/docume nts/LSJR_Nutrient_Final_TMDL_0108.pdf. The required TMDL process for impaired waters considers, and can require reductions to both these In certain cases, the type and character of a water body pollution source types in order to achieve water quality may make it necessary to establish a special criterion for goals. For more about Florida’s Watershed Management assessing the water quality of that water body. Florida’s system see water quality standards also provide that a Site‐Specific http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/watersheds/index.htm. Alternative Criterion (SSAC) may be established where that alternative criterion is demonstrated, based on A description of the BMAP which detail actions to be scientific methods, to protect existing and designated taken in a specific basin can be found at uses for a particular water body. As discussed in the http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/watersheds/bmap.htm. background section and below, such a criterion has been established and EPA approved for Dissolved Oxygen The status of Northeast District BMAP plans can be (DO) in the predominantly marine portion of the LSJRB. found at http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/watersheds/docs/bmap The Water Quality of each tributary is strongly impacted /BMAPStatusNED.pdf. by both the land use surrounding the tributary and the nature and extent of human impact. Thus the tributaries Due to resource constraints several of the more complex of the LSJR vary in water quality impacts from aspects of water quality have not been covered in this agricultural to industrial, and urban to suburban to year’s report, among these are characteristic variation rural. Often different parts of the same tributary will among tributaries of the LSJR the impact of salinity on

16 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 water quality parameters and the complex interaction of are dependent on physical, chemical, and biochemical biology and water quality (specifically of algal blooms characteristics (Clesceri 1989). and water quality parameters). Additionally, the relationships noted here have been derived largely from The St. Johns River is classified as a class III water body existing reports in the scientific literature and data from (used for recreation, propagation and maintenance of a the EPA’s national database known as STORET. We healthy, well‐balanced population of fish and wildlife) acknowledge that there are distinct differences between under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency the Florida and EPA versions of the STORET database, (USEPA) guidelines. The USEPA class III Freshwater further complicated by disparate methods, spatial and Quality Criterion for dissolved oxygen is 5.0 mg/L temporal biases, and changing methodologies used to (FDEP 2006a). This implies that normal daily and measure these water quality parameters, and thus, many seasonal fluctuations must be maintained above of our conclusions and opinions (particularly about 5.0 mg/L to protect aquatic wildlife. The predominantly trends) are still debatable. freshwater part of the LSJR extends north from the city of Palatka to the mouth of Julington Creek. In marine We have also not considered upstream sources in this waters, the DO average should not be less than 5.0 mg/L years report. For these and other reasons, we in a 24 hour period with a minimum DO concentration recommend more continuous real‐time data collection of 4.0 mg/L. The Florida Department of Environmental efforts be funded as a top priority over the next decade Protection (FDEP) has developed Site Specific as the CWA mandated mitigation efforts begin to Alternative criteria for the predominantly marine improve the water quality of the LSJR. portion of the St. Johns River between Julington Creek and the mouth of the river which requires that DO We have endeavored to provide the best, and yet still concentrations not drop below a minimum of 4.0 mg/L clear and straightforward public presentation that we however, DO concentrations between 4.0 and 5.0 mg/L can offer. We also applaud the efforts at all levels of state are considered acceptable over short time periods and local government, public environmental extending up to 55 days (FDEP 2006b). For more details organizations, and the commitment of the public toward on the calculation of the Site Specific Alternative criteria, continually improving the water quality of the LSJR. please visit the FDEP website (http://www.dep.state.fl.us).

2.2. Dissolved Oxygen Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is an index of the biodegradable organics in a water body (Clesceri 1989). 2.2.1. Description and Significance: DO and BOD Simply, it is the amount of oxygen used by bacteria to break down detritus and other organic material at a Dissolved oxygen (DO) is defined as the concentration of specified temperature and duration. Higher BOD is oxygen that is soluble in water at a given altitude and accompanied by lower dissolved oxygen. The EPA temperature (Mortimer 1981). The concentration of suggests that the BOD not exceed values, which would oxygen dissolved in water is far less than that in air; cause DO to decrease below the criterion, nor should therefore, subtle changes may drastically impact the BOD be great enough to cause nuisance conditions amount of oxygen available to support many aquatic (FDEP 2006a). Bacterial growth requires nutrients such plants and animals. The dynamics of oxygen as nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace metals. Nutrients, in distribution, particularly in inland waters, are essential particular, may contribute to the overgrowth of in understanding the distribution, growth, and behavior phytoplankton, periphyton, and macrophytes, which of aquatic organisms (Wetzel 2001). Many factors affect then in turn die. Therefore, nutrient inputs into the river the DO in an aquatic system, several of them natural. can increase the BOD, thereby decreasing the DO. Temperature, salinity, sediments and organic matter Population responses to the increased nutrients in a from erosion, runoff from agricultural and industrial system may be only temporary. However, if nutrient sources, wastewater inputs, and excess nutrients from inputs are sustained for long periods, oxygen various sources may all potentially impact DO. In distribution will change, and the overall productivity of general, the more organic matter in a system, the less the water body can be altered (Wetzel 2001). dissolved oxygen available. DO levels in a water body

17 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 2.2.2. Factors that Affect DO and BOD minimum value; value at the first quartile; the median value; the value at the third quartile; and the maximum Warmer temperatures influence DO by decreasing its value. The size of the box is a measure of the spread of solubility (Mortimer 1981). Increasing temperatures also the data with the minimum and maximum values increase metabolism by causing an increase in indicated by the whiskers. The median value is the value respiration in aquatic organisms, which is a process that of the data that splits the data in half and is indicated by requires oxygen. Increased metabolism and production the horizontal blue line in the center of the boxes. of bacteria and phytoplankton contribute to a higher BOD. Therefore, when the temperature increases, the 2.2.4. Limitations BOD increases, and DO availability is reduced. Shallow areas and tributaries of the LSJR that are without shade DO usually exhibits a diurnal (24‐hour) pattern in have particularly elevated temperatures in the summer eutrophic or highly productive aquatic systems. This months. Correspondingly, DO concentration decreases pattern is the result of plant photosynthesis during the during those times. The DO changes are compounded in day which produces oxygen; such that the maximum waters with little movement, so turbulence is also a DO concentration will be observed following peak pertinent parameter in the system. Turbulence causes productivity, often occurring just prior to sunset. more water to come in contact with the air and thus Conversely, at night, plants respire and consume more oxygen diffuses into the water from the oxygen, resulting in an oxygen minimum, which often atmosphere. occurs just before sunrise (Laane, et al. 1985; Wetzel and Likens 2000). The LSJR is highly productive; however, it Salinity is another factor that affects DO concentrations is a blackwater river, which influences the diurnal in the LSJRB. Saline and brackish waters can decrease pattern typical to most rivers. The time of day in which the DO in an aquatic system. Normal seawater has about water quality is measured can strongly influence the 20% less oxygen than freshwater (Green and Carritt result. Additionally, some of the more historic data lacks 1967; Weiss 1970). Factors influencing DO, such as pertinent corresponding water quality characteristics increasing temperatures and BOD, will be compounded (i.e. tides), which may have impacted the measurements. in saltwater as compared to freshwater. 2.2.5. Current Status and Trends 2.2.3. Data Sources The overall trend in the yearly DO values in the LSJRB All data used for the DO and BOD analyses were from from 1982 to 2007 appears fairly stable and generally the FDEP STORET database. STORET is a computerized stays within acceptable limits (Figure 2.1). Yearly data environmental data system containing water quality, alone can be misleading. A clear seasonal trend is biological, and physical data. DO and BOD were demonstrated in Figure 2.2A, with the lowest measured using methods USEPA 360.1 and USEPA concentrations observed in the summer months. The 405.1, respectively. Data points that had a ʹVʹ qualifier seasonality of DO concentration was even more were removed from the analyses and values below the apparent over the years of 2000 through 2007 where a detection limit were set to zero. higher proportion of DO values in the summer months were below acceptable limits, as compared to winter Data is presented in box and whisker plots, which months (Figure 2.2B). consist of a five number summary including: a

18 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.1 The yearly DO from 1982 to 2007 in the LSJRB. Data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the green boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The site‐ specific water quality standard range is given in the yellow box overlay. DO values under 4.0 mg/L (pink box overlay) are considered unacceptable.

19 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 A.

Figure 2.2 The monthly DO concentrations from A., 1967 to 2006 and B., from 2000 to 2007 in the LSJRB. Data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the green boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The site‐specific water quality standard range is given in the yellow box overlay. DO values under 4.0 mg/L (pink box overlay) are considered unacceptable.

20 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 tributary of the LSJR which drains the eastern banks Correspondingly, as DO concentrations decreased in around Hastings and Spuds, receiving substantial summer months, BOD levels slightly increased (Figure agricultural inputs, such as nutrients. Black Creek is a 2.3). less impacted tributary as compared to Deep Creek and measured DO concentrations in these areas reflect the Seasonal DO fluctuation is not as problematic in the different conditions, with lower DO values observed in main stem of the LSJR (Figure 2.4A) as compared to the Deep Creek (Figure 2.4B and C). Nutrients, organic tributaries and creeks (Figure 2.4B and C). Measured DO matter, temperature and community structure (i.e. values in the main stem of the LSJR were within number and types of plants and animal species), among acceptable limits. Alternatively, in the tributaries and other biotic factors, may contribute to the lower DO creeks, several DO values were below the site specific concentrations in these tributaries. minimum standard of 4.0 mg/L (Figure 2.4B and C). DO concentrations can also vary between tributaries, depending on the surrounding land use. Deep Creek is a

Figure 2.3 The monthly BOD (data from 1983 to 2007) in the LSJRB. Data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the green boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values.

21 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.4 The monthly DO concentrations (data from 1967 to 2007) A. The main stem of the Lower St. Johns River near the Main Street Bridge; B. Black Creek; and, C. Deep Creek. Data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the green boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The site‐specific water quality standard range is given in the yellow box overlay. DO values under 4.0 mg/L (pink box overlay) are considered unacceptable.

22 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 2.2.6. Future Outlook predominantly occurring in small enclosed water bodies like ponds and lakes. However, eutrophication is not a Analysis of available data indicates that the average DO process commonly observed in river systems, like the St. levels in the LSJRB are most problematic during summer Johns. The presence of eutrophication in these types of months with many of the lowest DO measurements river systems is an identifying characteristic of occurring in tributaries and creeks. Based on data from significant anthropogenic (man‐made) nutrient inputs. 1967 to 2007, the average DO concentration in the LSJR during the month of June was 4.5 mg/L, ranging from Phosphorus predominately occurs in natural freshwater 0.0 to 14.9 mg/L, with several measurements below the areas as organically bound phosphate, within aquatic site specific minimum standard of 4.0 mg/L. biota, or adsorbed to particles and dead organic matter Unacceptable DO concentrations occurred intermittently (Clesceri 1989; Wetzel 2001); whereas, the dominant during every month of the year. DO concentrations inorganic species, orthophosphate, accounts for about below 5.0 mg/L for prolonged periods may be too low to 10% of the total phosphorus in the system (Clesceri support the many aquatic animals that require oxygen 1989). Orthophosphate is released by the breakdown of (USEPA 2002a, 2002b). Maintenance above minimum rock and soils and is then quickly used by aquatic biota, DO levels is critical to the health of the St. Johns River particularly bacteria and algae, and incorporated as and the organisms that depend on it. Nutrient reduction organic phosphate (Newbold 1992). Phosphorus can be strategies (discussed in the next section) have recently released from biota by excretion and by the decaying of been formulated by government agencies and may matter. combat the low DO concentrations observed in the LSJR to some extent. Additionally, monitoring agencies are Humans add to the naturally occurring phosphorus in now making efforts to collect data which better aquatic systems. In Florida, phosphorus is mined quite represent the variable DO conditions and to extensively, and is used in fertilizers, commercial concurrently document other important water quality cleaners and detergents, animal feeds, and in water characteristics for an improved assessment of the river’s treatment, among other purposes, many of which end health. up in local waterways (Clesceri 1989; Wright and Nebel 2008). In the past, phosphorus was also often used in laundry detergents. Orthophosphate generally averages 2.3. Nutrients 0.010 mg/L whereas total dissolved phosphorus averages about 0.025 mg/L in unpolluted rivers 2.3.1. Description and Significance: Phosphorus worldwide (Meybeck 1982). Orthophosphate concentrations in rivers can increase substantially Phosphorus and nitrogen are important and required following a rainwater event to as high as 0.050‐0.100 nutrients for many aquatic organisms, such as mg/L from agricultural runoff and over 1.0 mg/L from phytoplankton (e.g., algae). If all other conditions (light, municipal sewage sources (Meybeck 1982, 1993). water quality, etc.) are sufficient, nutrients stimulate immediate algal growth and alternatively, if absent, can The USEPA established a Recommended Water Quality limit algal abundance. In excess, either phosphorus or Criterion of 0.040 mg/L, for total phosphorus in the St. nitrogen can cause the overgrowth of phytoplankton to Johns River (USEPA 2000). Drainage basins and have nuisance levels. If the nutrient concentration in a system been shown to largely impact the chemical remains high for extended periods of time, eutrophic characteristics of surface waters (Keup 1968; Lal 1998; conditions may result, potentially changing the entire Vollenweider 1968). The drainage basin for the river ecosystem by favoring the growth of some organisms consists of agricultural lands, golf courses, and urban and changing the optimal water quality conditions for areas, all of which add to the phosphorus loading in the other organisms. The term “eutrophic” generally river. Those inputs, in addition to inputs from municipal signifies a nutrient‐rich condition, resulting in a high wastewater treatment plants and other point sources concentration of phytoplankton (Naumann 1929) The may contribute to eutrophic conditions in the Lower St. more recent definition characterizes eutrophication as an Johns River. increase in organic matter loading to a system (Nixon 1995). Eutrophication is a natural process,

23 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 Generally, sediments act as a reservoir for phosphorus; complexation) and biotic (nitrification, dentrification, however, many factors, such as wind, turbulence, DO, nitrogen fixation) processes can change the speciation or water hardness and alkalinity, and benthic (bottom form of nitrogen. Sediments act as a major reservoir of dwelling) organisms may potentially re‐mobilize nitrogen, just as they do for phosphorus (Levine and phosphorus into the water column (Boström, et al. 1988; Schindler 1992). Boström, et al. 1982; Wetzel 1999). Excessive total nitrogen in a system can have severe 2.3.2. Description and Significance: Nitrogen impacts on the community structure. Nitrogen can markedly alter the community distribution of The atmosphere is the main reservoir for nitrogen, as it phytoplankton. Cyanobacteria, for example, are capable contains 78% nitrogen gas. This form of nitrogen is of nitrogen fixation (converting inert N2 to reactive unreactive and unavailable to most organisms, with the nitrogen), which allows them to grow rapidly, thus out‐ exception of a few microbes. Other forms of nitrogen competing other species when inorganic nitrogen levels include nitrate, nitrite, ammonia and organic nitrogen, are low (Smith 1983). Repetitive nitrogen and such as protein and urea, all of which can move freely phosphorus overloading can be detrimental to aquatic between organisms and the environment (Wright and systems. Nebel 2008). Nitrate is found in the effluent of biological wastewater treatment and nitrite is used as a corrosion 2.3.3. Data Sources inhibitor in industry and as such is found in industrial effluent (Clesceri 1989). Nitrite and nitrate are All data were obtained from the FDEP STORET database microbially converted from one to the other, depending except data used for Figures 2.5A, 2.5B, 2.6A, 2.6B, on the availability of oxygen and pH. Ammonia is a 2.11A, 2.11B, and 2.12, which were obtained from the waste product of aquatic organisms and naturally occurs USEPA STORET database. The USEPA database was in surface and wastewaters at concentrations ranging only used if there was insufficient data in the FDEP from 0.010 mg/L in some natural surface waters and STORET database for this analysis. STORET is a groundwater, to 30 mg/L in some wastewaters (Clesceri computerized environmental data system containing 1989). Plants take up inorganic reactive nitrogen and water quality, biological, and physical data. Phosphorus, incorporate it into essential organic compounds like as orthophosphate, and nitrogen, as kjeldahl, ammonia, proteins. It is then passed up the food chain, during and nitrate plus nitrite were measured from surface which time nitrogen wastes can be given off, as waters using U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ammonium compounds. The decay of organisms also methods USEPA 365.1, 351.2, 350.1, and 353.2, liberates nitrogen (Hutchinson 1944; Wetzel 2001). The respectively. Data points that had a ʹVʹ qualifier were USEPA Recommended Water Quality Criterion for total removed from the analyses and values below the nitrogen is 0.90 mg/L (USEPA 2000). The USEPA class III detection limit were used as zero. Since the nutrient Water Quality Criterion for nitrogen, as ammonia is 0.02 criteria for the state of Florida has not yet been mg/L (FDEP 2006a). implemented, the USEPA Recommended Ecoregional Nutrient criteria for Ecoregion XII Rivers and Streams Human processes that produce nitrogen compounds (USEPA 2000) were used for comparison with measured primarily include industrial fixation in the manufacturer total phosphorus and nitrogen values in the LSJR to of fertilizers, in which nitrogen gas is converted to assess impairment as was the USEPA class III Water ammonia, and the combustion of fossil fuels, during Quality Criterion for nitrogen, as ammonia (FDEP which nitrogen from coal and oil is oxidized, thereby 2006a). Data is presented in box and whisker plots, liberating nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere. In the first which consist of a five number summary including: a process, nitrogen can pollute waterways from minimum value, value at the first quartile, the median agricultural and urban runoff of fertilizer. In the later value, the value at the third quartile, and the maximum process, nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere are value. The size of the box is a measure of the spread of converted to nitric or nitrous acids and brought down to the data with the minimum and maximum values waterways by precipitation. The form of nitrogen that indicated by the whiskers. The median value is the value enters a waterway can give an indication of its source. of the data that splits the data in half and is indicated by However, in aquatic systems, several abiotic (pH, the horizontal blue line in the center of the boxes.

24 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 2.3.4. Limitations the 1980s and have remained fairly stabile since 1992 (Figure 2.5A, B), possibly reflecting the point source Data used from the USEPA STORET database prior to reduction efforts. 1998 are of undocumented quality and no analysis procedure was listed. Even with the phosphorus reductions from point sources, phosphorus in the LSJR still exceeds the USEPA 2.3.5. Current Status and Trends: Phosphorus Recommended Ecoregional Nutrient standard of 0.04 mg/L (Figure 2.5A, B). Efforts over the last decade Total phosphorus concentrations in the LSJR were or so have been to reduce nonpoint sources of generally higher in the 1970s (Figure 2.5A, B), which phosphorus, particularly from agricultural rainwater largely occurred from the increasing use of phosphorus runoff and the use of fertilizers. in fertilizers, manure, and laundry detergents. Even though Florida contains a higher background Deep Creek is a tributary of the LSJR with substantial phosphorus concentration than many states due to its nutrient input from agricultural lands (eastern banks geological composition (rocks and soils), the around Hastings and Spuds). In general, lower anthropogenic inputs of phosphorus in the river have phosphorus concentrations have been observed in the been much more substantial. The use of phosphorus in main stem of the LSJR (Figure 2.6A) as compared to laundry detergents was banned in Florida, December several of the creeks and tributaries (Figure 2.6B); 31st, 1972 and the use of phosphorus in fertilizers did not however, all areas sampled have phosphorus considerably increase after 1980. The decreasing use of concentrations higher than the USEPA recommended phosphorus in detergent manufacturing also led to a water quality standard. Nutrients are most concentrated decrease in the amount of phosphorus in wastewater in tributaries of the LSJR that receive substantial point effluent. and non‐point source inputs from more developed watersheds. The main stem is deeper with more vertical In further efforts to improve water quality and reduce mixing, so the nutrient input is diluted, to some extent. eutrophication, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (CWA) was implemented. One of the main No seasonal fluctuation of phosphorus concentration in objectives of the CWA was to upgrade wastewater‐ the LSJR was observed from the data analyzed (Figure treatment plants by implementing technology‐based 2.7). Fertilizers containing phosphorus are used on crops limits and including tertiary treatment, which would primarily during the winter; however, increased storm reduce phosphorus and nitrogen, among other things, water runoff during the summer liberates phosphorus from wastewater effluent. Several wastewater treatment from the soils resulting in a continuous input into the plants were upgraded in the 1990s. Total phosphorus LSJR. concentrations in the LSJR appear to have decreased in

25 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.5 The yearly total phosphorus concentration from 1971 to 2007 in the Lower St. Johns River. In A., all data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set and in B, the vertical scale has been expanded to more clearly show the acceptable range. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The USEPA recommended water quality standard is given in the green box and overlay.

26 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.6 Yearly total phosphorus concentrations in A., the main stem of the Lower St. Johns River near Dames Point and B., in Deep Creek, a tributary of the Lower St. Johns River. All data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The USEPA recommended water quality standard is given in the green box and overlay. Note the change of scale between the two graphs.

27 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.7 Monthly total phosphorus concentrations in the Lower St. Johns River. All data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The USEPA recommended water quality standard is given in the green box and overlay.

2.3.6. Current Status and Trends: Nitrogen Nitrogen, as ammonia, has generally decreased from 1968 to 1982, and has been stable until the present time Overall, the total nitrogen concentration has been stable (Figure 2.11A, B). Like total nitrogen, ammonia since 1981; however, most of the recorded concentrations exceed the USEPA class III Water Quality measurements have exceeded the USEPA Criterion for nitrogen, as ammonia of 0.02 mg/L. Recommended Ecoregional Nutrient criteria of 0.9 mg/L Julington Creek is an area in which relatively high (Figure 2.8A, B). Relatively elevated levels of nitrogen ammonia levels have been measured. have been measured in several creeks including: Julington Creek, Rice Creek, and Deep Creek, although Nitrogen, as nitrate plus nitrite, has been fairly stable levels have decreased slightly since 2004 in Julington since 1983 (Figure 2.12). There does appear to be a Creek (Figure 2.9A‐C). The shores of Julington Creek are seasonal trend in the levels of nitrate and nitrite, with occupied by private residences and commercial the highest concentrations occurring in the winter development. Moving southward, however, (Figure 2.13). This may be a result of nitrate liberation development decreases and wetlands increase. Rice from the flood plain in winter months. This pattern has Creek is predominantly surrounded by wetlands, been demonstrated in two Delaware salt marshes forests, The Rice Creek Wildlife Management Area, and (Aurand and Daiber 1973). Additionally, in the winter a pulp mill; whereas, the land use surrounding Deep less nitrate and nitrite is taken up as particulate organic Creek is mostly agricultural. Non‐point source rainwater matter (POM) (i.e., into algae) because the runoff is likely the major cause of the increased nitrogen phytoplankton density is lower. Relatively high nitrate concentrations in these areas. Nitrogen concentrations and nitrite concentrations have been detected in Deep were most elevated in Deep Creek, which receives Creek, particularly between the years of 2001 and 2007 significant agricultural inputs (Figure 2.9C). Relatively (Figure 2.14). These high concentrations are again likely elevated levels of nitrogen were also observed in the consistent with the agricultural land use surrounding main stem of the LSJR near the Main St. Bridge, which Deep Creek. receives a substantial upstream contribution as well as city storm drainage inputs and power plant effluent, making it difficult to identify a predominant source.

28 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.8 The yearly total nitrogen concentration from 1967to 2007 in the Lower St. Johns River. In A., all data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set and in B, the vertical scale has been expanded. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The USEPA Recommended Ecoregional Nutrient standard is given in the green box and overlay.

29 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 A.

Figure 2.9 The yearly total nitrogen concentration in A. Julington Creek; B. Rice Creek; and, C. Deep Creek, all tributaries of the Lower St. Johns River. All data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The USEPA Recommended Ecoregional Nutrient standard is given in the green box and overlay

30 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.10 The yearly total nitrogen concentration in the main stem of the Lower St. Johns River near the Main Street Bridge. All data is presented as a box‐and‐ whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The USEPA Recommended Ecoregional Nutrient standard is given in the green box and overlay.

Figure 2.11 The yearly nitrogen concentration, as ammonia, from 1967 to 2007 in the Lower St. Johns River. In A., all data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set and in B, the vertical scale has been expanded. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values. The USEPA class III Water Quality Criterion for nitrogen, as ammonia is given in the green box and overlay.

31 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.12 The yearly nitrogen concentration, as nitrate + nitrite, from 1966 to 2007 in the Lower St. Johns River. All data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values.

Figure 2.13 Monthly nitrogen concentration, as nitrate + nitrite, from 2000 to 2007 in the Lower St. Johns River. All data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values.

Figure 2.14 Monthly nitrogen concentration, as nitrate + nitrite, from 2000 to 2007 in Deep Creek, a tributary of the Lower St. Johns River. All data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers plot with the red boxes indicating the median ±25% (middle 50% of the data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The blue horizontal lines indicate the median values.

32 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 reducing sources of nutrients, nutrient‐rich waters 2.3.7. Future Outlook coming from standard secondary water treatment plants may be recycled. These recycled waters can and have Phosphorus and nitrogen inputs from multiple sources recently been used as a means to irrigate favorable should be reduced. Even though levels are fairly stable, plants, however, the effluent must not be contaminated they far exceed the USEPA recommended standards, with toxic materials. This practice has been recently particularly in the smaller tributaries and creeks. utilized in Clay County, within the LSJRB as well as Phosphorus concentrations generally follow a seasonal other areas of the U.S., such as Bakersfield, California; pattern similar to DO, and are therefore higher and more Clayton County, Georgia; and St. Petersburg, Florida, problematic in the summer months. Total nitrogen mostly for irrigation of urban open spaces like parks, concentrations typically do not follow a seasonal trend; residential lawns and golf courses. A similar practice has however, nitrate plus nitrite concentrations are higher in been used in agriculture. These methods among others the winter months. In creeks and tributaries as well as in have been included in the FDEP Nutrient TMDL and the main stem of the LSJR, total nitrogen and ammonia have wide spread implications in reducing inputs of are generally higher than the Recommended Ecoregion nutrients into the St. Johns River. XII Nutrient standard and Surface Water Quality Class III standard, respectively. Monitoring specific chemical species of nitrogen may give some indication of the 2.4. Turbidity source. Increases in phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations to eutrophic conditions are highly linked 2.4.1. Description and Significance: to changes in the relative abundance of phytoplankton, favoring growth of potentially harmful species (Kilham In its natural state, the St. Johns River, like other 1990; Kilham and Hecky 1988; Smith 1983; Tilman 1982). blackwater rivers, swamps and sloughs, has a high Decreasing phosphorus loading has been shown to concentration of colored dissolved organic material decrease productivity (Vollenweider 1968) and may (CDOM) that stains the water a dark brown color. The reduce the occurrence of harmful algal and natural decay of plant materials (particularly oak leaves cyanobacteria blooms. Further, decreasing nutrient which produce tannins) stain the water to appear levels would contribute to better water quality in the somewhat like tea in color. This water color can indicate LSJR, as DO, biological oxygen demand, and the a very healthy condition, or it may not. The St. Johns availability of other contaminants to aquatic organisms, River, in particular, has a varied mix of dark‐stained have been associated with nutrient levels. Best water from rainwater flow through the slow moving Management Practices, reducing fertilizer use and backwaters, and nearly clear contributions from large further improving wastewater treatment systems would springs such as Blue Spring, De Leon Springs, Silver help to reduce nutrient inputs into the river. Springs (through the Ocklawaha River) and others. Heavy rains flush tannin‐stained waters out of the slow‐ A TMDL document was drafted this year by the FDEP in moving sloughs, swamps and backwaters and into the efforts to reduce nutrient inputs into the LSJR. A TMDL tributaries and main stem of the LSJR. is a scientific determination of the maximum amount of a given pollutant that a surface water can absorb and Turbidity is described on the Florida DEP website as: still meet the water quality standards that protect Turbidity is a measure of the suspended particles in human health and aquatic life (USEPA 2008). The water. Several types of material cause water turbidity, Nutrient TMDL indicates the necessary nutrient these include: silt or soil particles, tiny floating reduction to meet water quality standards in the LSJR organisms, and fragments of dead plants. Human and the restoration strategies required to achieve it. activities can be the cause of turbidity as well. Runoff Government agencies are working with industries and from farm fields, storm water from construction sites agriculture to reduce nutrient inputs and meet projected and urban areas, shoreline erosion and heavy boat future goals. Local utilities and government agencies traffic all contribute to high levels of turbidity in have voluntarily made efforts to reduce nutrients since natural waters. These high levels can greatly diminish 2000 and a large public outreach campaign is under way the health and productivity of estuarine ecosystems. to reduce fertilizer use by homeowners. In addition to (FDEP 2008a)

33 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 Turbidity is a measure of the light scattered by readily form algal blooms. In rainy periods after a particulate materials within the water column which drought, the St. Johns River may actually become darker reflect and scatter light. Both high levels of suspended stained from CDOM than usual, as rainfall moves the solids and particles of algal origin are optically active as stalled and tannin‐stained waters into the main stem of scatterers and to a lesser extent, high levels of CDOM the LSJR again. In these conditions, CDOM absorption is contain micron‐sized scattering particles. All are present the most influential optical property in a blackwater in the dominantly freshwater portion of the LSJR. system such as the LSJR (Phlips, et al. 2000). In other (Gallegos 2005). In the LSJR system, turbidity is events, and at specific locations and times, dominated by both phytoplankton (mostly single‐cell phytoplankton or NAP will dominate light extinction in plants) and suspended solids from human impact (most the water column and can be assessed by comparing often sediment or industrial waste) called Non‐Algal turbidity levels with Chlorophyll-a levels, which Particulates (NAP). NAP comes from such activities as indicate algal content. sediment erosion from construction, land clearing and timber harvesting sites; storm water runoff in urban and A background turbidity level in the LSJR varies from industrial areas, dredging, and solids from industrial single digit values to 12‐15 Nephelometric Turbidity outfalls (Gallegos 2005). During heavy rains, these Units (NTUs) along the main stem. (Armingeon 2008), sources may input a large volume of NAP into and anything over 29 NTUs above background is tributaries of the river that can both cover aquatic life considered to exceed Florida state standards. Turbidity and effectively block sunlight from reaching the levels in tributaries can be higher in either drought Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV). Turbidity gives a when near constant industrial and WWTF output may good measure of the amount of sunlight that cannot be dominant, or more commonly after episodic rain penetrate the waters to support aquatic photosynthesis. events, when sediment from construction, land clearing Small plants and plantlike bacteria have evolved to float and timber harvesting sites, coupled with storm water or suspend themselves in the upper levels of the water runoff, can overwhelm the other components. The latter column to remain in the sunlight. At high concentration should happen much less often with strong enforcement their combined scattering may only pass insufficient of good engineering practices at work sites and light to large plants attached to the bottom, like the river continuing improvements to storm water practices. grasses that feed and serve as nursery habitat for Episodic monitoring of work sites specifically after juvenile fish and shrimp. SAV can suffer from a lack of heavy rain events could provide needed help with light due to high turbidity and from sediment cover, or enforcement. Public vigilance in reporting turbidity by small plants coating their leaf surfaces, or masking by events in tributaries will help lessen the total impact of floating algae. This has a large impact on the other spills and runoff sediment. It is not difficult to spot species, which depend on the grasses for food and sediment laden water due to its appearance, often shelter. having a resemblance to “coffee with cream” (Figure 2.15 is an extreme example). Florida has an extensive storm water permitting program to limit storm water impact. For further In the more haline portions of the LSJR scattering of light information see is dominantly from materials which are of larger size http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/stormwater/npdes/ind such as sediment (Gallegos 2005). ex.htm.

During periods of drought a paradoxical condition can occur in which rainfall flow from the backwaters decreases dramatically but the flow from springs diminishes less. When this happens, the water may become significantly clearer and optical absorption by CDOM diminishes to below normal levels. During drought conditions, with decreased CDOM and higher light penetration, phytoplankton are able to take advantage of the high nutrient concentrations and more

34 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.15 Turbid water from McCoys Creek entering the LSJR on 17 July 2008. Courtesy of Christopher Ball.

The following four graphs (Figure 2.16A ‐ D) show the steady progress that has been made since the 1970s in reducing turbidity in the LSJR. Over this period there have been changes in measurement techniques, spatial sampling changes and many other factors that make it difficult or impossible to determine the validity of this trend. Additional effort to provide a more verifiable and valid trend will be included in the next report. The box indicates the median +/‐ 25% of the data points (middle 50%). The total number of points for the decade is in the second line of the title. Note that there is improvement each decade. While the state criterion for turbitdity is 29 NTU above background, we have used 29 NTU as the threshold in the graphs, due to variation in background levels in the LSJR.

35 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

A B

C D

Figure 2.16 Yearly turbidity in the Lower St. Johns River Basin; A. Since 2000; B. From 1990‐1999; C. From 1980‐1989; and, D. From 1970‐1979. Data is presented as a box‐and‐whiskers decadal plot with the red/brown boxes indicating the median value ±25% (middle 50%of data) and the blue whiskers indicating the minimum and maximum values in the data set. The water quality criterion is 29 NTU above background (see text), but we use 29 NTU in the green box overlay for uniformity.

between the city of Jacksonville and Mayport, areas 2.4.2. Data Sources where urban runoff may have been a problem. Many have since been “delisted” in the CWA process. This The primary source for this evaluation is the STORET may truly indicate substantial improvements, but it may database and the EPA‐mandated reports required by the also have been partly a function of the sampling timing CWA such as the Florida 303(d) report of impaired during pre‐hurricane drought conditions in 2004 which waters. These reports become the basis for future water greatly reduced runoff and associated turbidity. For quality management and restoration efforts. These are example: the earlier 303(d) report listed Cedar River and publicly available online at Goodbys Creek, as well as the main stem of the river http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/tmdl/adopted_gp2.htm above the Dames Point area, at high risk of turbidity and impairment. Later sampling in 2004 did not. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/tmdl/docs/303d_lists/g Additionally, we have chosen to use virtually all the roup2/adopted/LSJRverified5‐13‐04.pdf. STORET data in spite of changes in methodology, uneven spatial and temporal sampling, and other issues 2.4.3. Limitations that limit both the validity and generalization of the trend. In 1998, under the EPA standards, 16 water bodies in the Lower St. Johns River basin were listed as impaired for turbidity. Many (but not all) of these were urban streams

36 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 2.4.4. Current Conditions plants, and under the right conditions of nutrient and light, can propagate profusely, called a bloom (see the Based on the STORET data available from the current Dissolved Oxygen and Nutrient sections above). CWA sampling, turbidity conditions are improving for the main stem of the LSJR. In the tributaries however, The St. Johns River and particularly its tributaries, are too many reported violations of sediment control impacted by excess nutrients in runoff and wastewater practices from work sites resulting in high turbidity (see nitrogen and phosphorus section above), with high events still exist. levels of coliform bacteria which indicate nutrient sources from human or animal fecal contamination. 2.4.5. Trend and Future Outlook High levels of nutrients and phytoplankton can indicate a danger of eutrophication, in which the ecosystem Heightened awareness of the public and improved becomes unbalanced with an increase in organic matter engineering sediment control practices are bringing loading to the system. (NRC 2000). Where these improvements in this area. A few recent finable events conditions are present in the St. Johns River, high and the press they received will help keep the pressure primary productivity by phytoplankton, may dominate on proper engineering practices. Vigilance in design of the biotic processes in the aquatic ecosystem, referred to retention and detention ponds, sediment fences and as a plankton “bloom”. “Blue green algae” blooms in public monitoring all can help. Reporting of turbidity addition to being clearly visible events, often induce events and sediment discharges near land‐clearing and high oxygen production during the daylight hours when construction projects, particularly future Developments the cyanobacteria and other algal plants produce of Regional Impact (DRI) should help ensure the best oxygen, followed at night by very low oxygen levels due outcomes for the LSJR. Tributaries are particularly prone to oxygen consumption from nocturnal plant respiration to turbidity events after a heavy rainfall. and the decay of dead biomass (see Dissolved Oxygen and Nutrient sections above). This can result in low 2.4.6. Recommendation oxygen levels making it difficult for fish and other animals to thrive. Such blooms can also be so dense as to Model prediction of substantial rainfall is now sufficient prevent sunlight from reaching the native submerged so that one to two day forecasts are reliable. Scheduling rooted plants (SAV) that are essential for the survival of of event‐based monitoring of sediment control practices juvenile fish and other aquatic organisms (see Turbidity based on forecast rain events is feasible. Rainfall event‐ and SAV sections). Algal blooms may have increased based monitoring of turbidity in tributaries near major after successful eradication efforts to control the water construction or development should be established in hyacinth, which in the past shaded much of the water the LSJRB basin as a standard. Strong enforcement of column. Reduction in the water hyacinth may have had existing engineering standards for sediment control as the effect of changing the LSJR from a floating aquatic well as increased training is recommended, particularly plant system to an algal‐dominated system in areas where DRIs exist. (Hendrickson 2006, 2008).

2.5. Algal Blooms Some algal species also produce toxins which can reach higher levels in a bloom, and these are collectively 2.5.1. Description and Significance known as Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB). Two summary references on HAB by Steidinger, et al. 1999, and Burns Pristine blackwater river systems usually have low Jr 2008 are recommended reading on this subject. There levels of planktonic primary producers (as measured by is a valid question about whether harmful algal blooms chlorophyll a concentration) since the available nutrient are even a natural occurrence. Burns has this to say: and light levels in black water systems are low. Rapid Although there is little doubt that the phenomenon of growth of cyanobacteria (AKA blue‐green algae), which cyanobacterial blooms predates human development in are chlorophyll producing bacteria, have occurred in Florida, the recent acceleration in population growth disturbed blackwater streams in the Carolinas, (Mallin, and associated changes to surrounding landscapes has et al. 2001) and in the St. Johns River. These organisms contributed to the increased frequency, duration, and can tolerate lower light levels than most other aquatic intensity of cyanobacterial blooms and precipitated

37 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 public concern over their possible harmful effects to and Glasgow Jr 1997a, 1997b and Prorocentrum minimum aquatic ecosystems and human health. Toxic (Phlips, et al. 2000), and often co‐occur with fish kills or cyanobacterial blooms in Florida waters represent a ulcerative disease syndrome in fish (Steidinger, et al. major threat to water quality, ecosystem stability, 1999). surface drinking water supplies, and public health. Nutrients, which include the same nitrogen‐based In our region, two primary HAB organisms dominate. chemicals and phosphorus‐based chemicals in garden Microcystis species are common in the freshwater fertilizer, are a common cause of impaired waters in the portion of the St. Johns River (Phlips and Cichra 1998) Lower St. Johns River and they are a crucial component though only a few produce HAB. Microcystis species are of algal blooms. Much of this nutrient comes from actually bacteria with photosynthetic ability and are leaking septic systems, livestock, industry and runoff members of the cyanobacteria. Anabaena circinalis and during and after heavy rain events. Recent work by Microcystis aeruginosa are two of the most widely Hendrickson, et al. 2007 indicates that anthropogenic distributed freshwater cyanobacteria HAB generating nutrient enrichment has tripled the total nitrogen load in species in Florida. (Steidinger, et al. 1999). the St. Johns River, but has even greater increases in the nitrogen components linked to HAB. The weather also The World Health Organization has set a separate influences HAB, with low flow or periods of drought drinking water “provisional consumption” limit of conditions increasing the likelihood of algal bloom 1 µg/L for microcystin‐LR (WHO 1998), but up to events; while high flow and hurricane rain events 12.5 µg/L were detected in drinking water samples decrease the likelihood of algal bloom events (Phlips, et collected in a 2000 survey (Burns Jr 2008). An oceanic al. 2007). dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, a common component of red tides, dominates HAB events in the coastal waters Florida biologists in collected a total of 167 samples offshore but may be influenced by nutrients from the throughout Florida; 88 of these samples, representing 75 LSJR and other coastal estuaries. Certain types of HAB individual water bodies, were found to contain HAB may be harmful to human skin and animals. Swimmers cyanotoxins. Most bloom‐forming cyanobacteria genera and anglers have complained of rashes after coming into were distributed throughout the state, but water bodies contact with the bloom, which often form extensive such as Lake Okeechobee, the Lower St. Johns River, the surface scum in eutrophic waters during calm wind and Calooshatchee River, Lake George, Crescent Lake, hot weather conditions. The saltwater “red tide” has Doctors Lake, and the St. Lucie River (among others) been known to produce respiratory problems in humans were water bodies that supported extensive who only visited the coast, without direct contact with cyanobacterial biomass. Seven genera of cyanobacteria the water, though it is seldom reported in the LSJR were identified in the samples, with Microcystis (43.1%), estuary (Steidinger, et al. 1973). Cylindrospermopsis (39.5%), and Anabaena (28.7%) the most frequently observed, and in greatest concentration Microcystis species also have been reported as dominant (Burns Jr 2008). phytoplankton in the fresh water section of the Lower St. Johns River during all seasons (Phlips and Cichra 1998). Mean Chlorophyll a levels for some sections of the LSJR Some of the other potentially toxic cyanobacteria that are remain at relatively low levels, some as low as 3‐6 μg/L known to bloom in Florida waters (in addition to [or parts per billion] (FDEP 2008c) compared to the very Microcystis aeruginosa, and Anabaena circinalis) include A. high levels during HAB events. Current standards are 11 flos‐aquae, Aphanizomenon flos‐aquae, Cylindrospermopsis μg/L for saltwater and generally 20 μg/L for fresh water, raciborskii (reported as possibly a recent invasive import, but the latter is exceeded during natural algal increases Chapman and Schelske 1997), and Lyngbya wollei. each summer in eutrophic blackwater systems, and (Steidinger, et al. 1999). Extensive statewide sampling greatly exceeded in the HAB events. A TMDL limit of reports showing that Cylindrospermopsis accounted for “40 μg/L for not more than 40 continuous days” was nearly 40% of 88 samples containing cyanotoxins (Burns proposed for algal biomass in the LSJR, but has not been Jr 2008), casts doubt on the recent introduction idea. adopted. Other potentially toxic species have also been identified, such as the Pfiesteria‐like Crytoperidiniopsoids (Burkholder

38 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.17 Chlorophyll a data for Duval County from 1988‐ 2006. Note the use of the estuarine standard of 11 μg/L.

Figure 2.18 Chlorophyll a data for St. Johns County from 1988‐2006. Note the use of the proposed Florida freshwater standard of 40 μg/L.

Figure 2.19 Littoral and deeper water Dissolved Oxygen during LSJR HAB event after Steidinger, et al., 1999

39 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.20 Diurnal cycles of Dissolved Oxygen during Doctors Lake HAB event in 1997 from Steidinger, et al., 1999 page 23.

Figure 2.21 Chlorophyll a data for Putnam County from 1988‐2006. Note the use of the proposed Florida freshwater standard of 40 μg/L.

Figure 2.22 Chlorophyll a data for Clay County from 1988‐2006 Note the lower average, but unusually high maxima compared to adjacent Putnam County

40 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 increases in nutrient concentration over the last few During cyanobacteria blooms in the lower St. Johns decades has increased algal blooms significantly. Recent River, organisms such as juvenile fish that are unable to improvements in nutrient levels since 2000 indicate escape to deeper offshore, more oxygenated water current nutrient reduction progress that needs to be (Figure 2.19) may not survive. Typical diurnal DO cycles continued. (over a period of 24 hours) show that DO measurements tend to increase during the day (Figure 2.20) because of 2.5.5. Future Outlook photosynthesis by the primary producers (cyanobacters), and diminish at night due to Reduction of HAB events is highly linked to continued cyanobacterial oxygen depletion by respiration coupled progress in nutrient reduction. Continued funding of the with the additional oxygen consumption by the River Accord adopted by the City of Jacksonville and its decaying biomass of the bloom (Steidinger, et al. 1999). partners as announced in July 2006 will certainly help. How much the nutrients from the St. Johns and other 2.5.2. Limitations Northeast Florida rivers contributes to coastal “Red Tide” is currently not known. Likewise, little is known While there is a long history of chlorophyll a sampling in about what triggers toxin production in either the fresh the LSJR, the data is highly variable. The real‐time water or salt water HAB species. monitoring of chlorophyll a in the LSJR system proposed by the City of Jacksonville could provide early alerts to 2.5.6. Recommendations potential algal bloom events, and increased sampling could then be triggered to study these events in detail. Sophisticated DNA studies of the various cyanobacterial There are many complex and unanswered questions that genomes previously mentioned, their gene products, would benefit from more data and further research. and protein structures as well as studies of their toxins While we know high levels of nutrients in the river have are recommended. A long term study of cyanobacterial fostered “blooms” of cyanobacteria, and other algae that growth rates coupled with bioassay studies under varied can sometimes be toxic to animals and humans, the nutrient loading is essential to understand algal bloom specifics of toxin production are not well understood. phenomena in the LSJR. Further research into the role of For example, while we know which genes in specific upstream algal seeding is needed to understand its algal species can actually lead to toxin production, there impact on the LSJR. are many genetic questions about when and why toxins are triggered and produced. Similarly, additional near‐ 2.6. Bacteria (Fecal Coliform) shore coastal data is required help us understand how much the St. Johns River nutrient load may or may not 2.6.1. Description and Significance contribute to “Red Tide” blooms along our beaches. Fecal coliform bacteria are a natural component of 2.5.3. Current Conditions digestive systems of birds and mammals. They aid in digestion, and are not normally considered harmful. High levels of nutrients in the river have fostered Rather, they are used as water quality measures of water “blooms” of primitive cyanobacteria, and other algae contamination by feces, which may indicate potential which (though native) can sometimes be toxic to animals presence of disease causing organisms such as and humans. Excess nutrients and summer sunlight can pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The EPA has set encourage these normally infrequent growth events. standards (EPA440/5‐84‐002) for recreational water Nutrient from the St. Johns River may also increase the quality after earlier studies by the CDC determined that likelihood of “Red Tide“ blooms along the coast, but this few people become sick with gastroenteritis by is an aspect that requires research confirmation. accidentally ingesting water with 200 coliform bacteria 2.5.4. Trend units per 100 milliliters of water while engaged in recreational activities (Dufour 1984). This document can While minor algal bloom events (such as might occur be found at near a large bird rookery) have probably occurred since http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/beaches/files/1986crit. formation of the LSJR (thousands of years ago), the pdf.

41 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 Florida fecal coliform exceedance criteria standards for the Clean Water Act. The Act established the basic recreational contact are: structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States. It gave EPA the Exceeding 800 colonies/100 milliliters for any single authority to implement pollution control programs sample and a 30 day geometric mean exceeding 200 such as setting wastewater standards for industry. The colonies/100 milliliters indicates that the water body Clean Water Act also continued requirements to set sampled does not meet recreational water quality water quality standards for all contaminants in surface standards and contact should be avoided. Exceeding waters (EPA 2008). 400 colonies/100 milliliters in 10% of samples taken in a 30 day period indicates that the waterbody does not This law required the nation’s publicly owned sewer meet recreational water quality standards and caution systems to remove 90% of the solid matter, and to should be exercised (FDEP 2008a). disinfect the effluent (Shabecoff 1988), which was usually done with chlorine, to protect streams and Fecal coliform bacteria reach the river from natural rivers. Recently there has been a trend to move from sources such as free‐roaming wildlife and birds. Other chlorine to other oxidants (such as peroxides, oxygen, or major sources include domestic animal contamination ultraviolet light) because chlorine by‐products may be from poor agricultural practices, human contamination harmful (Jolley, et al. 1982). The City of Jacksonville from failing septic tanks, sewer line breaks, and passed Environmental Protection Board (EPB) Rule 3 to wastewater treatment facilities overflows. These latter improve water quality in Duval County (1987). This led sources are often called point sources because large to phase‐out of the existing but less reliable local amounts of waste can enter the river or tributary at a wastewater treatment plants; many of which were single point such as an outfall pipe. Non‐point sources unable to meet the higher standards. Consolidation into in contrast, enter the watershed from a broad area such larger regional treatment plants helped meet the higher as wildlife excrement, runoff and agricultural wastes standards. Yet, when fecal coliform levels were from pasturelands. measured in order to comply with the EPA process, many of the tributaries in the LSJR were out of 2.6.2. History compliance. Jacksonville made the news when the FDEP Conceptually, the reuse of sewage wastewater and and the The St. Johns Riverkeeper noted that “the ocean recycling by land based application is not new. Use of would be closed to swimmers” at those contamination human sewage wastes in agriculture to fertilize crops levels. The 50 water bodies that were so listed had and replenish nutrients from depleted soils has been measured above an average of 400 bacterial colony practiced by the Chinese since ancient times (Shuval, et forming units per 100 milliliters of water. Several sites al. 1990). The First Royal Commission on Sewage had count levels in the thousands and a few in tens of Disposal in England of 1865 stated ʺThe right way to thousands. The St. Johns Riverkeeper’s website lists the dispose of town sewage is to apply it continuously to the impaired streams (FDEP 2004): land and it is by such application that the pollution of http://www.stjohnsriverkeeper.org/river_ImpairedWater the rivers can be avoided.ʺ s.asp.

Modern methods of sewage disposal involve treating Many of these have been traced to leaking or failed human sewage in wastewater treatment plants before septic systems. Actions are under way to more intensely discharging it into local waterways or the ocean. Over monitor and correct these problems in LSJR tributaries, the last three decades, the standards for sewage and establishment of TMDLs and BMAPs for the treatment have become ever more stringent, particularly tributaries of the coliform‐impaired tributaries are under with the passage of the CWA in 1977. As the U.S. EPA way. website notes: The City of Jacksonville is monitoring water quality in Growing public awareness and concern for controlling Duval County at over 100 sites in the Tributary Program water pollution led to enactment of the Federal Water which provides a list of sites and photos at Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. As http://www.coj.net/Departments/Environmental+and+C amended in 1977, this law became commonly known as

42 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008 ompliance/Environmental+Quality/Surface+Water+Quali in violation of the fecal coliform standard (depicted in ty/Tributary+Program+Monitoring+Sites.htm. RED). Rural tributaries like Deep Creek, Julington‐ Durbin Creeks, and Yellow Water Creek are generally The most current fecal coliform data for Duval County within standard. The latest data show improvement in streams is located on the city website and uses the single the Ortega River area, Trout River, and Mill Cove. sample standard of 800 coliform units per sample http://www.coj.net/Departments/Environmental+and+C Comparison of the graphs for the entire LSJR dataset, ompliance/Environmental+Quality/Surface+Water+Quali and two tributaries, Black Creek and Cedar River clearly ty/Tributary+Basin+Tables+April‐June+2005.htm. show the differences in proportion of the datasets with over 800 fecal coliform counts (the single sample Data from January to March 2008, the most current exceedance criterion) and those below 200 counts per periods available, and back one year (2007) indicate that sample. These graphs only include 2000‐2007 data, so individual tributaries along the Cedar River, Arlington the number of samples is limited (Figure 2.23). River, Southside (San Jose Blvd) area, Pablo Creek/Mt. Pleasant Creek, and the downtown area are occasionally

43 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

Figure 2.23 Distribution (as %) of fecal coliform counts (2000‐2007) for A. The LSJRB, B. Black Creek, and C. Cedar River

44 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – WATER QUALITY August 4, 2008

In contrast, the main stem of the LSJR is monitored for 2.6.4. Limitations fecal coliform and other water quality parameters at several sites from Welaka to Arlington (Jacksonville) Infrequent monitoring of fecal coliform levels limits under the “River–at‐a‐Glance” program, and shows that assessment of trends. the main stem of the LSJR is clearly in compliance for fecal coliform 2.6.5. Current Conditions: http://www.dep.state.fl.us/northeast/RAAG/default.htm. Tributaries: UNSATISFACTORY 2.6.3. Data Sources Main Stem: SATISFACTORY

The primary source for this evaluation is the STORET 2.6.6. Future Outlook database and the EPA‐mandated statewide TMDL assessment reports required by the CWA such as the The future outlook is unable to be determined, but is Florida 303(d) report of impaired waters and other data promising due to The River Accord and other public on the FDEP website. These reports become the basis for efforts such as the JEA/SWEA consolidation of WWTFs future water quality management and restoration (Figure 2.24) and public monitoring on the Riverkeeper efforts. These are publicly available online at websites website. listed above. Additional sources for the Duval County 2.6.7. Recommendation tributaries include the City of Jacksonville website (above). More frequent (monthly) monitoring results of problem urban watersheds should be posted on the city website.

Figure 2.24 Waste Water Treatment Facilities in Duval County by Year. Since the Implementation of EPB Rule 3. Source: City of Jacksonville

45 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 3. Fisheries

3.1. Introduction

3.1.1. General Description

The lower basin of the St. Johns River supports a diverse and abundant fish and invertebrate community of commercial and recreational value to the public. Invertebrate commercial fisheries account for the largest Figure 3.1 Percent comparison of commercially important fish and percentage of landings with blue crabs comprising 63% invertebrates caught by five counties associated with the lower basin of the St. Johns River in 2006. These data do not differentiate between fish and of the total landings for 2006 invertebrates caught in the St. Johns River or the Intracoastal Waterway (http://www.floridamarine.org/features/). In the same (ICW). year, finfish fisheries accounted for 35% of the total catch with striped mullet, whiting and flounder being the 3.1.2. Data Sources &Limitations most commonly caught species in the five counties associated with the lower basin of the St. John River Four sources of data were referenced in interpreting (Figure 3.1). Recreationally, the St. Johns area supports status and trends of fish and invertebrates. All available high numbers of red drum, spotted sea trout, croaker, literature was used to examine potential long‐term sheepshead, flounder, largemouth bass, and bluegill that trends (1955‐2007) in fish communities via the presence are sought by both local and visiting anglers. or absence of species encountered in the particular study. Such comparisons may give insight into whether the overall fish community was the same for the time periods compared. A major weakness of this comparison is that it gives no information on how the numbers of a given species may have changed with time. In most cases, the collection methods in the studies were not the same. Consequently, the conclusions that can be drawn from these kinds of comparisons are limited.

The status and trends documented for species in this section are derived from the three remaining sources of data. The focal datasets come from recreational landings estimates (1982‐2007) and commercial landings reports

46 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 (1994‐2007) obtained from the Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWRI) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), respectively. Generally, data are analyzed separately for the north (Duval County), south (St. Johns, Flagler, Putnam & Clay Counties) and whole lower St. Johns River. It should be noted, that there are uncertainties associated with either the exact location of where a fish was caught and/or the method of estimating total number of landings for a given area. In particular, these data do not The FWRI investigated external abnormalities such as differentiate between fish and invertebrates caught in lesions in fish since 2000. They surveyed fish and the St. Johns River or in the Intracoastal Waterway invertebrates for the presence of abnormal growths, (ICW). Additionally, changes in fishery regulations colors and ulcers or gross external abnormalities (GEA). through the years limit what can be said of landings They also sampled mercury levels in muscle tissue from between certain time periods. In most cases, total the shoulder area in similar sized (generally larger) landings are graphed. However, in order to best assess spotted sea trout, red drum, southern flounder, southern comparison of landings over the years, landings per trip kingfish, and blue crabs. are calculated for the north and south sections of the river, and trends investigated using nonparametric The incidence of GEAs was found to be less than one correlation analysis. Graphs using these values are percent in 2000 and 2005 located in the Appendix. (http://research.myfwc.com/features/view_article.asp?id =24885). In 2005, less than one percent (19 fish) of 18,413 The most statistically reliable data used in this report fish (> 75 mm in length) surveyed in Northeast Florida come from ongoing research conducted by the FWRI had GEAs (FWRI 2006b). The consumable fish that had (see Appendix 3.1.1a & b for river areas sampled). some kind of abnormality were striped mullet (5), However, they have only been collecting information southern flounder (2), channel catfish (1), black drum since 2001. Finally, scientific literature was used where (1), largemouth bass (2), bluegill (2), and Florida appropriate to supplement these data, and to form our pompano (1). In most case, several hundred individuals conclusions on trends and statuses. of each of the above species were sampled allowing for a more reliable assessment of frequency of abnormality 3.1.3. Health of Fish and Invertebrates (Figure 3.2). The one exception is the Florida pompano There is not much information on the health of fish and where only one individual was encountered rendering invertebrates from the lower basin of the St. Johns River. health interpretation for this species not possible. Over In the mid‐1980s, there were concerns with fish health in 150 species of fish were surveyed. the St. Johns River when high numbers of fish with external lesions (called ulcerative disease syndrome— UDS) were reported by local fishermen. A comprehensive 1987 study (CSA 1988) from Clapboard Creek to Lake George revealed only 73 lesioned fish out of 69,510 (0.11%). However, this study also observed a higher percentage (5 %) of lesioned fish in the Tallyrand area with the main affected fish being southern flounder, weakfish, yellowfin menhaden, southern stingray and Atlantic croaker. FWRI research suggested that a major cause of the lesions is a water mold (Aphanomyces invadans) that is more likely to infect stressed fish. Fish can be stressed when exposed to unusual changes in salinity, temperature and water quality.

47 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008

3.2. Finfish Fishery

3.2.1. General Description

The St. Johns River lower basin supports a fish community of great ecological, commercial and recreational value to the public. Most of the fish sought after are predaceous fish that are important in maintaining community balance in the areas where they occur. Historically, American eel and shad were huge fisheries in the St. Johns, although populations have decreased to such low levels that they are now not the

Figure 3.2 The percent of each fish encountered with gross external focus of most commercial fisherman (McBride 2000). abnormalities (GEAs). Fractions over each column represent the number of Currently, the premier commercially harvested estuarine GEA over total number sampled. or marine fish in the lower basin are striped mullet, flounder, sheepshead, menhaden, black drum, croaker Mercury has been encountered in southern flounder, and whiting. However, American eels, spotted Seatrout, spotted sea trout, red drum and southern kingfish, as and weakfish are also commercially harvested. In well as, blue crabs although not at levels that prohibit freshwater sections of the river, important species human consumption (Figure 3.3). The values in FWRI’s commercially harvested include non‐native tilapia, study varied between 0.05 and 0.15 mg/L with the catfish, gar, bluegill/redear sunfish, shad, and American Spotted Seatrout having the statistically highest mercury eels. Of the five counties studied, Duval County catches levels (Figure 3.3). The Department of Health advises the highest landings (1,194,330 lbs in 2006) and species limited consumption (1‐2 meals/week) of brown of fish per year (only includes fish caught within the bullhead, Red breast sunfish, bluegill, black crappie, river and ICW). warmouth, largemouth bass, bowfin, gar, Atlantic croaker, Atlantic thread herring, Atlantic weakfish, black The St. Johns River supports a diverse recreational drum, Gulf and southern flounder, Jack crevalle, fishery in the lower basin. Within the different sections hardhead catfish, red drum, sand seatrout, sheepshead, of the river, significant fisheries exist for freshwater, spotted seatrout, southern kingfish, striped and white estuarine or saltwater fish. A saltwater license is mullet, and spot. required if fishing from a vessel, floating object or if wading in deeper than 4 ft. of water. Premier saltwater species sought after are red drum, spotted Seatrout, flounder and sheepshead. A freshwater license is required for land or vessel fishing. Premier freshwater species include largemouth bass, blue gill and catfish. The abundance of some of these fish species in the river has resulted in a number of very high profile fishing tournaments occurring each year‐‐‐red drum and bass tournaments being among the most popular.

3.2.2. Long‐term trends Figure 3.3 The average level of mercury encountered in four selected fish species collected in the lower St. Johns Rive from 2005 to 2006. For many years, humans have benefited from the thriving fish communities that utilize the lower basin of the St. Johns River. Indeed, a number of the same species sought after today, such as spotted Seatrout and sheepshead, were commented on by the naturalist

48 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 William Bartram as far back as the late 1700s. However, despite the importance of river fisheries over the years, 3.2.3. Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) only a few studies have rigorously sampled fish populations in the St. Johns River. In response to this need for more information, the FWRI started an ongoing monthly fish sampling program in 2001 that is designed to understand fish population changes with time in estuarine areas of Northeast Florida.

The available long‐term research suggests that many of http://myfwc.com/marine/fish/reddrum.jpg the same species present today (~170 species total) were present in the river back in the late 1960s (FWRI 2007c; 3.2.3.1. General Life History McLane 1955; Tagatz 1968c). However, it is unclear Red drum (also called puppy drum, channel bass, whether the numbers of individual species have spottail bass and redfish) are predatory fish that are changed during this time period because of different found in the estuarine sections of the St. Johns River. sampling methods used in these studies. Currently, the During the fall and winter, they spawn at dusk in coastal most numerically dominant species in the lower basin waters near passes, inlets and bays. Newly hatched include anchovy, striped mullet, killifish, menhaden, young live in the water column for 20 days before Atlantic croaker, spot, silversides, and silver perch. settling to the sea floor bottom. Young fish will become A preliminary study by McCloud 2008 with St. Johns reproductively mature fish at around three years of age, River Water Management District (SJRWMD) compared and may ultimately live to be approximately 40 years current FWRI fish data with that collected by M. Tagatz (Murphy and Taylor 1990), and reach a maximum length in 1968. Her research suggested that at some areas of the of five feet. river, observed fish communities were 50% different 3.2.3.2. Significance between 1968 and the 2001‐2006 time period. She further suggests that the observed differences in fish Red drum are ecologically important as both a predator communities in these areas may have been the result of a and prey in the food web of the St. Johns River. They are transition zone between marine and freshwater moving bottom feeders that eat crabs, shrimp, worms and small further upstream. One of the unique aspects of the St. fish. Their predators include larger fish, birds, and Johns Estuary is the ability of some marine fish to ascend turtles. far upstream into freshwater. For instance, stingrays are abundant in a number of freshwater areas in the river. A strong recreational fishery exists for red drum. The However, most fish are sensitive to their environment, recreational fishery for red drum is an estuarine and and can move from an area in response to unsuitable near‐shore fishery, targeting small, ʺpuppy drumʺ and changes in important environmental factors such large trophy fish. Trophy‐size fish are caught along the salinity, dissolved oxygen, and temperature. mid‐ and south coastal barrier islands, while smaller red drum are taken in shallow estuarine waters. Red drum have not been commercially harvested since 1988 to minimize impacts to natural populations.

3.2.3.3. Trend

Both NOAA and FWRI data sets show recreational landings of red drum decreased substantially during the mid‐1980s, but have been consistent since then (Figure 3.4). This trend is evident in both the northern and southern sections of the river although far more red drum are landed in the northern river sections. FWRI

49 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 research data shows similar trends for the 2001‐2005 night within the river from spring through fall with a time periods (Appendix 3.2.3a and 3.2.3b). peak during April through July. The young often form schools of up to 30‐50 individuals. Individual fish will become sexually mature in two to three years. Their expected lifespan is eight to ten years. They may reach a maximum length of three feet.

3.2.4.2. Significance

Spotted Seatrout are very important in both the benthic and planktonic food webs in the St. Johns River. As newly hatched young they are planktivores, feeding primarily on copepods within the plankton. As they grow, they shift to larger prey including shrimp, and Figure 3.4 Recreational landings (in lbs) of red drum within the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1982 to 2007. Note that the gill net ban went into eventually a number of smaller fish within the river. A effect in 1995. number of predators feed on Seatrout including Atlantic croaker, cormorants, brown pelicans, porpoises, and 3.2.3.4. Current Status and Outlook sharks.

Red drum are a very important recreational fishery in There are recreational and commercial spotted Seatrout the lower St. Johns River. It appears they are safe from fisheries within the St. Johns River. Recreationally, the overexploitation (Murphy 2005). There is concern that fish is the premier game fish in the area for visiting and increased fishing activity may in the future cause local anglers. Annual commercial landings for the state decreases in fish numbers through direct loss of fish of Florida were over four million pounds in the 1950s captured, and mortality of “returned” fish. and 1960s, and down to 45,000 lbs in 2006 (Murphy, et al. Consequently, close monitoring of reproduction and 2006). Out of this value, the lower St. Johns River (and abundance in local populations is essential for ensuring the neighboring ICW) accounts for approximately 5,000 the long‐term maintenance of red drum in the LSJRB. lbs. harvested annually.

Recreationally, one red drum can be caught per day 3.2.4.3. Trend throughout the year. Individual fish must be within 18 and 27” in length. No red drum can be sold for profit Recreational and commercial landings data show similar (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf). trends for the comparable time periods. Recreational landings data decreased substantially once in the mid‐ 3.2.4. Spotted Seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) 1980s, and again to even lower levels in the mid‐1990s. However, landings have been somewhat stable since 1996 (Figure 3.5; Appendix 3.2.4a & b). Commercial landings of spotted Seatrout similarly decreased in the mid‐1990s and appear to be declining since then. The substantial mid 1990s decrease may be due to the impact of the gill net ban (Murphy, et al. 2006). Finally, the NOAA and FWRI commercial and research data sets all http://www.floridasportfishing.com/magazine/images reveal higher numbers of spotted Seatrout in the 3.2.4.1. General Life History northern versus southern sections of the lower St. Johns River (Appendix 3.2.4c). The spotted Seatrout is a bottom‐dwelling predator that is common in estuarine and shallow coastal habitats in Northeast Florida. They are carnivores that prey on a number of small fish species such as anchovies, pinfish and menhaden. Reproduction tends to occur during the

50 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 and crayfish. As they get older, they feed on a variety of 400000 organisms such as larger fish, crayfish, crabs, frogs, and Spotted Seatrout 300000 salamanders. They reproduce from December through 200000 May. The male builds nests in hard‐bottom areas along 100000 shallow shorelines. The female then lays her eggs in the Landings (lbs) 0 nest, where they are fertilized as they enter the nest. The male will guard the nest and later, the young fry. The fry 6 2 4 9 0 982 988 990 9 0 1 198419861 1 199219941 19982000200 2 2006 initially swim in tight schools, and then disperse when Year they reach about one inch in size. Largemouth bass may live up to 16 years growing in excess of 22 inches in Figure 3.5 Recreational landings (in lbs) of spotted Seatrout within the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1982 to 2007. Note that gill nets were length (http://floridafisheries.com/Fishes/bass.html). banned in 1995. 3.2.5.2. Significance 3.2.4.4. Current Status & Outlook Largemouth bass are very important in freshwater The spotted Seatrout recreational fishery has grown in benthic food webs in the lower St. Johns River. Their the last 15 years while the commercial fishery has willingness and aggressiveness to feed on any decreased. However, both fisheries appear to be appropriately sized prey is significant in affecting the declining. The decrease in landings may be related to: 1) abundance of many organisms in the same habitat. changes in fishing regulations; 2) coastal development; Recreationally, bass are a premier game fish in the area and 3) fishing pressure (Murphy, et al. 2006). Despite for visiting and local anglers. these trends, a recent FWRI stock assessment suggests that spotted Seatrout are not being overfished within the 3.2.5.3. Trend Northeast Florida region (Murphy, et al. 2006). FWRI research in the past six years suggests a slight Recreationally, spotted Seatrout are considered a increase in abundance of bass in the middle sections of restricted species (Murphy, et al. 2006). However, they the St. Johns River since 2002 (Figure 3.6). As expected, can be caught in the Northeast Florida region during all bass were also encountered in the more southern area of months of the year, except during February (when the river. However, sampling in this section of the river keeping spotted Seatrout is prohibited). The legal size was terminated by 2003. There is no data available on range is 15 to 20 inches with a daily limit of five per recreational landings of largemouth bass. person (includes one larger fish) (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf).

3.2.5. Largemouth Bass (Micropterus.salmoides)

http://www.usbr.gov/.../activities_largemouth_bass.jpg Figure 3.6 Mean number of largemouth bass collected per seine within the 3.2.5.1. General Life History upper, middle and lower sections of the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 2001‐2005. Vertical bars at each point represent degree of variability around Largemouth bass are predatory fish that occupy shallow each value. brackish water to freshwater habitats, including upper estuaries, rivers, ponds and lakes. When young, they are carnivores feeding on zooplankton, crustaceans, insects

51 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 3.2.5.4. Current Status & Outlook the river. Channel catfish are often stocked in ponds and lakes to maintain population numbers. There is not enough information to assess the status of the recreational fishery associated with largemouth bass 3.2.6.3. Trend in the lower St. Johns River. However, they are not likely to be overfished in the near future. Bass are commonly Commercial landings decreased substantially in the raised in hatcheries and stocked in lakes and ponds mid‐1990s (Figure 3.7). This mid‐1990s decrease may be throughout Florida. due to the impact of the Florida gill net ban. Since this time period, landings have been decreasing in the north Recreational fishermen are permitted to take largemouth (landings mostly likely from tributaries in this area) and bass all months of the year. A daily limit of five per consistently low in the south sections of the river person is allowed with minimum size of 14 inches and (Appendix 3.2.6a). However, the more recent FWRI data only one of the five being more than 22 inches shows a consistent trend with both species being more (http://www.floridaconservation.org/fishing/rules.html). common in the southern sections of the river, and white catfish generally being more abundant than channel 3.2.6. Channel & White Catfish catfish (Appendix 3.2.6b). There is no data available on (Ictalurus punctatus & Ameiurus catus) the recreational catfish fishery.

http://myfwc.com/.../images/raverart/White-Catfish.jpg

3.2.6.1. General Life History

Channel and white catfish are omnivorous fish that can be found in primarily freshwater rivers, streams, ponds and lakes. During their lifetime, they may feed on Figure 3.7 Commercial landings (in lbs) of catfish within the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1994 to 2007. Note that the gill net ban went into insects, crustaceans, crayfish, mollusks and fish. They effect in 1995. reproduce in the river in the spring and summer months. The male builds nests where the eggs are laid 3.2.6.4. Current Status and Future Outlook by the female and fertilization occurs. The male will guard the nest and later the young fry. The fry will leave Both species of catfish are generally common in the St. the nest one week after hatching. As they mature, catfish Johns River. The decrease in commercial landings of will tend to occupy bottom areas with slow moving catfish may be more related to changes in fishing currents. Individuals may live 11‐14 years. regulations over the years, although this is not known for sure. It may also be a result of a recent increase in 3.2.6.2. Significance farm‐raised catfish in the southeast United States (http://news.ufl.edu/1999/08/13/catfish‐2/). FWRI is in Both catfish species are very important in benthic food process of implementing freshwater species into their webs in the more freshwater sections of the lower St. marine trip ticket program to more effectively assess Johns River. They are abundant, and feed on a wide freshwater landings in various parts of Florida. With the variety of organisms during their lifetime (DeMort exception of Fish Management Areas, there are no bag 1991). There has been a sizeable commercial catfish or possession limits on either species of catfish fishery associated with white and channel catfish for (http://www.floridaconservation.org/fishing/rules.html). many years, yet there is little data available on annual recreational landings for the Northeast Florida area. There is also a large recreational catfish fishery within

52 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 3.2.7. Striped Mullet (Mugil cephalus)

http://www.floridafishandhunt.com/.../stripemul.jpg

3.2.7.1. General Life History Figure 3.8 Recreational landings (in lbs) of striped mullet within the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1982 to 2007. Striped mullet (also known as black mullet) are detritivores that have a wide salinity range. They are 3.2.7.4. Current Status & Future Outlook abundant in freshwater and inshore coastal environments often being found near mud bottoms Striped mullet in the St. Johns River continue to be feeding on algae, and decaying plant material. Mullet important commercially and recreationally. Populations migrate offshore to spawn with their resultant larvae appear to be healthy and sustainable into the foreseeable eventually drifting back to coastal waters and marsh future along the east coast of Florida (Mahmoudi 2005). estuaries. Developing individuals will become sexually Recreational fishing limitations are 50 fish maximum mature at three years and live from four to 16 years. (includes striped and silver mullet) per harvester per Older fish may ultimately reach lengths of up to three day. There is no closed season feet. (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf).

3.2.7.2. Significance 3.2.8. Southern Flounder (Paralichthyes lethstigma)

Mullet are considered extremely important in benthic food webs in all sections of the lower St. Johns River. They are abundant and significant in the transfer of energy from the detrital matter they feed on to their predators such as birds, Seatrout, sharks and marine mammals. The commercial mullet fishery has been the largest among all fisheries in the St. Johns for many years with over 100,000 lbs. harvested annually. http://www.floridasportfishing.com/magazine/images Additionally, mullet are sought after recreationally for their food and bait value. 3.2.8.1. General Life History

3.2.7.3. Trend The southern flounder is a common flounder in inshore channels and estuaries associated with the St. Johns Both recreational and commercial landings have been River. It is a bottom‐dwelling predator that feed on highly variable since the 1980s (Figure 3.8). shrimp, crabs, snails, bivalves and small fish. During the Commercially and recreationally, more mullet are fall and winter it moves offshore to spawn. Larvae will harvested in the southern section of the river (Appendix develop and drift in the plankton while being 3.2.7a & b). The northern section has been somewhat transported (via wind driven currents) back to estuaries more consistent with a slight decreasing trend while and lagoons where they will settle and develop into landings in the south fluctuate more drastically from juveniles and then adults. The southern flounder may year to year. The FWRI data reveals consistent trends in grow up to 36 inches, and live to approximately three abundance for both zones from 2001 to 2005 (Appendix years of age. 3.2.7c).

53 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 3.2.8.2. Significance coast (FWRI 2006d). However, to help ensure their maintenance, it is important to have a better Flounder are important ecologically, recreationally and understanding of the reproductive and life history commercially to humans in the lower St. Johns River ecology of populations within the river. Recreationally, area. They are abundant and important in maintaining flounder can be caught all months of the year. Legal size ecological balance in their roles as both predator and range is 12 inches with a daily limit of ten fish per prey. The commercial flounder fishery is one of the person larger ones in Northeast Florida. Flounder are also (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf). highly sought after recreationally for their excellent food value. 3.2.9. Sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus)

3.2.8.3. Trend

Recreationally, southern flounder landings decreased dramatically in the early 1980s but have since been appeared stable with slight fluctuations (Figure 3.9). Less drastic fluctuations in landings have occurred more to the south where landings generally are the largest (Appendix 3.2.8a). Commercially, landings of all flounders have decreased significantly after 1995 but have since been consistent (Appendix 3.2.8b). However, http://myfwc.com/marine/fish/sheepshead.jpg it is unclear whether this trend applies specifically to the 3.2.9.1. General Life History southern flounder. The mid‐1990s decrease in commercial landings of all flounders may be due to the Sheepshead are common near‐shore and estuarine fish impact of the gill net ban. FWRI data for southern that are very often associated with pilings, docks and flounder show similar trends in abundance between jetties. They have a very impressive and strong set of north and south sections of the river but no observable incisor teeth that are used to break apart prey such as trends from 2001 to 2005 (Appendix 3.2.8c). bivalves, crabs and barnacles. Adults will migrate offshore during the spring to spawn. Fertilized eggs will develop into larvae offshore and be carried towards the coast by currents primarily driven by the wind. The larvae will enter the mouths of inlets and settle in shallow grassy areas. Developing individuals may reach a maximum length of three feet.

3.2.9.2. Significance

Sheepshead are ecologically, recreationally and commercially important in Northeast Florida. They are Figure 3.9 Recreational landings (in lbs) of southern flounder within the important in maintaining the estuarine and coastal food Lower Basin of the St. Johns River from 1982 to 2007. web as both a predator and prey. The commercial fishery is one of the larger ones within the river. 3.2.8.4. Current Status & Future Outlook Recreationally, sheepshead are highly valued by fisherman in the area for their high food value. The southern flounder continues to be important recreationally and commercially in the lower St. Johns 3.2.9.3. Trend River. While commercial landings data lacks specific information on southern flounder, they are fairly Overall, recreational landings have been stable with common in the St. Johns River, and appear to have no occasional fluctuations (Figure 3.10). Landings have short term risk of being overfished along the Florida east been more stable to the north and somewhat decreasing

54 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 in the south sections of the river (Appendix 3.2.9a). muscles against their swim bladder. They use their Commercially, landings have been stable yet fluctuating barbells to sense prey such as large invertebrates and for both sections of the river (Appendix 3.2.9b). fish. Adults will migrate offshore during winter and However, data from the southern counties most likely spring to spawn. Their offspring will develop in the includes a significant number of fish caught in the ICW. plankton and be transported back inshore, where they The FWRI data shows no trend from 2001 to 2005 but will settle in vegetated shallow marsh areas. They grow does suggest higher number of sheepshead in the north rapidly and may attain a maximum length of 20 inches. sections of the river (Appendix 3.2.9c). 3.2.10.2. Significance

Croakers are important to the St. Johns area in a number of ways. They are very abundant and consequently extremely important in the food web as both predator and particularly as prey. For many years, their commercial fishery has been one of the biggest in the St. Johns. Additionally, they are recreationally caught for their food value.

3.2.10.3.Trend Figure 3.10 Recreational landings (in lbs) of sheepshead within the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1982 to 2006. Both commercial and recreational croaker landings have 3.2.9.4. Current Status & Future Outlook been consistent since 1988 (Figure 3.11; Appendix 3.2.10a & b). In both sets of data, landings are lower in the Sheepshead continue to be important as both southern sections of the river. The FWRI dataset reflects recreational and commercial fisheries. They are common the same trends from 2001‐2005 (Appendix 3.2.10c). in the St. Johns River, and appear abundant enough However, smaller fish (not accounted for in this study) along the Florida east coast to produce an adequate have been observed in the more freshwater areas of the number of new fish to the populations at current levels lower St. Johns River. They appear to transit to estuarine of harvest (Muyandorero, et al. 2006). They can be areas of the river as they get larger (Brodie 2008). caught all months of the year. Legal minimum size is 15 inches with a daily limit of ten fish per person (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf).

3.2.10. Atlantic Croaker (Micropogonias undulatus)

Figure 3.11 Recreational landings (in lbs) of Atlantic croaker within the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1994 to 2007. http://www.floridafishandhunt.com/.../atlcroaker.jpg 3.2.10.4. Current Status & Future Outlook 3.2.10.1. General Life History Atlantic Croaker are common in the St. Johns River, and The Atlantic croaker is a bottom‐dwelling predator that continue to be important commercially and is commonly encountered around rocks and pilings in recreationally. While there does not appear to be major estuarine habitats. They are named for the croaking risk of landings decreasing significantly in the next few sound they make which is accomplished by raping

55 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 years, there has never been a stock assessment fisheries in this group are focused on anchovy, performed on any Florida population (FWRI 2006c). menhaden, sardines, and herring (Sea Stats 2000). Recreationally, they can be caught all months of the However, smaller fisheries catch killifish, sheepshead year. There is no legal size limit minnows and sardines. (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf). 3.2.11.3. Trends 3.2.11. Baitfish Commercial landings decreased in the mid‐1990s and have been highly sporadic since then (Figure 3.13; Appendix 3.2.11). The decrease during the mid‐1990s may have been due to the Florida gill net ban. Generally, baitfish landings are lower in the southern sections of the river. There is no data available on the recreational

http://floridasportfishing.com/magazine/baifish baitfish fishery.

3.2.11.1. General Life History

Baitfish encompass the multitude of small schooling fish that are the most abundant fishes in the lower St. Johns River. There are at least two dozen baitfish in Florida which include anchovy, menhaden, herring, killifish, sheepshead minnows and sardines. Many of the baitfish species such as Spanish sardines and thread herring are planktivores. However, many may also eat small animals such as crabs, worms, shrimp and fish. Figure 3.12 Commercial landings (in lbs) of baitfish within the lower basin of There is high diversity in life history patterns among the St. Johns River from 1994 to 2007. baitfish species in the lower St. Johns River. However, 3.2.11.4.Current Status & Future Outlook most migrate seasonally either along the coast and/or away from shore. Many become sexually mature at Baitfish are very abundant in the St. Johns River, and about one year reproducing by spawning externally at continue to be important commercially and either the mouth of estuaries (menhaden) or offshore recreationally. They are likely to be sustainable into the (sardines, anchovy). In both cases, larvae hatch out, and foreseeable future. However, true trends are uncertain are carried by currents to estuaries where the young will because of the lack of specific information on the species eventually join large schools of juvenile and adult fish. and location of baitfish reported in the commercial In most cases, individuals do not live longer than four landings data. However, future analysis of data from the years. ongoing FWRI research program may allow for a more clear understanding of temporal trends of baitfish 3.2.11.2. Significance within the lower St. Johns River. Recreationally, they can Baitfish are very important to the lower St. Johns area. be caught all months of the year. There is no legal size Because they are very abundant, baitfish are extremely limit important in the food web as prey for a number of larger (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf). fish species. They are also important as predators that recycle plant and/or animal material that is then 3.3. Invertebrate Fishery available for higher trophic levels. They are commercially and recreationally caught for their bait 3.3.1. General Description value. They are caught for recreational use as bait but also are used commercially in various products such as The invertebrate community is very important to the fertilizers, fish meal, oil and pet food. The primary overall ecology of the LSJRB. It is also important

56 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 economically for commercial and recreational fisheries. many species. Smaller individuals provide food for Commercially harvested invertebrates in the lower basin drum, spot, croaker, Seatrout and catfish, while larger include blue crabs, bait shrimp and stones crabs. Of the crabs are eaten by sharks and rays. five counties studied, Duval County generally reports the highest catch of crabs (generally over 600,000 lbs per A strong recreational blue crab fishery exists, although year). Recreational fisheries in the area are probably there is relatively little data on it. The blue crab fishery is significant for the species mentioned although the level the largest commercial fishery in the lower St. Johns of significance is unclear since there are few reports on River. It easily accounts for over 60 percent of recreational landings. commercial fisheries in the river with over one million lbs. harvested annually. Duval County typically reports 3.3.2. Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus) the highest number of crab landings of the five counties associated with the lower basin of the river with values often over 500,000 lbs harvested annually.

3.3.2.3. Data Sources

Blue crab data was collected from commercial reports (1994 to 2007) of landings made to the state, and research (2001‐2005) from the FWRI. There were no available http://www.jacqueauger.com/.../natural/blue_crab.jpg recreational landings data.

3.3.2.1. General Life History 3.3.2.4. Limitations

The blue crab is a very common benthic predator that The primary limitation with the commercial landing inhabits estuarine and near‐shore coastal habitats in data is that it does not account for young crabs that are Northeast Florida. They are general feeders (omnivores) too small to be harvested. Additionally, there may be that will eat fish, aquatic vegetation, molluscs, uncertainties regarding location of where the crabs are crustaceans and worms (FWRI 2007a). In the St. Johns collected. For instance, fisherman (crabbers) landings River, they reproduce from March to July, and then reports are made from their home counties, although it again from October to December (Tagatz 1968b, 1968a). is uncertain what part of the river the crabs were Females carry fertilized eggs and migrate towards the actually caught. Changes in harvesting regulations more marine waters near the mouth of the river, where through the years limit what can be said of landings they will release their eggs into the water. At this point, between certain time periods. In this report, total the young are called zoea, and they drift and develop landings are graphed. However, in order to best assess along the continental shelf for 30‐45 days. Wind and comparison of landings over the years, landings per trip currents eventually transport the larger megalope back are calculated, and trends investigated using regression to the estuarine parts of the river where they will settle analysis. Graphs using these values are located in the in submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) that serves as a Appendix. In terms of the FWRI data set, the collection nursery for them. Within six to 20 days of landing at this methods assessed in this study are likely to not have location, the young will molt and become what is a caught the complete size range of crabs that exist within recognizable blue crab. In 12‐18 months, young crabs the river. will then become sexually mature, ultimately reaching a width of eight inches. 3.3.2.5. Trend

3.3.2.2. Significance Commercial landings of blue crabs have been variable with no upward or downward trend from 1994 to 2007 Blue crabs are very important in both the benthic and (Figure 3.13). Additionally, more landings occur in the planktonic food webs in the St. Johns. They are southern versus northern section of the river (Appendix important predators that can affect the abundance of 3.3.2a). The FWRI data set shows no trend from 2001 to many macroinvertebrates such as bivalves, smaller crabs, and worms. They are also important prey for

57 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 2005 but does show higher blue crab abundances in the 3.3.3.1. General Life History southern sections of the river (Appendix 3.3.2b). There are three penaeid shrimp species that exist within the estuaries and near‐shore waters of the Northeast Florida region. They are the white, pink, and brown shrimp. The white shrimp is the most common species in local waters. All three are omnivorous predators feeding on worms, amphipods, molluscs, copepods, isopods and organic detritus. White shrimp reproduce during April to October, whereas pink and brown shrimp can spawn year round (FWRI 2006a). However, peak spawning for brown shrimp is from February to Figure 3.13 Commercial landings (in lbs) of blue crabs within the lower basin March and from spring through fall for pink shrimp. All of the St. Johns River from 1994 to 2007. species spawn offshore in deeper waters with larvae developing in the plankton and eventually settling in 3.3.2.6. Current Status & Future Outlook salt marsh tidal creeks within estuaries. From there, young will develop for approximately two to three The blue crab commercial fishery continues to be the months. As they get larger, they start to migrate towards premier invertebrate fishery within the lower basin of the more marine waters of the ocean where they will the St. Johns River. The recreational fishery is also likely become sexually mature when they reach lengths to be very large, although there is no information between three to five inches. While they generally do not available on it. live long (a maximum 1.5 years), they may reach maximum lengths of up to seven inches. While common within the river, there is uncertainty regarding whether blue crabs are being overfished or 3.3.3.2. Significance not in Florida. This uncertainty is because the maximum age of blue crabs in Florida is not known. Maximum age Penaeid shrimp are very important in both the benthic is one component that is used in a stock assessment and planktonic food webs in the St. Johns. They are model. Depending on the value used, it can affect important predators that can affect the abundance of whether the model suggests crabs are overharvested or many small macroinvertebrates (see list above). They are not (Murphy, et al. 2007). Consequently, this piece of also important prey for many species. As smaller information is needed to more accurately assess blue individuals such as post‐larvae and juveniles, they crab stocks in Florida. Currently, crabs may be caught provide food for sheepshead minnows, insect larvae, recreationally using five or fewer traps. Crabs can also killifish and blue crabs. As adult shrimp, they are preyed be caught (must be in whole condition and not carrying on by a number of the finfish found within the river. eggs) using dip nets, crab pots, and handlines. The lower St. Johns River supports both recreational and 3.3.3. Penaeid shrimp (White, pink & brown) commercial shrimp fisheries. The recreational fishery is (Litopenaeus setiferus, Farfantepenaeus duorarum & F. likely to be large although there is relatively little aztecus) information on it. In contrast, the commercial shrimp fishery is one of the largest fisheries in the region. However, most shrimp obtained for human consumption are caught by trawlers offshore. The commercial shrimp trawled for within the lower St. Johns River is a much smaller fishery.

3.3.3.3. Data Sources

Penaeid shrimp data were collected from commercial reportings (1994 to 2007) of total bait shrimp landings

58 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 (generally collected within the river) made to the State. These data likely include white, brown and pink shrimp, although their relative proportions are unknown. Data was also collected and assessed from research (2001‐ 2006) from the FWRI. There were no available recreational landings data.

3.3.3.4. Limitations

The primary limitation with the commercial landing data is there are uncertainties regarding the location of Figure 3.14 Commercial landings (in lbs) of bait shrimp within the lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1994 to 2007. where shrimp are collected. For instance, shrimp fisherman landings reports are made from their home 3.3.3.6. Current Status & Future Outlook counties although it is sometimes uncertain what part of the river shrimp were actually caught in. Additionally, Commercial harvesting of penaeid shrimp is a relatively changes in harvesting regulations through the years may small fishery in the St. Johns River. The recreational limit what can be said of landings between certain time fishery is probably moderately sized, although there is periods. In this report, total landings are graphed. no available data on it. Generally, penaeid shrimp are However, in order to best assess comparison of landings very abundant in the region. They may be at slight risk over the years, landings per trip are calculated, and of being overfished in the south Atlantic region (see trends investigated using regression analysis (see FWRI 2006a for a review). However, the South Atlantic Appendices 3.3.3a, b & c). In terms of the FWRI data set, Fishery Management Council and Gulf of Mexico the collection methods assessed in this study may not Fishery Management Council have established fishery have caught the complete size range of shrimp that exist management plans for shrimp to try to ensure they are within the river. not overharvested (FWRI 2006a).

3.3.3.5. Trend Recreationally, shrimp can be harvested (five gallons per person per day) via dip net, cast net, push net, or one The commercial bait shrimp data set suggests that frame net. When fishing from a boat, a license is penaeid shrimp landings have been variable with no required and there is a limit of five gallons per day per upward or downward trend (Figure 3.15). However, vessel. The season is closed during April and May from 2001 to 2007 there have been drastic fluctuations (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf). among the years with a peak landings occurring in 2004. Far more bait shrimp are reported in the northern versus 3.3.4. Stone Crabs (Menippe mercenaria) southern sections of the lower St. Johns River (Appendix 3.3.3a). The FWRI data also shows no temporal trends, as well as higher abundances in the northern sections of the river for white or pink shrimp (Appendix 3.3.3b & c). However, the low numbers of individuals encountered in their research (most likely because of net type used) make assessment of true temporal trends uncertain.

http://www.ocean.udel.edu/.../species_stonecr.gif

3.3.4.1. General Life History

The stone crab is a fairly common benthic predator that inhabits hard bottoms (such as oyster reefs) and grass beds in the Northeast Florida area. Stone crabs are opportunistic carnivores feeding on oysters, barnacles,

59 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 snails, clams, etc. In Florida, stone crabs reproduce from reports are made from their home counties although the April through September (Muller, et al. 2006). It is crab claws may have been collected elsewhere. For stone unclear where stone crabs sexually reproduce, and crabs reported by southern counties of the lower basin, it females will carry eggs for approximately two weeks is more likely that the claws were collected in the ICW before the eggs hatch. The larvae will drift in the than the river itself. Additionally, changes in harvesting plankton and settle and metamorphose into juvenile regulations through the years may limit what can be forms of the adult in about four weeks. In approximately said of landings between certain time periods. Total two years, the crabs will then become sexually mature landings are shown in this report. However, in order to and reach a width of 2.5 inches. They may live as long as best assess comparison of landings over the years, seven years. landings per trip are calculated, and trends investigated using regression analysis. Graphs using these values are 3.3.4.2. Significance located in Appendix 3.3.4a.

Stone crabs are important predators and prey in the 3.3.4.5. Trend estuarine community in the St. Johns River. As important predators, they can affect the abundance of Commercial landings of stone crabs in Florida have been many macroinvertebrates such as bivalves, smaller highly variable despite an increase in the number of crabs, and worms. They are also important prey when deployed traps (Muller, et al. 2006). In Northeast Florida, both young and old. As larvae in the plankton, they are peak landings occurred in 2001 and 2007 with low preyed on by filter‐feeding fish, larval fish and other landings occurring from 1998‐1999 and 2004‐2006 zooplankton. As adults, they are preyed on by many (Figure 3.15). Most landings generally were reported by larger fish predators in the river. the more southern counties of the lower St. Johns River basin (Appendix 3.3.4a). However, this is most likely a The stone crab fishery is unique in that the crab is not reflection of crab claws caught in the ICW of the more killed. The two claws are removed (it is recommended to southern counties than in the river itself. Consequently, only take one claw so the animal has a better chance of landings reported for the north section (Duval County), survival) and the animal is returned to its habitat. While probably more accurately reflect trends in river. In this there probably is a recreational stone crab fishery in the area, landings have been somewhat stable during the area, there is relatively little information on it. The stone time period assessed (Appendix 3.3.4a). crab commercial fishery is relatively new and small in the lower St. Johns River. The highest number of claw landings within the river basin likely come from Duval County. Claw landings from other counties of the lower St. Johns River most likely come from collections made in the Intracoastal Waterway (ICW).

3.3.4.3. Data Sources

Stone crab data were collected from commercial reportings of landings made to the State between 1994 Figure 3.15 Commercial landings (in lbs) of stone crab claws within the and 2007. There were no available recreational landings lower basin of the St. Johns River from 1994 to 2007. data. 3.3.4.6. Current Status & Future Outlook 3.3.4.4. Limitations Stone crabs are not currently at risk of being overfished The primary limitation with the commercial landing but are probably now at a level of landings that is all data is it does not account for young crabs that are too that can be harvested under current conditions along the small to be harvested. Additionally, there are Florida east coast (Muller, et al. 2006). To minimize uncertainties regarding location of where crab claws are negative impacts from commercial fisherman, the collected. For instance, fisherman (crabbers) landings Florida state legislature implemented a crab trap

60 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – FISHERIES August 4, 2008 reduction program in 2002. Currently, there is a daily limit of one gallon of minimum‐sized 2 ¾‐inch claws from non‐egg carrying crabs. The season is closed from from May 16 to October 14 (http://myfwc.com/marine/docs/07FLSalt_webregs.pdf).

61 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4. AQUATIC LIFE penetration prevents the growth of SAV in deeper waters. Dobberfuhl 2007 confirmed that the deeper outer edge of the grass beds occurs at about three feet in the 4.1. Submerged Aquatic Vegetation LSJRB. Rapid regeneration of grass beds occurs annually in late winter and spring when water temperatures (SAV) become more favorable for plant growth and is robust from April through September (Dobberfuhl 2007; 4.1.1. Description Thayer, et al. 1984).

Dating back to 1773, records indicating that extensive Submerged vegetation provides nurseries for a variety Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) beds have existed of aquatic life, helps to prevent erosion, and reduces in the river are mentioned in Bartram 1928. Since that turbidity by trapping sediment. Sunlight is vital for time, people have altered the natural system by good growth of submerged grasses. Sunlight penetration dredging, constructing seawalls, contributing chemical may be reduced because of increased turbidity, pollution contamination, and sediment and nutrient loading from upland development and/or disturbance of soils. (DeMort 1991; Dobberfuhl 2007). Deteriorating water quality has been shown to cause a reduction in the amount of viable, submerged Submerged aquatic macrophytes (aquatic plants, vegetation. This leads to erosion and further growing in or near water that are emergent, submergent, deterioration of water quality. Tape grass grows well or floating) found in the LSJRB are primarily freshwater from 0‐12 parts per thousand of salinity and can tolerate and brackish water species. Commonly found species waters with salinities up to 15‐20 parts per thousand for include: tape grass (Vallisneria americana), wigeon grass short periods of time (Twilly and Barko 1990). Also, SAV (Ruppia maritime), sago pondweed (Potamogeton requires more light in a higher salinity environment pectinatus) and coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum). Tape because of increased metabolic demands (Dobberfuhl grass and wigeon grass are submerged grasses which 2007). Evidence suggests that greater light availability form extensive beds when conditions are favorable. can lessen the impact of high salinity effects on SAV Tape grass is a freshwater species that tolerates brackish (French and Moore 2003; Kraemer, et al. 1999). conditions, while wigeon grass is a brackish water Dobberfuhl 2007 noted that, during drought conditions, species (White, et al. 2002). Other freshwater species there is an increase in light availability that likely causes include: muskgrass (Chara spp.); spikerush (Eleocharis specific competition between the grasses and organisms sp.); water thyme (Hydrilla verticillata, an invasive non‐ growing on the surface of the grasses. Too many of these native weed); babyʹs‐tears (Micranthemum sp.); southern epiphytic organisms block light and can be detrimental naiad (Najas guadalupensis); small pondweed to normal growth of the tape grass. As a result, this (Potamogeton pusillus); awl‐leaf arrowhead (Sagittaria fouling causes an increase in light requirements for the sublata) and horned pondweed (Zannichellia SAV (Dunn, et al. 2008). palustris)(IFAS 2007; Sagan 2006; USDA 2007). DeMort 1991 surveyed four locations for submerged 4.1.2. Significance macrophytes in the Lower St. Johns River and indicated that greater consistency in species occurred south of SAV is important ecologically and economically to the Hallowes Cove (St. Johns County) with tape grass being LSJRB. SAV persists year round in the LSJRB and forms the dominant species. North of this location wigeon extensive beds which carry out the ecological role of grass and sago pondweed were the dominant species; “nursery area” for many important invertebrates and however, tape grass coverage increased 30% from 1982‐ fish species, including the endangered West Indian 1987. manatee (Trichechus manatus) (White, et al. 2002). Commercial and recreational fisheries, including The greatest distribution of submerged macrophytes in largemouth bass, catfish, blue crabs and shrimp, are Duval County is in waters south of the Fuller Warren sustained by healthy SAV habitat (Watkins 1995). Sagan Bridge (Kinnaird 1983aSubmerged aquatic vegetation in 2006 noted that SAV adds oxygen to the water column in the tannin‐rich, black water LSJR is found exclusively in the littoral zones (shallow banks), takes up nutrients that four feet or less of water depth. Poor sunlight might otherwise be used by bloom‐forming algae or

62 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 epiphytic algae (plants that grow on top of other plants), endangered species section under manatees (Figure reduces sediment suspension, and reduces shoreline 4.10). erosion. Scientists have used SAV distribution and abundance as major indicators of ecosystem health 4.1.4. Current Status (Dennison, et al. 1993). The section of the St. Johns River north of Palatka had Over the years dredging to deepen the channel for relatively stable trends with normal seasonal commercial and naval shipping has led to some salt fluctuations, with regards to the following parameters: water intrusion upstream. Further deepening could be (1) Grass bed length, (2) Shannon‐Weiner Diversity detrimental to the grass beds especially if this were to Index, (3) Total percent cover and (4) Proportional occur in conjunction with a water withdrawal. percent covered by tape grass (Appendix: 4.1.7.2.A‐D). Initially, a declining trend in all the same parameters Manatees consume from four to 11% of their body was apparent south of Palatka and in Crescent Lake weight in SAV daily (Bengtson 1981; Best 1981; Burns Jr, (Appendix: 4.1.7.2.E‐F). However, the most recent data et al. 1997; Lomolino 1977). Fish and insects forage and suggests that the trend is increasing again (Dobberfuhl avoid predation within the cover of the grass beds 2008). (Batzer and Wissinger 1996; Jordan, et al. 1996). For example, Jordan 2000 mentioned that SAV beds in the The availability of tape grass decreased significantly in Lower Basin have three times greater fish abundance the LSJRB during 2000‐2001, because the drought caused and 15 times greater invertebrate abundance than do higher than usual salinity values. In 2003, environmental adjacent sand flats. conditions returned to a more normal rainfall pattern. As a result, lower salinity values favored tape grass 4.1.3. Data Sources & Limitations growth again. In 2004, salinities were initially higher than in 2003 but decreased significantly after August The SJRWMD conducts year‐round sampling of SAV at with the arrival of heavy rainfall associated with four numerous stations along line transacts of St. Johns River hurricanes that skirted Florida (Hurricanes Charley, that are about 1.25 miles apart (1998‐2006). The routine Francis, Ivan and Jeanne). Grass beds north of the field sampling performed does not lend itself to real Buckman Bridge regenerated from 2002‐2006 and then coverage estimates but only provides for inter‐annual declined again in 2007 due to the onset of renewed relative change analysis by site or region. For maps of drought conditions (White and Pinto 2006a). Declining the transect locations see Appendix: 4.1.7.1.A‐D. SAV in the river south of Palatka and Crescent Lake is highly influenced by runoff and consequent increases in The parameters used were (1) Grass bed length, (2) color of the water. More recent data, not as yet available Shannon‐Weiner Diversity Index, (3) Total percent cover for this report, suggest that the SAV in this area is and (4) Proportional percent covered by tape grass. The rebounding and relatively stable (Dobberfuhl 2008). data set includes one of the most intense El Nino years (1998) followed by one of the most intense drought 4.1.5. Future Outlook periods (1999‐2001) in Florida history, which exaggerates the normal cycle. Also, the data tends to be Continuation of long‐term monitoring of SAV is biased by the fact that grass length on western shorelines essential to detect changes over time. Grass bed indices, is longer than that which grows on eastern shore lines. along with water quality parameters, should be used to Therefore, the shore‐to‐shore bias would be most determine restoration goals for the health and state of pronounced in Clay‐western shore sites and St. Johns‐ the habitat available to invertebrates, fish, wildlife and eastern shore sites (Dobberfuhl 2008). people that rely on the resource for food, shelter and livelihood. Moreover, further indices of the health and Salinity data was provided by the Environmental status of grass beds should be developed that express Quality Division, City of Jacksonville. Water quality the economic value of the resource as it pertains to parameters are measured monthly at ten stations in the fisheries and other quality of life indices such as main stem of the St. Johns River at the bottom, middle aesthetics, recreation, and public health. and surface depths. These data are presented in the

63 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 SAV response to drought and/or periods of reduced rise will affect the health of the ecosystem by adversely flow can provide crucial understanding as to how a altering salinity profiles. water withdrawal and/or the issue of future sea level

64 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

Figure 4.1 Types of wetlands common within the Lower St. Johns River Basin.(Illustration: SJRWMD StreamLines Publication, Spring 2006)

Extensive, functional wetlands are essential for both 4.2. WETLANDS saltwater fishing and wildlife viewing. Studies have estimated that the economic value of such wildlife‐ 4.2.1. Description related recreation in Northeast Florida (Duval, St. Johns, Clay, and Putnam Counties) is in the range of $700 Wetlands are areas that are partially or periodically million per year (Kiker and Hodges 2002). The activities inundated with water (Myers and Ewel 1990). Wetland with the greatest economic value to Northeast Florida vegetation types in the LSJRB include freshwater are recreational saltwater fishing ($301.6 million per marshes, bayheads, bogs, riverine hardwood swamps, year), followed by wildlife viewing ($226.5 million per cabbage palm savannahs, coastal hammocks, cypress year). domes, wet prairies, salt marshes, and similar areas (Figure 4.1). 4.2.3. Data Sources

4.2.2. Significance 4.2.3.1. Data Sources for Wetland Spatial Trends

Wetlands perform a number of crucial ecosystem A total of nine GIS (Geographic Information System) functions including assimilation of nutrients and other maps that contain data on wetlands vegetation were non‐point source pollutants from upland sources. available and analyzed. The GIS maps were created by Additionally, recent studies have shown that wetlands either the Department of Interior U.S. Fish & Wildlife serve as natural flood mitigation devices, minimize local Service or the SJRWMD from high‐altitude aerial flooding, and, thereby, reduce property loss and the photographs (color infrared or black‐and–white photos) external cost of floods to communities. A study with varying degrees of consideration of soil type, examining wetland permits granted by the Army Corps topographical and hydrologic features, and ground‐ of Engineers in Florida between 1997 and 2001 truthing. Each parcel of land or water was outlined and determined that “one wetland permit increased the assigned a category, creating distinct polygons for which average cost of each flood in Florida by $989.62” (Brody, area (i.e., number of acres) can be calculated. These areas et al. 2007). Wetlands also provide nursery grounds for were used to calculate wetland and land/water totals many commercially and recreationally important fish, within the LSJRB for each year available (Table 4.1). supply refuge, nesting, and forage areas for migratory birds, bank stabilization, and habitat for a wide variety 4.2.3.2. Data Sources for Wetland Permit Trends of aquatic and terrestrial wildlife (Meffe and Carroll 1997; Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). Within the LSJRB, there are two governmental entities that grant permits for the destruction, alteration, and mitigation of wetlands: 1) SJRWMD, and 2) U.S. Army

65 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 Corps of Engineers (USACE). The differing regulatory time according to the historical wetland permits granted definitions of wetlands used by Federal and State through the SJRWMD Environmental Resource agencies are outlined in Appendix 4.2.A. Permitting Program. Records of permits granted by the USACE were not analyzed for this report. The wetland permit analysis conducted for this report reveals how the acreage of wetlands has changed over

Table 4.1. Comparison of Wetland Maps ‐ Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida.

TOTAL WETLAND AREA IN TOTAL LAND/WATER AREA IN GIS MAP ANALYZED LSJRB (ACRES) LSJRB (ACRES)

Just‐released National Wetlands Inventory map 5,595,239 ACRES INCLUDING 5,572,098 Erroneous result ‐ (produced from 1977‐2006 lumped data, DEEPWATER. Erroneous result ‐ unknown problems with produced by Dept. of Interior U.S. Fish & there are only about 1,800,000 freshwater wetlands data. Wildlife, available from Florida Geo Data Library) acres total in LSJRB.

849,512 ACRES INCLUDING SJRWMD‐corrected National Wetlands Inventory DEEPWATER. Non‐wetland map (produced from 1971‐1992 lumped data, 727,631 upland acres not specified in this processed by SJRWMD in 2001, 2003) map.

SJRWMD Wetland & Deep Water Habitats map (based on National Wetlands Reconnaissance 870,576 3,110,209 Survey maps from 1972‐1980, processed 1996 by SJRWMD, dated 2001) SJRWMD Wetlands & Vegetation Inventory map (based on District's Wetlands Mapping Project 441,072 2,208,172 1984‐2002, finished 2002, accuracy of wetland boundaries estimated at 80‐95%) SJRWMD Land Use/Land Cover map 440,048 2,100,552 (based on 1973 data) SJRWMD Land Use/Land Cover map 435,662 2,605,247 (based on 1990 data) SJRWMD Land Use/Land Cover map 450,595 1,910,422 (based on 1995 data) SJRWMD Land Use/Land Cover map 444,467 1,851,447 (based on 2000 data) SJRWMD Land Use/Land Cover map 451,702 1,868,003 (based on 2004 data) * 1.8 million acres is considered the * Lumped dates for maps result from the consolidation of aerial photographs taken during accurate area of the LSJRB (according different years. to the SJRWMD). Demonstrates that maps are not statistically comparable for total wetland area.

66 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 be coded identically with ponds created for storm water 4.2.4. Limitations retention, golf courses, fishing, aesthetics, water management, or aquaculture. Some maps classify 4.2.4.1. Limitations of Wetland Spatial Analyses drained or farmed wetlands as uplands, while others classify them as wetlands. An unknown number of The identification of vegetation type from an aerial additional discrepancies may exist between maps. photograph is an imperfect process, and any errors generated during the initial phases of GIS map Lastly, most of the spatial information in wetlands maps production are perpetuated in this report. The metadata has not been ground‐truthed or verified in the field, but associated with the SJRWMD Wetlands & Vegetation is based on analyses of aerial photographs and other Inventory map estimates the margin of error in wetlands maps. delineation from aerial photographs to vary according to the type of vegetation being identified and range from 4.2.4.2. Limitations of Wetland Permit Analyses five to 20% (SJRWMD 2007c). The metadata states: “The main source of positional error, in general, is due to the A shortcoming of the records of wetlands impacted difficulty of delineating wetland boundaries in through regulatory permitting processes is that they do transitional areas. Thematic accuracy: correct not address total wetland acres in the region. Permit differentiation of wetlands from uplands: 95%; correct records only attempt to report the relative gain/loss of differentiation of saline wetlands from freshwater or wetlands each year. transitional wetlands: 95%; correct differentiation of forested, shrub, herbaceous, or other group forms: 90%; Additionally, acres recorded as mitigated wetlands do correct differentiation of specific types within classes: not always represent an actual gain of new wetland 80%. Accuracy varies for different locations, dates, and acres (e.g., mitigation acres may represent preexisting interpreters. wetlands in a mitigation bank or formerly existing wetland acres that are restored or enhanced). Thus, a In addition to interpretation errors, wetland maps do not true net change in wetlands (annually or cumulatively) accurately reflect wetlands habitats that vary seasonally cannot be calculated from permit numbers with or annually (e.g., the spatial extent of floating vegetation certainty. or cleared areas can be dramatically different depending on the day the aerial photo was taken). Aerial Further, changing environmental conditions require that photographs pieced together to create wetlands maps field verification of mitigated wetlands occur on a may be of different types (high altitude vs. low altitude, regular basis over long time periods. The actual spatial color infrared, black‐and‐white, varying resolutions and extent, functional success, health of vegetation, varying dates). Sometimes satellite imagery is used to saturation of soil, water flow, etc. of mitigated wetlands create wetlands maps, which is considered less accurate can change over time. On‐ground site visits can verify for wetland identification (USGS 1992). that the spatial extent of anticipated wetlands impacted (as recorded on permits) equals actual wetlands Analyses are further limited by inconsistencies and impacted and confirm the ecological functionality of shortcomings in the wetland classification codes used mitigated wetlands. (e.g., wetland codes used in the SJRWMD Land Use/Land Cover map of 1973 were markedly different The wetland permit analyses presented in this report are than codes used since 1990). Additionally, wetland limited, because: 1) the analyses include all wetland classification codes do not always address whether a permits granted within the entire SJRWMD region (time wetland area has been diked/impounded, partially did not permit an extraction of only those permits that drained/ditched, excavated, or if the vegetation is dead fall within the LSJRB boundaries), and 2) the analyses do (although the National Wetlands Inventory adds code not include the wetland gains and losses as granted by modifiers to address the impacts of man). Further, the USACE. The historical records of USACE permits wetland mapping classification categories often do not will be analyzed for the second River Report. differentiate between natural and manmade wetlands. For example, naturally occurring freshwater ponds may

67 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 Although there are considerable limitations associated error associated with the delineation of wetlands from with the analysis of wetland permit records, they may be aerial photographs renders the wetlands maps a more accurate tool to assess the status and trends of unsuitable for total acreage calculations (see differences wetlands in the LSJRB than wetlands GIS maps. Permit in total wetlands areas and total land/water areas records will be the focus of the wetlands analyses in the calculated from maps listed in Table 4.1). second River Report. Based on one wetlands map (thought to be most 4.2.5. Current Status accurate and complete for this kind of information), 83% of all wetlands and deepwater habitats in the LSJRB are 4.2.5.1. Current Status of Wetlands in the Lower Basin freshwater, and three percent are estuarine and marine wetlands (Figure 4.2, based on SJRWMD‐corrected The conclusions on the current status of wetlands in the National Wetlands Inventory Map). Freshwater LSJRB that can be gleaned from GIS maps are limited. wetlands are dominated mostly by freshwater forests, Total wetland acres in the LSJRB cannot be determined followed by freshwater unconsolidated bottoms and with certainty from available data. The high margin of shores (ponds).

Figure 4.2 The percentages of each wetland type in the Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida (Source: SJRWMD‐corrected National Wetlands Inventory Maps, 1971‐ 1992

4.2.6. Historical Perspective of the Wetland Status A literature search was conducted to compile comparable and quantifiable estimates of historical Although wetlands maps do not reveal (with any wetland change over time. Because data occurring statistical certainty) how many acres of wetlands in the within just the Lower Basin could not be extracted from LSJRB have been gained or lost over time, there are statewide data, information for the whole state of historical records in the literature that estimate how Florida is compiled in Appendix 4.2.B. and explained many wetland acres have been lost throughout the state below. of Florida over time. A discussion of wetland status in the LSJRB is incomplete without an evaluation of wetlands within a historical context.

68 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4.2.6.1. Historical Data on Florida’s Wetlands. wetland loss, and by 1983, it was estimated that only 65% of the original floodplain remained (SJRWMD Prior to 1907, there were over 20 million acres of 2000). wetlands in Florida, which comprised 54.2% of the state’s total surface area (Figure 4.3). By the mid‐1950s, Dahl 2005 states “modest estuarine salt marsh gains the total area of wetlands had declined to almost 15 were observed in the counties of ... Duval and St. million acres. The fastest rate of wetland destruction Johns counties” between 1985 and 1996. occurred between the 1950s and 1970s, as the total area of wetlands dropped down to 10.3 million acres. Since Hefner 1986 state that “over a 50‐year period in the mid‐1970s, total wetland area in Florida appears to Northeast Florida, 62 percent of the 289,200 acres of have risen at a slight rate. Net increases in total wetlands in the St. Johns River floodplain were statewide wetlands are attributed to increases in ditched, drained, and diked for pasture and crop freshwater ponds, such manmade ponds created for production (Fernald and Patton 1984).” fishing, artificial water detention or retention, aesthetics, water management, and aquaculture (Dahl 2006). According to FDEP 2002 “the 1999 District Water Management Plan notes seven to 14 percent losses of The average of all compiled wetlands data in Florida wetlands in Duval County from 1984 to 1995, revealed that the state retained a total of 11,371,900 acres according to National Wetlands Inventory maps.” by the mid‐1990s (occupying 30.3% percent of state’s surface area). This translates into a cumulative net loss Because a decrease in wetlands has been documented of an estimated 8,940,607 acres of wetlands in Florida throughout Florida, the current status of wetlands in since the early 1900s (a loss of 44% of its original Florida is considered UNSATISFACTORY. Because such wetlands). losses cannot be calculated with certainty for just the LSJRB, the current status of wetlands in the LSJRB is considered UNCERTAIN.

4.2.7. Current Trend

The only sequential, time‐series spatial data on wetlands within the LSJRB are contained within Land Use/Land Cover maps from the SJRWMD (dated 1973, 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2004).

4.2.7.1. Trend in Total Wetlands Acreage

Figure 4.3 Total estimated wetlands per generalized time period in Acres per year of wetlands derived from the SJRWMD Florida.Based on averages calculated from a literature search (complete data table with references in Appendix 4.2.B.) Land Use/Land Cover maps are not comparable enough or statistically robust enough to establish trends in total 4.2.6.2. Historical Data on Wetlands in the LSJRB wetland acreage over time. The lack of comparability between the years stems from differences in the Some literature references and anecdotal evidence techniques, scale, and wetlands interpretation. The lack suggest incomplete, but notable, trends in wetlands of statistical strength stems from a number of problems within Florida and or certain sections of the LSJRB. associated with the data, most importantly is the small sample size (n=5). Therefore, the current trend in total In Florida, the conversion of wetlands for wetland acreage within the LSJRB is considered agriculture, followed by urbanization, has UNCERTAIN. contributed to the greatest wetland losses (Dahl 2005). 4.2.7.2. Trends in Wetland Vegetation

The Upper Basin (the marshy headwaters of the St. Although the total wetland acreage cannot be Johns River) has experienced substantial historical statistically compared from year to year, the relative 69 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 contribution of different wetland types can be Table 4.2. Yearly Total of Forested Wetlands, Non‐ statistically compared with an acceptable degree of forested Wetlands, and Total Wetlands in the reliability. These comparisons attempt to assess how the Lower St. Johns River Basin based on Land quality of wetlands in the LSJRB might have changed Use/Land Cover Maps (SJRWMD 2007c). over time. LAND AREA (acres) WETLAND (% of total) CATEGORY Most categories of wetlands used in the SJRWMD Land 1973 1990 1995 2000 2004 Use/Land Cover maps were not consistent over the Forested 400,060 360,937 373,568 362,071 336,898 years. Notably, the categories used in 1973 were Wetlands (91%) (83%) (83%) (81%) (75%) markedly different from the categories used in the 1990‐ Non‐ 39,988 74,725 77,027 82,396 114,804 2004 maps. In order to statistically compare between forested (9%) (17%) (17%) (19%) (25%) wetland types, categories were consolidated into several Wetlands levels of groupings (see Appendix 4.2.C.). Total 440,048 435,662 450,595 444,467 451,702 Wetlands (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) When wetland codes are grouped into two broad categories (forested wetlands and non‐forested Non‐parametric statistics were used to examine whether wetlands), significant trends are noted. There appears to the proportion of forested versus non‐forested wetlands have been a shift in the composition of wetland was significantly different between sequential years communities over time from forested to non‐forested (Chi‐Square Goodness‐of‐Fit Test results provided in wetlands (Figure 4.4). Forested wetlands comprised 91% Appendix 4.2.D.). The differences between the years of the total wetlands in 1973, and constituted only 75% were statistically significant at the 0.05 level for all years, of total wetlands in 2004 (see Table 4.2). except between 1990 and 1995.

Furthermore, regression analyses also revealed that the observed increase in non‐forested wetlands was statistically significant at the 0.05 level (r2 = 0.88, p‐value = 0.019). The decrease in forested wetlands was also statistically significant at the 0.05 level (r2 = 0.81, p‐value = 0.028; regression plots in Appendix 4.2.E.).

Both of these types of statistical analyses are provided as support that the shift from forested to non‐forested wetlands is a significant 30‐year trend (according to the

SJRWMD Land Use/Land Cover maps analyzed). Figure 4.4 Percent of Forested Wetlands and Non‐forested Wetlands in the Lower St. Johns River Basin based on Land Use/Land Cover Maps Supplemental graphs are provided in Appendices 4.2.F. (SJRWMD). and 4.2.G. These graphs examine how additional finer categorical groupings of wetlands appear to have changed over time (no significant trends).

4.2.8. Wetland Permit Trends

4.2.8.1. Trends in Wetland Acreage Impacted/Mitigated

According to the Environmental Resource Permits granted by SJRWMD during the fiscal years examined, annual losses (acres of wetlands negatively impacted) and gains (acres of wetland mitigation required) have both increased over time (Figure 4.5; Appendix 4.2.H.; SJRWMD 2006). That is, wetlands are being mitigated

70 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 (i.e., created, restored, enhanced, or preserved in trends. The increasing trend of cumulative wetlands upland/wetland areas) at a rate greater than they are impacted was statistically significant at the 0.001 level (r2 = being destroyed. 0.992, p‐value = 0.00002). The increasing trend of cumulative wetlands mitigated was statistically The increasing trend for wetlands impacted was significant at the 0.001 level (r2 = 0.997, p‐value = 0.000004). statistically significant at the 0.001 level (r2 = 0.93, p‐value = 0.0000017). Likewise, the increasing trend for total 4.2.8.2. Trends in Wetland Mitigation wetlands mitigation was also statistically significant at the 0.001 level (r2 = 0.93, p‐value = 0.0000017). Regression According to SJRWMD permit records, the methods plots for both are provided in Appendix 4.2.I. used to mitigate wetlands have changed over time (Figure 4.7). During the early 1990s, wetland areas were most commonly mitigated by the creation of new wetlands or through wetland restoration. During the 2000s, very few wetlands were created or restored— most mitigation occurred through the preservation of uplands/wetlands.

Some of this preservation of uplands/wetlands has occurred in mitigation banks. Wetland mitigation banks are designed to compensate for unavoidable impacts to wetlands that occur as a result of Federal or state permitting processes (NRC 2001). In 2007, there were six FDEP‐approved mitigation banks with service areas that Figure 4.5 The acres of wetlands impacted and mitigation required by the fall within the LSJRB boundaries (Table 4.3). The SJRWMD Environmental Resource Permitting Program throughout the SJRWMD may allow the purchase of compensatory entire SJRWMD. mitigation credits from a mitigation bank to offset The effects of the permitting process on wetlands are impacts of a permitted activity. Ecological assessment generally permanent changes. In fact, permits usually techniques are used to certify that those credits provide require that mitigation be sustained in perpetuity. the ecological functions that they are intended to Because changes build upon one another, it may be more replace. The price that a permit‐holder pays varies by appropriate to view annual data cumulatively, rather bank and time. For example, in October 2007, SJRWMD than year‐to‐year (Figure 4.6 displays the cumulative approved the Florida Department of Transportation impacts since Fiscal Year 2000‐2001). (FDOT) to purchase 55 mitigation bank credits from the East Central Florida Mitigation Bank at a purchase price of $32,000 per credit with up to ten additional credits for $38,000 each for unexpected impacts (SJRWMD 2007c).

Figure 4.6 The cumulative wetlands impacted and mitigated by the SJRWMD Environmental Resource Permitting Program throughout the entire SJRWMD from Fiscal Year 2000‐2001 to Fiscal Year 2005‐2006.

As expected, cumulative increases in both wetlands impacted and wetlands mitigated are highly significant 71 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

Figure 4.7 The types of mitigation permitted through the SJRWMD Environmental Resource Permitting Program throughout the entire SJRWMD from Fiscal Year 2000‐2001 to Fiscal Year 2005‐2006 (some data missing due to SJRWMD database problems).

Table 4.3. Wetland Mitigation Banks in Northeast Florida (Source: FDEP 2005). MITIGATION BANK NAME ACREAGE CREDIT TYPE, COUNTIES of SERVICE POTENTIAL CREDITS AREA FOR SALE Barberville Conservation 366 acres Freshwater Volusia, Flagler, Area Mitigation Bank (in Volusia County) herbaceous/ forested, Putnam, Marion, Lake 84.3 Northeast Florida Wetland 630 acres Freshwater, Duval, Nassau Mitigation Bank (in Duval County) 371.6 Longleaf Mitigation Bank 3,017 acres Freshwater, Nassau, Baker, Duval (in Nassau County) 813.8 Loblolly Mitigation Bank 6,247 acres Freshwater, Duval, Baker, Clay, St. (in Duval County) 2,034.0 Johns Tupelo Mitigation Bank 1,525 acres Freshwater, St. Johns, Duval, Clay (in St. Johns County) 459.7 Sundew Mitigation Bank 2,104 acres Freshwater, Clay, St. Johns, (in Clay County) 698.0 Putnam

72 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

4.2.9. Future Outlook QUESTIONABLE QUALITY. Further investigation is needed to determine the quality and longevity of WETLANDS IMPACTS DATABASE NEEDED. During mitigated wetlands and their ability to actually perform the development of this report, it became clear that the ecosystem functions of the wetlands they “replace.” wetlands data for Northeast Florida is disconnected, An increasing proportion of these mitigation wetlands incomplete, and has not been recorded with the represent uplands/wetlands preserved elsewhere, precision needed to accurately assess trends over time. It including many acres in wetland mitigation banks. If is not even possible to determine with statistical preserved wetlands represent already functional certainty whether the total acres of wetlands in the wetlands, then they do not replace the ecosystem LSJRB has gone up or down during recent decades. One services lost. The USACE and the EPA have released consolidated database pulling together records of new rules regarding compensatory mitigation of wetlands permits granted by both State and Federal wetlands impacted by USACE permits (took effect on agencies is needed. Such a database could be available June 9, 2008). According to the Federal Register, the new online and be queried by the public, so they can see rule emphasizes “a watershed approach” and requires when, where, and how wetlands are being impacted and “measurable, enforceable ecological performance mitigated. Additionally, project‐specific and/or standards and regular monitoring for all types of summary reports could be provided to local, State, and compensation” (USACE 2008b). How these rule changes Federal agencies which play an advisory or decision‐ may or may not affect wetlands mitigation in the LSJRB making role in wetlands permitting and management. warrants future investigation.

HIGH VULNERABILITY. Many remaining wetlands In summary, the future outlook for the health of the are susceptible to alteration and fragmentation due to LSJRB depends upon detailed, accurate, consolidated growing population pressures in Northeast Florida. The record‐keeping of wetlands impacts, the cumulative total spatial extent of wetlands negatively impacted impact of parcel‐by‐parcel loss of wetland ecosystem through the SJRWMD permit process is increasing each services, and the success of wetlands enhanced, created, fiscal year. These impacts are magnified by the addition or restored. of wetland alteration permitted by the USACE (these permits were not evaluated in this study). This might represent a cumulative, gradual loss of wetland ecosystem functions. Additionally, the environmental consequences of the gradual shift from forested wetlands to non‐forested wetlands require attention and further study.

73 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 organisms such as important larval and juvenile fish species. 4.3. Macroinvertebrates Macroinvertebrates are also important because they can exert a strong influence on their environment by affecting the aeration and sediment size of the river bottom. In high abundances, they can literally change the sediment to accommodate other animals that live on or near the sediment.

Finally, the assemblage of macroinvertebrates can provide insight into the degree of stress or pollution that is occurring in a given area of the river (Gray, et al. 1979; Pearson and Rosenberg 1978). Consequently, they can

serve as a good biological indicator of the health of a 4.3.1. Description river or estuary.

Benthic macroinvertebrates include invertebrates 4.3.3. Data Sources (animals without a backbone) that live on or in the sediment. This includes a variety of relatively small Macroinvertebrate community data used to assess long‐ organisms such as crabs (decapods), snails (gastropods), term trends was obtained from the FDEP. The primary shrimp, clams (bivalves), insects (mostly flies), data set (1974‐1995) was provided courtesy of the segmented worms (polychaetes), nonsegmented worms Jacksonville DEP office. Supplemental data from DEP’s (nemerteans and platyhelminthes), barnacles “Fifth‐Year” assessments were obtained online (cirripedians), and some others. In many cases, these (http://www.dep.state.fl.us/northeast/), and combined organisms are extremely abundant. For instance, a one with the former dataset to increase the strength of the square meter area of mud can have as many as 40,000 analyses. Macroinvertebrates were assessed for the north organisms living within it. (Duval County) and south (St. Johns, Flagler, Clay & Putnam Counties) sections of the lower St. Johns River. There is high diversity in how long these organisms live Within each section of these sections of the river, the and how they reproduce. In many areas of the St. Johns community of the macroinvertebrates was assessed by River, there is relatively high turnover of individuals using collected data in a Shannon‐Wiener diversity with life spans of a few years at most. Most of these index. Diversity Indices have the value of organisms produce young that spend some time drifting mathematically accounting for both the number and as microscopic organisms (larvae) in the plankton, abundance of each species encountered in a sample before settling to the bottom where they will eventually (Evans and Higman 2001 classify moderate diversity at become sexually mature adults. Other species either index values of two to three, and low diversity at values brood their young or lay egg cases. less than two). Finally, scientific literature supplemented these data sets to strengthen insight on long‐term 4.3.2. Significance patterns for macroinvertebrate communities within the river. There are multiple reasons why benthic macroinvertebrates are important in the LSJRB. First, 4.3.4. Limitations because many of these organisms are so plentiful, they are an important component of the river’s food web. While the dataset covers a long time period (~30 years), a Indeed, many of the adults of these species serve as food few important limitations exist. First, similar regions for commercially and recreationally important fish and were not sampled throughout the entire time period. In invertebrate species. Their microscopic young can also particular, the southern areas of the lower basin were be very abundant, providing food resources for smaller less often visited than northern sections of the river. Further, because of the natural variability when

74 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 sampling, there probably were not enough replicates to accurately assess potential differences. Often microhabitat variability can be as high as site variability. Finally, the dataset assesses macroinvertebrates in deeper sections of the river, because sampling did not occur in shallow areas where boat access was limited.

4.3.5. Trend

Macroinvertebrate diversity was highly variable during the time period (1974‐1999) of the study (Figure 4.8). The species diversity varied from a value of 1.3 to 2.9 (1‐29 species). There was a similar lack of trend in diversity for both the northern (τ=0.317; not significant) and southern (τ=0.250; not significant) sections of the river (Figure 4.8). However, there were drastic changes in what types of macroinvertebrates dominated an area in both river sections during the course of the study (Figure 4.9). In the 1970s, the northern river section was dominated by barnacles, polychaetes, and amphipods. In contrast, the southern river area was dominated by Figure 4.8 A comparison of the diversity of macroinvertebrates between the molluscs, amphipods, polychaetes, oligochaetes, and fly northern and southern sections of the Lower Basin of the St. Johns River. Evans and Higman 2001 classify moderate diversity at index values of two to larvae. In the 1980s, the north section was dominated by three, and low diversity at values less than two. The vertical bars of each point polychaetes and barnacles, and the south river was indicate the degree of variability (standard deviation) for each date. mostly oligochaetes and fly larvae. By the 1990s, another shift had occurred with the north being mostly 4.3.6. Current Status amphipods, molluscs, polychaetes, and barnacles. The southern parts of the river also shifted with dominant Macroinvertebrates encountered in the St. Johns River species being molluscs (mostly bivalves and snails. are highly variable in diversity and abundance. The number of species in a single sample can vary from one to over 20 while the number of individuals of a given species could vary from none to as high as forty thousand per meter squared! As might be expected, the species encountered in our study change as one transitions from the saltwater dominated northern sections of the river to the freshwater areas in the south (For a complete list of species see Appendix 4.3.6). Certainly, community shifts are expected in response to the natural changes in environmental factors.

75 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 these communities can shift significantly ‐ often in response to changes in water quality, salinity or temperature. Indeed, some of these shifts in the community are likely a result of the dynamic nature of the St. Johns River. For instance, Cichra 1998 suggests that freshwater areas of the river may often be affected by increased salinity. However, a potential concern is if macroinvertebrate communities change in a large area within the river, then species that feed on these organisms may be positively or negatively affected. Such changes could therefore have profound effects up the food chain and affect on abundances of ecologically, commercially or recreationally important species (for example red drum, spotted Seatrout, or flounder).

4.4. Threatened & Endangered Species

The species examined in this section are Federally listed threatened and endangered species that occur in Duval, Clay, St. Johns, Putnam, Flagler and Volusia counties (USFWS 2008d) and that are within the LSJRB. These animals are protected under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The West Indian Manatee, Bald Eagle and Wood Stork are considered primary indicators of ecosystem Figure 4.9 A comparison of the percentage of macroinvertebrate groups health because of their proximity to and use of the St. encountered between northern and southern sections of the Lower Basin of the Johns River. In addition, the data available for these St. Johns River from the 1970s‐1990s. species was relatively more robust than data on the In the 1990s, the dominant animal groups were Shortnose sturgeon, Piping Plover, Florida Scrub‐jay, primarily pollution‐tolerant species in both north and and Eastern Indigo Snake. These examples convey in south sections of the St. Johns River. To the north, the part the diverse nature of endangered wildlife within, dominant species were primarily pollution‐tolerant adjacent to, or directly affected by people’s activities in bivalves (dominated by the clam Rangia cuneata), the LSJRB. These species, and many more, add to the polychaete worms (dominated by Strebliospio spp.), and overall diversity and quality of life we enjoy and should amphipods (several species). Similar trends were found strive to protect and conserve for the future. It is from 2000 to 2002 in St. Johns River studies by Cooksey important to remember that human actions within the and Hyland 2007; Evans and Higman 2001; Mason Jr LSJRB affect the health of the entire ecosystem of which 1998, and Vittor 2001, 2003). Evans and Higman 2001 the St. Johns River is an integral part. Research, encountered high number so abnormalities in insect education and public awareness are key steps to larvae in the Cedar‐Ortega River basin and Julington understanding the implications of our actions towards Creek. Towards the south of the lower basin, dominant the environment. The list of species examined here does taxa are more freshwater‐tolerant (as expected) but still not include all species protected under Florida State and pollution‐tolerant. In these southern areas, dominant Federal Laws (see Appendix 4.4.1). It is likely that in the taxa included snails (primarily Littoridinops sp.), future this list will need to be periodically updated as oligochaetes (earthworm group), insects (primarily fly changes occur over time or indicator species /data are larvae), and amphipods (primarily Corophium lacustre). identified. For additional supporting information the reader is asked to refer to the appendices section of the It is expected that high abundances of report. macroinvertebrates will persist within the St. Johns River. However, the types of organisms that make up 76 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4.4.1. The Florida Manatee (Endangered) Jacksonville University has conducted some 548 aerial surveys with over 11,614 manatee sightings (1994–2008). These surveys covered the shorelines of the St. Johns River, its tributaries (Jacksonville to Black Creek), and the Atlantic ICW (Nassau Sound to Palm Valley). During the winter, industrial warm water sources were also monitored for manatee presence (aerial and ground surveys). When water temperatures decrease (December through March), the majority of manatees in the LSJRB migrate to warmer South Florida waters.

Source: FWC Within the St. Johns River, survey data indicates that 4.4.1.1. Description manatees feed, rest and mate in greater numbers south of the Fuller Warren Bridge where their food supply is In 1967, under a law that preceded the Endangered greatest relative to other areas in Duval County. Species Act of 1973 the manatee was listed as an Sightings in remaining waters have consisted mostly of endangered species. Manatees are also manatees traveling or resting. Manatees use the ICW as protected at the Federal level under the a travel corridor during their seasonal (north/south) Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 migrations along the east coast of Florida. Data indicate (http://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/marmam.html) that manatees stay close to the shore, utilizing small and at the State level under the tributaries for feeding when in these waters (White, et al. Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act of 1978 2002). Aerial surveys of manatees, by various (http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?mode=Vie organizations and individuals, in Northeast Florida have w%20Statutes&SubMenu=1&App_mode=Display_Statut occurred prior to 1994 and are listed in Ackerman 1995. e&Search_String=manatee+sanctuary+act&URL=CH0379 /Sec2431.HTM). There are two sub‐populations of manatees that use the LSJRB. A few manatees from the Blue Spring sub‐ The Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) population, which currently consists of a total of about inhabits the waters of the St. Johns River year round and 265 manatees (Hartley 2007), visit the LSJRB, though may reach a possible length of 12 feet and a weight of exact numbers are not known (Ross 2008). Most of the 3,000 lbs (USFWS 2001). They are generally gray to dark‐ animals in the LSJRB (about 260 manatees) (White and brown in color. Few manatees are observed during Pinto 2006a, 2006b) are members of the greater Atlantic winter (December‐February). Manatees are generally region sub‐population, which averages about 1,400 most abundant in the St. Johns River from late April manatees along the entire east coast of Florida (FWRI through August. In 1989, Floridaʹs Governor and 2008a). This information is based on the results of long‐ Cabinet identified 13 “Key” counties experiencing term radio tracking and photo‐identification studies excessive watercraft‐related mortality of manatees and (Beck and Reid 1995; Reid, et al. 1995). Deutsch, et al. mandated that these counties develop County Manatee 2003 reported that the lower St. Johns River south of Protection Plans (MPPs). Currently, all the “Key” Jacksonville was an important area visited by 18 tagged Counties have a state‐approved manatee protection plan manatees that were part of a 12‐year study of 78 radio‐ (Brevard, Broward, Citrus, Collier, Dade, Duval, Indian tagged and tracked manatees from 1986 to 1998. Satellite River, Lee, Martin, Palm Beach, Sarasota, St. Lucie, and telemetry data supports the fact that most animals come Volusia) (FWRI 2008a). In 2006, although not one of the into the LSJRB as a result of south Florida east coast original 13 “Key” counties, Clay County voluntarily animals migrating north/south each year (Deutsch, et al. developed a State‐approved MPP. St. Johns County also 2000). Scar pattern identification suggested that voluntarily developed a manatee plan, but it is has not significant numbers of manatees are part of the Atlantic been approved by State or Federal agencies. Putnam and sub‐population and, that only three manatee carcasses Flagler Counties have not developed MPPs. (1988, 1989, and 1991) have been recovered in LSJRB that have been identified as animals that came from the Blue Springs sub‐population (Beck 2008). 77 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4.4.1.2. Significance aircraft at altitudes of 500‐1000 ft (Jacksonville University data ‐ http://www.ju.edu/marco). The survey The St. Johns River provides habitat for the manatee path was the same for each survey and followed the along with supporting tremendous recreational and shore lines of the St. Johns River and tributaries, about industrial vessel usage. Watercraft deaths of manatees every two weeks. Survey time varied according to how continue to be the most significant threat to survival. many manatees were observed. The quality of a survey Boat traffic in the river is diverse and includes port is hampered by a number of factors including weather facilities for large industrial and commercial shippers, conditions, dark nature of the water, and the sun’s glare commercial fishing, sport fishing and recreational off the water surface, water’s surface condition and activity. Florida Department of Highway Safety and observer bias. The units of aerial surveys presented here Motor Vehicles (FDHSMV 2008) estimated that there are the average number of manatees observed, and the were 34,008 registered boaters in Duval County in 2002 Single Highest Day Count of manatees, per survey each and this increased to 34,494 by 2007. Recent port year. The number of surveys each year averaged 20 ± 3 statistics indicated that about 3,342 vessels use the Port S.D. (range 18‐26/yr). each year (JAXPORT 2008a). In addition to this, in 2004 there were 100 cruise ship passages to and from the Port The actual location that a watercraft related mortality and by 2007 this number rose to 160. Large commercial occurred can be difficult to determine because animals vessel calls and departures are projected to increase are transported by currents or injured animals continue significantly when TraPac, owned by the Japanese to drift or swim for some time before being reported. In steamship company Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (MOL), expects addition, the size of the vessel involved in a watercraft to double JAXPORT’s yearly container traffic (JAXPORT fatality is often difficult to determine with frequency and 2007). Also, in order to accommodate larger ships consistency. significant dredging by the port is expected in 2008 which can change vessel traffic patterns and increase Salinity data (Figure 4.10) was provided by Dana noise in the aquatic environment that can potentially Morton (Environmental Quality Division, City of harm manatees because they cannot hear oncoming Jacksonville). Water quality parameters are measured vessels (Gerstein, et al. 2006). Dredging a deeper channel monthly at ten stations in the main stem of the St. Johns can also affect the salinity conditions in the estuary by River at the bottom, middle and surface depths. causing the salt water wedge to move further upstream (Sucsy 2008), negatively impact biological communities 4.4.1.4. Current Status like the tape grass beds on which manatees rely for food (Twilly and Barko 1990). Aerial surveys: The average numbers of manatees observed on aerial surveys in Duval County and 4.4.1.3. Data Sources & Limitations adjacent waters decreased prior to the drought (2000‐ 2001) and then increased again after the drought (Figure Aerial survey data collected by Jacksonville University 4.11). The longer term trend appears to be stable, when (Duval County 1994‐2007, and Clay County 2002‐2003) excluding the variation caused by the drought. was used in addition to historic surveys by Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) (Putnam 1994‐1995). Ground survey data came from Blue Springs State Park (1970‐2007). The FWC and the FWRI provided manatee mortality data. Other data sources include the U.S.G.S. Sirenia Project’s radio and satellite tracking program, manatee photo id catalogue, tracking work by Wildlife Trust and various books, periodicals, reports and web sites.

Aerial survey counts of manatees are considered to be conservative measures of abundance (Irvine 1980) and consist of slow speed flying in a Cessna high‐wing

78 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

Figure 4.10 Salinity on the bottom of SJR (west bank ~1000m south of Figure 4.12 Single Highest Day Count per year of manatees in Duval Co., FL Doctors Lake). Solid line (mean), vertical lines (maximum and minimum), 1994‐2008 (Source: Jacksonville University and City of Jacksonville) and bars (95% Confidence Interval of the mean). Data source: Dana Morton, (Appendix 4.4.1.A). Environmental Quality Division, City of Jacksonville.

Single Highest Day Counts of manatees appear to have Ground surveys: Blue Spring State Park is located about increased to a level slightly higher than prior to the 40 miles south of the LSJRB within the St. Johns River drought but the increase is not statistically significant. system and, since this sub‐population has increased over The large dip in numbers in 2000‐2001 can be attributed the years, we could potentially see more animals using to the effects of the drought that caused manatees to the LSJRB in the future. The population of Blue Spring move further south out of the Duval County survey area only numbered about 35 animals in 1982‐83 (Kinnaird in search of food (Figure 4.12 and Appendix 4.4.1.A). 1983b) and 88 animals in 1993‐94 (Ackerman 1995). From 1990‐1999, this population had an annual growth rate of “Single Highest Day Count” of manatees is defined as about six percent (Runge, et al. 2004). It is the fastest the record highest total number of manatees observed growing sub‐population and accounts for about five on a single aerial survey day during the year. percent of the total Florida manatee count (FWC 2007a). Recent ground surveys indicate that the population has continued to grow at a slightly faster rate during 2000‐ 2007 (Figure 4.13).

Mortality: There were a total of 406 manatee deaths between 1980 to September 2007, of which 129 were caused by watercraft, eight other human, 56 perinatal, 53 cold stress, 31 other natural and 125 undetermined. The total number of manatee mortalities (all causes) increases towards the mouth of the St. Johns River with Duval County being associated with 71%, followed by Clay (12%), Putnam (9%), St. Johns (7%), and Flagler (0%) (FWC 2007b).

Figure 4.11 Mean numbers of manatees per survey in Duval Co., FL and adjacent waters 1994‐2008. (Source: Jacksonville University and City of Jacksonville) (Appendix 4.4.1.A).

79 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 Manatee mortality categories defined by the Florida effectiveness of speed zone regulations. The Plan was Wildlife Research Institute: developed as a requirement in the process which seeks Watercraft (Propeller, Impact, Both) to down list manatees from endangered to threatened Flood Gate / Canal Lock status. Currently, manatees are considered endangered Human, Other at both the State and Federal level. Perinatal (Natural or Undetermined) Cold Stress 4.4.1.5. Future Outlook Natural, Other (Includes Red Tide) Verified; Not Recovered Manatees in the LSJRB are likely to continue to increase Undetermined; Too decomposed as more manatees move north because of anthropogenic effects in south Florida that contribute to decreases in manatee habitat and its quality. Recovery from the most recent drought cycle will allow food resources to rebound and increase the carrying capacity of the environment to support more manatees (Appendix 4.4.1.A). Current information regarding the status of the Florida manatee suggests that the population is growing in most areas of the southeastern U.S. (USFWS 2007d). However, the trend in watercraft‐caused deaths continues to increase over time (FWRI 2008a). Significant increases in vessel traffic in the LSJRB are projected to occur over the next decade as human population increases and commercial traffic doubles. More boats and more manatees could lead to more manatee deaths from watercraft because of an increased opportunity for Figure 4.13 Trend (exponential regression) in counts (highest total number of encounters between the two. Dredging in order to animals identified during each winter) of Florida manatees at the winter accommodate larger ships significantly affects boat aggregation site in Blue Spring State Park, Volusia Co., FL 1970‐ traffic patterns, noise in the aquatic environment 2007.Highest Single Day Counts each winter are also shown. Data provided (Gerstein, et al. 2006) and has ecological effects on the by Wayne Hartley, Park Specialist, Blue Spring State Park, 2007. environment that ultimately impact manatees and their Watercraft related mortalities as a percentage of the total habitat. Freshwater withdrawals in addition to harbor mortality, on a by‐county basis, was highest in Duval deepening will alter salinity regimes in the LSJRB; (34%) followed by Putnam (29%), St. Johns (25%), Clay however, it is not known yet by how much. If a (24%), and Flagler (0%). A comparison of two time sufficient change in salinity regimes occurs it is likely to periods (1980‐93) and (1994‐07) indicated a four percent cause a die‐off of the grass bed food resources for the decrease in watercraft mortalities for the LSJRB manatee. This result would decrease the environment’s (Appendix 4.4.1.B). These time periods were picked ability to support manatees. Some Blue Spring animals because they represent 13 years either side of 1994 when use LSJRB too, although the interchange rate is not the Interim Duval County Manatee Protection Plan established yet. Animals that transition through the regulations were implemented. Most of the decrease in basin are likely to be affected by the above issues. Sea mortality appears to have occurred in Clay and Putnam level rise is another factor likely to affect the St. Johns counties with St. Johns and Duval showing little or no and about which more information regarding potential change between the two time periods. No watercraft impacts is needed. mortalities are reported for Flagler County. Although “Carrying Capacity” may be defined as the maximum watercraft‐caused mortality seems to have declined weight of organisms and plants an environment can slightly for the LSJRB (average 32% of total mortality for support at a given time and locality. The carrying 1980‐2007), it is still higher than the overall watercraft capacity of an environment is not fixed and can alter mortality rate for the State of Florida which is about 23% when seasons, food supply, or other factors change. for 2007) (FWC 2007b). The State Manatee Management Plan (FWC 2007a) requires the FWC to evaluate the 80 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4.4.2. Bald Eagle (delisted 2007) maturity at five years, and then find a mate that they will stay with as long as they live (AEF 2008).

4.4.2.2. Significance

The LSJRB has in excess of 80 identified bald eagle nests located mainly along the edges of the St. Johns River, from which they derive most of their food. Most of the nests seem to be in use about 50% of the time (Figure 4.14; FWRI 2007b).

4.4.2.3. Data Sources & Limitations

Data came from a variety of sources, Audubon Society

Photo: Dave Menke, USFWS. winter bird counts, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Jacksonville Zoo and 4.4.2.1. Description Gardens, United States Fish and Wildlife Service and various books and web sites. There are no significant The Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a large raptor, limitations at this time with periodic surveys and a 5‐ with a wingspan of about seven feet and represents a Year Management Plan (FWC 2008b) (USFWS and FWC) major recovery success story. Bald Eagles were listed as to monitor the eagle’s continued welfare (USFWS 2008a; Endangered in most of the U.S. from 1967‐1995 as a FWC 2008). result of DDT pesticide contamination which was determined to be responsible for causing their egg shells 4.4.2.4. Current Status to be fragile and break prematurely. The use of DDT throughout the U.S. was subsequently banned. In 1995, In Alaska, there are over 35,000 bald eagles. However, in Bald eagle status was upgraded to Threatened and the lower 48 states of the U.S., there are now over 5,000 numbers of nesting pairs increased from just under 500 nesting pairs and 20,000 total birds. About 300‐400 (1960s) to over 10,000 (2007). mated pairs nest every year in Florida and constitute approximately 86% of the entire southern population As a result of this tremendous recovery, Bald eagles (Jacksonville Zoo 2008). Statewide eagle nesting surveys were delisted June 28, 2007 (AEF 2008; USFWS 2007e, have been conducted since 1973 to monitor Florida’s 2008c, 2008a). The eagles are found near large bodies of bald eagle population and identify their population open water such as the St. Johns River, tributaries, and trends. Now that this species is no longer listed as lakes which provide food resources like fish. Nesting Threatened, the primary law protecting it has shifted and roosting occurs at the tops of the highest trees from the Endangered Species Act to the Bald and (Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens 2008; Scott 2004). Bald Golden Eagle Act (AEF 2008; USFWS 2008a, 2008b). eagles are found in all of the United States, except According to Jacksonville winter bird counts by Hawaii. Eagles from the northern United States and Audubon Society (Figure 4.15 and Appendix 4.4.2.A) Canada migrate south to over winter while some numbers sighted have increased overall (1981‐2006). southern bald eagles migrate slightly north for a few There was a surge preceding the drought in 2000‐2001 months to avoid excessive summer heat (AEF 2008) Wild followed by a decrease in sightings after the drought, eagles feed on fish predominantly, but also eat birds, and then a rebound from about 2004‐2006 (Audubon snakes, carrion, ducks, coots, muskrats, turtles and 2008) (Appendix 4.4.2.A). rabbits. Bald eagles have a life span of up to 30 years in the wild and can reach 50 years in captivity (AEF 2008; 4.4.2.5. Future Outlook Jacksonville Zoo 2008; Scott 2003c). Young birds are brown with white spots. After five years of age the Although they have a good future outlook, Bald eagles adults have a brown‐black body, white head, and tail are still faced with threats to their survival. feathers. Bald eagles can weigh from 10‐14 lbs and Environmental protection laws, private, State, and females tend to be larger than males. They reach sexual Federal conservation efforts are in effect to keep 81 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 monitoring and managing these birds. Even though Bald eagles have been delisted, it is imperative that we do our part to protect and monitor them because they are key indicators of ecosystem health. The use of DDT pesticide is now outlawed in the U.S. Threats include harassment by people that injure and kill eagles with firearms, traps, power lines, windmills, poisons, contaminants and habitat destruction (AEF 2008; FWC 2005; USFWS 2008b).

82 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4.4.3. Wood Stork (Endangered)

Photo by Wayne Lasch (PBS&J)

4.4.3.1. Description

The Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) was listed as Endangered in 1984 and is America’s only native stork. It has recently been recommended for down‐listing to Threatened status (USFWS 2007a). It is a large white bird with long legs and contrasting black feathers that occur in groups. Its head and neck are naked and black in color. Adult birds weight 4‐7 lbs and stand 40‐47 inches tall, with a wing span in excess of 61 inches. Males and females appear identical. Their bill is long, dark and curved downwards (yellowish in juveniles). The legs are black with orange feet which turn a bright pink in breeding adults.

Wood storks nest throughout the southeastern coastal plain from South Carolina to Florida, and along the Gulf coast to central and South America. Nesting occurs in Figure 4.14 Bald eagle nesting sights in LSJRB 2006. (Source data: FWC 2007). marsh areas, wet prairies, ditches and depressions which are also used for foraging. They feed on mosquito fish, sailfin mollies, flagfish, and various sunfish. They also eat frogs, aquatic salamanders, snakes, crayfish, insects, and baby alligators. They find food by tactolocation (a process of locating food organisms by touch or vibrations). Nesting occurs from February to May and is determined primarily by water levels. Pairs require up to 450 lbs of fish during nesting season. Males collect nesting material which the female then uses to construct the nest. Females lay from two to five eggs (incubation approx. 30 days). To keep eggs cool, parents shade eggs with out‐stretched wings and dribble water over them. Wood storks can live up to ten years but mortality is high in the first year (Scott 2003e; USFWS 2002).

Figure 4.15 Long term trend in the number of Bald eagles counted during 4.4.3.2. Significance winter bird surveys (1929‐2007) in Jacksonville, FL (Source data: Audubon 2008). (Appendix 4.4.2.A). Wood stork presence and numbers can be an indication of the health of an ecosystem. The Wood stork is also 83 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 Florida’s most endangered species of wading bird that Brooks and Dean 2008 describe increasing wood stork requires temporary wetlands (isolated shallow pools colonies as somewhat stable numbers of nesting pairs that dry up and concentrate fish for them to feed on). (Appendix 4.4.3.A). Hankla 2007 stated in a recent press Scarcity of this specific habitat type due to human release by the USFWS that the data indicates that the alteration of the land causes nesting failures, like in the wood stork population as a whole is expanding its range Everglades (Scott 2003e). and adapting to habitat changes and for the first time since the 1960s, that there had been more than 10,000 4.4.3.3. Data Sources & Limitations nesting pairs. USFWS 2007a shows a map of the distribution of wood stork colonies and current breeding Data came from Audubon Society winter bird counts, range in the southeastern U.S. (Figure 4.17). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service surveys and the Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens web site. The Audubon In the LSJRB, there are several colonies of interest ‐ three winter bird count area consists of a circle with a radius of these for which data is available include: of 10 miles surrounding Blount Island. The USFWS has conducted aerial surveys which are conservative (1) Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens: This colony is the estimates of abundance and are limited in their use for most important recently established rookery in Duval developing population estimates. However, they still County (Brooks 2008). Donna Bear‐Hull from the remain the most cost effective method of surveying large Jacksonville Zoo reported that the 4th year colony had areas. Ground surveys on individual colonies like at the doubled in size again from 40 breeding pairs (111 zoo tend to be more accurate, but cost more on a fledged chicks) in 2002 to 82 pairs (191 fledged chicks) in regional basis (USFWS 2002). 2003 (USFWS 2004). This group had the highest number and productivity of birds (Figure 4.18 and Appendix 4.4.3.4. Current Status 4.4.3.B).

An increasing trend since the 1960s was indicated by the (2) Dee Dot Colony: The USFWS reported that there Audubon Society winter bird count data for Jacksonville were 125‐130 nests in this Cyprus swamp impounded (Figure 4.16 and Appendix 4.4.3.A). There was a fall in lake in Duval County. However, the fledgling rate was counts during the drought in 2000‐2001 followed by a poor (1.51 chicks/nest in 2003 and 1.42 in 2004). These period of recovery. rates represent poor nest productivity (> 2 chicks/nest is considered acceptable productivity) (USFWS 2005). Furthermore, the number of nests decreased from 118 in 2003 to 62 in 2006. Fledgling rate improved from an average of 1.75 chicks/nest/year (2003‐2005) to 2.11 chicks/nest/year in 2006 (USFWS 2007a).

(3) Pumpkin Hill Creek Preserve State Park: This colony in Duval County had 42 nests in 2005 (down from 68 in 2003) and fledgling rate averaged 1.54 chicks/nest/year in those years (USFWS 2005).

Figure 4.16 Long term trend (regression) of the number of Wood Storks counted during winter bird surveys (1961‐2007) Jacksonville, Florida (Source data: Audubon 2007). (Appendix 4.4.3.A).

Furthermore, after four hurricanes skirted Florida in 2004, another decline occurred followed by another recovery.

84 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

Figure 4.17 Current breeding range and distribution of wood storks in the Southeastern U.S. (USFWS 2007a).

4.4.3.5. Future Outlook Historically the wood stork breeding populations were located in the Everglades but now their range has almost doubled in extent and moved further north. The birds Figure 4.18 Number of wood stork nests (A) and productivity chicks/nest/yr continue to be protected under The Migratory Bird (B) at Jacksonville Zoo (2003‐2006) (USFWS 2005, 2007). Treaty Act and state laws. Although they are not as 4.4.4. Shortnose Sturgeon (Endangered) dependent on the Everglades wetlands, wetlands in general continue to need protection. Threats continue to exist such as contamination by pesticides, harmful algae blooms, electrocution from power lines and human disturbance such as road kills. Adverse weather events like severe droughts, thunderstorms or hurricanes also threaten the wood storks. The USFWS Wood Stork Source: USFWS Habitat Management Guidelines help to address these 4.4.4.1. Description issues. Continued monitoring is essential for this expanding and changing population (USFWS 2007a). The Shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostru) was listed as Endangered in 1967. It is a semi‐anadromous fish that swims upstream to spawn in freshwater before returning to the lower estuary, but not the sea. Shortnose are found in rivers along the east coast from Canada to Florida. The species is particularly imperiled because of habitat destruction and alterations that prevent access to historical spawning grounds. The St. Johns River is dammed in the headwaters, heavily industrialized and channelized near the sea, and affected by urbanization, suburban development, agriculture, and silviculture throughout the entire basin. Initial research conducted

85 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 by the National Marine Fisheries Service in the 1980s habitat indicate that shortnose sturgeons have not and 1990s culminated in The Shortnose sturgeon actively spawned in the system and that infrequent Recovery and Management Plan of 1998 (FWRI 2008b; captures are transients from other river systems (FWRI NMFS 1998). 2008b).

4.4.4.2. Significance 4.4.4.4. Current Status

There are no legal fisheries or by‐catch allowances for The species is likely to be declining or almost absent in Shortnose sturgeon in U.S. waters. Principal threats to the LSJRB (FWRI 2008b). Population estimates are not the survival of this species include blockage of migration available for the following river systems: Penobscot, pathways at dams, habitat loss, channel dredging, and Chesapeake Bay, Cape Fear, Winyah Bay, Santee, pollution. Southern populations are particularly at risk Cooper, ACE Basin, Savannah, Satilla, St. Marys and St. due to water withdrawal from rivers and ground waters Johns River (Florida). Shortnose sturgeon stocks appear and from eutrophication (excessive nutrients) that to be stable and even increasing in a few large rivers in directly degrades river water quality causing loss of the north but remain seriously depressed in others, habitat. Direct mortality is known to occur from getting particularly southern populations (Friedland and stuck on cooling water intake screens, dredging, and Kynard 2004). incidental capture in other fisheries (NMFS 1998). 4.4.4.5. Future Outlook 4.4.4.3. Data Sources & Limitations The Shortnose Sturgeon Recovery and Management Data was limited to a few mentions of specimen Plan (NMFS 1998) identifies recovery actions to help captures recorded in the literature which consisted of reestablish adequate population levels for de‐listing. books, reports and web sites. Shortnose sturgeons have Captive mature adults and young are being held at been encountered in the St. Johns River since 1949 ‐ Big Federal fish hatcheries operated by the U.S. Fish and Lake George and Crescent Lake (Scott 2003f). Five Wildlife Service for breeding and conservation stocking. shortnose sturgeons were collected in the St. Johns River during the late 1970ʹs (Dadswell, et al. 1984) and, in 1981, 4.4.5. Piping Plover (Threatened) three sturgeons were collected and released by the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission. All these captures occurred far south of LSJRB in an area that is heavily influenced by artesian springs with high mineral content. None of the collections were recorded from the estuarine portion of the system (NMFS 1998). From 1949 ‐ 1999, only 11 specimens had been positively identified from this system. Eight of these captures occurred between 1977 and 1981. In August 3000, a cast Source:Birdlife International Source:USFWS net captured a shortnose sturgeon near Racy Point just north of Palatka. The fish carried a tag that had been 4.4.5.1. Description attached in March 1996 by Georgia Department of Natural Resources near St. Simons Island, Georgia. The Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) has been a During 2002/2003 an intensive sampling effort by protected species under the Endangered Species Act researchers from the Fish and Wildlife Research Institute since January 10, 1986 and is Threatened along the captured one 1.5 kg specimen south of Federal Point, Atlantic Coast. There are three populations of the Piping again near Palatka. As a result, FWRI considers it Plover, The Great Plains, Great Lakes and Atlantic unlikely that any sizable population of shortnose Coast. The piping plover breeds on coastal beaches from sturgeon currently exists in the St. Johns River. In Newfoundland and southeastern Quebec to North addition, the rock or gravel substrate required for Carolina. These birds winter primarily on the Atlantic successful reproduction is scarce in the St. Johns River Coast from North Carolina to Florida, although some and its tributaries. Absence of adults and marginal migrate to the Bahamas and West Indies. Piping plovers

86 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 were common along the Atlantic Coast during much of 4.4.5.2. Significance the 19th century, but nearly disappeared due to excessive hunting for the millinery trade. Following The piping plover is one of many species that have passage of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in 1918, suffered from drastic ecosystem changes, like river numbers recovered to a 20th century peak which channelization, impoundment, and shoreline occurred during the 1940s. The current population development (Stukel 1996). Critical wintering habitat decline is attributed to increased development and designated by USFWS in 2001 for the bird exists from recreational use of beaches since the end of World War Nassau Sound to the St. Johns River (Map II. The most recent surveys place the Atlantic population http://www.fws.gov/plover/finalchmaps/Plover_FL_35_t at less than 1,800 pairs (USFWS 1996). Its name o_36.jpg). Charadrius melodus comes from its call notes, plaintive bell‐like whistles which are often heard before the bird is 4.4.5.3. Data Sources & Limitations seen. Data came from Audubon winter counts for Jacksonville Piping plovers are small, stocky, sandy‐colored shore in addition to a variety of books, reports and web sites. birds that resemble sandpipers. Adults have yellow‐ The winter bird count area consists of a circle with a orange legs, a black band across the forehead from eye radius of 10 miles surrounding Blount Island. to eye, and a black ring around the base of its neck. The piping plover runs in short starts and stops as it blends 4.4.5.4. Current Status into the pale background of open, sandy habitat on outer Current wintering populations in Florida showed beaches where it feeds and nests. In late March or early decline attributed mainly to increased development and April, they return to their breeding grounds, where a recreational use of beaches in the last sixty years. In pair then forms a depression in the sand somewhere on 2005, Bird Life International estimated the entire piping the high beach close to the dunes (USFWS 2007c). plover population at 6,410, comprising of three groups‐ Normally, new pairs are formed each breeding season. Atlantic Coast (52%), Great Planes (46%), and Great The males will perform aerial displays to attract the Lakes (2%). Totals in the Atlantic Coast population attention of unpaired females during courtship increased from 1,892 birds in 1991 to 3,350 birds in 2003. (Audubon 2008). Sometimes their nests are found lined Totals for the Great Plains area increased from 2,744 with small stones or fragments of shell (USFWS 2007c). birds in 1991 to 3,284 birds in 1996, then decreased to Usually nests are found close to, but not in, areas of 2,953 birds in 2001. In the Great Lakes region, the patchy vegetation and often close to a log rock or other population increased from 32 birds in 1991 to 110 birds prominent object (Audubon 2008). The adults, both male in 2004. Overall there has been a total population and female, incubate the eggs for about four weeks, after increase of 9.5% (using the 1996 data) to 32.6% (using the which four eggs are hatched. The eggs, like the piping 1991 data). However, the 1996‐2001 data indicate a slight plovers, are camouflaged by the surrounding sand or decline of the Great Plains population. The increases are cobblestones and are rarely seen unless stepped on. The the result of sustained management initiatives surviving young are flying in about 30 days. When on (Audubon 2008; BirdLife 2008). Although numbers of the forage, they look for marine worms, crustaceans, and birds appear to have increased slightly since the mid insects that they pluck from the sand. When the young 1980s, the Jacksonville data did not indicate that a are out foraging and a predator or intruder come close, significant trend was present (Figure 4.19). the young will squat motionless on the sand while the parents attempt to attract the attention of the intruders to themselves, often by faking a broken wing. However, if the adults spend too much time doing this, the eggs and chicks become vulnerable to predators and to overheating in the hot sun (Scott 2003d; USFWS 2007c).

87 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4.4.6.1. Description

The Florida Scrub‐jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens) was listed as Threatened in 1987. It is 12 inches long and weighs 2.5‐3 ounces. Adults have blue feathers around the neck that separate the whiter throat from the gray under parts. They have a white line above the eye that often blends into their whitish forehead. The backs are gray and the tails are long and loose in appearance. Scrub‐jays up to five months old have a dusky brown head and neck and shorter tail. In the late summer and early fall, it is almost impossible to differentiate the juveniles from the adults. During this time juveniles

Figure 4.19 Numbers of piping plovers counted during winter bird surveys undergo a partial molt of body feathers. Adult males (1929‐2005) in Jacksonville, Florida (Source data: Audubon 2008). and females have identical plumage, but are set apart by a distinct “hiccup” call vocalized only by the females 4.4.5.5. Future Outlook (Brevard County 2008). Scott 2003b describes the bird as partly resembling the Blue‐jay (Cyanocitta cristata). The The piping plover can be protected by respecting all Florida scrub‐jay differs from a Blue Jay in that it is fenced or posted for protection of wildlife areas, by not duller in color, has no crest, has longer legs and tail, and approaching or remaining near piping plovers or their lacks the bold black and white marking of the blue Jay nests. Pets should be kept on a leash where piping (Brevard County 2008). As one of the few cooperative plovers are present. Trash or food scraps should not be breeding birds in the United States, the fledgling scrub‐ left behind or buried at beaches because they attract jays typically remain with the breeding pair in their predators which may prey on piping plover’s eggs or natal territory as “helpers” (Brevard County 2008). chicks. Structures called exclosures are sometimes These family groups range from two to eight birds. Pre‐ erected around a nest to protect the eggs from predators. breeding groups usually just have one pair of birds with The Endangered Species Act provides penalties for no helpers or families of three or four individuals. The taking, harassing, or harming the piping plover and helpers within the groups participate by looking out for affords some protection to its habitat. By protecting the predators, predator‐mobbing, helping with territorial piping plover, other species such as the Federally defense against neighboring scrub‐jay groups, and the endangered roseate tern, the threatened northeastern feeding of both nestlings and fledglings. On average, beach tiger beetle, the threatened seabeach amaranth, Florida scrub‐jays typically do not begin mating until the least tern, the common tern, the black skimmer, and they are at least 2‐3 years of age. Nestlings can be the Wilson’s plover, may also benefit from the piping observed from March 1st through June 31st and are plover protection efforts (Scott 2003d; USFWS 2007c). usually found in shrubby oaks 1‐2 meters in height. Each year a new nest is built, usually about 3‐10 feet above 4.4.6. Florida Scrub‐Jay (Threatened) ground and structured as a shallow basket of twigs lined

with palmetto fibers (FWC 2008a). Most nests contain three or four eggs, which are incubated for 17‐18 days. Fledging occurs 16‐19 days after hatching. The fledglings are reliant on the adults for food for up to two months after leaving the nest. Once they become independent, Florida scrub‐jays live out their entire lives within a short distance of where they were hatched (Brevard County 2008).

Florida scrub‐jay populations are found in small isolated

Source: Birdlife International Source: FWC patches of sand pine scrub, xeric oak scrub, and scrubby flat woods in peninsular Florida. Scrub jays occupy 88 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 territories averaging 22 acres in size, but they hunt for noticeably reduced along their former range all along food mostly on or near the ground. Their diet is made the Atlantic coast (Figure 4.20). up of mostly terrestrial insects, but may also include tree frogs, lizards, snakes, bird eggs and nestlings, and juvenile mice. Acorns form one of the most important foods from September to March (Brevard County 2008).

4.4.6.2. Significance

Populations occur on the southwest boundary of the LSJRB (USFWS 2007b) and add to the overall species diversity in the basin.

4.4.6.3. Data Sources & Limitations

Information was gathered from books, reports and web sites, but limited data was available for the LSJRB.

4.4.6.4. Current Status

The population of the scrub jays has declined by 90% over the last century and by 25% since 1983. In 1983 the estimated population was 8,000 birds according to the Audubon Society (Audubon 2007c). A single bird was reported in Jacksonville in 1950/51 (Audubon 2007b) and three birds were observed in winter of 2000 (Audubon 2007a). The species is now being legally protected by the Figure 4.20 Historical vs. current scrub‐jay distribution. Stripping and/or United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the Florida shading reflects known new sightings of scrub‐jays since the 1992‐1993 Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. The statewide survey (Source: USFWS 2007b). Florida Scrub‐jay is being studied in their natural habitats and in areas undergoing rapid development. In 4.4.6.5. Future Outlook addition, land acquisition activities have been ongoing Florida Audubon has developed a Recovery Resolution in Florida to purchase the remaining privately‐owned Plan oak scrub habitat in order to conserve critical habitat for (http://www.audubonofflorida.org/conservation/jay.htm) the scrub‐jay (FWC 2008a). The Florida scrub‐jay is being for the Florida scrub‐jay and has also played a big role in studied in their undisturbed, Since the late 1980s, scrub‐ their protection. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation jays have been reported to have been extirpated (locally Commission suggest the following measures to help extinct since people settled in the area) from Broward, protect Florida scrub‐jays: Dade, Duval, Gilchrist, Pinellas, St. Johns, and Taylor counties (USFWS 1990). A 1992‐1993 surveys indicated 1) The best protection is to protect scrub‐jay that scrub‐jays were also extirpated from Alachua and populations on managed tracts of optimal habitat. Clay counties. Scrub‐jays are still found in Flagler, 2) Provide habitat by planting, protecting, and growing Hardee, Hendry, Hernando, Levy, Orange, and Putnam patches of shrubby scrub live oak, Chapmanʹs oak, counties, but ten or less pairs remained in these counties myrtle oak, and scrub oak on your property. Also, and were considered functionally extirpated maintain landscaping at a maximum height of 10 feet (Fitzpatrick, et al. 1994). Subsequent information if you live on or near scrub‐jay habitat. indicated that at least one breeding pair remained in 3) Encourage passage and strict enforcement of leash Clay County as late as 2004 and an individual bird was laws for cats and dogs in your community and observed in St. Johns County in 2003 (USFWS 2007b). protect areas being used by nesting scrub‐jays from Fitzpatrick, et al. 1994 indicates that scrub‐jays have been domestic animals, especially cats. 89 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 4) Limit pesticide use because pesticides may limit or 4.4.7.3. Data Sources & Limitations contaminate food used by the jays. 5) Report any harassment of Scrub jays or their nests to Information was gathered from books, reports and web 1‐888‐404‐FWCC (3922). sites but there was limited data available for LSJRB. Dodd Jr and Barichivich 2007 mention most information 4.4.7. Eastern Indigo Snake (Threatened) regarding habitat, use and requirements for the Indigo snake is found in unpublished, non peer reviewed, and largely inaccessible agency reports.

4.4.7.4. Current Status

The literature indicates declining populations throughout its range because of habitat destruction and fragmentation from development, vehicle collisions, gassing burrows (illegal activity 3925.002 FAC), illegal collection and mortality caused by domestic dogs and humans (Lawler 1977; Moler 1992; Scott 2003a; Stevenson, et al. 2003).

Source: USFWS. 4.4.7.5. Future Outlook 4.4.7.1. Description The focus of habitat protection should be on large non‐ fragmented tracts of land of about 2,500 acres in size The Eastern Indigo snake (Drymarchon corais couperi) is (Dodd Jr and Barichivich 2007; Moler 1992). Moler 1992 the largest snake found in the US and is protected by proposes that mitigation funds from developments that federal (1978) and state laws (1971). Typically an adult is unavoidably eliminate habitat should be pooled to allow 5‐6 feet long and 2‐3 inches in girth. The range is for such large land acquisitions. In north Florida’s xeric currently restricted to Florida and southeastern Georgia habitats the future status of Indigos is closely linked to with isolated populations in other parts of Georgia and that of Gopher tortoises (Dodd Jr and Barichivich 2007; in Alabama. They are most common on the Upper and Moler 1992; Scott 2003a). Rebuilding the tortoise Lower Florida Keys. Breeding occurs between populations will benefit the Indigo snake. Furthermore, November and April (Dodd Jr and Barichivich 2007; Moler 1992 asserts that laws against violations such as Scott 2003a). “gassing” of tortoise burrows should be strongly enforced. 4.4.7.2. Significance

Indigos are habitat generalists that require large areas of unsettled land from 25‐450 acres in which to roam, depending on the season (Hyslop, et al. 2006; Moler 1985; Zappalorti 2008). Habitats used vary widely. Sandhill communities are preferred, but Indigo snakes can also be found in pine flatwoods, scrub, coastal strand ecosystems and orange groves (Scott 2003a). The snake is diurnal and will subdue and swallow prey whole, feeding on water snakes and a large variety of small prey along the edges of waterways and marshes. Indigo snakes are well known for using Gopher tortoise burrows for refuge (Dodd Jr and Barichivich 2007; Scott 2003a). However, Gopher tortoise populations have been severely reduced in some areas which may affect Indigoes (Scott 2003a). 90 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 biodiversity, and create stagnant areas ideal for the breeding of mosquitoes (McCann, et al. 1996a). The 4.5. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species negative impacts of hydrilla have been so pervasive and intense in Florida, that U.S. scientists have 4.5.1. Description experimentally released four biological control insects from Pakistan that feed on hydrilla in its native habitat The invasion and spread of nonindigenous species is and have also stocked infested Florida lakes with non‐ currently one of the most potent, urgent, and far‐ reproducing Chinese grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon reaching threats to the integrity of aquatic ecosystems idella), which preferentially eat hydrilla (Richard and around the world (NRC 1995, 1996, 2002; Ruckelshaus Moss 2005). Introducing exotics to control exotics, of and Hays 1997). Nonindigenous species can simply be course, can produce a secondary layer of ecological defined as “any species or other biological material that problems and unforeseen implications. enters an ecosystem beyond its historic, native range” (Keppner 1995). As voracious herbivores, a number of exotic fish are altering native ecosystems in the Lower St. Johns River. 4.5.2. Significance These fish are common in the aquarium trade and include the Eurasian goldfish (Carassius auratus; The transport and establishment of nonindigenous commonly becomes brown in the wild), Mozambique aquatic species in the St. Johns River watershed is tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), African blue tilapia significant due to a number of ecosystem, human health, (Oreochromis aureus), South American brown hoplo social, and economic concerns. (Hoplosternum littorale), and a number of unidentified 4.5.2.1. Ecosystem Concerns African cichlids (Cichlidae spp.) (Brodie 2008; USGS 2008). Additionally, several species of South American algae‐ “Generalizations in ecology are always somewhat risky, eating catfish commonly known in the aquarium trade but one must be offered at this point. The introduction of as “plecos,” including the suckermouth catfish exotic (foreign) plants and animals is usually a bad thing (Hypostomus sp.) and vermiculated sailfin catfish if the exotic survives; the damage ranges from the loss of (Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus) appear to be established in a few native competing species to the total collapse of the Lower St. Johns River (USGS 2008). As most entire communities” (Ehrenfield 1970). The alarming aquarium enthusiasts know, “plecos” are extremely increase in the number of documented introductions of efficient algae eaters, and, when released into the wild, non‐native organisms is of pressing ecological concern can have profound impacts on the native community of (Carlton and Geller 1993). This concern is supported by aquatic plants and animals. the evidence that nonindigenous species, within just years of introduction, are capable of breaking down the 4.5.2.2. Human Health Concerns tight relationships between resident biota (Valiela 1995). Nonindigenous aquatic species can negatively affect Once introduced, exotic species may encounter few (if human health. Some nonnative microorganisms, such as any) natural pathogens, predators, or competitors in blue‐green algae and dinoflagellates, produce toxins that their new environment. cause varying degrees of irritation and illness in people The exotic plant Hydrilla verticillata is the #1 aquatic (Hallegraeff and Bolch 1991; Hallegraeff, et al. 1990; weed in Florida. Native to Asia, hydrilla was likely Stewart, et al. 2006). During the summer of 2005, large introduced to Florida in the 1950s (Simberloff, et al. 1997) rafts of toxic algal scum from Lake George to the mouth and has spread through the Lower St. Johns River Basin of the St. Johns River in Mayport, Florida, brought since at least 1967 (USGS 2008). Even the smallest headline attention to toxic bloom‐forming algae. The fragment of hydrilla can rapidly grow and reproduce organisms responsible for this bloom were two toxin‐ into dense canopies which are poor habitat for fish and producing cyanobacteria (blue‐green algae) species: the other wildlife. Hydrilla is a superb competitor with cosmopolitan Microcystis aeruginosa and the exotic native species by monopolizing resources and shading Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Burns Jr 2008). out other native plants. Huge masses of Hydrilla slow Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii has been recorded water flow, obstruct waterways, reduce native throughout tropical waters globally, but appears to be 91 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 expanding into temperate zones as well throughout the 4.5.2.3. Social Concerns U.S. and world (Jones and Sauter 2005; Kling 2004). Although Cylindrospermopsis may have been present in The invasion of an exotic organism can lead to Florida since the 1970s, its presence in the St. Johns River significant social disruption to certain segments of the Basin was not noted prior to 1994, and, thus, it is human population by disrupting traditional patterns of considered nonindigenous and invasive in this system commercial, recreational, and subsistence fishing or (Chapman and Schelske 1997; Phlips, et al. 2002; altering navigational or industrial use patterns SJRWMD 2005). Genetic studies reveal strong genetic (GESAMP 1997; Shiganova 1998). A number of similarities between populations in Florida and Brazil, nonindigenous aquatic species, such as the zebra mussel suggesting the two populations continually mix or came (Dreissena polymorpha) and the Chinese clam from the same source relatively recently (Dyble, et al. (Portamorcorbula amurensis), are prolific reproducers that 2002). will foul most any hard surface. On a large scale, this fouling, of course, can lead to tremendous economic Cylindrospermopsis now appears to bloom annually each losses to industries. Just as importantly, yet often summer in the St. Johns River with occasionally very overlooked, exotics can be serious nuisances on a small high concentrations in excess of 30,000 cells/ml (Phlips, scale. They foul people’s recreational boats and personal et al. 2002). During the intense bloom of 2005, the Florida docks. They foul sunken ships and sites of historical and Department of Health released a human health alert cultural value. Clean‐up and control of aquatic pests, recommending that people avoid contact with waters of such water hyacinth, can have high economic costs to the St. Johns River, because the toxins can cause citizens, not only in taxpayer dollars, but in out‐of‐ “irritation of the skin, eyes, nose and throat and pocket money as well. In general, many nonnative inflammation in the respiratory tract” (FDOH 2005). This species reproduce so successfully in their environment, public health concern will likely continue to menace the that they create unsightly masses that negatively impact Lower St. Johns River Basin in the foreseeable future, recreation and tourism. Such unsightly masses, as those particularly when the water becomes warm, still, created by zebra mussels or water hyacinth, also shift nutrient‐rich, and favorable to toxic algal blooms. the way we view and appreciate the aesthetic, intrinsic qualities of our aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, bacterial and viral pathogens, such as the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, have been transported in the 4.5.2.4. Economic Concerns ballast water of ships and caused outbreaks and deaths in the recipient port cities (Colwell 1997). Vibrio cholerae History has shown that the establishment of nonnative causes cholera—a severe diarrheal illness in humans. species can have far‐reaching economic impacts on The illness can rapidly spread to epidemic proportions fisheries, seafood industries, aquaculture, and landside in the absence of adequate treatment of sewage and industries (GESAMP 1997). Shoreside industries are drinking water and can spread through the consumption affected by a number of nonindigenous aquatic species of contaminated raw shellfish (like raw oysters) (CDC that are prolific reproducers and will foul most any hard 2008b). A number of other Vibrio species are commonly surface. Such exotic fouling organisms, such as the known as the “flesh‐eating bacteria” and can enter the Eurasian zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) in the human body through open wounds and cause crippling Great Lakes, are literally clogging the vitality of water‐ or lethal infections. Although attributed to the native dependent, landside industries by the excessive fouling species Vibrio vulnificus, one human death has resulted of underwater structures and engineering works from contact with the waters of the St. Johns River near (Hedgpeth 1993; Johnson and Carlton 1996). The U.S. Jacksonville, Florida—a jet‐skier contracted a lethal has spent billions of dollars on efforts to control such Vibrio infection through an open wound in 2005 (Burns organisms (Labi 1996; Ross 1997). Jr 2008). This event occurred during the severe blue‐ green algal bloom mentioned above and demonstrates Even locally, excessive fouling by successful nonnative that algal blooms are often the most obvious signal that species can lead to economic losses to industries. In 1986, river conditions are favorable for a number of harmful the South American charrua mussel (Mytella charruana) human pathogens to flourish. caused extensive fouling at Jacksonville Electric Authorityʹs Northside Generating Stationon Blount

92 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 Island, Jacksonville, Florida (Lee 2008a). The charrua taxonomic expertise to identify foreign species, mussel probably hitchhiked to the St. Johns River in the subspecies, or hybrids is not available. ballast water of a ship from South America and A naturalized species is any nonnative species that has continues to persist in the area as evidenced by adapted and grows or multiplies as if native (Horak collections in Mayport, Marineland, and the Arlington 1995). area of Jacksonville as recently as 2008. Other nonindigenous fouling organisms identified in the St. A cryptogenic species is an organism whose status as Johns River include the Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea), introduced or native is not known (Carlton 1987). Indo‐Pacific green mussel (Perna viridis), and Indo‐ Pacific striped barnacle (Balanus amphitrite). Cleaning 4.5.5. Current Status these fouling organisms off of docks, bridges, hulls of boats and ships, and industrial water intake/discharge A total of 56 nonindigenous aquatic species are pipes is time‐consuming and extremely costly. documented and believed to be established in the LSJRB (see Table 4.5.5; Appendix 4.5.B.). 4.5.3. Data Sources The nonnative species recorded in the Lower Basin Numerous online databases containing nonindigenous include a variety of lifeforms of organisms, including species reports were queried. The most comprehensive floating or submerged aquatic plants (29%), molluscs listing of species is maintained in the Nonindigenous (23%), fish (21%), crustaceans (16%), amphibians (3%), Aquatic Species (NAS) database of the United States jellyfish (2%), mammals (2%), reptiles (2%), and Geological Service (USGS 2008). Additional records and alga/seaweed (2%). information were obtained from agency reports, books, published port surveys, and personal communication A majority (62%) of the nonindigenous species that have data (complete list of data sources in Appendix 4.5.A.). been introduced into the LSJRB are freshwater (Figure 4.21). The habitats that are most commonly utilized by 4.5.4. Limitations these exotic species are lakes (36%), watercourses (36%), and marine habitats (14%). Other habitats utilized We expect that many more nonindigenous species are include agricultural areas, disturbed areas, estuaries, sited, but specimens are not collected or formally urban areas, and wetlands. recorded with any local or state governmental agency. These sightings are typically lost and are not included in The majority (29%) of the nonindigenous aquatic species this study. Additionally, it is expected that numerous that have been introduced into the LSJRB have native exotic species are unrecognized or unrecorded, either ranges in South America (Figure 4.22). because they are naturalized, cryptogenic, or because the

93 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

Figure 4.21 Aquatic Systems Utilized by Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Introduced into the Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida.

Figure 4.22 Native Habitat of Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Introduced into the Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida.

94 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 Table 4.5.5. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Recorded in the Lower St. Johns River BasiN

COMMON SCIENTIFIC HABITAT DATE ORIGIN PROBABLE PROHIBITED REFERENCES LIFEFORM NAME NAME REALM VECTORS STATUS? AMPHIBIANS Cane toad Bufo marinus Freshwater, Intentionally South and Humans,Range No USGS 2008 Brackish introduced to several Central expansion from South locations in South America Florida populations Florida between Photo: USGS NAS 1936 and 1958. Cuban Osteopilus Terrestrial, First detected in Key Caribbean Dispersing northward No USGS 2008 treefrog septentrionalis Freshwater West before 1928. from S. Florida Spread northward populations, floating through Keys. Now vegetation/debris,

recorded in southern humans, vehicles, bulk Photo: USGS NAS half of Florida. freight/cargo, plant or parts of plants JELLYFISH Freshwater Craspedacusta Freshwater First described in Asia Aquaculture stock, No USGS 2008 jellyfish sowerbyi Philadelphia in 1928. other live animal, Recorded plant or parts of plants throughout the US. Photo: USGS NAS Most common in temperate states in eastern US CRUSTACEANS Bocourt Callinectes Marine, First US report was Caribbean and From the Caribbean Federal Injurious USGS 2008 swimming bocourti Brackish Biscayne Bay, FL, South America via major eddies in Wildlife List crab 1950. Gulf Stream or "No such live fish, southern storm events mollusks, crustacean, Photo: USGS NAS or any progeny or eggs thereof may be released into the wild" (without a permit from FWC) (U.S. Lacey Act; 50 CFR Ch. I Sec. 16.13) Indo‐Pacific Charybdis Marine First US report was Indo‐Pacific Ship ballast Federal Injurious USGS 2008 swimming hellerii South Carolina water/sediment, or Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey crab (1986), Indian River drift of juveniles from Act) Lagoon, FL (1995) Cuba Photo: J. Piraino Green Petrolisthes Marine, Indian River Lagoon, Caribbean and Natural range Federal Injurious Power, et al. porcelain armatus Brackish FL (1977), Georgia South America expansion, Ship ballast Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey 2006 crab (1994), and SC (1995) water/sediment, Act) importation of mollusk

cultures Photo: D. Knott Amphipod Apocorophium Brackish unknown Europe and Ship ballast Federal Injurious Power, et al. lacustre Africa water/sediment from Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey 2006 Europe Act) Illustration: Bousfield 1973 Wharf roach Ligia exotica Marine unknown Northeast Bulk freight/cargo, Federal Injurious Power, et al. Atlantic and Ship ballast Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey 2006 water/sediment, Act) Mediterranean Shipping material from Photo: Bishop Basin Museum Europe Striped Balanus Marine unknown Indo‐Pacific Ship/boat hull fouling Federal Injurious Power, et al. barnacle amphitrite Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey 2006 Act)

Photo: R. DeFelice Triangular Balanus Marine unknown Indo‐Pacific Ship/boat hull fouling Federal Injurious GSMFC 2007 barnacle trigonus Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Act)

Photo: D. Elford Barnacle Balanus Marine unknown Indo‐Pacific Ship/boat hull fouling Federal Injurious GSMFC 2007 reticulatus Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Act) Illustration: Bishop Museum Titan acorn Megabalanus Marine First recorded in Pacific Ocean Ship/boat hull fouling Federal Injurious Frank 2008b barnacle coccopoma Duval Co, FL ‐ 2004; Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Common by 2006. Act)

95 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 COMMON SCIENTIFIC HABITAT DATE ORIGIN PROBABLE PROHIBITED REFERENCES LIFEFORM NAME NAME REALM VECTORS STATUS? Photo: B. Frank

FISH Goldfish Carassius Freshwater Intentional releases Eurasia Intentional release, Federal Injurious USGS 2008 auratus in the US, late Ornamental Wildlife List (U.S. 1600's. purposes, Stocking, Lacey Act) Photo: USGS NAS Aquarium trade, Escape from confinement, Landscape/fauna "improvement" Unidentified Cichlidae spp. Freshwater Recorded in LSJRB Africa Humans Federal Injurious Brodie 2008; cichlids between 2001 and Wildlife List (U.S. GSMFC 2007; 2006. Lacey Act) USGS 2008

Photo: USGS NAS Blue tilapia Oreochromis Freshwater In 1961, 3,000 fish Europe and Humans: Intentional Federal Injurious Brodie 2008; aureus stocked in Africa fish stocking Wildlife List (U.S. GSMFC 2007; Hillsborough Co, FL. Lacey Act) USGS 2008 Photo: USGS NAS Recorded in LSJRB between 2001 and 2006. Mozambique Oreochromis Freshwater, 1960's ‐ Africa Humans: Stocked, Federal Injurious Brodie 2008; tilapia mossambicus Brackish Introduced/establis intentionally Wildlife List (U.S. GSMFC 2007; hed in Dade Co, FL. released, escapes Lacey Act) USGS 2008 Recorded in LSJRB from fish farms, Photo: USGS NAS between 2001 and aquarium releases 2006. Unidentified Tilapia spp. Freshwater Recorded in LSJRB Africa Humans Federal Injurious Brodie 2008; tilapia between 2001 and Wildlife List (U.S. GSMFC 2007 2006. Lacey Act)

Photo: USGS NAS Unidentified Colossoma or Freshwater 1984‐1989 South America Aquaculture stock Federal Injurious USGS 2008 Pacu Piaractus sp. (Fish farm escapes or Wildlife List (U.S. releases), Humans Lacey Act) (aquarium releases)

Photo: USGS NAS Brown Hoplo Hoplosternum Freshwater First recorded in South America Humans Federal Injurious USGS 2008 littorale Indian River Wildlife List (U.S. Lagoon, 1995. Lacey Act)

Photo: USGS NAS Wiper Morone Freshwater, Intentionally Artificial Hybrid Humans: Intentional Federal Injurious USGS 2008 (Hybrid chrysops x Brackish, stocked in the fish stocking Wildlife List (U.S. Striped Bass) saxatilis Marine 1970's. Identified in Lacey Act) 1992. (Whiterock = (Artificial hybrid female striped between the bass x male white bass and white bass, Sunshine Bass = the striped bass) male striped bass x female white bass) Photo: T. Pettengill Unidentified Loricariidae Freshwater Recorded in LSJRB South and Aquaculture stock Federal Injurious Brodie 2008; armoured spp. between 2001 and Central America (Fish farm escapes or Wildlife List (U.S. FWRI 2006b catfish 2006. releases), Humans Lacey Act) (aquarium releases) Photo: USGS NAS Suckermouth Hypostomus sp. Freshwater 1974, 2003 South and Aquaculture stock Federal Injurious USGS 2008 catfish Central America (Fish farm escapes or Wildlife List (U.S. releases), Humans Lacey Act) (aquarium releases)

Photo: L. Smith Southern Pterygoplichthys Freshwater 2007 South America Humans: Likely Federal Injurious USGS 2008 sailfin catfish anisitsi aquarium release Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Act)

Photo: K.S. Cummings

96 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 COMMON SCIENTIFIC HABITAT DATE ORIGIN PROBABLE PROHIBITED REFERENCES LIFEFORM NAME NAME REALM VECTORS STATUS? Vermiculated Pterygoplichthys Freshwater 2003 South America Aquaculture stock Federal Injurious USGS 2008 sailfin catfish disjunctivus (Fish farm escapes or Wildlife List (U.S. releases), Humans Lacey Act) (aquarium releases)

Photo: USGS NAS MAMMALS Nutria Myocaster Freshwater, 1956, 1957, 1963 South America Humans: escaped or Possession of nutria USGS 2008 coypus Terrestrial Introduced into released from captivity prohibited without a Florida for fur license from FWC (F.S.

Photo: USGS NAS farming. 372.98) MOLLUSCS Asian clam Corbicula Freshwater Florida in 1964; Asia and Africa Humans, Live seafood, Federal Injurious Lee 2008c, fluminea 1990‐ Volusia Bait, Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey 2008b County; 1975‐ Lake Aquaculture stock, Act) Photo: USGS NAS Oklawaha; 1974‐76 Water Black Creek Charrua Mytella Marine 1986‐ Jacksonville; South America Ship ballast Federal Injurious Lee 2008b mussel charruana 2004‐ Mosquito water/sediment Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Lagoon; 2006‐ Act) Mayport (Duval Co),

2006‐ Marineland Photo: USGS NAS (Flagler Co) Green Perna viridis Marine, 1999‐ Tampa Bay; Indo‐Pacific Ship ballast Federal Injurious Frank 2008b mussel Brackish 2003‐ St. Augustine water/sediment, Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey and Jacksonville Ship/boat hull fouling, Act) Humans

Photo: USGS NAS Paper Utterbackia Freshwater Lake Oneida, UNF North America: Other live animal, Federal Injurious Lee 2008c, pondshell imbecillis (Duval Co, FL) 2005, Native in plant or parts of Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey 2008b Recorded in 1990 in Mississippi River plants, ship/boat Act) Sawgrass area Photo: B. Frank and Great Lakes. Red‐rim Melanoides Freshwater 1976‐ Willowbranch Asia and Africa Other live animal, Federal Injurious Lee 2008c, melania tuberculata Creek, Riverside, plant or parts of Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey 2008b Jacksonville, FL plants, ship/boat Act) Photo: B. Frank

Fawn Melanoides cf. Freshwater Fruit Cove (St. Johns North America: Other live animal, Federal Injurious Lee 2008b melania turricula Co, FL) 2006; Native in western plant or parts of Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Arlington area of US and Canada. plants, ship/boat Act) Photo: B. Frank Jacksonville (Duval Co, FL) 2006

Spiketop Pomacea Freshwater 2006 South America Humans: probable Federal Injurious Frank 2008a applesnail diffusa aquarium releases Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Act)

Photo: B. Frank Channeled Pomacea Freshwater unknown South America Humans: probable Federal Injurious Frank 2008a applesnail canaliculata aquarium releases Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Act) Photo: Georgia DNR Island Pomacea Freshwater unknown South America Humans: probable Federal Injurious Frank 2008a applesnail insularum aquarium releases Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Act)

Photo: B. Frank Mouse‐ear Myosotella Marine unknown Europe Bulk freight/cargo, Federal Injurious Lee 2008b marshsnail myosotis Ship ballast Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey water/sediment, Act) Photo: B. Frank

Striped Siphonaria Marine unknown Europe and Bulk freight/cargo, Federal Injurious Lee 2008b; falselimpet pectinata Africa Ship ballast Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey McCarthy (Mediterranean water/sediment, Act) 2008 Ship/boat hull fouling, Photo: B. Frank Sea) Humans

97 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 COMMON SCIENTIFIC HABITAT DATE ORIGIN PROBABLE PROHIBITED REFERENCES LIFEFORM NAME NAME REALM VECTORS STATUS? Fimbriate Bankia Marine unknown Pacific? Ship/boat hull fouling, Federal Injurious Lee 2008b shipworm fimbriatula Humans Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey Act)

Striate Martesia Marine unknown Indo‐Pacific? Ship/boat hull fouling, Federal Injurious Lee 2008b Piddock striata Humans Wildlife List (U.S. Lacey shipworm Act)

Photo: ShellMuseum.org REPTILES Red‐eared Trachemys Freshwater, unknown North America: Humans ‐ pet releases Illegal in Florida: Red‐ USGS 2008 slider scripta elegans Brackish US midwestern and escapes eared sliders less than states to 4 inches carapace length may not be northeastern bought, sold, or bred Photo: USGS NAS Mexico after July 1, 2008 without a permit from FWC. (F.A.C. 68‐5.001 and 68‐5.002; F.S. 372.26). AQUATIC PLANTS Alligator‐ Alternanthera Freshwater 1887‐1894 in Florida, South America Ship ballast Class I Prohibited McCann, et weed philoxeroides 1982‐1992 water/sediment Aquatic Plant (F.A.C. al. 1996a; specimens collected 62C‐52) ‐‐ "Under no USGS 2008 circumstances will

these species be Photo: USGS NAS permitted for possession, collection, transportation, cultivation, and importation.”) Para grass Urochloa Freshwater 1982‐1992 Africa Humans: intentional No McCann, et (Brachiaria) release for agriculture al. 1996a; mutica USGS 2008

Photo: F. & K. Starr Water Salvinia minima Freshwater 1928 ‐ First report South and Ship ballast Class I Prohibited McCann, et spangles for North America in Central water/sediment, Aquatic Plant (F.A.C. al. 1996a; and along St. Johns America Humans, Aquarium 62C‐52) USGS 2008 River; 2003 ‐ trade

Photo: IFAS Univ. expanding range of Florida Hydrilla Hydrilla Freshwater 1967‐1994 (USGS), Asia Debris associated with Federal Noxious Weed McCann, et verticillata early 1950s human activities, List (Public Law 108‐ al. 1996a; (Simberloff et al.) Ship/boat, Aquarium 412; 7 C.F.R. Ch. III USGS 2008 Photo: USGS NAS trade, Part 360); Regulated Garden waste disposal Plant Pest List (U.S.D.A. Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service); Class I Prohibited Aquatic Plant Water‐ Eichhornia Freshwater First released 1880's, South America Humans, Aquarium Class I Prohibited McCann, et hyacinth crassipes 1990‐1994 trade, Garden escape Aquatic Plant (F.A.C. al. 1996a; 62C‐52) USGS 2008

Photo: USGS NAS Water‐ Pistia stratiotes Freshwater Described in Florida South America Ship ballast Class II Prohibited McCann, et lettuce in 1765 (Bartram water/sediment Aquatic Plant (F.A.C. al. 1996a; 1942) 62C‐52) ‐‐ May be USGS 2008 cultured in nursuries Photo: USGS NAS for export out of the State; "Shall not be imported or collected from the wild" Brazilian Egeria densa Freshwater 1969‐1995, First South America Humans: accidental No McCann, et waterweed record at St. Johns aquarium releases, al. 1996a; River at Cross Florida intentional release for USGS 2008 Photo: USGS NAS Barge Canal (1969) control of mosquito larvae

98 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 COMMON SCIENTIFIC HABITAT DATE ORIGIN PROBABLE PROHIBITED REFERENCES LIFEFORM NAME NAME REALM VECTORS STATUS? Water Ceratopteris Freshwater 1984‐1992 AustralAsia Humans No McCann, et sprite thalictroides specimens collected al. 1996a; USGS 2008

Photo: A. Murray Wild taro Colocasia Freshwater Introduced to FL by Africa Humans No USGS 2008 esculenta Dept of Agriculture in 1910, 1971‐1992 specimens collected Photo: K. Dressler Uruguay Ludwigia Freshwater 1998 specimen South America Humans No USGS 2008 seedbox hexapetala collected

Photo: Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board Marsh Murdannia Freshwater 1960 specimen Asia Humans No USGS 2008 dewflower keisak collected

Photo: L. Lee Parrot‐ Myriophyllum Freshwater 1940‐1995 South America Humans No McCann, et feather aquaticum specimens collected al. 1996a; USGS 2008 Photo: USGS NAS Brittle Najas minor Freshwater 1983‐1984 Eurasia Humans No McCann, et naiad specimens collected, al. 1996a; in US since 1930's USGS 2008

Photo: USGS NAS Crested Nymphoides Freshwater 2003 specimen Asia Humans No USGS 2008 floating‐ cristata collected heart

Photo: C. Jacono Water‐ Nasturtium Freshwater 1995 specimens Eurasia Humans No McCann, et cress officinale collected al. 1996a; USGS 2008

Photo: WI DNR Torpedo Panicum repens Freshwater 1982‐1992 Europe Humans No McCann, et grass specimens collected, al. 1996a; Lower Kississimee USGS 2008 Valley 1920s

Photo: V. Ramey ALGAE / SEAWEED / PHYTOPLANKTON Blue‐green Cylindrospermo Freshwater 1950's first ID in the South America Humans, Other live No Dyble, et al. alga psis raciborskii US; 1995 first ID in (High degree of animal 2002 Florida genetic (digestion/excretion), aquarium trade, Photo: Umwelt similarity with Bundes Amt Ship ballast specimens from water/sediment, Brazil) Ship/boat, Water (interconnected waterways)

99 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

4.5.6. Trend

The cumulative number of nonindigenous aquatic species introduced into the LSJRB has been increasing since records were kept prior to 1900 (Figure 4.23). This trend is the reason that the category is assigned a “CONDITIONS WORSENING” status – indicating that exotic species are contributing to a declining status in the health of the St. Johns River Lower Basin.

Figure 4.24 Vectors of Transport Cited for Bringing Nonindigenous Aquatic Species into the Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida.

Nonindigenous aquatic species have been introduced into the Lower Basin by the aquarium trade (25%), as hitchhikers on ships, boats, or vehicles (19%), intentional releases by people (15%), or through the intentional stocking of the St. Johns River, its tributaries, or interconnected lakes (8%) (Figure 4.25). Figure 4.23 Increasing Number of Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Introduced into the Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida since the turn of the 20th century.

Nonindigenous plants and animals arrive in the St. Johns River watershed by various means. The most common vector of transport has been humans themselves (39%), followed by ship ballast consisting of water and/or sediment (14%), aquaculture stock (11%), and ship/boat hull fouling (10%) (Figure 4.24). One of the most widespread ways that nonnative species arrive in Florida is when people accidentally or intentionally release exotic aquarium plants or pets into the wild. Such releases not only violate State and Federal laws, but can have devastating impacts on native ecosystems and native biodiversity.

Figure 4.25 Sources for the Introduction of Nonindigenous Aquatic Species into the Lower St. Johns River Basin, Florida.

100 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008

4.5.7. Future Outlook

IRREVERSIBLE IMPACTS. Once an exotic species becomes naturalized in a new ecosystem, the environmental and economic costs of eradication are usually prohibitive (Elton 1958). Thus, once an invasive species gets here, it is here to stay, and the associated management costs will be passed on to future generations. Since the early 1900s, taxpayer dollars have been paying for ongoing efforts to control the spread of invasive nonindigenous aquatic species in the St. Johns River. Figure 4.26 Gallons of Herbicide Applied on the St. Johns River, Florida to Control the Growth of Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Water Case Study: Water Hyacinth. One of the most, if not the Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) from Fiscal Year 2001 to 2006 (USACE 2007). most, notorious and devastating introductions of a nonindigenous species into the St. Johns River is the HIGH RISK. There is a high probability that future lovely South American aquatic plant known as the water invasions of nonindigenous aquatic species will occur in hyacinth. Water hyacinth was introduced into the river the Lower St. Johns River Basin. This study found that in 1884 near Palatka. By 1896, it had spread throughout the two most significant vectors for transporting exotic most of the Lower St. Johns River Basin and was already organisms were humans and ship ballast (Figure 4.29), hindering steamboat navigation. Water hyacinth causes and that both of these vectors are expected to increase in changes in water quality and biotic communities by coming years, thereby increasing the likelihood for severely curtailing oxygen and light diffusion and additional and potentially more frequent introductions. reducing water movement by 40 to 95% (McCann, et al. Human population growth in Northeast Florida is 1996a). If growth remains unchecked, these exotic projected to more than double by 2060 (Zwick and Carr aquatic plants form dense mats that obstruct waterways, 2006). Additionally, the number of ships visiting the Port disrupt transportation, and modify natural hydrology of Jacksonville has increased since 2002 (Figure 4.27) and patterns and native communities and biodiversity. is expected to increase further due to the addition of a new cargo terminal and an increasing number of cruise The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) periodically ship visits (JAXPORT 2008a). sprays herbicides on the St. Johns River to control the growth of this weedy invader. From 2001 to 2006, the USACE sprayed an average of 3,042 gallons of herbicide annually on about 5,102 acres of the St. Johns River and its tributaries (Figure 4.26). This represents an average of 608 acres in the Lower Basin that were treated with herbicides during this time period (USACE 2007b). It is likely that the use of herbicides to control invasive aquatic plants will continue into the future with negative impacts on the health of the St. Johns River watershed. The financial and ecological impacts will be multiplied, if additional invasive species become a public nuisance requiring periodic control. Figure 4.27 Number of Cruise Ships and Cargo Ships Calling on Port of Jacksonville, Florida (JaxPort) Terminals between Fiscal Year 2002 and 2006.

Additional invasions into the Lower St. Johns River Basin are expected from adjacent or interconnected water bodies. For example, an additional 16 nonindigenous aquatic species have been recorded in 101 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – AQUATIC LIFE August 4, 2008 the Upper St. Johns River Drainage Basin, and an additional 21 species have been recorded in the Ocklawaha Drainage Basin (USGS 2008). It is likely that these species will disperse into the Lower St. Johns River Basin in the future. Moreover, rising global temperatures may also contribute to a northward expansion in the range of nonnative species from Central and South Florida.

102 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 5. CONTAMINANTS they enter the water body. Plants and animals that live in sediments, benthic organisms, are directly exposed to contaminated sediments, so their toxic responses to 5.1. Background contaminants are particularly important. Sediment concentrations of the four classes of contaminants are 5.1.1. Chemicals in the Environment reviewed here.

Contaminants are chemicals that are found at unnatural concentrations in any given environment. Some are produced solely by human activity, but many are also produced naturally in small quantities. These naturally occurring compounds become contaminants when they are introduced into organisms or ecosystems in much higher quantities than normal, often as a result of human activity (examples are polyaromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs, and metals). Furthermore, the natural concentrations of these compounds often vary with geology and environment. Thus, it is much more difficult to detect human input and harmful concentrations for naturally occurring compounds than for those that are produced solely by human activity. Figure 5.1 Sediment at Talleyrand, LSJR

A chemical becomes environmentally significant when it 5.1.2. Impact Assessment is prevalent, persistent, and toxic. The prevalence of a chemical in any system depends on how much of it goes Environmental toxicology examines the effects of in and how quickly it goes out, either by flowing out or contaminants on ecosystem inhabitants, from individual by degrading. A compound that is persistent breaks species to whole communities. While toxicity is often down slowly and is removed slowly. The probability for viewed in terms of human health risk, human risk is one long‐term toxic effects increases with persistence. Some of the most difficult toxicity ʺendpoints,ʺ or measures, to types of chemicals are taken up and stored in fat tissues accurately quantify. It is environmental toxicity, or of plants and animals with little or no degradation, i.e, effects on ecosystems and aquatic organisms, that is the they bioaccumulate. Bioaccumulated chemicals are focus of our assessment of contaminants in the LSJR. stored in tissues of prey organisms so when prey are eaten, the chemicals can be transferred to predators and The environmental impact of a toxic compound can be travel up the food chain in increasingly higher levels, evaluated several ways. One way is by comparing the i.e., they biomagnify. Thus, organisms containing the concentrations in the LSJR to various toxicity measures. bioaccumulated chemicals act as a reservoir or ʺsink,ʺ When the concentration of a contaminant in sediment is which is only slowly depleted. Chemicals in four greater than the toxicity measure, it is an exceedance. environmentally significant categories are evaluated Most sediment quality guidelines for contaminants are here. The categories include 1) metals, 2) polyaromatic based on the impact of contaminants on sediment‐ hydrocarbons (PAHs), 3) polychlorinated biphenyls dwelling benthic macroinvertebrates, assessing both the (PCBs), and 4) pesticides. These chemicals vary in their individual speciesʹ health and the community structure. chemical structure, their sources, and their specific fates Since these organisms are at the beginning of the and effects, but they all have a high potential for fisheries food chain, their health is a good indicator of prevalence, persistence, toxicity and bioaccumulation. general river health. One toxicity measure that is quite protective of the health of aquatic organisms is a Information about chemical contamination is often held Threshold Effects Level (TEL). This is the concentration in the sediments of rivers. Many of the environmentally at which a contaminant begins to affect some sensitive important compounds are attracted to the organic species. When the number of sites that have matter in sediments and end up there, regardless of how concentrations greater than the TEL is high, there is a 103 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 higher possibility that some organisms are affected. A limit our assessment to one that is general and relative in second, less protective guideline is the Probable Effects scope. Level (PEL). This is the concentration above which many aquatic species are likely to be affected. The TEL and PEL sediment quality guidelines for marine systems are 5.2. Data Sources and Limitations used in this assessment, with emphasis on the latter. The data used in this report came from several major These were the guidelines that were most widely studies carried out on the Lower St. Johns River from available for the compounds of interest, plus much of 1983 to 2003. They were conducted by the SJRWMD, the heavily impacted areas are in the marine section of Department of Environmental Protection, Mote Marine the LSJR. Some alternative guidelines are used and Laboratories, Savannah Laboratories, and NOAAʹs identified for some compounds for which there were no National Status and Trends programs. A major portion marine TEL or PEL guidelines (MacDonald 1994; NOAA of the more recent data came from a set of studies 1999). Specific values are listed in Appendix 5.1.1a. conducted by the SJRWMD from 1996‐2003 in a long‐ In an approach similar to Long, et al. 1995 and Hyland, et term sediment quality assessment (*Durell, et al. 1997; al. 1999, we estimated the toxic pressure of nearly 40 Durell, et al. 2004; Higman, et al. 2008). The studies and chemicals on the river, by calculating a PEL quotient. data sets used in our data analysis are indicated in the The quotient is the concentration of a contaminant in the reference section. The database that was generated sediment divided by the PEL value. If the quotient, or represents a substantial portion of existing data for LSJR toxicity pressure, is greater than one, toxic effects on contaminants. It is not exhaustive however, and should benthic organisms are probable. As the quotient be considered a starting point from which omitted past increases, we can assume that toxic effects increase. The and future studies can be added. In particular, modern averages of these ratios are used to compare the effects pesticides, other important priority pollutants and of different chemicals, and to understand their relative emerging pollutants, such as endocrine disruptors, importance in the impairment of the river health. The should also be included. Future additions of data on PEL quotient is also useful in estimating the cumulative concentrations of contaminants in water and organisms effect of different classes of contaminants with different will also add to the quality of the assessment. toxic effects. 5.3. Data Analysis 5.1.3. Limitations of Toxicity Assessments The specific contaminants were selected for evaluation While sediment quality guidelines are useful tools, it is when there was an abundance of data for several years, important to appreciate the limitations of simple the analytical methods were uniform in the different comparisons in the extremely complex LSJR. A major studies, and there was adequate site information. difficulty in assessing toxic impacts is that the Advances in analytical technology during the last accessibility, or bioavailability, of a contaminant to twenty years can skew interpretations of temporal organisms may vary with sediment type. Two sediments trends if not taken into account, which we attempted to with similar contaminant concentrations but different do qualitatively. Sometimes we omitted potentially physical and chemical features can produce very important contaminants because of analytical differences different environmental impacts, and we know that LSJR between studies. sediments are highly variable. Furthermore, each sediment quality guideline can be specific to certain The data were first compiled from each source for organisms and endpoints (e.g., death of fish, approximately 200 analytes at nearly 500 sites, over a reproductive effects of sea urchin, sea worm community span of 20 years, and these were culled for location and structure, etc.) and cannot easily be extrapolated to other analytical comparability. We omitted data from some organisms or endpoints. As a consequence, guidelines years when the number of samples were too few, or from different organizations sometimes differ. Finally, when extreme values distorted the analysis. An example separate guidelines are often established for marine and is Deer Creek samples in 1991 that consisted of nearly freshwater environments, though few estuarine pure creosote (*Delfino, et al. 1991b). The average guidelines exist that apply to the LSJR. These challenges concentrations, percent exceedances of sediment quality 104 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 guidelines, and average toxicity quotients were used for contaminants in the LSJR sediments is reviewed below. comparison between years and regions of the river. They include 1) metals, 2) polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 3) Median concentrations were used in discussions of the polychlorinated biphenyls, and 4) pesticides. Mercury entire river because this approach minimizes the effect and DDT are discussed in detail. of isolated cases of very high concentrations. Trends in concentrations with time were assessed by The basin was divided into four areas whose boundaries plotting average annual concentrations and statistically are shown in Figure 5.2; additional information about determining the significance of an upward or downward the different regions is given in Appendix 5.3a. Area 1, slope of any line. Differences between regions were Western Tributaries, is composed of the Trout River examined qualitatively because variable numbers of (including Moncrief Creek and Ribault River samples in different years prevented rigorous statistical tributaries), Long Branch Creek, the Cedar‐Ortega testing. Toxicity effects were evaluated through percent system, and Rice Creek. Despite their distance from one exceedances of guidelines and toxicity pressure (based another, they were combined because they share the on PELs), as described previously. unfortunate characteristic of having such high levels of contamination that they mathematically obscure trends The numbers of samples for each contaminant, year, and in the rest of the lower basin. Area 2, North Arm, is the area are given in Appendix 5.3b. Regression statistics for northern, east‐west, marine portion from Mayport to the trend analysis are given in Appendix 5.3c. Where Talleyrand and where the maritime industry is figures and tables provide average and median prevalent. Area 3, North Main stem, includes urban concentrations, data variability are given in the Jacksonville south to Julington Creek. The southernmost Appendix. Area 4, South Main stem, stretches past Palatka to the Ocklawaha and to fresher water. 5.4. Metals

Area 2 5.4.1. Background: Metals

Metals are naturally occurring components of the mineral part of a sediment particle. Major metals in Area 3 sediments are aluminum, iron, and manganese and these are often used to differentiate types of sediment (more like terrestrial soil or more like limestone bedrock). Sediment composition varies naturally with geography and environment, and so the concentrations of metals in sediments also vary naturally. Sediments in the main stem LSJR have widely different geologic Area 1 Area 4 sources. By contrast, the Cedar‐Ortega system sediments suggest common geologic sources (Durell, et al. 2004; Scarlatos 1993). As a result of this natural variability, it is difficult to always determine if metal levels are elevated because of human activities or simply because of the nature of the sediments. Concentrations of metals of high concern, like lead or chromium, are often compared to aluminum concentrations to try to determine what Figure 5.2 Areas of the LSJR Studied for Sediment Contamination: Area 1 – amount is the result of human input. Although Western Tributaries (Including Trout River, Moncrief Creek, Ribault River, aluminum “normalized” metal values are not reported Long Branch Creek, Cedar‐Ortega Basin, and Rice Creek); Area 2 – Northern here, the contamination trends from “raw” metal values Arm; Area 3 – North Main stem; Area 4 – South Main stem have been reviewed for consistency with normalized The status of the LSJR sediments with respect to four data, where that information is available. classes of persistent, toxic, and bioaccumulative

105 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 One of the major human sources of most metals in the Table 5.1 Natural Background Levels of Metals in environment is from coal and oil combustion. Metals are Sediments and Percent of LSJR Sediments that present in these fuels in small quantities, but since Exceed Background Levels massive amounts of fuel are combusted, large quantities BG1 1983 1987 1988 1996 1997 1998 2000 2002 2003 of these elements are released into the atmosphere, often Copper 25 13 7 43 8 36 42 55 50 44 fated for future deposition into water bodies. Ore Chromium 13 55 100 67 72 76 97 97 92 82 smelting and refining, mining, and various Zinc 38 33 58 69 54 88 88 82 92 79 manufacturing processes also introduce metals into the Lead 17 47 57 61 47 80 70 87 81 56 environment, usually as point sources. Some metals Silver 0.5 36 17 7 12 36 43 47 38 41 have been, or are currently used in pesticides. An Cadmium 0.3 47 44 48 48 72 76 74 92 71 example is copper, which is used to control algae. Metallic contamination also occurs with various metal‐ Mercury 0.05 100 61 66 81 80 97 97 92 74 1 BG= Natural background levels of metals in sediments in mg/L (NOAA, 1999) working enterprises where metal fabrications are produced and processed. Another avenue for metals to Different metals exhibit slightly different trends with enter into aquatic environments is leaching from time, but none appear to be significantly declining in hazardous waste sites (Baird 1995; CDC 2008a). The any area. There was an increase in the concentrations of metals that we evaluated include mercury, lead, many metals in the North Main stem, Area 3, until 1996 cadmium, copper, silver, zinc, and chromium. when the concentrations leveled off (Figure 5.3; Appendix 5.4.2a). Although we did not see an expected 5.4.2. Status and Trends: Metals significant decrease in lead concentrations from the ban of lead products from gasoline, other researchers have Metals in general have been elevated over natural analyzed cores of sediments that give a more accurate background levels in sediments all throughout the LSJR picture of the historical record of contamination, and for at least two decades and continue to do so today. these studies do show recovery from lead contamination Nearly all (73‐91%) of all of the sediments that were (*Durell, et al. 2005). analyzed since 1983 have had concentrations of chromium, zinc, and mercury that are greater than natural background levels (NOAA 1999), sometimes by very large factors. Sediments in Rice Creek that were analyzed in 2002 had mercury levels that were about 100 times greater than natural background levels. While most of the highly contaminated sediments were found in the Cedar‐Ortega system, notably high levels were also found elsewhere in the year 2000, including Moncrief Creek off the Trout River, Goodbys Creek and Julington Creek. However, high metals levels aren’t confined to isolated sites in the river, and the data from 2003 show continued elevation over background levels for nearly all the metals examined (Table 5.1). Figure 5.3 Concentrations of Cadmium and Silver in Sediments in North Main stem, Area 3

Mercury has been most often present at levels that are likely to cause environmental effects, based on the percent of samples with concentrations greater than the PEL, but lead and zinc also contribute to the toxic metal load (Figure 5.4). The number of samples that exceed the very protective guideline, the TEL, is high for all the metals (average range of exceedances from 12‐63%), which indicates a high possibility of environmental impact on sensitive organisms. With the exception of the

106 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 Cedar‐Ortega area and Rice Creek, both of which have Places where mercury has been analyzed in sediments had very elevated levels repeatedly over the years, over the years are shown in Figure 5.5, and the results of metals concentrations generally hover between the two those analyses are given in Table 5.2 (Appendix 5.4.3a). sediment guidelines. In Cedar‐Ortega area and Rice The distribution of mercury, the TEL, PEL, and hot spots Creek, metals occur at high enough concentrations that in various years are shown in Figure 5.6. impairment of the health of organisms is likely. Mercury levels that exceed natural background levels and the most protective environmental guidelines are found throughout the main stem. There are isolated locations in the LSJR, particularly in the Western Tributaries (Area 1) where mercury occurs at concentrations high enough to impair the health of organisms. It is possible that mercury will bioaccumulate in fish, crabs, and shellfish at these highly contaminated sites.

Figure 5.4 Toxicity Pressure from Metals in the LSJR

Because of its environmental significance and prevalence in the LSJR, mercury is discussed in more detail below.

5.4.3. Mercury in the LSJR Sediments

Mercury is typical of many of the metals that we examined in some respects. It may become elevated in the environment from coal combustion, ore mining, cement manufacture, or other industrial activities. It is associated with neural damage in humans, especially young children. Mercury is a particularly problematic contaminant because one form, methyl mercury, is highly toxic and bioaccumulates extensively in the tissues of fish and shellfish over time, making the organisms unsuitable to consume. When mercury contamination is found in fish or shellfish, health Figure 5.5 Mercury Sample Sites agencies may prohibit their consumption when the contamination is extensive, or they may recommend limited consumption, particularly for pregnant women and children (CDC 2008a). There is no advisory to completely restrict consumption of freshwater fish in the LSJR based on mercury, but the Florida Department of Health eating guidelines recommend limiting intake from one to four meals per week (depending on the fish and whether the consumer is a pregnant woman or child) from Volusia County to Green Cove Springs. Several marine species are recommended for limited consumption in coastal areas or, in the case of shark and mackerel, recommended to not eat at all (FDOH 2007).

107 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 environmental fates, and toxic effects, although there is considerable overlap.

PAHs arise from two major pathways. Pyrogenic (“fire”‐ generated) PAHs are formed during the combustion of organic matter, including fossil fuels. The PAHs formed by combustion tend to be the HMW type. Petrogenic (ʺpetroleumʺ‐generated) PAHs are also formed naturally and are precursors and components of complex organic matter including oil, coal, and tar. Petrogenic PAH mixtures tend to have more of the LMW type of PAH.

Although PAHs are naturally occurring, large quantities are introduced into the environment in potentially toxic quantities by human activities, particularly through fossil fuel handling and combustion. About 80% of PAH emissions are from stationary sources and 20% come from mobile sources such as automobiles and trucks, but

the distribution can change with locale. Urban Figure 5.6 Mercury Sediment Quality Guidelines and LSJR Sediment Hot Spots (scale of mercury concentrations does not show maxima) environments have more vehicular‐related PAHs than Table 5.2 Mercury in LSJR Sediments rural or agricultural areas (CDC 2008a). They may also be introduced into the aquatic environment from 1983 1987 1988 1996 1997 1998 2000 2002 2003 creosote in preserved wood, which may be a significant No. 15 99 62 118 25 154 38 26 34 historic source of PAHs in the North Main stem, Area 3, Samples of the LSJR. Median 0.22 0.07 0.10 0.18 0.26 0.51 0.29 0.25 0.22 Conc. mg/L Percent Samples Greater than: PAHs are mainly introduced into water bodies by the PEL (0.696 settling of PAH‐laden particles into the water, and by 7 6 3 1 0 34 21 19 3 mg/L) the discharge of PAH‐bearing wastewaters. Spills of TEL (0.130 80 36 42 61 76 71 87 92 65 petroleum products and the leaching of hazardous mg/L) waste sites into water bodies are other ways that PAHs 1 TEL = Threshold Effects Level; PEL = Probable Effects Level enter the aquatic environment. Once they are in the water, the PAHs tend to settle into the sediments, 5.5. Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons especially the HMW PAHs. The LMW PAHs also (PAHs) associate with particles, but to a lesser extent. As a result, the LMW PAHs can be transported farther by the 5.5.1. Background: PAHs riverʹs tides and currents.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are a class of over a 100 PAHs can be degraded by microbes and broken down different chemicals, some of which are carcinogenic. by sunlight. Biodegradation accounts for the majority of They are often found in the environment in complex removal in slow‐moving, turbid water that is typical of mixtures. The occurrence of mixtures makes it difficult the LSJR. Many aquatic organisms can metabolize and to isolate the sources and effects of individual chemicals, excrete PAHs, particularly the LMW types, so the but sometimes the patterns of distribution of the chemicals are not extensively passed up the food chain. different types of PAHs can give clues to their sources However, HMW PAHs can accumulate in fish, and fates. They are often subdivided into classes of amphipods, shrimp, and clams since they are only small, Low Molecular Weight (LMW) compounds, and slowly degraded and reside in fats in organisms (ATSDR larger High Molecular Weight (HMW) compounds. The 2008, Baird 1995). two subclasses of PAHs tend to have different sources,

108 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 EPA has focused on 17 different PAHs primarily Counties, which are rapidly becoming more urbanized, because they are the most harmful, have the highest risk and can be expected to generate the PAHs that are for human exposure, are found in highest concentrations usually produced from those land uses. in nationally listed hazardous waste sites, and because there is information available about them (CDC 2008a). In our analysis of the LSJR sediment data, 13 of the 17 EPA compounds were examined in detail as well as two that are not on the EPA list. These PAHs were selected for study because of the extensiveness of the data, the uniformity of the study methods that were used to obtain the data, and their presence in the LSJR.

5.5.2. Trends: PAHs

There was extreme contamination of Deer Creek from the Pepper Industries’ creosote tanks near Talleyrand that was documented in 1991 (*Delfino, et al. 1991a). Figure 5.7 Selected PAHs in South Main stem, Area 4 Creosote is a product of coal tar that is used for wood preservation. While Deer Creek was the worst The rate at which samples have exceeded probable contaminated site, there were several other hot spots effects levels are not as high in the last decade, reported over the years for various PAHs. In the late compared to the 1980s. In Figure 5.8, it is apparent that 1980s, there were several sites all along the LSJR that toxicity pressure due to PAHs has declined, even in the had extremely elevated levels of PAHs, including Western Tributaries, Area 1. However, the data also acenaphthene in the North Main stem, Area 3, at NAS indicate that some PAHs, such as anthracene, are still Jax (278 μg/L), fluoranthene in Dunn Creek in the likely to be having benthic impacts (Table 5.3), and there Northern Arm, Area 2, (10,900 μg/L), and pyrene in are cumulative toxic effects when all of these Goodby’s Creek (8470 μg/L). Most recently, the 2002 compounds are taken together. maxima of naphthalene and anthracene (LMW PAHs) occurred in Rice Creek, supporting the contention of Durell, et al. 2004 that fuel sources of PAHs, as opposed to combustion sources, are more important in that area compared to the rest of the system.

There are encouraging signs that some PAH levels have gone down since the late 1980s. In particular, several PAHs in the North Main stem (Area 3) are declining, including anthracene, acenaphthene, fluoranthene, and others (Appendix 5.3c). The contaminated tributaries have also shown some statistically significant reduction since the 1980s. Typically, the levels of these compounds Figure 5.8 Toxicity Pressure from PAHs in Different Areas of LSJR appear to have declined from 1987 and leveled off since 1996. However, there are exceptions to the downward trends. Some HMW PAHs, including benzo(b+k)fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3‐c,d)perylene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, and benzo(g,h,i)perylene, may be increasing in the South Main stem, Area 4 (Figure 5.7; Appendix 5.3c). There are fewer data points in this area compared to the others, so conclusions need to be drawn with caution. Despite that uncertainty, it is important to continue monitoring locales such as Clay and St. Johns

109 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 Table 5.3 Percent of LSJR Sediments that Exceeded petrogenic origins of the compounds. Standards for Probable Effects Level (PEL) Guidelines for consumption are sparse for PAHs (USEPA 2007), but for PAHs the compounds where there are standards (anthracene, acenaphthene, fluoranthene, fluorene, and pyrene), the 1987 1988 1991 1996 1997 1998 2000 2002 2003 levels found in these oysters would not be harmful. Anthracene 17 33 38 1 0 0 5 8 24 However, as noted, there is little direct data about consumption of food containing other PAHs, including Acenaphthene 11 11 10 0 12 0 0 0 3 the notoriously carcinogenic benzo(a)pyrene or other PAH carcinogens. Naphthalene 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

Fluoranthene 17 26 18 0 0 2 3 0 0

Benzo(a) 14 37 3 0 0 1 3 0 0 anthracene

Pyrene 17 31 13 0 0 1 3 0 0

Chrysene 11 19 5 0 0 3 5 0 0

Indeno(1,2,3‐c,d) 0 0 0 0 0 5 11 0 0 pyrene Dibenzo(a,h) 6 14 0 0 0 4 11 0 0 anthracene Benzo(g,h,i) 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 0 0 perylene Benzo(a) 20 21 10 0 0 3 5 0 0 pyrene 2‐Methyl 6 0 ‐ 0 0 0 0 8 0 naphthalene Benzo(b+k) 20 0 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 fluoranthene Figure 5.9 Concentration of Select PAHs in Oysters in Chicopit Bay, LSJR (North Arm, Area 2) 5.5.3. PAHs in Oysters 5.5.4. Status: PAHs In the Mussel Watch Project of NOAA’s National Status and Trends Program, oysters in Chicopit Bay in the Portions of the LSJR appear to still be recovering from Northern Arm, Area 2, of the LSJR were analyzed for severe creosote contamination from the 1980s, but there PAHs from 1989‐2003 (Figure 5.9). These data show that are other likely petroleum and combustion sources. The there is a broad spectrum of PAH contaminants in compounds occur at levels that may be problematic in Chicopit Bay oysters, but the PAHs with the most some areas, and there continues to be widespread consistently high levels are phenanthrene, pyrene, and contamination. Of particular concern is the southern fluoranthene. There is no apparent decrease in the total main stem portion of the river, which appears to be PAH values, despite decreasing trends of other beginning to suffer the same stress from urban impact contaminants such as PCBs, some pesticides, and some that the North Main stem, Area 3, experiences. There is metals (O’Connor and Lauenstein 2006). As with other direct evidence that these compounds reside in PAHs, they have many possible sources, including gas consumable organisms in the river. Thus, PAHs in the and diesel emissions and creosote‐based wood LSJR are likely to be a significant source of stress to preservation in aquatic environments, but these PAHs sediment‐dwelling organisms, despite their overall, slow are often associated with petroleum contamination, a decline. possible result of Chicopit’s proximity to a shipping channel and high boat traffic. This appears especially true in 2003 when the concentrations in oysters approached the levels of the 1980s. The 2003 oysters also had more of the methylated LMW PAHs that suggest 110 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 contamination can be elucidated by examining different patterns of contamination of the different PCB 5.6. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) constituents, but several processes obscure those patterns. Weathering, currents and tides, multiple 5.6.1. Background: PCBs sources in a large drainage basin, and repeated cycles of evaporation, sorption and deposition all tend to mix Polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs, are synthetic chemical everything up so individual sources are not usually mixtures that were used for their nonflammable and identifiable unless there is a specific, current source. insulating properties until they were restricted in the U.S. in the 1970s. They provided temperature control in Because of methodological developments over the years transformers and capacitors, and were also used for and variable definitions of ʺtotal PCBsʺ, it is not feasible lubrication and other heat transfer applications. They to compare total PCB or mixture concentrations (like were sold primarily under the name of Arochlors in the Arochlors), so several individual PCBs were evaluated U.S. They are still found in old fluorescent lighting here and total PCBs were estimated from those values. fixtures, appliances containing pre‐1977 PCB capacitors, The specific eight PCBs we decided to evaluate were and old hydraulic oil. The characteristics of the fluids selected on the basis of their presence in the LSJR and were changed by changing the mixture components, so the availability of comparable data. We estimated that each of the major Arochlor formulations is composed of the PCBs we examined here represent approximately different concentrations and combinations of the 209 20% of the total PCBs actually present. More information PCB chemicals. Until the mid 1970s, PCBs were also about the calculations we used to estimate total PCBs is used in manufacturing processes for a wide range of given in Appendix 5.6.1a. different substances, from plastics to paint additives. The manufacture of PCBs in the U.S. was prohibited, 5.6.2. Trends: PCBs and their import, use, and disposal, were regulated by EPA by 1979 (44 CFR 31514). One of the most visible The majority of the sediments sampled in most years PCB legacies is the Hudson River, where capacitor contained some PCBs (79‐100% of sediment samples plants discharged wastewaters into the river resulting in collected from 1996 to 2003 contained PCBs). Since these contaminated sediments in rivers and estuaries for compounds are produced only by human activity, their decades to come. simple presence denotes human impact.

PCBs are inert, which makes them industrially valuable The PCB levels were often found at levels typical for but environmentally harmful. They donʹt react readily, urban, industrialized environments (Durell, et al. 2004), whether by microbes, sunlight, or by other typical and were reasonably constant along the river and over degradation pathways. They are not very soluble in the years. An unsurprising exception is the Cedar‐ water, so the lighter ones tend to evaporate and the Ortega area, where the average PCB concentration heavier ones tend to associate with particles, whether in exceeded the concentrations that are considered “high” the air, soil or sediments. Another important (80 μg/L) by comparison to other coastal sediments in consequence of PCBsʹ chemical properties is that they the nation (Daskalakis and OʹConnor 1995). Particularly are particularly compatible with fatty tissue, allowing high levels were found in the Cedar‐Ortega in the late extensive uptake and bioaccumulation in the fats of 1990s. For 2000‐2003, Rice Creek was a hot spot for PCBs plants and animals. Because they are not easily 105, 118, 128, 180 and 206, the first two of which are metabolized and excreted, they are readily among the most toxic (CDC 2008a). Average total biomagnified. concentrations in other areas were well below the 80 μg/L that characterizes a “high” level compared to the PCBs are introduced directly into the environment today rest of the coastal areas in the country. The distributions primarily from hazardous waste sites and improper of the PCBs we examined have stayed reasonably disposal of old appliances and oils. However, they also constant along the river and across the years, an may be transported long distances in the atmosphere, outcome of the persistence of the long‐banned either in gas form or attached to particles, and become substances (Figure 5.10; Appendix 5.6.2a). The elevated deposited into water bodies. Sometimes sources of PCB levels seen in 1998 reflect the fact that a large proportion

111 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 of those samples were from the beleaguered Cedar‐ Figure 5.11 Toxicity Pressure from Total PCBs in Different Areas of the Ortega in that year. LSJR (note extreme PCB toxicity in Area 1 from the Cedar‐Ortega Basin and Rice Creek

For most years, the estimated total PCB median concentrations for the entire basin exceeded the 5.7. Pesticides protective TEL of 22 μg/L, but were far below the probable effects level of 189 μg/L. The picture changes 5.7.1. Background: Pesticides slightly when we partition the river (Figure 5.11) and examine the PEL pressure based on average Pesticides enter water bodies from a number of different concentrations. It becomes apparent that the main stem pathways. They are applied directly to control aquatic areas, Areas 2‐4, have far less toxicity pressure from nuisances like water hyacinth. They are components of PCBs than Area 1. runoff from residential, agricultural, and other commercial applications. They also come from the 5.6.3. Status: PCBs atmosphere, usually attached to particles. Pesticides are widespread in residential, urban, and agricultural areas, PCBs persist in the LSJR long after regulatory and and they are very diverse in their chemistry and environmental controls have been put into place. They environmental fate. This largely comes about because are weathering but continue to exert their influence, pests are diverse as well, encompassing mold, bacteria, with little discernable changes in concentration over rats, spiders, barnacles, mosquitoes and more, each with time. Outside of the highly contaminated Western a metabolisms that is vulnerable to different chemicals. Tributaries, Area 1, these compounds by themselves are not likely to be major stressors of benthic organisms, but Pesticide manufacture and use has evolved significantly they exert a low‐level toxicity pressure. towards protecting the environment since the times when lead and arsenic compounds were dusted in homes to control insects (Baird 1995). Efforts have been made to create pesticides that can specifically target the pest and that can degrade after their function has been performed. However, pesticides used historically continue to be environmentally important because of their persistence. Organochlorine compounds (molecules containing carbon and chlorine) were introduced in the 1930s and bear some similarity to PCBs in their characteristics and environmental fate. They were effective for long periods of time against

insects in homes, institutions, crops, and livestock, Figure 5.10 Estimated Median Concentration of Total PCBs in LSJR and largely because they were nearly nondegradable. Marine Threshold Effects Level Because of their longevity, these compounds remain in the environment today despite being regulated and removed from manufacture up to forty years ago. Because of their broad‐based toxicity, they have widespread effects on nontarget organisms. Because of the toxicity of their primary degradation products, their environmental impacts are very long term. Their affinity for fats and organic matter make them reside in sediments and fats of organisms and allow them to move up the food chain. Several organochlorine compounds and their degradation products are the focus of this review because of their environmental significance and the availability of historic data.

112 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 It is important in the future to also evaluate pesticides although heptachlor and dieldrin have also been currently used, which tend to be less persistent but more frequently detected. In 1987 there were high toxic. The varied land use in the LSJR basin and its concentrations for many organochlorine pesticides extensive recreational and commercial maritime activity reported by Mote Marine Laboratories, but most notable causes a broad spectrum of pesticides to be loaded into that year was heptachlor, a chlordane marker, in Green the river. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers directly Cove Springs. applies herbicides 2,4‐D, diquat, and glyphosate in the southern parts of the river for the control of water After 1987, the reported levels of organochlorine hyacinths and water lettuce (USACE 2008a). The city of compounds have been stable, with no discernible Jacksonville sprays malathion, organophosphates, and changes with time. A possible exception is heptachlor pyrethroids for mosquito control (COJ 2008). Agriculture epoxide, which may be declining in Area 1, a small, in southern LSJR contributes to the pesticide load. While positive sign for the impacted tributaries. However, estimates of current total pesticide loading rates into the when each area is examined for probable environmental LSJR are elusive, it is reasonable to suppose that some of impact (Figure 5.12), the comparatively high pesticide the most commonly detected pesticides in agricultural, toxicity pressure on the Western Tributaries, Area 1, residential, and urban U.S. streams (Gilliom, et al. 2006) again is apparent. The specific compounds that are most will be important. These include the herbicides atrazine, responsible for toxicity pressure tend to be similar in metolachlor, simazine, and prometon, as well as the each area, and it is DDT and its degradation products, insecticides diazinon, chlorpyrifos, carbaryl, and DDD and DDE, that are generally the most important malathion. Finally, the tributyl tins used by the maritime (Figure 5.13). industry should be reviewed. These common pesticides represent 11 different classes of chemical structures that will have very different fates and impacts on the environment.

Four organochlorine pesticides and their primary degradation products were assessed. These compounds were primarily used as insecticides and removed from market in the 1970s. Aldrin was used against termites and other insects in urban areas. Dieldrin is a degradation product of Aldrin, and was also used directly against termites. Endrin targeted insects and rodents, usually in agriculture, and endrin aldehyde is its degradation product. Heptachlor and its degradation Figure 5.12 Toxicity Pressure from Total Organochlorine Pesticides in Different Areas of the LSJR product, heptachlor epoxide, are used here as markers for chlordane contamination since the complex chlordane mixtures are difficult to compare across years and analytical methods. Chlordanes were used in agriculture and in households, especially for termite control. Finally, the notorious insecticide DDT and its degradation products, DDE and DDD are reviewed in detail.

5.7.2. Status and Trends: Pesticides

It is unsurprising that organochlorine pesticides have been found all throughout the LSJR sediments for years, given their history of use and persistence. More than Figure 5.13 Toxicity Pressure from Different Organochlorine Pesticides and half of all of the sediments that were analyzed since 1987 their Degradation Products have contained DDT or its degradation products,

113 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 Organochlorine pesticides are present in the LSJR Figure 5.14 DDT Sample Sites sediments, mostly at levels that might not cause significant adverse impacts on the benthic ecosystems, Excluding hot spots, background levels of DDT in the but that certainly add to the overall toxic burden on the LSJR are about 10 μg/L or less, which is between the sediments. As with other contaminants, the Cedar‐ protective TEL guideline and less stringent PEL (Table Ortega system is the most contaminated area. The DDT 5.4; Appendix 5.7.3a). The two related chemicals, DDD compounds were found most frequently and at the and DDE, also tend to occur at concentrations between highest levels, compared to the other organochlorine their respective guidelines. Generally, DDTs are pesticides. They exerted the most toxic pressure, though probably not a major stressor on the LSJR benthos, with dieldrin and heptachlor were also significant in recent the exception being the Cedar‐Ortega area where years. DDT in the LSJR sediments is reviewed in more concentrations in 1998 ranged up to 4 times the PEL detail below. guideline.

5.7.3. DDTs in LSJR Sediments

As with the other organochlorine pesticides, there is little evidence of consistent decline. Contamination was greatest for several years throughout the Cedar‐Ortega system, including sites far upstream. Like the PCBs, the apparent high levels in 1998 through 2002 reflect the fact that a high proportion of those samples came from the Cedar‐Ortega area. Isolated instances of elevated levels of DDT have also occurred at Trout River, near Exchange Island, and in Julington Creek (Figs. 5.14 and 5.15). Even when DDT degrades, the products still exert toxicity. Indeed, it is the DDD, a DDT degradation product, which often exerts the most toxicity on the system, as illustrated in Figure 5.13. DDE is prevalent in the LSJR, but it is much less toxic than the other two compounds. Figure 5.15 DDT Sediment Quality Guidelines and LSJR Sediment Hot Spots

Table 5.4 DDT in LSJR Sediments

1983 1987 1988 1996 1997 1998 2000 2002 2003 No. Samples 13 36 17 118 25 118 38 26 34 % Samples 0 28 0 92 32 80 89 8 6 with DDT Median 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 1.2 1.8 0.0 0.0 Conc. μg/L Percent Samples Greater Than : PEL 0 17 0 1 0 4 11 0 0 (4.77 μg/L) TEL 0 25 0 26 12 50 66 4 0 (1.19 μg/L) 1 TEL = Threshold Effects Level; PEL = Probable Effects Level

5.8. Conclusions

The history of compromised sediment quality in the LSJR from industrial and urban activities continues 114 LOWER ST. JOHNS RIVER REPORT – CONTAMINANTS August 4, 2008 today (Figure 5.16). Some contaminants, such as exhibited long‐term pressure from a variety of organochlorine pesticides and PCBs, are legacies of past contaminants, including some pulp industry‐related misjudgments, but continue to plague the river by their compounds that are not reviewed here but most persistence. Other contaminants, such as PAHs, are certainly impact the area (Sonnenberg, et al. 2006). The common byproducts of modern urban life, though the Talleyrand area of the river is another section that is LSJR also suffers from PAH contamination from past heavily impacted by contaminants. mishandling of creosote. Metals are pervasive throughout the basin at levels substantially above what Outside of the areas of highest concern, contaminants act is considered natural background levels. For example, in as underlying stressors all throughout the basin. Their the last ten years, 3‐35% of the samples that were individual effects may be minor, but their cumulative analyzed had mercury levels that are likely to be effects become important. There are small variations in harmful to the organisms in the sediment, and there is the specific compounds that are most important from no sign that concentrations are diminishing. Overall, the site to site and year to year, but most areas were status of the LSJR basin with respect to the contaminants contaminated by more than one chemical at levels that we examined is similar to other large, industrialized, are likely to be harmful to the riverʹs benthic inhabitants. urban rivers. But many of the lower basin sediments have high levels of contaminants compared to nationwide surveys of coastal sediments.

Figure 5.16 Average Toxicity Pressures of Contaminants in Sediments in Different Areas of the LSJR from 2000 – 2003 Average Toxicity Pressures of Contaminants in Sediments in Different Areas of the LSJR from 2000 – 2003

Several of the tributaries have shown severe contamination over the years, but none like the Cedar‐ Ortega system, which has repeatedly exhibited the highest levels and frequencies of contamination. It has been recognized at least since 1983 that the complex network of tributaries is burdened by years of discharges by wastewaters and runoff from small, poorly managed industries, and from identified and unidentified hazardous waste sites. This is particularly true of Cedar River. The Cedar‐Ortega basin also suffers from its location in the middle of the LSJR, where the transition between riverine and oceanic inputs promotes sedimentation and reduces flushing. These factors produce a highly stressed system that is may be a source of contaminants to the entire LSJR main stem. Rice Creek is another western tributary of the LSJR that has

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