I J I i UNITED STAT E S TRAIL SUSPENSION BRIDGE STUDY AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT N EPA L MA? SHOWING DEVELOPMENT EAST CONSULTING ENGINEERS REGIONS a BRlDQES UNDER STUDY KATHMANDU

BESTAVAILABLE COPY BEST AVAILABLE COPY '. TABU3 OF CONTENTS

1. KARlNMT BRIDGE 1.1 CASE HISTORY 1.1J AREA DESCRIPTION AI?P HISTORY - Geographic Setting - Bridge Site Description - Relationship with Regional Transportation System - General Cultural Setting - Services Available in the Area - Bridge Location History and Decision Procoss

121 SOCIO-ANTHROFQLOG1C.U ANALYSIS - Land and People - Structure of the Family - Marriage Practices - Funeral Practices - Education and Health Practices - Festival, Fairs and Religious Activities - Changes ir, tho Roles of Women - Changes in Belief and Habits

- Local Participation - Institutional Impact of the Bridge 1.2.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - Geographic Area and Population Served - Estimated Traffic Flow - Agriculture - Rural and Cottage Industries - Labor Force Situation and Employment - Trade Flow Pattern - Environmental Effects 1.2 04 ENGINEERING - Site Selection, Design and Construction Nethods - Present Bridge and Approach Trails: Canditions and Recommended Improv~uents - Past Maintenance

1. FINDINGS EIO-ANTESRO WLOGICAL

ECONOMIC ENGI~Z!RING

LIST OF ABBREVULTIONS end of the report

GLOSSARY , end of the roport LIST OF TABLES 1--1 Estbnated Numbor and Percentage of Households by Ethnic Group (Chisapani panchayat) 1-T-2 Estimated Number and Percentage of Households by Ethnic Group (Kathajor panchayat) X*T-3 I;escription of Local Shrines and Their Distances from the Bridge 1-T-4 Percentage of Respondests who Pointed out an Increase in Women61 Activities due to the Bridge 1-T-5 Traffic Counts Across the Bridge 1-T-6 Perc~ntzgeTraffic Indicating Origin, Destination aiid impose of Travel in the Study Area8 1-T-7 Estimated Population and Labor Forco

LIST OF FIGURES 1-3'4 Area Location - Karambot Suspension Bridge CASE HISTORY

AREA DESCR=ION AND HISTORY

--Geographic Sew

Situated in the District of Ramechhap, the 260 ft, long K,xrarnbot Bridge lice over the T-Losi Rives. The bridge is placed some 25 minutes walk upstream from Karambot, at a place called Band,aro. Thore are no settlements at Bandare, but Karambot is a snall village nrith a cluster of about 12 houses and huts on tho left of the river.

Flouring from tho northoast torirCvds the southwest, the Tamakosi River, n major tributary of the Saptakosi River Systen in eastern Nepal, is unfordable throughout the year. It mergos with the Sunkosi River at Beniglmt located downstream from Bandaro. The Chisapani and Knthajor Village Pancha- yats .are situated on the right and left bank of thc Tamakosi River, rcspcc- . tivoly .

The landscapo of the bridge site is domi~latcdby a stcop rocky cliff on the left bank rising immediately from the anchorage block of thc bridge. On the right thoro is a strip of cultivated and tcrraccd paddy fields. A small forestod area exists on tho loft but is in a state of progressive deterioration as a rosult of thc indiscriminato usc of forest rosourccs for fodder and firewood. Tho goographical ,profile is charactcrizcd by an imcqual surface configuration having an nltitudo vcviation ranging from about 1000 ft., along the river bed, to over 5000 ft.

- BridRe Site Dascri~tion

There are no buildings of any sort within the irmcdiate vicinity of tho bridgo.. Majhigaon Village is about 15 minutes domstrcan on tho right bank and IStu'ambot village is about 25 minutos doirrnstroam on tho left bank. Tho nameplate of tho bridge reads; Karambot Dridgc; but the local pooplo havo given it thc nanc; Bclndre Bridge, and almost ovoryono calls it by that KUIIO.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Tho left bank at Karambot Bridge Consists of medium to soft rcck, and thcrc is a landslide prone section of cliff directly above the left main anchor. The tondency of thc rock to slide is aggravated during the monsoon rains, and almost cvery monsoon some rock slides down onto the lcft main anchor. Once considerable damage was done by a largo slido that coverod half the lcft towcr. The left bank tower foundation and anchors, horvcvcr, are located on reasonably solid rock, and do not secm to bo in any immediate danger. The right bank consists of soil-mixod gravol, and bouldcrs or 6. Ba~arKO Dhune, as it is locally callod, which is fairly loosely held together. Tho right bank has not sufforod any damage from rivcr scour, sincc the Tr*osi flows in a fairly urido arc at tho IC,arambot 13ridge site with thc force of tho water being dircctod to the cliff rock of tho loft bank.

The bridgo is rather low with the clcarancc at midspan to the lor water level in January being only 25.5 ft. High flood uaters, in early August 1974, covered both ends of the walkway to a depth of about -3 ft., but did not reach the walkway at midspan.

- Rclationshir, with Reaio.na1 Transportation System

Located, as it were, nt the mid-bolt of Ramochhap District, the bridge connocts many north-south trails originating in thc northorn village panchayats of Ramcchhnp, as vlrcll as thc southern p,arts of Dolakha District. The local trails merge into a single trail as thcy approach tho bridgo head. Thereafter, the trail ascends stccply along the cliff imodiately from the left anchorage block and follows the left bakk of the river aftcr descending soon after. It traverses Knrambot and after reaching Manthalit~x,splits into two directions; ono angles to the southcast'to Rnmcchhap Bazaar, the Mstrict Headquarters, and one goos southwest to Khurkot and onward to Sindhulimdi, a major markot contor in the foothills which is servicod by a fair-weather motorabio road. Ramcchhnp Bazaar is about 4 hours walk *om the bridgo and SindhuUmadi is about 1* day's walk.

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\ Another major trail of thc area which needs to be mcntioncd is tho trail to Katlmndu. This trail, after crossing the Tamakosi at Manthalighat, follows the right bank of the river and from Mungit,~angles to thc west and crosses the Sunkosi at the Pachuwarghat Bridge. The trail finally torminates at Dhulikhcl on tho Kathmandu Kodari Highway. An alternate trail crosscs the Sunkosi at Puchighat, few miles upstroam from Bonighat, and folloixs the right bank of tho Sunbsi till it roachos Dumja, then follows the Rosi Khola until it finally terminatos at Dhulikhel.

In the context of the regional transportation system, the complc- tion of the Lamosangu-Jiri road will have a nogative impact on the bridge use since tho traffic originating from the southern flank of the Dolakhn District, bound for Sindhulimadi and Kathmandu, currently using the bridge, would be significantly reduced. This road will also have a discernible inpact on tho traffic flow pattern due to tho resultant diversion of trade. For this section of the population, Sindhulimadi would not be a good place for carrying out economic transactions, the attrnctivonoss of tho motorablo road would be too .great.

Anothcr important factor which would considerably affect the use of tho bridgo, is the possiblc construction of tho currently proposed bridge at Wthalighat. This would make tho Kariunbot bridgo virtually redunda-nt for long distance travollors. It would then serve only the residents of the village panchayats lying across tho T,unakosi River and in tho immediato neighborhood of the bridgo.

Liko other parts of the middlo hill range of Nopal, there is a combination of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman group settlomonts around the bridgo =area. There arc many beautiful shrines to tho Gods and tho Goddesses of the Hindu religion. This is roprosentative of the rich religious and cultural heritage of tho area, - Sorvoccs Available in the Aroa

No scrvices are available around the bridgo ~zroasince hum settle- ments ,are quite far from tho bridgo. Had this bridgo bccn located in tho appropriate place, sorviccs such as shops and govornmont officcs would hdvo soon folloncd tho bridgc construction.

Howovor in K~anbot,about 25 minutes walk domn~trearnfrom:the bridge, thcre are 2 tea stalls, 2 rctail stores, and 1 retail store which also sells cloth. Tho growth of thifi snall busincss establishment has not been affected by tho bridgc. It was an important river crossing point oven bofore thc coming of thc bridgo.

In the Chisapmi p~nchayat, there arc scvoral primLary schools, one high school, one health post and onc ayurvodic disponsccry, these sorvicos are about a one hour walk from the bridgo sito. Paople going to Rnmechhap and Charikot fron ICathmndu mcGy cross this bridgo. Ho~rovor, thcy havc thc alternative of tho ferry sorvice at Manthalighat. Thc main rn-mkoting center for tho local people is Sindhulimadi, not L~thmndu,so this Dand,vc Gridge does not facilitate the majority of the pooplo bound for Sindhulimadi. ~dtc n few students from Kathjor p~nchayatuse the bridge to go to Chisapnni panchaynt to attend the high school.

- Bridae Location History and Deqision Process

People from thc pmchyats of' Kathjore, Chisapani, Ratnhmo, Nagthali, Nagdba, and Galu, e,vly in the 19501~~placcd a joint potition before thc central government, requosting tho construction of n bridgc over the Tanakosi at IWLmbot.

Their foolings about the need for a bridgo were primarily genorntsd from social, religious, political and economic problems which were in cxistonco because thero was no bridgo over thc T,makosi. Many fLmilics nho have honos on both'sidos of tho river were oftcn cutoff from cach othor during the monsoon soason. At othar times relatives and friend were unablo to get together to colebrnte fairs, festivals, and other religious activities. Thc flood condition of tho rivor during monsoon srould also obstruct daily activities such as fuel wood and fodder collection, tho cultivation of fG?rmland nnd tho visiting of religious shrines which aro prosent in numerous locations on both sides of tho rivcr. This 3 month monsoon pcriod also cause tho disruption of postal scrvicc~and official communications botwocn Rmo- chhap and Chariko t Districts.

Pcoplc were oftcn forced to wait hours and sono times days bcforc the monsoon swollon rivcr would permit tho use of tho dugout canocs whicl~ composed the ferry syston. Many attempts cndod1i.n tragody iwhon thc raging, flooded Tamakosi would cause tho small caqoos to capsizc, drowning the passengers, 1 These tragic incidents, coupled with daily inconvonionces, continucd to provide impctus for tho local pooplols requcst for a bridgc. In 1957 they got an opportunity to makc n direct rcquost to His lato kjosty, King Mahcndra. Tho King was on n walking tour of eastern Nopal and uscd the ferry to cross tho T~XII,&OS~at Bandarc. At this time, the local pooplc proscntod a potition to thc King and Mr. Kashi NLarnyan Shrostha took an activo role in presenting tho casc to His Majesty. According to tho lccal poople, tho King then conmnded that a bridgo be built in tho area-

Two yocars later, in.1959, an onginccr from thc Department of Roads (DOR) c~noand survcyod the 'area. But it was not until 1966, whcn I Mr. Satya NLvayan Shrostha, n technician from tho SDD, c.me, that tho actual construction of the bridgc bogan.

The bost site for the bridge, at Karambot, uras not usod and thc bridge was. built about 25 minutes upstro,m, at Dand,aro, Tho ronson for this shift in bridge location titas probably due to tho long span, ovor 300 ft., that would havo bocn required at Kctrambot. The Canwe site suited tho 260 ft. span of the DRC ~rcfabricatodbridge much hotter, Thc construction of tho bridgo took place in 1966 and was completed by thc spring of 1967. A landslide in 1972 damagcd the bridge and rondercd it useless for a short timo until ropairs were made that s,u;~oyear.

Evcn though tho bridgo Oras not constructed at the morc suitable site of Lvmbot, it has fulfillcd tho transport needs of tho hill region especially during the monsoon season. 1.2 ANALYSIS

SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Most of tho study wns dono within two villago pnnchayats, Chisapani and Knthajor. Chisapani lios on tho right side of tho Tamakosi Rivor, and Kathajor lies on the loft.

Tho ethnic composition of Chisapani village panchayat is Noarm, Chhetri, Magcar, &Injhi, Sanyasi, Tarmng, and tho untouchable groups. Sini- bly, tho ethnic composition of &&hajor village panchayat is Nearar, Piagar, Majhi, Brabin, Tcvnang and the untouchables.

The total ostinatod households of oach othnic group prcson't in both ganchayats is as follows:

Tablc 14-1: Estimtod Nunbor and Porcontago of Households by Ethnic Group (Chasapani ~anchayat) .

Ethnic group ' Households Par ccntnge I -* ' .w -

Chhetri 176 16%

Brahmin 137 13%

Sanyasi Majhi Tamclng 41 3% *. ,, - - Total 1,081 10% v Source: ECE Field Survoy Thc abovc figures show that the Nenrars (36%) reprcsent tlic , n,winun percentage of tho totcl ethnic groups, and the Tanangs represent thc minimum (3%) in Chisapmi panchayat.

Table 1-T-2: Estinatcd Wumbcr and Percentage of Households by Ethnic Group (Icathajor Panchayat) .

Ethnic group Houssholds Percontagc

..~ ....- ~~~~ .. .-~ ~ ~ ~ ~~...~ Chhetri 395 3% KTjhi 192 19%

Total 1, UL.3 100% - - . - .- . - - - -. ------.- - Source: ECE Fiold S~u'vey

It is clear ?con thc above table that tlie Chhetris (3903) and the Dmab(274) represent tho minun and minimum percontagos of the total ethnic groups in Kathajor p~nclmyat.

Agriculture is tho ftc~inoccupation of all the ethnlc groups of the ~woa. But, along Mth this, soma of tho Brahrains ,and Chlletri~,we onploycd in govornnont services, and moro than 50 MagLars and Tanangs of thc 'area 'zro enlisted in the Indian and British Armies, Tho NowLars of the men hnvc Gone retail businesses, whilo tho Majhis oporato thc forrios at Manthnlighat and me also the fishornen of tho area. As in othor ~u'c~as,tho untocchablcs practice thoir casto occupations and 'are paid under the system.

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- Structure of the Fami

Th? avcragc fmily size of thc area is fivc neubcrs which, inci- dentally, is equal to the avcrngc fanily size for the wholo District of RLmechhxp .

Tho local pooplo indicate that after tho bridge was constructod it brought about thc nuclearization of about ten f'unilics in tho arm and that these havc now settlcd on tho other sido of tho Tanakosi River. Tho bridge has also been instrupental in allowing about six fLarulies Lo continuc living as joint familios .

We asked thc gooplc in the immediate nron of the bridgc vhothor thcir consclnguinlial rclativcs lived on the other sido of thc river; 56% of thcu replied affirmatively. Thoy added that thosc rolativcs havc boon living thore sincc thc period of cgols grnndfcrthor, and without the bridge they arcre unable to get togcthcr during the 3 nonths of tho Lionsoon. Thus thc bridgo scrvcd as a moans of transport and con~lunicntionbctwoon relativcs separated by the rivcr.

- Marriago Prncticcs

We askcd pcoplc in tho men whether they found it difficult to arrange t :~elir ilnught or 9s or sister'6 cross-river uarriage bcfcro tho bridgc was constructod. 'All of the persons pollod rospondcd by ptating that it had ir.dood bcen difficult to arrangc a daughtorls or sistcrls mclrriagc 3 across tho river beforo thore was the bridge.

',Ye further aslro@ thorn if tho nunbor of mzringos had increzscd botwoon people who originally lived on oppositc sidcs of the river after tLc conetruction of tho bridgc, 96% of tho respondents from Chisapani villago panchayat and 100% from Kathajor village panchyat gavc an affirmc~tivo response, vrhich shows that tho number of cross-river ncarriagec has incro'ascd due to thc casior accoss to oither sido of the rivor providod by the bridgo.

BESTAVAILABLE COPY - Funeral Practices

In aost cases, thc Tibcto-Gurnan othnic groups of thc ~vcabury , their doad oithor on their own 1,md or in thc forest nc,arby. In somc r~mo' cases, thoy cremate the bodies on tho banks of the Tamkosi, All tnc Inbo- Aryan othnic groups crcrmte their dead on tho bank of the Tnn,akosi River urhich thoy consider holy. They do not c~vrythe dend body across thc bridge for crcmtion.

We asked local pcoplc whethor the bridge has brought about zcy changc in tho funeral ritos; 46% rcspondod positively. All the pcoplc questioned fron Chisapani villago ganchaynt addod that thc bridge has enabled them to buy shrouds, or ICatro, fron the market in ICaraabot. Of the pcoplc qucstioncd, 62%, fron both sides of tho Tamkosi, said that they utilizc thc bridgo wben collccting firosrood for tho crcnntion, It was also revealed that after tho construction of the bridgo, consanguinial rolativos fron both sidos of tho rivcr ncrc able to nssonblo during tho funeral cercnony and crenat ion.

- Education and Health Practices

Thoro ,arc?.scveral primy schools and middlo schools on cithor sidc of thc rivcr, but there is only ono high school, Locatcd in Chisapani, Studonts fron Karmbot and other villagos on tho loft sidc of the rivcr u~o the bridgo daily for traveling to this high school.

health post in Cbisnpclni village panchayat which treats about 600 paticnte per ycm'vho come from tho loft sire of the rivor and mke uno of the Karmbot Bridge. But, bho najorit~of the populn-- tion bcliovo in tho traditional sh,man hcalers, the and Jhanle. lo asked pcople in the ,area if thoy had changed thoir health prncticcs after the bridgc was constructed, 85% of tho informants rcplicd nogativcly.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Festivals, F,airs and Religious Activities '

We asked pcoplo in the arca whether thc nur~borof people visiting the local shrincs hnd increa~cddue to the prcscnco of the bridgo; 67% responded positively. According to thon, tho nunbcr of devoteos increased by two to throo times. Simil,mly, tho number of participants in all tho sgcial ccrononios and festivals has also incronscd.

The follotring tnblo ~Tvcsan idea of thc 1ocr.l s:lrincs and their rolntive distances from tho bridgc sitc. Tablc 1-T-3: Description of local Skinos ancl thc: - r: :t;--;c; f:--n tho zridgc Appr cxlnatc Religious distnncc fron Cnxs cP lro?ship shine Location t hg&;-,d= Z t e ---% LI Mcahadcvthcm Gelu 3 nilcs , 5 days during Janai Purninn and panc ha yat txo days in ?laghe Sadmanti .

Pasupatithan Chisapmi 1 to 2 miles ~aily' pnchayat

Bhinsonth,m II 11 11 FI Dally, and n fcair takas placo in Krishnns tmi

Mahadcvthan Katha j or 11 11 11 Every Tuosday, Ekadasi (11th panchayat . day after t:& full or nov noon), Purnina (Full noon)_ and Tij

Sati-bari 11 11 II 11 Chandi Furnima (Daisqkh) and (Goddoes 1 Dhnnya P~r~li~(Marg )

Sntibati . Chamute 11 11 11 Daily Dhungcswor Bhalgor 2 to 3 miles Evory full moan perioe and Mahndov pccnchayat Bibaha Panchami hlikathan II II 11 II Evory f'ull noon period, and fdrs tako pkcc during Dasain and Ch,aitra Dnsain

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- Changes in tho Rolcs of Wonon

B~forotho construction of the bridge, wolncn of tho area used to cross the rivcr by ferry and even today about 40% of Lhca still prefer to uso tho ferry rather than tho bridgo.

Tho responses collected during the ficld survey of tho ~vca,con- corrilng the changes in the roles of woncn brought about by tho bridge, ,mc tobuiatod below.

~abJ.0 1-T-4: Percentage of Respondents who Pointcti out an Incroasc in Wonenst Rctivlties duo to tho Bridge

Participation Extension Pmticipation inriacs Others: Domestic Panchayat of ritual in comunnl fostivnls, work, agriculturc friendship, dances, etc. and religious and portoring activitie~ Chisapani 32% 34% 66% 78%

Total Average: 3Vh 36% 63% 70% ------Source: ECE Fiold Survey

The low figure of 30% show that tho' sronon of tho 'wen have not to a went degree, boen facilitated by ths bridge in extonding ritual friendships l or Mitari. Thisis because n majority of the women profcr not to establish -Miteri with women on the opposite side of the river.

Most of the com~u~~ldances aro held during winter soason, and an oxanplo of one of tho most intoresting communal dnnccs called Dhwya, is colebratod in Docomber, on the happy occasion of harvesting. Only 36% of the respondents feel that tho bridge has facilitated participation of vronon

Fron the sanplo, 63% sad that wonen's participation in nmriagos, festivals, fairs and rcligiou activiti~shas bcnofitod from the presence of tho bridgo. According to 7056 of thc pcrsons pollcd, uroticn of tlic area now pcrforn doiltcstic work, portcring and agricultural arork that was not dono boforc thc bridge kras constructed.

It arns also found that ~i:ost of thc krorncn utilize tho surplus tine available by using the bridge by working on their farms. All the voncn agrecd that thc bridgc has not brought about any ncgative affect on tho social institutions of thc area.

- Chnngcs in Golicf~and Habits

Thc bridgc has not brought about any grcnt changc in the boliefs or habits of the local pooplc. But it has ccrtz.inly boor, ensicr to bring food supplies fron Sindhulinadi during the monsoon. Alco, during religious ccrenonies, norc pcoplc now gather togcthcr and nore focd of a aridcr v,wicty j.s consu~lcdduring these occasions. Therc is nuch morc social and cultural interactton ~mongthe people of different ethnic groups found on both sides of the river, and this is directly duc to the prcaonce of the bridgc.

INSTITUTIOIJAL ANALYSIS

- Local Participation

The bridgc uras entirely financod by the governnent, nnd, there was no voluntary labor contribution fron the local people. The minterancc of thc bridge is still t,&en c,we of by tho SBD. Whenever naintcnancc is required, the District Panch,ayat requests a financial grant fron HNG for tho repairs. Mcithor major nor minor rzaintenanco work is done by local institutions like tho vlllago panchayats or the District P,mchnyat, nor is a toll systen active. Most of tho people, cxcopt the pcoplc of Chisapani pnnchayat, feel that this bridge was installed in an inappropriate location and thcy hnvo little cnthusiasn for naintnining the bridgo. Thin is supported by the altcrnativc crossing point at thc Tmakosi Fcrry at Manthali.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Phnlr ropair and trail construction wcrc undcrtakcn in 1971 and 1972 by one of 3 or 4 local workcrs who werc forcncn during the origin7.1 construction. This is an ox,xlplc of a local person rrho rcccivcd cxpcrionce, during thc original construction of tho bridgo, and later uscd his skill for bridge naintenancc. Such local persons ,arc gcncrnlly prosent for ~mintonance work but their talents arc oftcn not utilized or ,arc undcr-utilized duo to lack of offcctivc a&inistration in rclation to bridgc nnintenzncc.

When the bridge was completed, it was turncd over to the District. If something happens to thc bridge, the villagc pnnchnyat nakcs a rcport to the District and the District takes tho necessary action. It scens that thc villaggsdo not feol nuch responsibility for the conditio~of the bridgc, and they believo that the governncnt is looking after the bridgc.

Sonc local people do not fecl that the bridgc is tvell looked aftcr and others fcel that it is not a very good bridgc conpared to othors in tho arca. Sonc pcoplc statcd that thc isolatcd location of the bridgc, atmy from any major sottlencnt, h'm nade it difftcult to'kcep a good nratch over the bridge.

- Institutional I~vnctof the Bridgc

Thc institutional impact of the bridgc has bccn linitod to helping pcoplo f'ron the right sidc of thc T.uclkosi to KO to thc District Hoadqwtcrs in Ranechhap Gazatu'.

Thic bridge has pronoted noro intoraction botvleon Kathajor and Chisapani panchayats throughout thc ye~v. Thc pcoplc of Chisapani panch'wat can go to Kathajor panchayat to collect fuel wood and the peoplc of Chisapmi and othor panchayats ,wound Chisapmi use this bridge to got in contact with the District lave1 offices in Raicchhap. - 15 -

162.3 -ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

- ~co~r,?.phicArea and Population Scrvcd

Thc gcopaphic arca and population that thc Knrnbo t 13rldl;o sorviccs nust bc anal~rzcdin tcrns of its locntional rclntlons:112 arith tho fcrry crossing point at i.lnntlmligl~.t, situntcd ,-,pproxinntc!.y nbout a 2 hour s2lk doxrnstrcan fron thc bridge, The Manthniighat fcrry cr~ssingpcint lies on thc direct

trail routc for distaxt ,?rcLts, aad almost -11- 1311g distnncc tr~bvcllcrsUEC this crossing fccility. All the' pcoplc who C~C!~C?-ii~Lcr~iet-rcC aboxt %hc location of the bridgc sicrc of tho opinion thzt tho bridgc was constructed in thc wong placc. The bridgc noitllcr falis on 30traditioilal najor trail, nor does a dctour savc tiao for t lo fit travellcr~~ECCL'.LIGC of this? a signifi- cant nunbcr of thc long-distznco, north-south, dry sc,?.son traffic uscs thc ferry point at Nznthali instcad of the bridge, wlij.ch involvcs a connddcrrtblc dctour to roach, Trzffic diversion to thc: bridge oscu??s only mr'ncn tho Perry ceases to opcrnto during thc nonsoon, Thc long-dista~~cobridgc usor6 during ths dry sccson mc linitcd to tho vcry fcur crho want to usc thc bridge not becausc it is con~renicntlylocntcd, but bcc?.usc thcg l:!.nt ';o save the f-crry chcvgcs. To this cxtcnt thc 4~yscaoon bonefit of the? b-1 dgc is inei gni ficant.

Vlhilc a vinble nltornatlvc rivcr crossing poilit cxists at Mnnthali- / ghnt duri~gthe dry soason, thc usbfulnoss of thc bridgo during thc 3 nonth nonsoon season is great. Duc t~ thc goographic~~ldcr.l.lscatlon of thc R,x.lcchhap District, thc bridgo serves nost of thc north vcstorr_ village panch3ynts of the District lyin~across thc rivcr such 2s Chisapnni, Pu~nnogaon, Gclu, Pliulasi, Gngnltnr, Tolscvpur Bethnn, Dor,mn, eta*? and enabl-cs peoglc fron thcso panchaynts to rcnch thc Cistric; Hcndqu,wtcrs at Rnncchlla> Caznru'. For the pLmch2ynts which lic on the cnst sidc of the rivzr, sc,cl; cs lintilajor, KatahGare, Betali, Those, Nngadnhn, Rnsauli, ctc,, the bridge providcs a link with tho pnnch,ayats on tho oppositc sidc ns well ns arct scnson accoss tc

Slndhulinadi 2nd lmniiZu AFx i; frori thc vill-,gc pant hngat c of Rnnc chhal:

District: thc bridgc nl~oserves :I snall scgncnt of thc population rosiding

8ES7AVAlLABiE COPY on thc southern flank of tlic Do1,akhn District. Sitdl,arly, 't!le briclgo nlsc servcs a fciv panchayatc in Okhalcll~un~aand Solul~hm.lbuDistricts enabling thcti to rsach thc m,arket ccntcrs of Si~ldhulimactiand KathmnZu. iIowovor, lon~ clistance traffic ovcr thc bridce in cs~entiallglimitcc! to tl13 xrct season.

- Estimated Traffic Floxf

Local pcopls have nixcd opinion concern in^ the nature nncl volunc of traffic flow ovor the bridgc. Hcwevor, the bcst octinato givc~nn avoragc of 100 to 200 persons por day during tho arct scason, and 80 to 150 persons por day during thc dry scason. Tho wot season traffic is s1lt;htly highor duo to the traffic divorsion from bbnthalightat, vrhcn tho ferry coascs to oporatc during tho monsoon. It was indicated that out of tllc total traffic voluno gcnorated by thc bridgo, Gone 2076 of the bridec usors livc in distant goopa- phic ~aroasailcl the rcst roycsent local traffic fron neighboring villacos.

Tho dry season traffic floiu was rccordcd whcn a count was nadc for 5 consccutivc c?.ayr; durin~tho ficld survey, at tlie onc! 3f J~.nil,~y1978 (Tablo 1-T-5). T11o traffic count, uncle scp,arntcfy for non-porter, porter and aninal traffic, rcvcals that non-porter traffic avcrnrpd 139 pcrsons, porters 'lj'r%d animals 9 pcr day.

a 1 Traffic Counts AcroGs thc Brid~c

Day FIoz-por tcr PG~t cr Animal - -- - - Firo t 143 15 6 Sccmd 175 25 10 Third 150 10 I2 Fourth 110 5 7 nfth 1-6 11 9

Source: ECE Ficld Survey (Dry Soason)

BEST AVAILABLE COPY ~ablc14-6: Perccrtage Traffic Indicating Origin, Destination and Purpose of Travol.in the Study Arcas.

2 hanusa Kath- Total Ramo- chhap ko t mandu chhap Madi 1

Purpose of ' 0 D 0 D lo D 10 D 0 D Travel. OlD 10 D Buyf nt; 2 ,- 2 24% 24% ~ellir-g % 8% Portering 2 -- -- 10% 10% ~ovt.Office 2% 2% Soci~l - 3 - - 3 t- 5196 51%. -- --I Others I -5 5% 5%

Totals , k4;7 18113 518 31 37 0 1- 2 5 6 120 2\5[3 2 - /100110096 - -- -I-- - - I Source: ECE Field Survey

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Tllc flow of traffic by 2urposc of SriLge use and in tcr:.l& of ori:;in and clcstination (Table 1-T-6) indic2.t~~that as much as 51% <>ftot21 trxinfic was for socinl visits, erliilc 24% !\:as for buying purposcn; 8;; for scllillg ourposcs, 107i lucre portcrs, 2% were going to eovcrnric~lt9fficcs; ancl. 55, for

In so f,zr as thc origin and dcstinntion of traffic is conccrncd, tho highcst porccntage, 336, of traffic origiactccl fror: tho neighboring villagc panchayats in R,m~echhap, rcfcrrccl to as tlic 'rcst of R~~~lcchhccp1in Tzblc 1-T-6, and 3777 rrcre destinccl for thcsc snnc Lv~as.

Fron this ICarambot Bridgc can be clascificd as z lccal accoss bridgc.

- Agriculture:

Thc obscrvntion in this scction was linlto~lto the three village pncl~yats in thc neighborhood of the bridgc, tliosc ,me; Cliisnpani, K?thjor ,and Na~daha. Agriculture is the minstny of thc arcals cconony, and is characterized by subsistcncc love1 fnrllzing ancl obsolotc agricultural tcchrol~~~y. Thc poor productivity of thc farm lrncl nccentuatcd by tho ~rosslyLraclcq:lnto irrigation systex, has a ncgativc cffcct cn thc total agricultural yicld oi the arcn. A mjor ~l1~a-eof tho cultivated land consists of clry or 2- land, whcrcns thc wct land or Khct is nlnost conplctcly li~~tcdto smxll pntckcs Laround thc rivcr banks. This has scveryy curtnilcd tho possibility of doublc crop pin^:. Local pcoplc inclicatc that thc total lanc! ~arcaof the p-nchayats, consist of; 9%, Khet, 30%, Pakho, 31%, forcstcd,,and 215, b-zrrcn land. Rural irri~ntionsystcns =are liaitod and ~lci?cn~.cntupon s trcm~which clry up during thc dry scason.

Thc major crops Grown in thc area LVC; paddy and xrhcat on the rct land, ancl mizc, millct, lcguncs, soyabcan and potntccs on Cry land. Paddy is sown in the nonths of June and July and linrvcstcd in Novctlbor or Dcccnbor after which whcai; is planted, ,md harvostcd in tlic clicl4c of Junc. Maize is sown in March or April and hLvvestod in Auzust 'or Scptcmber, millct, 1cgul;ics

BEST AVAJLABLE COPY and soyabcnn LVC sovm ~irnultanoou~lyin thc nonths of July and August and hczrvcstcd in FTovcnber or Docember. Potatoos ,Ire grown primwily during thc winter nonths of Docenbor and Jcnu,vy, and hmvcstod at thc oncl of July.

Aninal husbanclry eoes sidc by side arith fLvming nctivitios. Local >ao?le estimtc that a family oris an avorage of 1 to 2 cows, 1 to 2 buffnlocs, 2 to 4 goats and/or sheep, and 2 to 6 poultry. Tho fact that livcstock raising constitutes a sine qua non activity of ngriculturc in tho rural areas is self evident for livcstock is thc only sourco of natural fertilizer npcart fro:^ its uscfulnoss for a vLaricty of farming oporations.

In so fLv as the use of nodorn agri-inputs is concernod, all the local pooplc rho wcrc quostionod roplicd that thcrc hao boon an incrcasod tonclcncy for f,arners to usc chonical f crtilizcrs nncl improved vLarictics of seccl in recent ycars. Ho~vevcr, there. ic a total lack of usc of any but the most rudinentnry hgricultural inplcncnts. Thc brid~ehas had only n very linitcd affect on chan~inl:the agricultural activities cf thc wen. It lias to a srx'11l degrcc providccl accass to clrrrkot centers whore thc~cinputs ,arc available. According to tho local pcoplo this cliangc towards nodern fLmn inputs rosults fron tbo practical nocessity to incrcaso food production, and cmnot be attributed to the bridge.

About 70% of tho local people quostionccl wcre of the opinion that the agricultural yi~ldin tho area has boon cloclining over the ycara. his is nninly rclatod to wiclcsproad soil erosion which is thc rosult of thc indiscriainate usc of forest rosourccs for fuel woo[':, foddcr and pasture. AccorGin6 to informed local pcoplo, tho ,vcafs food production, fit best, can custain tho local'econony only up to 5 to 6 months. This chronic food shortage h,v to be supploncntccl through food inports fron thc Tcrai.

Local people say that a JTA visits the ,won occassionally and ndviscs then on aodcrn ~iethoclsof farming ancl iml~rovccivnrictics crf crops such as wb,eat, m-tizc and paddy. Vegetable f,vming has rccontly Socn intro- duced.

BES J AVAILABLE COPY While tho bricl~chas provided acccss to f,ms lanci., coopcrntivc storcs, apiculturnl institutions ctc., it hp.8 so far affcctccl only n vory smll scgncnt of tho total popuLztion, and no distinct changc %n thc a~ri- culture pattern, resulting fron tho bridgc is nct~clin tllc ,arm.

- Rural ,and Cotta~oIndustrios

According to tho local pco2lc, thc uec of handloons previously oxistod for vcaving cotton cloth, Khadder, which used to bc producer! in sufficient qwtitics to noct tho donostic rcquircncnt~. Nola, this inclustrj- has bccn abandoned duo to tho fact that cottcn cultivntiol: is no lorqcr done. Local pocplc attrihutc thls to n chain rcacticn phcnoncnon. Cotton cultiva- tion requirc an abundant supply cf cattlc nanurc which is no longor nvzilablc in tho qunntitics rcquircd bocausc of tho clocrcasing nwbcrs of Uvostocl: brought about by thc Lzck of foddor and pasturc land. Vhilc this zppo~arcto bc 2launiblc ronson, tllc influx of chcnp nnnufacturcd fabrice into tho ~vca hi16 aloo h,~da illscouraging offoct on thc moar~,hnndloou industry. Howcvcr, n fcw households still opcrato thc handloons by using in1:ortccl c~ttonyc?rn; nost do not duc to high cost of this y~arn.

While tho bridgc has contributed to tho inflov of cottagc indus- trial raw natorials, sucl~as catton y,vn, lcntkcr ancl notal, it€;uocfulncss towards thc pronotion of cottago inducwy hac bccil miniml.

- kzbcr Forco Situation and Enuloynont

Tho sizc of tho total population cf thc throo villagc pa~chnyats in this'stucly is cstitlatod tc bc 14,572. Of this, 7,071 .arc r.mlos nncl 7#5Ol fcmloc (T:.blo 1-T-7). The oizc of total labor forco, that is sconor~cally hctivc ncnborc of tho population in tho ngc group of 10 and ovor, ic cstinatccl to bo 7,719, !with tho ~zlcscontributing 4,443 anc! tllc fci:~~lcc3,276,

Of tho throo pisnchayats in the study, Knthcljor hac tho higl~ost 2opuLztion and labor forcc; 5,403 an6 2,806 rccpcctivoly, anilhTngd~11rthas

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Tablo 1-T-7 : E~timctodPopulation and Labor For c o

------d- lO,v,~g,s of nnc and atovo Fonomic ally Active gPooulat ion P~nchayata To t aAi-o~j-l&t && -- Total !$rile Tcmalo Total Male l?e:nale Totel N.le Female - -- .. ,Y_-.... *-LLn------1. Chisapani 5098 2446 2652 3620 1737 1883 2626 1468 1158 2. Kathajor 5403 2735 26G8 3837 1942 1895 2806 1641 1165 I 3. Nagdaha 4071 1890 2181 2891 1342 1549 2287 1334 953 TU Ic--c -- P Total 14572 7071 7501 10348 5021 5327 7719 4443 3276 I * -- Source: ECE Estimate basad on 1971 CBS Cencus.

;L/ The ccononically active population can be dofinod as tho numbor of porsons in tho age group 10 YO~XG and above wrho arc engaqod in activities contributing to tho production of goods and services.

BEST AVAiLABL E COPY - 22 - tho loro~tvdth a p.opuhtion of 4,071 and n labor forcc of 2,287. Chisnpani ha a populi~tionof 5,098 and a 1a3or force of 2,626.

ApLzrt fron ngriculturc, the prin'my occu?ation, tho secondary occupation of the labor forcc is: 6296, anirml husbandry; 8%, retail business; I 15%, porteragc; and 15%involvod in the sorvicc sector.

Sindh~li,~lbandhi,Ranpur, Dhanusn and SLzrlahi hnvc boon idcnti- fiod as inportant places where people nigrato to scek onployr~entor to purchase farm lanc!. Migration of prmnent mturo occurs occasionc?lly in the area. Thorc is nainly n vertical nigration, frou the hills to the In the south, in scmch of bottor fcmn lands.

According to local opinion, tho bridge has indirectly benefitted a smll segment of tho rural population by onablin~thou to reach labor nwkct centers. But, in ~;oncraltorus, tho nnjority of tho peaplo seenod to agree that tho bridge has not boon instrunontal in pronoting eaploynont or oponing up now avonuos of enployncnt opportunities. Thus, tho rolo of the bridge in facilitating tho labor uobility for er~lploynenthas been mginal.

Liko nany hill occnonies, tho exportable itens of the area mo liuited. However, in terns of commodity flow pattern, tho aoa cxports -ted mounts of tobacco, Gh-, livestock, mainly goats, and a small amount of Khaddor, in soquantial ordor . The ,area imports nanufacturod cloth, salt, kerosono, food grains and mustard oil along with other ossontial nanufactured consunor goods. Thc min narket contcrs of thc ,voa 'are Ranechhap Bazaar and Sindh~li~di.But the attractiven~s~of Sindhulinadi as a nwket centor is grcater bacause of low~rprices; porter transport co~tsare addod to nany comoditios in Rmcchhap Bazaar.

Sono of the local people oxprosscd tho opinion that tho bridge has not boen instrmontal in facilitating the trado flow since nost of thc goods arc cmricc2 inta the mca via tho fcrry at Manthali rather than across the bridgo. Thi~is duc to tho fact that pcoplc vith loads use tho fcrry as it affora a ucro clirect route. Porsoml observatFor at the bridge head by thc study toam rcvcaled that the bridge is not totally rodtmc!ant in tcrns of fxilitatin; connacliity flow. In fzct pcc>l" vrith cofluercial purposes, c,mryin~ loads af cxlxx-t itons like chickcns and Ghcv, and iqort itons likc salt, koroscne nnc chcnical fortili~c~s,woro fou~dto '3c using thc bridgc. Sovcvor, upon enquiry, it was found that they urcrc us in^; the bridgc not bccauso of its convc-nioncc tut in ordcr to avoid paying fcrry cha-gcs.

Tho usefulness of thc.bridge in facilitating thc tradc flow on tho whole is linitod to the urct soason ofily, sinco during tho clry mason nofit of tbe cormcdities pass through Manthalighnt. The bridge has nat hrou~htzbout any changes in tho pattern of tradc in torus of comx~oclityor track eiversi- fication. Ifor has tho bridge been instruncntal in oxpnndr;n~tho local ~rskcts.

- Environncntal Ef fccts

Bccauso of tho isolated location of the bridgc, most of the local pcaplc oxprcssccl thc opinion that forcst resources .?.nil v,rildllfe ccolol~yof tho 'men have beon clanagcd. Tho left bank of the river, 2rior to tho construc- tion of the bridgc, uscct to be a dense forcst wit11 plenty af 3rildlifc. But now, the brid~ehas proviZcd ca6y access for tho po~ploresiding across tho river, to collcct fucl wood and fodder, ancl tho forest nrcss ,arc hcing dostroycfi by this inrliscrininatc ucc. Each dLay 2bout 10 pcoplc crcss the bridee with load^ of forest products, and althouzh the felling of trccs is prohfbitod by tho panchaynts, it is still continuin?:. With tho forests gradually thinning tho threat of soil erosion and lcndsliclcs trill become scrious in the future. \

BEST AVAILABLE COPY 1.2.4 ENGImING ANALYSIS

- Site Selection, Pesian and Construction Methods

Withi3 less than a year after His late Majesty, King Mahendra corcmanded tho construction of the bridge, Mr. Devi Prasad Upadhayaya and 'Ir. i.1ukunda Upadhaya came to survey the site at Kararnbot. villagc. It was said they detormincd the sp,m length required to bc 285 ft. Our owrn rough compass triangulation showed the length Porn bank to bank to be approximately 300 ft. Allowing for setting the loft foundation at a safe distance in from the bank, the spar. at ICaran~bot village would have been well in excoss -of 300 ft.

In latc 1965, an American together with a Nopalcsc, IZr. Thap, came to survey the sitc. This party and other eurvey parties consulted local people concerning the bridge site. Evidently bccausc thcre wcrc no bridges of sufficient span length available undcr the USAID/HMG program, the party, including the American and Mr. Thapa, went upstrenm and selcctcd a sitc about 450 ft. dournstrocup from whcrc the bridge was eventually built. Thcir location would havc eliminated tho nced for climbing up and dovn a troublcsome cliff, on tho loft sidc of tho river, just down from thc cxisting bridgc, for the traffic from Ramechhap Bazaar to ~restcrnRamcchha9 District or Charikot, Thc cnginccr who built the bridge, Mr. Satya Naayan T.~anan*ar, shiftcd the sitc upstrcan from the cliff to its prcscnt location. Thc Karambot Bridgc is the standard dcsign of tho BRC for a 260 ft. spcn. It is probablo that Mr. Manandhar found that the site do~lrnstroamof thc cliff was slightly longcr than 260 ft. and shifted thc sitc upstream b'ocausc thc only bridge part^ z7~a5.1ablewcrc for a 260 ft, span.

It is unfortunate that thc bridgc nras not built at Karambot villngc, tirhore it would have becn more convcnicnt for most of thc traffic. Sitc selection was evidently dictated by thc avnilnbility of an already fabricated bridgo. Othcr bridges in this study also wore placed in poor locations because of pre fabricated span length Toxclghat , Pnchu~mrghat, and Kagunc.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Construction stutcd in 1966, and srns co:.~plctcby the .spring of 1967. Along with Mr. Pianandhar, Dan Harris, an tncrican Poace Ccrps Volunteer 2nd civil onginc-cr, ~rorkcdcn this pro jcct . Onc cr taro nnsons, and probably a ~cchanic,alsc cane from Kathnandu. All other v~orkcrswcrc local incluclin~;thc carpenters, mscns, concrctc arorkcr~nni, tho workers nrho did the crcction work aftcr they had becn instructccl by thc staff fron Kathmandu.

The Kodclri Road arm beine built at thc ti~roof the construction of the bridge and parts srcre trnnsportcd fiznt by truck tc Dhulikhcl, and thcn portored via thc Rosi Khola, and then along thc Sunkosi to Karanbot. Thc Karanbot Bridgc vms constructccl at thc 'sane tine as tho Pachusrar~hat Bridge anc! sonc of the bridge pets wore nixcd up,- some Pachuwcarghat pmts wcro transported to Krarmbot and ro-transported back to Pachuwarghat during construction excavation work. The cut tin^ of planks for thc Karambot Bridgo was done under contract, but all other work sras done on a daily sragc basis. Wages at that tine worc Rs. 3/- per day for ordinary workors and Rs. 4/- or .5/- per day for skilled laborers. Concrete was r.~ixedby hand. Blasting work had to bo donc and tho ckillin~of blast holos was also by hancl. Tho towers were orccted using bazboo scaffolding, and a cable pulling rmchine \vas uscd for pullice; the cablo. Pinc wood was initially used for plcullsing but later, when tho plarking was replaced, sal wood was used. The bridgo was inaugu- rated in April 1967.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY

Refer to Pho t o~raphNo. suspender are missing. Sone coach bolts on the planking are loose nnd others are Llissing. All original conilectcrs for hand cable to anchor channel are missing or daaaged, althcugh they have been replaced on one side of -the bridge by locally- made connectors. The bridge is nuch in need of thc replace- nent of nissing parts, and a general tightening of existing

Fencing is not wired to'the hand cable as it shoald be and has become unclamped fron suspenders at laany places.

Rocks and dirt have gathered around the tower base on tho landslide prone left bank of? the bridge and should be cleared away. Likewise debris from the landslide has entirclg covered the left anchor and all the cable connectors Rere. Even though all the bridge parts are galvanized, rocks and dirt encourage eventual corrosion and should be cleared away,

One tower sidestay is loose and tho road ropes could use better tensioning in order to help check bridge sway. The bridge tonds to stmy transversely so nuch as to even to stop traffic sonetines when a nedium-sized group crosses the bridgo. It was said the bridgo did not svsing quite so nuch when it was first built.

About 30 planks are defective, mostly from rotting at the edges. One crossbean has alnost rotted through. Most others are in fair condition.

The above defects requira correction in order to put the bridge back into good condition, * L I -! Refer to Pho t om Approach trails arc in good condition. The upstrean I left bank approach trail is near the level of the river and 1 1-P-5 blastoci into the cliffs there. During the monsoon season it isI flooded and inevitably washes out, requiring a dotour above the1 cliffs and requiring maintenance work the following dry season. i1 It was in good condition when inspected in January. About 5 / minutes downstrean on the right bank, a short span woodoh i i bridgo was built last year over tho Mahadov Khola, a non- i I perennial stream. The bridge was built with a grant of I i Rs, 2,000 given by tho Ramechhap District Panchayat. The i i downstream loft bank approach trail used to bo longer and nore I difficultthanitisnomr. TheprescnttrailwasbMltata i 1 cost of Rs, 500 in 1971-72. i

- Past Maintenance Work

Major: The greatest damago that has ever occurred to tho Kar,mbot Bridge was caused by a landslide in 1972, when the left bank tower was half buried; the slide blocked traffic. The response of the District Panchayat was quick; the District appropriated Rs. 7,000 for cleaning up the landslide and the work was done under contract. No mjor ,structural damage occurred but some of tho tower bracing menbers and susponders were bent or brokon, hand cable connectors ware also broken and the fencing damged. Most of tho bent tower bracing menbers wero straightened during the cleawp, but several monbers are still bent or missing. w:The original pino wood planking was replaced with sal wood in 1971-72. It was said that MP. Satya Narnyan Manandhar, tho original engineer during construction, was responsible for making arrangements fop the planking repair and, also at tho sane time, for building the near approach - 29 - trails on the cliffs of the left bank, just downstream frm the bridge. At the tine of the planking repair and approach trail construction, Mr. Man'mdhar was also the engineer for tho construction of the Khinti IChola Bridge, about 2 to 3 hours walk north of tho Karasbot Bridge. The plank repair was contracted out at Rs. 3,000 and trail constructioi~at Rs. 500. It was said that suspenders and connectors of the bridge vrere put in good condition and nuts =d bolts tightoncd at the tino of tho conpletion of the plank repair. 1*3 FINDINGS

- The Tanakosi is a major river and cannot be forded at any time during the year. Human beings as trrcll as animals, were comonly svrclt away r:very year prior to tho construction of the bridge. In view of tllc h,rrdship, a bridgc was com~andcdto be built by tho late King Mahondra, during his tour of the area.

- The Karanbot Bridge has increased cross-rivor narriagc~.

- The bridgc has not changed the areas funoral pradticcs, but it iias provided transport and communication facilities for pcoplc participating in tllcsc funoral rites.

- The bridgc has helped the local wonon to participate in narriagcs, festivals, fairs and religious cerenonios, It has also ir_fluenced tho domestic roles of wonen in the ,area.

- The nunber of devoteeo to the local shrines and tho number of participants during fcstivals havc incronsed.

INSTITUTIONAL

- Because of the distance fron tho main traditional fcrry crossing point, - institutional services have not come to the arca around tho bridge.

- Even the travellers who kave boen crossing this bridgc fool that the bridcc serves only those people from Chisapani and Kathajor panchayats.

- A dircctivc wras givcn for the con~trlictionof the bridge at K~xanbotbut it waE finally constructed at Bandare; this was probably dictated by the availzbility of only a prefabricated span length for thc bridgc.

- Thoso who cross tho bridge have to tako a long detour, though many do so in order to avoid paying tolls at the ferry crossing point.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Karanbot Bridgo is'an examplc of local Icrsons having roceived sone training during the original bridge construction and later applyi~lg these skills to bridgc maintenance.

- Vie~edin terns of its locational relationship with Manth,dighat Ferry, situated approximately a 2-hour walk downstream, the dry season benefit of tho bridge is fairly Insignificant since Manthaligkat ~ffcrsa shorter and more diroct trail routo for tho long-distance travellcr. Traffic diversion to the bridge occurs only during the wet scasoo. To this extent, the geographic area acd population that the bridgc scrviccs is primarily local .

- Despite the fact that the bridge is wrongly placed, a mjority of the local people seemed to agroe that tho bridge staads as thc best alternative to the ferry during the act season. It has boen instrume~ltalin providins alternative access to government offices and market conters on a ccntinuous

basis as well a6 maintaining an uninterrupted trade flow.

- Although it cannot be totally related to the bridge alono, tho fact that the bridge has provided access to thc forest arcn has brought about noticc- ably ncgativc offect on the environment. With the bridgo, the forcst resources me progressively deteriorating with distcrbine consequonccs to tho wildlife and ecology of tho arca.

ENGINEERING

- The selection of the nost suitable site was evidently provcnted by the limitation of available span length of yrcfabricated bridgc parts. If there had been no limitation on span length, it would havc been possible to select a sitc aore appropriate to tho existing trail network.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - The bridge is exposed to potential landslide darmgo on one side, though damage is not li!i~lyto be catastrophic. Without tho spail longth lil:!itn- tion the enginoer involved nay not have choscn this landslide prone site.

- The bridge is reasonably safe from damage by river scow but it was built too low erd 1s subject to flooding.

- The general condition of the bridge is only fair tcnding tourcard pool-. The bridge needs naintenance work with particular attention to bcnt, nissing or loose bridge parts and planking.

REST AVAILABLE COPY

Suspanwn bridges Trail ------Local trail ...... Sernemsnts -:-.Q Pereniol rlvers ==-- Nm pereniol rivers -..-

Develqnrmnt cmtars

I -. TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.; SYABRWESI BRIDGE 2.1 CASE HISTORY 2.1.1 AREfl DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY - Geographic Setting - Bridge Site Description - Relationship with Rogional Transportation System - General Cultural Setting - Services Available in the Area - Bridge Location History and Decisirn Process

2.2 ANALYSIS

2.2 a1 SOCIO-ANTHR-OPOLOsGICAL ANALYSIS - Land and Peaple - Structure of the Family - Plarriago Practices - lneral Practices - Education and Health Practices - Festival, Fairs and Religfous Activities - Changes in the Roles of Woman - Changes in Beliefs and Habits 2.2.2 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS - Local Participation - Institutional 'Impact of the Bridge 202 03 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - Geographic Area and Poplation Served - Eetimat~iTraffic Flow - Agriculture - Rural and Cottage Industries - Labor Force Situation and Employment - Trade Flow Pattern - Environmental Effects

BEST AVAILABLE COPY I&& I&& 2.2.4 ENGIN 21 - Sito SelectLon, Design and Construction Methods 21 - Present 2~idgsand Approach Trails: Conditions and Recormended Improvements - 26 - Past ~aintenanceWork 30 2.3! FINDINGS SOCIO-ANTHROPOW3GICA.L INSTIT'JT IPlThL ECONOMIC mGImcL:-lTL -4"

2.4 ILLUST~TIVE PHOTOGRRPJS (2.~~1to 2.~~13)

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS end of the report end of the report LIST OF TABLES 2-T-1 Estimated Householda of Tibetan Refugees 2-Ts2 Percentage of '~espondentsIndicating a Helpful Change in E'uneral Activities Since the Construction of the Bridge 2-T-3 Traffic Counts Across the Bridge 2-T-4 Percentage Traffic Indiaating Origin, Destination and Pwpgse of Travel in the Study Areas 2-T-5 Estimated Population and Labor Force

LIST OF FIGURES 2-F-1 Area Location - Sysbrube~iSuspension Bridge 2-F-2 Syabru Trasect (Schematic)

BEST AVAClA BLE COPY 2 el CASE HISTORY

2.1.1 gREA ' DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY

The Syabrubesi Bridge lies over the Bhotekosi River uihich flow southewards from its headwaters in Tibet. Several feet downstream from the bridge, the Lantang Khola merges with the Bhotelcosi River. Just north of Dhunche, the District Headquarters of the Rasunra District, the Trisuli River, ori~inntinsat Gosainlrunda Lake, merges with the Rhotekosi River and flocrs southwcards under a new name, the Trisuli Ganga River.

The Syabrubesi Eridge is.situated in the Syabru panchayat in Rasuvra District of Bagmati Zone in the Central Development Region of Nepal, and is days.walk, for a non-porter, from Trisuli Bazaar. The Trisuli Bazaar is linked by an all-weather motorable road to Kathmandu. Rasuwa is one of the eight districts of Bagmati Zone and one of the mountainous districts of the Central Develop,ment Region. L/ Though Baeuwa is the second largest district of the Bagmati Zone, it is the nost thinly populated district of the Zone.

The bridge spcms east-west and links two separate wards in Synbru panchayat. The geographical landscape of the area around th; brLdge sltz is chmactorized by'a nild hill slope. Tho overall ,area consists of the slop in^ hills with a small amount of land suitable for cultivation.

- Bridge Site Description

The Syabrubesi Bridee is built near the same location that had been used as a traditional crossing point over the Bhotekosi River for many ge~ars.

-1/ There ,are three zones and 19 districts in the Centrnl Developsent region. Accordihg to the geographical conditions of this region, three districts (Dolakha, Sindhupalchok and Rasucra) are included in tho mount,ainous region.

BEST AVAILABU COW The Photekosi River flows in a deep canyon at the site of the bridgc and flat land for agriculture or other purposes is strictly limited. Several huneed feet both up and dovnstrcam on the right bank, stcep cliffs ~u'e prescnt, The upstronm left bank is steeply sloping land composed partly of soil, boulders and cliff rock nrhich drops down tolmrds the river. Downstro'un near the kingtang Khola more cliffs are present. In addition to the flat land on which Syabrubesi Bazaar is built, there is a flat aroa about 60 to 75 ft. above tho right tower and a somewhzt low-lying flat area just downstream from the bridge on tho right side.

The Syabrubesi Bridgo is located on a slight bend of the Bhotekosi. The left bank is ~olidcliff rock and all left bank anchorages and foundations me on bedrock, The river flows in such a way that the force of tho river is directed towad the cliff rock of the left bank* Tho right bank consists of a mixture of soil and boulders, which although not tightly cemented, is neverthaless well'compcted and resistant to crumbling, The profilo of the right bank, although now somewhat altered by excavation work, is roughly a steep inclino from loar water level up to the foundation level, about 36 ft. From the foundation level, a steeper incline rises another 60 to 75 ft. to the wide flat ,area or above the right tower.

Tho Syabrubesi Bridge site is acceptable, although the right bank is composed of mixed soil and boulders and' certainly not as good as the solid cliff rock on the loft side. The 232 ft, sgan of the bridge is well suited to the site and tho bridge is high enough to be safe from high floods, b,wring an exceptional flood produced by some catastrophic ovent.

- Relationship with Ronional Trans~ortationSystem

The Syabrubesi Bridge links the three important panch'ayats lying on the right bank of the river, n'mely Gadlang, Gholjang and Chilime, on tho main trail of the District. The long-distancc trcail follows the loft bcmk of the Bhotekosi River, originating in tho southern part of the District

BEST AVAJLABL E COPY and ends in Rasuwa Gndi in the north. This trail docs not cross the Syabru- besi Bridgo, but the bridge does link several govcrniacnt inctitutiorx lirith the trail. The trail also serves as the trndc route to Kyircnc, in Tibot, whore the b'vtcr system of trade still exists.

The all-weather motornble road,originnting in Katl~mnndu terminates in Trisli. A fair-weather motorable road links the village of Betramti, near the bank of Phalankhu Kholn, enroute to Dhunche nnd Sgnbrubesi, with Trisuli Baza,~. The trail from Betrnwnti clinbs sharply to Rmche via the main village of mni Gaon and Xmni Danda. Fron RLuache, the tynil cccends gently to Dhunche. Fron Dhunchc on~r'vd, the trail is n,vrow and rough, it crosses a locally-made vrooden bridge cver the Trisuli River, and n suspension bridge, constructed in 1936, over the Langtang Khola, and finally reaches the settlement of Synbrubesi. From Syabrubcsi the trail leads north to Ryirong.

A notorable, single-lane gravel rocd, connecting Trisuli Bazxv with a prospective lead and zinc nine at Somdang {northvrost 0.7 the bridge) via Dhunche and Syabrubesi, is being designed by EAST Consulting Engineem for tho Royal Nepal Army. Actual construction 'of this road is difficult to ascertain at this time, becz.use of unccrt,zintios surrounding the proJc-t fund. Preliminary survey of the road, nlso conducted by ECE, show that it will cross the Bhotakosi River at about the scam place where the existing suspen- sion bridge is, and if the road is built as planned, this present bridge ct Syabrubcsi will become redundant,

On the norihwen8 side of Syabrubesi, there is nn nirstri~at

Thangbajct, about n 4 hour wdk, there is also another nirstrip about 2% dasi~alkto tho cast, near the headwaters of the Lan~tangKhola. Ncithcr of these airstrips has any scheduled service, nor it has any significant current or anticipated future cffect on the traffic over the Syabrubesi . Bridge.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - General Cultural Scttin5

Thorc xrorc only six village panchcyat~in Rasuara gistrict. bcforc 1964, but after tho reorganization of thc vill~lgopanchaynband district bound,aries In Mcpal in 1976, Rasuwa District no:s har 18 pancilnyats, Each panchayat, on thc avcragc, is inhabited by lcss than onc thousand pcoplc, and thc ~lajorityof the people living in the District ,me Twangs, vrho rcprosent nore than 83% of thc total population in the District. The sccond lareest cthnic ,~oups ,arc the Noplcsc specaking population of Brahmins, Chhetris, Kmis, Damis and S'zrkis rrrho comprisc,cnly about 396 of the total populatiolli The remaining ethnic groups living kn tilo district are Shcrpa,

Gurung, Newar and soma Tibetan refugees, locally called &r

- Services. Available in the Aron

In Syabrubosi, thero is a mtarkct placo for the locnl pccple, lodges 2nd eating placcs arc also available. Syabrubesi is thc nay tati ion for people going to the northern border villages of Mcpnl,

A Tibctan rcfugee canp was established hcrc and handicrafts madc by tho refugcos ,arc sold to tourists, A school, health post, post officc, agriculture extension officc, pasture developncnt officc, and a cattlc inprovemcnt officc ~zrcalso situated mound Syabrubcsi.

- Bridge Location History and DocisLon Procoss

Thc year-round ul:fardablo nature of tho Shotekosi Rivcr had inconvenienced travol betcreen Syabru and its ncighooring pnnchayats for nnny years. The loc,d peoplo were forced to construct cithcr braided grws ropo, Bnbiyo, bridgcs or scasonal croodcll bridgcs in ordcr to trntrcl to the nuncrous religious shrines in thc area, tho pasturc lands, thc lnrgc i~~xkctin Trisuli, agricultural offices and the Mstrict Headquarters at Dhunche. These temporary, locally-constructed structures were crudc and risky, znd fatal accidents ofton resulted from using thcn.

BEST AVA/lABLE COPY -5- The dcsirc on tho pcmt of the local pcople for unhindcrcd 2nd safe travel to 'meas on the othcr sidc of tho Bhotckcsi promptcd thc local people, lead by tho Pritdhan Pancha, to brins their plight to thc attention of tho Chairman of the T?ep-1 Rod Cross, who vrns on an inspection tour of tlle Tibotan rcfugoo camp in thc aea. This vns follovrcd by a similar plea lnade to tho Engineer of Rasunra District, Mr. Ram Prasad, A final request was nade in 1970 by Dawn Finzu, then a Rastriya Panchay ncmbor , who went to Kathmandu and prcsentcd a petiticn for tho coa~tructionof n bridgc to thc Remote Area Dovelopmcnt Comiittee,

In 1971, this resulted in tho approval for tho construction of a bridge in Syabru panchayat over the Bhotckosi. This was follourcd, soon after, by a survey of tlio ,Tea by thc SBD. The rurvcy tcars nado a co~lplctc study of thc ,vca; cxaraining probablc sites both upstream and domstrcm eon thc traditional crossing point at Synbrubesi. In thc end thoy chose tho prcsant sito at the traditional crossing spot because of tho technically superior conditions present, such as a shorter span length and bdttor soil conditions. The actual construction startod in 1973 pnd the b~idgcvrns completcd and conmissioncd for usc in latc 1974.

This is prinzirily a local access bridgc and has providod ndninl~- trativo unification and economic integration betaccn villagos of thc p~nchayatsothorwiso sepzated by thc Bhotckosi Rivcr.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

The Tibetan n'wc for the Bhotekosi Rivcr is Laiwsycr. It is said that a nuolbcr of Tibetar. tr?.dcsmen, who trhdec! bctv,rccn' Kyirong, in the Tibetan Region of the Peoplcls Rcpublic of China, and Kathandu, have fallen into thc Bho.tekosj. ovar thc yoLvs, hencc thc rivcr aras nnaed nftcr then. Thc folloudng pcanchayats srhich arc located in the bridge ,Tea, xrcrc uscd as CI sa~ilylcfor the study, Syabru, Goljong, Chilino and Bridii:~.

Thcrc is vary littlc ethnic diversity within these panchaynts ; iaost of tho households ,arc Tnmang. A foa households ~u'eaadc up of Mcvrars, Tibctan refugees, Thc&alis (only two households noted in Syabru 3azarv) and untouch- ables (the Ihni, IX~ncliaid Scxki castcs) . It is also reportcd thnt thcro wora some Tibetan vrarriors Khampas from Khan in Tibet, in thc ~woauntil 1976. Thoy created a lot of problens for the local adninistratlon; thcy uscd to rape aromcn and commit otlicr crincs and thoir vcry pcscncc crcatcd n scnsc of insecurity in the arca. It was only nftcr a dccisivo fight bctxrecn these Tibetan rrmriors and the rJopalcso governncnt in 1976 that they noved out of tho area.

Thc Tanangs claim to bc the indigenous settlcrs of this area. They are basically fmeers. They ,arc divided into several patrilineal exogamous clms. Some of them arc: Pakhren, Waiba, Gole, Goldain, Horidung, and Koktan, and though there ,are othcrs. Marriage is strictly prohibitcd among ncmbcrs of the same clan, and in some cases bctureen ccrtain clans. Cross-cousin narriages are usually preforred and thc normal ix,vringo for n nan is with his fathcrts, sisterls daughter, and for a wozlan, with h=r aothcr1s, brothcrts son. Polygamy is pradticctd but unlike tho Sherpas of Solu~ui~~bu,polyandry i6 unknown.

&EST AVAILABLE COPY The religious beliefs of tho Tamangs wc nost conplcx and consist of a nixture of local TLmnng traditions; ani~usn and thc borro~rcdvalues of Buddhist and Hindu traditions. Thcre are different types of pricsta ~rhc perform the nany different religious rites and rituals. Thcs~pricsts ~xe Bonpo Urns and are considcrcd suporior to all. Lams intcrprct tllc \mitton Tibet,- teachings on death, mriagc and othcr rcligious ritcs and rituals.

Tmangs exclusivcly spcLk the T'uaanc dialect in their hones and villages, however, they also spoak the Nopalose L~nguagc. A fcvr Tanangs have bccocle \wLard ~~enbers,Pr~dhan Panchas or me~~bersof the Rnstriya Pancha&.

Taro ThLdtali fai:~ilios ,me settled in this 'area and m~ engaged in business in Synbru Bru;acu'. All untouchable groups practice their traditional caste occupation as well as agriculture.

Tho Tibotnn rofugccs ~zropeoplo raho entered Nepal after the tnlreover of Tibet by tho Chinese in 1959. Hovfevor, most of thc Tibctnn rcfugces in this area cano after 1962. Thc nunbor of households of these Tibetan rofugccs noted in the following villages of Rasuwa District is as follohrs:

Tablo 2-T-1: Estimated Flouseholds of Tibctan Refugeo~

Village Households

Thangba jet Khangche Syabru Bridin 6 2/ Ticlure 4 - Ghat tekiola 7

Thesc Tibetan rofugoos ,me conpczratively better off than the Tamngs living in the area. Most of then have small hot316 and a fcwr bLartor and trtldo in Kyirong. A schematic transect of Syabru is shown in Fig 2-F-2. -2/ Thesc four Tibetan families living in Timure do not om their own houses 'and livc in rontod accomodations.

BEST AVAlLAELE COPY Altitude in ft.

rest e a.

Dry lands:Baley, Millet, Maize, Potatoes and Lentils are cultivated.

Forest : firewood R fodder collection area and Pasturage area.

......

Dry as well as Wet lands: Paddy, Wheat, Barley, Millet , Maize, Potatoes R Lentils are cultivated.

......

Fig. 2 - F - I: Syabru Transect (Schematic)

Source: ECE Field Survey

BEST AVAILABLE COPY -8 - I - Structure of the Family

The avorage family size in the study area is 4 to 6 persons. A Tanang boy usually sets up his own family after marriago. Since Talangs me tho major ethnic group in tho area, more nuclear families aro found hor~. When someone separates from his joint family, land fragmentation and the distribution of paternal possessions l'amongst the male members of the family take place. Hence, the majority of Tamangs, except for the Tamang traders in the area, hold only a small amount of land and livestock, and are comparatively poor. The Syabrubesi Bridge has played no role at all in the breaking up of the traditional family structure. Out of 50 people questionod only 8 (16%) mentioned that their consanguinal relatives live on the other side of the river, But, these families were separated, not because of the bridge, but because of marriarges. It however, cannot be rafuted that tho movement of any family member on either side of the river, and their mutual cooperation in case of nocd, has been largely facilitated by the bridge.

- Marriage Practices

Out of 50 people questioned, 42 said that it had been difficult to arrange marriages between people on opposite sidos of the river bofore the construction of the bridge. The married daughters and sisters had a difficult time returning to their natal homes, on the othor side of the river, during festivals, fairs, marriages and other socio-religious occasioas. They wore often even unable to attend the finerals of their immediate relatives. These 42 rospondents felt that there has been an increase in the number of cross- river marriages following the constructi'on of tho bridge.

- Funeral Practices

The Tamangs bury thoir dead on a hillock or throw them into the

\ river, When a Tamang dies, a priest or will dotormine an auspicious

According to Nopaloso laur, a girl who remains unmarried upto the a@ 35, is entitled to get some share of her paternal property. occasion to carry the dead body to the burial placc. The Lama reads the sacred Tibctan scripture until the burial cercmony is over. ?ha ssns of the dead shave their heads and moustaches and mourning is obscrvcd Tor 3 to l3 days until the purificntion,rito or Ghewa, is complete,

The Syabrubesi Bridge has not brought about any chariges in the traditional practices of carrying the dead body, end the placc of burial. The bridge, hovcvor, has made it easy to buy sbxouds, and for relatives to assemblc for the funeral procession and the pwificatory ritas even during the floofi season. When the qucstioll was asked of 50 local people on the changes notcd in tho follolnring funeral activities, thoy responded as f ollovs :

Table 2-T-2: Percentage of Respondents Indicating a Helpful Change in Funeral ActivitFos Since the Construction of the Bridge

Activities Affirmative Rcsponscs

Burial cremation grounds Buying shrouds Collection af firewood 8% Others (assembling of relatives at the funeral place etc.) 20% . Source: ECE Fiold Survey

- Education and Health Practices

In Syabru p~nchayatthere are two primary schools and one middle school, all locatcd on the loft side of the river, thoy wore established before the construction of the bridge. Ono primary school ~OW~VO~,has been upgraded to a middlo school sinco the construction of bridge. The total number of students cnrolled in these schools were 67, in 1977, of which only 8 four woro girls. The majority of Ttunangs of the area do not send thcir children to school, and no paronts from thc right sidc of the river used to

I

BEST AVAILABLE COPY send their childron to school bofore the construction of the bridgc. Now, hovevcr, thcrc are between 10 and 15 students of 7 to 14 years of ag6, who come from tho right sidc of tho river, regularly crossing thc bridgc to attend school. In othor words, the bridgc has onablod childron who live on the right side of the river to attend school.

There is one veterinary hospital located on the western sidc of the river. Before the construction of bridge, a large number of pcoplc wero unable to make use of this hospital. Bccause they wera sometimes unable to cure thoir diseased animals, particularly the goats 2nd sheep, there was no altarmtivo except to let the animals die. The situation has changed today, and many goats and sheep nre treated everyday at the vetcrinmy hospital.

Though the traditional method of curing tho sick person through the services of a haor PujCari, Tamng priosts, as well as through a Jhankri is still comon, the bridge hczc enablcd the pcoplc living on the east sidc of tho river to go to the hcalth post in Chilime, four miles west of the bridge. Serious diseaseo or injuries needing surgery aro always roportcd to this health post by tho pcoplc, If tho sick person cannot bc curcd at the Chilime health post, thcy mc carried to Dhunche via thc bridgo, and if nocossary to Trisuli. Of the pcoplc questioned, 26% statcd that the Syabrubesi Bridgc has enabled then to use the hcalth facilities in tho area.

- Festivals. Fairs and R~iousActivities

Festivals and fairs aro the major sourco of rccreation for most of tho Nopaloso hill poople. All tho people questioned pointed out that numbor of pooplo who gathor during festivals and fairs taking place on eitller sides of the rivcr has incremod sinco tho construction of tho bridge, Thc important festivals of tho aroa are: Losar Purnirna, Dasain, Tihm and Magho Sankxanti.

The bridgc has also onablod tho poople of tho area to go on long- distance pilgrimages such ris tho one to Gosainkund, two-day walk from tho bridgo; Parvatokui~cki, a one-day walk from tho bridge; and in Kathmandu, a tllree-day walk from tho bridge. Most of the Tamangs of the aroa come to Kathmandu during Buddha mu'nim to worship Lord Buddha. The major shrines in the study area are the Ghayang, the shrinos of Tar~angpooplo. The bridge has not incrcasod' the nur~bcrof devotees to thesc local shrines. This is because the Ghayans exist in cach Tamng village and the Tam,mgs of either side of the rivcr do not find it necessary to go to tho Ghayans on tho other sidc of the rivcr.

- Changes in tho .Roles of Women

Like other pmts of Nepal, the wornon of this ~venperform domestic work as well as agricultural work. Apart from pcrforning almost all thc agricultural activities except ploughing, they collect firourood and fodder, store food grains, and take care of children and old family members. When questions wore put to 19 women of the study area about tho changes in their various daily activities brought about by the bridgo, 84% of the wonen pointed out that there has boon a change in tho rolo of wonen in domestic work and agriculture. Most of the faras are located on tho right sidc of the river and womcn living on tho left side of the rivor acre prevanted from involving more in agricultural activities bcforo thc construction of the bridge. Thcsc days woaon help men in terracing fields, transplanting, reeding and tho harvesting of crops. The bridgo has also mado it easier for womcn to graze cattlo and colloct firewood on the right side of tho river. The-43 families of Komin villago, me directly helped by the bridge when they collect firewood on thc loft aide of the rivor. The bridge has also facilitated women living on tho loft sidc of the rivor to bring food grains and vegetables from tho right sido. In addition, tho women living on the right sidc of tho rivcr are now able to travel to Syabrubesi Bazacv to purchase goods.

Only 14% of women in this =ea ncntioned that the bridgo has affect- ed their participation in marriages, festivals, fairs and religious activities. This is very different from tho othcr case studics where noarly a11 vrcincn questioned stated that thoir attendance had increased. Thc fact that Twangs have fcwer festivals and fairs thew the Hindu groups, and that womon are Lcss involvod in these fairs than men, may nccount for this dif foronce* 2hc waxen of this arca arc also less involvod in extending ritusl fricndship, and participating ir, the coiilnunal dances thar! womon of other study acns.

However, 100% of tho wonen montioncd that they hcvo saved tisc in their work becausc of tho bridge and 85%, clearly stat9d that they utilize their surplus timo in perforrxlng agricultural tasks and dcmestic work. Tho remaining 15% of women could not say exactly how they used this surplus tinc, No women montioncd that thoy utilizc thoir surplus tino for recrcational activities or for socializing with other wonen.

- Ch,wos in Beliefs and Habits

Village panchayats such as Chilime ,and Goljong, lying on tho right ( sido of the river have a greater agricultural production than thosc lying on the left side of tho rivor, and the bridge has cnablod tho peoplo from these more productive aroas to carry whoat, barley, millet, sugarcane and potatoes from thoir farns to the left side of the rivor. Boforc tho construction of the bridge, the peoplc living on the left sido of tho rivor had a hard timo acquiring sufficient mounts of grain and othor food itcms, Hourover, the people living on the right side of the river havo o,wy accoss to SyaSru Waar, thc only bazaar in this area whore one can buy necesfiary food stuffs* Increased mobility of tho peoplc, brought about by tho bridgo, has increased tho numbor of hotels and restaurants in Syabru Bazaczr, and people living on both sides of the river we commonly seen socializing ovcr a cup of tea at thcse plncos. Fron thc sample, 6P& respondents pointed out that there has boon a change in diet since the construction of Syabrubesi Bridge.

The bridge has had littlc impact on thc local lnngugo patterns of the area. Sincc tho majority of the people in thc area arc Tanangs and speak the Tamang dialcct, part of thc Tibeto-Burnan language group, Nopalose is rarely used.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Of the pcoplc questioned, 6056 pointed out that thcre has boon a change in tho patterns of dress in the ~zrea. A cottage industry ornporium, Gharclu Sil-la -Bikri Bhandar Pvt, Ltd., was opcncd. at Syabru. Clothcs sold at this onporiui have becomc popul,~in thc mca because they arc cheaper than other products available noarby. Boforc thc constrnc-lion of thc bridgo, thcy had to walk to Kyirong or to Trisuli to purchase clothcs. Local pcoplo clain that tho clothes purchased at the Trisuli and Kyirong mket centors wcrc noro cxpcnsive whcn comgared to thc clothes available at Syabru Bazaar.

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS

- Local Participation

At tho initial stage, local politicians played a min role in getting the bridge constructed. Hovover, tho construct.ion was funded undcr the HMG~SAIDsuspension bridgo progran, and ncithcr a financial nor n voluntary labor contribution were mado by thc local pcoplc.

Sincc this bridgo is a ncw onc, lilaintonanco is not yct rcquirod and a systcm of mintcnancc by local pcoplc has n=rt yct cvolvod. ;To toll is raised from tho bridgo, and it seons, the naintcmnce worlc will havc to bo undertaken by thc govcrm~ont. Thc approach trails on both sides arc not in good shape, and local pooplc havc not taken initiative to inprovc thcn.

- Institutional Inpact of tho BridRo

Gadlang, Gholjong and Chilime panchayats now LTVOan casy acccss to the District Hcadquartcrs at Dhunche throughout tho ycar. With tho holp of the bridgo, Syabrubcsi now functions as thc scrvicc and mzrket ccntcr for the pcoplo of thesc panchayats. Thcro is a Post Office, an dgriculturo Sub- station, a Vctorinary Hospital Branch Office, thc GaqesG-Lqnjtanrr Coonorativo, a Cottage Industry Salcs Storc and an Anirilal Dcvclopmc!lt Contcr . T!ic scrvicos givcn by thcso offices can now bo mdc'uso of by thc panchayats around thc S-jabrubosi Bridge men.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - 14 -

2.2.3 ECONOMIC AFIj&Y SIS

- Geo~raphicArea and Population Scrvcd

The bridgc, clafisificd as a local-acco~~bridgc, servos only about 4 panchayats in Rasuwa District. Thcso are: Gadlang, Goljong, Chilinc and Syabru.

The bridgc directly scrvcs a population of about 4,570 pcrsons of the panchayats nontioned nbovc. Thc scrvicc area of tlic bridge is rclativ~ly snall bccausc tho bridgc is located on a ninor tr'ail (class C), rather than on a major trLxile(class A), Tho bridge has nadc co:~i-ur:'.cn%lmc?.sier bct~rzcr tho two blocks of Tibetan refugees, settlod in Syabrubcsi and Thangbajet. Bosidos this, tho bridge cnablefi tho poople on tho right sidc of t!lc river to travel Syabrubosi wl~crcthcrc is a small markct. Tho pcoplc from Syabrubcsi villago usc tho bridge to grazo cattlo and to collcct urater fron the hot springs on the othcr sidc,

- Estimtod Traffic Flow

The bridge, as stated proviously, is locatcd on a I;lincr trail and nost of tho traffic using tho bridgc is local in character. According to the local pcople in thc 'area, traffic is not very high, Thc bridgc usc docs not vary with tho scasons and traffic rangcs, on an average, fron 50 to 75 pcrsons per day during both wot and dry seasons. This includes both porter and con-porter traffic ,

Tho traffic at the bridgc site v~ascounted for five days in order to ascertain its magnitudo and character. The traffic is classifiod into I throo difforcnt categorios; non-porter, portcr and aninal. During tho fivc day traffic count, the non-portcr traffic ranged fron as loor as 25, to as high as 45 porsons, portor traffic rangod fron 12 to 25, and animal traffic ranged fron 40 to 115. The average flow was; non-porter traffic, 34; porter, 18; and aninal, 83 per day (Tablc 2-T-3).

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Table 24-3: Traffic Counts Across tho Bridgc

DL~s No n-Por t cr Port cr Animals

First 25 15 9 5 Second 35 12 115 Third 40 2.5 40 Fourth 45 21 106 Fifth 25 17 61

Avor nge/day 34 18 83

Source: ECE Fiold Survey. (Dry Season).

In terns of tho purpose of Uso; 25% cf thc pcoplo used tho bridge for buying; 20% for sclling; 18% for grazing ani~mls;5%, for porterage; 3% for taking out agricultural loam fron tho Agricultural Dcvoloplncnt Bcvlk, 'i% used thc bridge for ngricultupl purposes, and tho remining 220h is accounted for by other purposes not clcarly distinguishable. (Table 2-T-4).

The origin of traffic by pnchaynts is as follows; 42% of thc traffic originated fron Syabru, 15%, fron Chilimc; l3%, fro!:l Gholjong; 8% each from Dhunchc and Tri~uli;7h, fron Thumn; 556, from Gadlang, ancl thc remaining 2% from Langtang (Table 2-T-4).

The dcstimtion of traffic by pnnchayats is as follovs; 35% of tho traffic was dostined for Syabru; I&%, for Trisuli; If%, for Eholjong; 11%,for Chilimc; a%, for Dhuncho; %, for Lmgtang; 6%, for Thwitan, and remaining 2% for Gadlang. (Sco Tablc 2-T-4).

Tho observation in this study is limitod to four panchayats in the neighborhood of tho bridge; Chilino, Syabru, Gadlang and Gholjong.

BEST AVAILABL E COPY Tnblo 2-T-4: Ierccntngs Trzffic Indicating Origin, Destination 2nd Purposo of Travol in the Study kcas

Buying Selling Por tcrj-ng T,&ing Zcms Faning Grzzing

BEST AVAIL ABLE COPY . Agriculture is the rnir, occupation of all tho pcople in the area& surrounding the bridge site. It was reported that the men is conposed of 16'$ dryhnd or Pnkho; 62%, forest; 2%, b,u.ren land and ,277 is. wet 1c.n:I or Khct. The mount of cultivable lnnd is vcry small, nostly duc to a lack of ?.dequatc irrigation facilities; agricultural productioll dcpcnds ~~ainlyon monsoon rzinr which aro oftcn uncertain.

Whoat, barloy, nnizc, r~illet,potntocs, radish and pddy arc tho m,Gn crops grown In the 'area. Thc land oivnership ra~gcsf~cn 0.45 to 1 hactrc per household. Each houschold oms 4 or 5 livestock or, thc nve_ragc. Livcstoclc faning in tho Pxea is not independent of agriculture sinco it provides support for agriculturzl activities in the form of r:inuro, ctc . Duc to the rugged topography of the ~zroa, cultivatcd farn land is n'mginal, and agricultural production is vcry low and the food roqulrcncnts of the area c,umot bc uet by local production. The majority af tile pooplc in tho area supplcnent their clcagor agricultural production by uror2;ir;g nc laborers and porters. The cash incone generated by such arorlr is uscci fcr the pcrcbns:: of food grains, kcrosenc, salt, clathing, etc.

The ncthods of cultivation in the ,area ,arc very much traditionc.1, though sinco tho construction of the bridge, soric cllanees in thc agriculture patterns have occurrod. As said previously, the pcoplc cn the right bank of tho river L?vc easy access to tho District Headqu,mtcrs and thc Agricultural Dovelopmont Bank, at Dhuncho, urhich makes agricultural loans to thc farncrs . Agricultural cooperative socictlcs, undor the Agricultural Dcvclopmcnt Bank, havc bcen cstablishod at Syabrubesi and at Chilinc to provide inproved varie- ties of wheat, ,and potato seed, a8 arc11 as high-grade oxen to tho fxncrs. Nov the farmers in tho ~moahavo st~xtcdusing sccds provided by thc bank and sono pcoplc have also startod apple fczrming. In thc ~.bsenccof tho bridge it would have becn difficult for f,mnors to rcach the cooporativc storos and the change towards nodorn ncthods of farming would havc bcon slower.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Rural and Cottage Industries

Thc rural and cottagc industrics of thc study ?.rca nrr andcr :!CVCJ;C- ped. Thcrc a fcw liouschold indu~tricsbaccc! on ngriculturc yrotluck:: 21?d shcep'~wool.

The industries bascd on agriculture products incluGe thc ~rcduct,.ion of banboo md 11rooden goods vrhilc, the industries based on shcc,~'scroo2. prcduc~

coarse wooloil nntorials Rndi Pclkhi and ?akkhoo. Hovwrer, only ? f cr;i ;lcru~caoic. in thc area operato hendl~onsvrhich producc cotton cloth. Tho cottrgc industries provide SOLIC work for sono of thc villn~cssrrho ~;r@rl~at tiicsc industries crhcn thcy have free tino. Roccntly, ucdcr ,-, lorlcl 3mk Dcvclop- nont Prograr~,a Cottage Industries Enporiun was cstahlishod at Syabrubc~i. This Enporiunts Lain is to pronoto thc salc of crafts and thoroforo proridc no~ontunfor training program in thc aroa. Tho Sriclge has affoctcd this in two ways;it has c~ablcdcraft itens to be casily taken to other n,arkot centers in thc south, and it has also enabled thc easy and ~aicgasmgc oi thc trcunir,g staff who cross tho rivor to teach rill tlic trcnving trair-ing classes.

It is felt that the World Bnnk Prograc., coupled s~ihthc poGcrico of the bridge, has improved tho future prospects of cott?,gc industrics in the Rasuwa District.

- Labor forco Situation and Emplosmcnt

Thc total population of tho four panchayats undor study hac bocn ostimatod to be 4570 of which 53% me nalc and 47% :PC fcr,iale.

Thc total numbor of persons in tho active age group, that is, 13 yoars of age and abovo, is ostimtcd to bc 3¶429, 75% of the total, and is conpriscd of 1,391 nalcs and 1,638 fennlos. Ho:~ovcr~the size of tho total labor force, dcfinod as thc econonically activo population in this ago group, is csti~~todto bo only 2,873, or 6396 of thc total, and is conprisod of 1,599 males 1,274 female. (Tablo 2-T-5).

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Among the four panchayts, Syabru lias the Plighcst population with 1,454 persons, Gadlang ranks second, Chilino, third 2nd Ghcljong, fourth. Since the marginal fLvn land docs not accnnod~.te~11 thc labor, the surplus work force engagcs in wage e'mning activities.

It is hCmd to prociscly cstimnto thc sizo of tho surplus lnbor force, but viouring it from a broad pcrspi?ctivc and in light c,f thc phcnoizcnal scasoml nigration, nostly to ~risuii,this surplus llbor forcc is yrohrt3ly vcry lrvgc.

1-lost of tho people, arc engaged in fLvning ns thcir prinary occupation, but nost also engaged in sccond,vy occupations xhich sup;3lc- nent thcir noagcr inconc. Secondmy occupations like anir.~alhusbandry, portcring and othcr low paying work, 'zro donc in addition to ngriculturc.

Tablc 2-T-5: Estinntcd Population and Labor Forco

i fTotnl Population Pc~pulation / Eeononicnlly Activc 1-77 0 Years and Above I Po?,ulation I 1 otnl Halo Fcualc Total Male Fel~alo j Total Ilalc Female Chilino j 988 527 461 ' 741 395 346 1 622 353 269 Syabru 517 337 i Gadlang 462 379 Gholjung 790 399 391 I 593 299 294 1 496 267 229

Total 745702388 2182 I/ 3429 1791 1630 / 2873 1599 1274 Source: ECE Estinate bascd on 19 '1 CBS Ccnsus

- Trado Flow Pattcrn

Atlong the four panchnynts under study, nono is salf-sufficient in food grains. Thcrcforc, a largc of food grains havo to Sc inportcd from

&/ Tho econoaically activo popukztion nay be defined as thc ~usbcrof persons in tho agc group 10 years and abovc who contribut~to tho production of goods and scrAcos.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Trisuli Bazaar to noct tho food rcquiremonts of tho arcn. Thc tradc, th'ough as still in its traditional state, has certainly been providcd with n Ha20 and easy access to thc narkct ccntcrs ruld food surplus ~zrcasof the south, sincc thc construction of the bridgc.

The ,men exports =, nodicinal horbs, and raw wool, but thcsc do not meet the inport cost. Mongor oxports do not balnnco the illport cf tho comoditios like rice, salt, Ircroscne, clothes and other nanufccturcd goods (rankod in n dcccnding ordcr of inportancc). Nost of tho busincss of cxport and inport is carricd out in tho main tradi~gc~nter of thc arca Trisuli.

Among tho four panchayats, tho Sridgc has bcncfittcd Synbru pnnchayat, in term of trado and co.mcrcc, the nost. This is bocause Syabrubeai, in Syabru panchayat, has dcvolopcd into a mvkct colit~rfor the whole area. Bcsides this, to~wis~is an inportant factor which has proi.lotcd tho growth of Syabrubosi.

Sone of thc villagcs lying in thc north h3.w tho b,mtor systcn of trade. Pcoplc noat- thc border mca of China, bring raur vrcol, ohcop and goats to bartor for boatonod rice, Cliiura. But tradc with tho nortb is vcry negligible in coupnrison to thc tradc with tho south.

- Environncntal Ef fccts

Thc relationship of thc bridgo with cnvlrom~cntalphononona cann~t bo conplctoly ox2~3incd. Environncnt, as basically rolatcd to tho use of the forest rosourccs, prasents a grin picturo in this ,area. In and around thc bridge site, thc ~ltljcrpart of tho aroa is covered by snnll trees and shrub.5 and thc forost area nc,arby is rapidly disappearing duc to tho indiscrixinato fclling of trcos without a conploncntary afforc~tationprsgrx.1.

Tho bridgc, according to tho local pcoplc, has to sono oxtent, accblorilted the pace of tho deforestation on tho right bank, of thc rivor. Peoplo fron Syabrubesi, whcre there are about 40 housos, collect fuel wood

BESTAVAlLABLE COPY as moll as fodder eon tho right bank. Bowovcr doforostntion, is nainly a result of tho incrome in populdtion rather th,m tho prcscncc of the bridgo i

EHGINEERING ANALYSIS

- Sito S.oloction, Dosign and Construction Eiothods

Several groups of people cmo to lnvostigntc and survey during the site selection. Ono group was composed of Nopalcso c~lginccrsfrom tho SBD, ,and another included an Ilnoriccm. The groups consulted with lcccll people and did a thorough exmination of all alternative sitcs but could not find any botter than the traditional and nost popular crossing, which was finally chosen as tho bridgo site.

Syabrubosi Bridgo boars resonbhce to tho BRC standard bridgos wit11 regard to tower shape and certain dotails of the xralknray, connectors road ropo and hand cabfo dosign. Tho ralnd cabloo, hovcvcr, lio ontircly to eithor sido of tho walkmy rathor than crossing underneath thc walkuray 26 in the BRC design. In this way tho wind cablos oxort a tensilo forco on all tho ~ralkwaycrossboLms rather than exerting a comprcssivc forco on tho crossbc.?ns toward tho niddlo of the bridge as in the BRC design. Eroction of the wind cablos is sinpfer if thoy lie outside tho walkway as in tho Spbrubesi Bridge, and tho nction of tho wind cables on the uralkur~yis made noro direct by avoiding tho conprossivo forco at tho crossboaas. Suspcndors of Syabrubosi Bridgo aro attachod diroctly to tho stool crossbo,~, tho crossboaus aro braced diagonally with stool nonbors, and tho road ropos arc attached below the stool crossbeam, Tho bracod cros6bcms wind cablo, to tho sidos of walkway rather than wadernoath, has producod a bridgo that is more rosi~tant to lateral sway than tho bridgos of BRC dosign.

The towors appear noro hoavily dosignod than necosstwy, and hvo the sano Vingeshaped sido bracing as tho BRC design. Unliko the pinned baso and oat saddle construction of tho BRC dosign, tho tovor bases of Synbrubcsi

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Bridgc 'arc fixed and tho main cables arc frcc to !.love ovcr sndules cocsisting of pulleys nountcd on tho top of tho toacrs. Tllus thc t3tal tension in thc m.in cablos is tho sane (howcvcr, onc has to ncglcct thc friction on tho pulleys), both to thc fror,t and to tho recar of tlic towrors. Thc angles cf the nain cablcs arc very nearly thc smc at the front of tho towrers ns at the rear and thercforc, thcro is very littlc bcnding noncnt on tho towcrs. Thc towers arc cquippcd wtith auxiliary baclrstays, which ,arc unnocoss~wy, sincc the bcnding nonent it3 smell. In fact, if tho av~ili'vybackstnys wcrc ncccssuy, tilcn nuxili,ary forostays would also bo ncccsscy siacc the forastay portions of tho nain cablos will deflect downvLard at that tower on the side of the bridge rhcrc u~balnncedheavy load ifi conccntrntcd resulting a grcntcr bonding nonent in that tower in tho diroction away fron thc rivcr thnn thc bending noncnt that could ever bc oxpcctcd to occ~lron tllc toarcrs in the direction toward thc rivcr . Thcre arc no tovscr sidcstay cablc-s as in tho BRC dcsign nor is thorc my necessity for then.

Cables ,vo galvanized, but structural stccl aonbcrs ,arc not, thcsc arc paintcd with a pritlor plus an outer coat of Era>- pint.

Wind cablo anchorages =are raiscd abcut 15 ft. fron tho bcclrock on tho left ban!:. In this configuration, tho cnblo nttachixcnt point^ nro in front of the cantor line of thc lcft totrrer. Bzc? th~attachnont p~intsbccn set back soncwhat furthcr, it probably would havc bcen possible to anchor the wind cablos ciircctly to the bcdrock. At lonst it irroulc? not have bocn nccesfi~ary to build up tho anchors so much, and 3 pcat dcal of ccncnt cculd have bccn saved. In this rcgmd tho fcaturcn of thc sitc voro not utilized to thc fullest cxtcnt in ordcr to obtain tho 2ost econoll!ica.l. dcsign.

A contravcrfiial point in thc dosign of Synbrubcsi Bridgc is tho * largo oxcclvation on tho right sido alorro thc touror, provision for ur!lich was not mdo in thc original dosign of thc bridge. In fact thc doci~ionwas nadc by an inspection party coning fron Kathmandu, by hclicoptcr, after thc excavations for thc right tower foundation and anchorages r;rcrc conplcte.: and

BESTAVAILABLE COPY rcztdy for concrcting. Tho inspcction party consisted of Fir. V5llina NFcso, a USAID cnglnccr, tagothor Fsith tho Supcrintcnding Engincor and an Assistant Engineer fron thc SBD. It is qucstionnblc whcthcr n really thorough invcsti- gation 31 thc ~itoand discussion with knowlod

first, tho finishod cut Eras loft without thc now-cxistont chcck dms (photo 2-P-2). Tho SBD cngincor, Hr. Dhungana, who built thc bridgc, proposed thc dLms and they wcrc built about a yo= after tho ccnplctio:1 of the rcst of tho bridgc at an additional cost of Rs. 155,000. It lvns said by local persons that the cost of thc cxcavatiop nlono was conparablc in nagnitude to thc total cost of tho bridge, cad that tho excavation took 11owly a yc'u' to conplctc.

Four ycars havo now olapscd sincc tho conpletion of the bridgc 2nd no thrcat of landslide has natcrializod in thc torrain around thc bridgc. No landslidcs have occurred on thc cxcavation in back of thc right tower cvcn though the ~glcof the cides of tho cxcavation nt sonc 2lacc~aro stccpcr than the original profile of tho right bards. Many bouldcrs protrude fron tho oxposed fnccs of the oxcavation so nuch that half thcir ~mssis unsupported, but tho bauldors stillrcaain in placc. (Soc photo 2-P-5.) It scorns thon thct retaining ~:r!.rallsIn back of the tower would havo sorvcd as adoquatc protoc- tion to thc towcr and tlmt no largo cxcavation was noccssary. In fact, it seens that tho oxcavation could havc boon judgod unnocoss~u'y at thc time it was &?do, according to tho following roasons:

- Although the e,wth on tho right bank is fairly stccp, thorc is no cvidcncc of significant old landslidcs nc'u'by.

- Thc area above thc right bank is not subject to cny unusual qualitities of kmter, such ns runoff fron pcrcnnial or non-percn~nlstroads, nor is there any raatcr uscd for irrigation on thc flat aroa above tho tower.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Further, abovc thc flat arca on the canyon walls, wc find only cliff rock and it rculd bc cxpcctcd that no rmturnl aquifcr~lcading to thc right bnnlr fron above would tcnd to saturatc thc soil thus nggravating ' landslide conditions.

- Landslidos arc a dangor in particular nc~va zonc of contact whcrc pcrncablc soil ic resting on an inpcrncablo laycr, such ns cixcd soil and boulders on clay soil or rock. Thc &mgcr is incrcascd if thc inpcrnoablc 1&cr is sloping downward. Eowcvcr, since soil conditions on thc right bank apponr hoclogcncous fron thc top of tho bank to thc basc of tho bank, thc potontially dangcrous condition of a pcrncablc soil laycr .resting on an iclporncablc layor cloos not cvidently oxist. Furthornoro, if thc right b,mk urcrc landsliclc prono, a possiblc lnnd- slide could dmagc thc tovscr by sliding at cr below tho lcvcl of tho tovtcr foundation as moll as by sliding down onto thc to\wcr. If logic had dictatcd a largo cxcavation abovc thc tower to &ward ag2.inst k~ndslidcs, then thc sanc logic should hnvo dictatod dccp fomldntions to gu,ard against tho sliding out of land bcloer thc towcr. Howcvor, no dccp foundations wcro used.

- Tho nixturo of soil and bouldors of thc right bank, although not tightly ccnontod, ncvorthclcss tonds to ro~istcrunbling and thcrcforc, also tonds to rosist landslido action. This fact was prcbably obscrvcd during cxcavation work fcr towcr foundation and wind cablc anchorages, and was onc rcason why thc construction cnginoor did not favor thc additional large cxcavation.

- Local persons, in gencral, did not fcol tho bridgc would bc cndangcrcd by tho possibility of landslides. Tho judgcncnt of 1ocp.l persons is cxtrenely inportant and should bc very c,vcfully considered by engineering pcrsonncl in all phaoes of sitc ocloction; including qucstions of soil stability, high matcr lcvol, span length, possibili- tics of changes in rivor courso, otc. Although thc ongireering wiodon

BEST AVAILABLE COPY of local pcrsons can be erroneous, it can nlsq sar~ctimcsbe bottcr

than that of inoxpcriencod engineering pcrsomlcl sent fron iiatli~land~. \ In ,my cvont, lccal poop10 lm.ve genorally boon uratching tho rivcr closoly ovcr n poriod of nany ye~m-6including cl~wingnonsoon scasons, whcn ncst dmngo to bridges occur in Ncpal, and thcy can revcal zuch useful infornations .

Construction of Syabrubesi Bridge startod in Docoubcr 1972 and tho bridgc was conplctcd during 1974-75. Tile additional projcct of building chock asto protect tho excavation was conpletcd about n year latcr.

Tho l'm-go excavation of the right bank rras said to have bcen dono by a contractor from Kathmandu. The rest of the bridge construction were said to have boon contracted out and sone was done on a daily wage basis. Local cmpenters wero employod to do the woodwork, and thc nlasonry worlr v~ns done by one outsidc urorlxcr who gave instruction^, plus nnothor local man. Local people did nost of the concroto work along with the bridgo ercction works. Blasting rms required on tho loft bank and blast holes wcrc drillocl by using a crov bar. The moving of tho cxcnvatcd soil on the right bank was acconplishod by dragging it nuray on water buffalo skLns. Concrete rras hand- mixcd, pinc wood scaffolding was usod during towcr oroction and a pulling nachine was usod to pull tho cables. It was said that a CLV nountod on tho nain cablcs was uscd for hanging of suspenders, which tirere hung, starting at tho sidcs, and working toward tho middle. Pino crood was also used for tho planking. The original design of tho bridgo raalkuray callod for nailing planks directly into holes in tho stool crossbccms, this dosign proved unworkable and was nodifiod by fixing a wood naizing boan on top of the stool crossbccms and then nailing tho planks onto thc xrood beam. After conplotion of towcr foundations and anchors it took only about 2 months for the arcction of the towcrs, cables, su~pendorsand walkway.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY

Rcfcr to Photograph No. spacing of grips according to specification, 2/ is 6 cable diameters, but sono grips arc spaced only 2 dinnctcrs np,vt. There 'are only 3 bulldog grips on tho auxiliary backstays near the top of thc tonrcrs, and 4 nom thc anchorngcs, although 5 arc required according to specifications 6/for tho dianctcr of cable in use. In any cvent thc auxiliary backstays nr? unnecessary as explained previously. Somo rocks and soil L~voaccunulatcd around the cablos.nnd fittings of the right anchor and should bc romovcd.

Thc paint job is gonerally in good to fair condition but, in a for spots, tho outcr layer of paint is thin, flaking or cven nissing. There is vory few spots of rusting nctal.

No bridgc parts werc found to be missing, but one susponder is broken and two othors aro bent. One susponder is looso whero its connector to the main cablcs has slipped down the cables. Wind cable6 are satisfactorily right. Thcre is an ovorly sharp change in anglo of thc wind cablcs, howcvcr, at the wind ties closest to the left bank. Tho angle aviderces either an error in designing of wind tio lengths or in the positioning of tho wind cable anchor blocks.

Road ropes ara not visibly loose but it would havc boon de~irablohad thoy been bettor tensioned during orcction. If it werc to conforn to BRC standard design specifications, tho walkway should havo an upward camber of about 6 ft., however, it is aluost cornplotely lcvol cxcopt for an unusual raisod portion at nidspan, which is about 4 to 6 in. above the

Z/ Tlaer Brand Wire Row Handbook US Stool, USA, 1973 -6/ Ibid p.76

BEST AVAILABLE COPY rest of the walkway. The lack of canbcr is due to nn error in setting no-load sag during croction. When thc dead load sras addcd, it was discovered that the walkway was lcvcl instcad of having an upward canber. Efforts to raise the walkitray to gain canber rosultod in the unusual raised portion at midspan. Additional cf forts to gain camber would hLaYdly he arorthwhilc since canbcr is desirable but not a critical factor for thc bridge.

Tho foncing of the bridgo is not in good condition. Its 0.039 in, (1 mm) diametcr is too thin for good strength, resulting in broken f cncing in placcs . Furthornorc the fencing is too low fn sone places of the bridge. Thc height between thc top of the walkway and hand cable, to arhich the fcncing is attached, ranges betureen 26 in. to 32 in, In tho low aortions thc hand cable cannot be reached easily by persons of averaze Nepalese height.

Retaining walls, gnbion vorlss, foundation and ancho- rage concrote works are in good condition. IIoxrevcr, 0,079 in. (2 nu) wire used for the gabion works is undesirably thin for long tern durability; 0.12 in. to 0.16 in. (3 to 4 ma) wire is cornonly encountered' clsewhero in gabions.

Upon inquiry, people generally said the bridgc sways slightly but is easy to cross. Bridge sway did not, in fact, seen to cause anyone difficulty in crossing.

Approach trails in-the imodiatc vicinity of the bridgo ,arc in only fair condition. On the upstream right Sank the trail is nearly washed out in 2 places, and nccarly blocked

BESTAVAlLABLE COPY ,Refer to j&tomaph No. I by a boulder, which has slid onto the trail in a third place. 2-P-l, i Those problems could bc easily inprovod by the local villa~c ' panchayats which arc responsible for such trail maintennncor ,i On the left bank, tho main approach trail lcado sli~htlydawn- ' I strean and then clitlbs uprLard a short distance to acet the 1 nain trail. This left bank approach trail is vory dusty but ; i is in good condition oxccpt for one stcep spot wherc n secticn I of stonc staircase has alnost been knocked cut. A soncxrhat I awkward approach trail lends to the upstrcar:, direction of tho i 2-P-6 tho left bark. It has been forcibly beaten into the hillside by persons using it rather than having been actually ! constructed. ! :' Tho lcft bank nain trail, leading upstrcan from the bridgc ,to ~pa~dsChina, is in good condition, and the onc lcadii-g " downstrean from Syabrubosi to Dhunche ie also in generally good condition. From Dl~unchoto Trisuli the trail is generally in excellent condition. i

Tho left bank main trail crossos tho Langtan~ Kholn : at Syabrubosi on n suspension bridgo with a 177 ft. spnn built

'I with steel towers. A date inscribcd in cement at tho bridge , indicates tho construction yecar of 1936. The bridge, including. planking, is in ~oodcondition. Planking was changed last yearI along with that of the Syabrubesi Bridge. Tho stccl towers 1' are paintcd with coal tar, which is still serving as an I, cffcctivo protoctivo coating against rusting. i'

. BESTAVAILABLE COPY - Past Mz.intcnancc Work

Wnjort Aftcr conplction of the bridge, Ya. Dhungana, the co~struction engineor, proposcd chcck dams to be built in tho excavation of thc right bank. These wero constructed in 1975 to 1976, urAdcr the supcrv~sionof Mr. Dhung-, at a cost of Rs. 155,000/- obtninccl from the nnintonnncc budget of tho SBD.

-Minor: The planking of thc bridge uras rcplnccd in 1977, bcforc tho r~~onsoon season. For this naintenancc work, the local villctgc pn~chag2~trcportcl to the District Office thnt the planks nceded repair. Thc District reported to the DOR in Kathmandu 'and an cngincer was sent fron the SBD urith the noncy nccoss~vyto do the job. Pine wood planks woro cut, undcr contract, and the placing of the planks on thc bridge was done on daily urn,se basir. Excbpt for tho engineor from Kathamndu, all thc labor was local 2nd no frca labor was involved. The arrival of the cngincer fron Kathandu nnd conplctlon of thc work was prompt aftcr the sending of thc initial report by tho villagc panch'ayat .

The village panchayat is responriblc for looking after tho condi- tion of thc bridgc and sending reports to thc District of any damgo dew, or need for maintonanco. The villago might supply n snall ai:tount cf free labor for maintenance work, but would have to ask for outside noney for any large repair work.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY 2.3 FINDINGS

- Duo to thc bridgo, thc nobility of the pcoplc on eithcr side of the rimr has becn significently increased. Marital relationships nnd mutual coopcra- tion among the fanily nenbers has cxpcndccl to citncr side of the river.

- LL fcw studontz use the bridge to reach schcols.

- The people havo easy acccss to the health post and hospital.

- Syabrubesi Bridge links two parts of Rasucra District which were othcrvJisc divided by the Bhotekosi Rivor. This bridge has aLso extended adnicistra- tivo controls and sorvices across tho Bhotekosi.

- A market contor has grown up nt Syabrubesi which has hclpod the pcoplc. 22 the other side of thc Bhotekosi to buy their supplios within an msy distance. This savcs them a two dny trip to Trlsuli Bazaar.

- Scrvfcos available at Dhunche havo been made available to thc people of Godlang, Gholjong, Chilime. In tho absonco of this bridge, it uras difficult for the people to cone to Dhuncho.

- Tolls are not raised on this bridgo and tho naintcnance responsibility goes to the SBD.

ECONOMIC

- Tho service ~woaof the Syabrubosi Brfdgc is relatively small duo to the fact that it is locatod on a local accosg trail (class C) rathcr thLm on a major trail (class A). At present, the bridge is cnly directly serving the four .panchayats around the bridgo site,

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - The bridge has had, to sone extent, an impact on tho agriculture at the panchayats of the right bank of rivcr. The inpact is uninly in the area of using improvcd varieties of seed and purchasing oxon. Though the bridge is not thc direct causo of this, it is onc of the important factors.

- The bridge has not had any direct impact on the rural and cottage industries. But, it has providccl safe access for the pcople on the right bank who attcnd the training sc~sionson weaving conductcd by the newly opened Cottage Industries Enporium at Syabrubesi .

- The bridec has been instrumcntal in increasing thc nobility of people to various areas for different purposes.

- TLQ sitc of the bridgc coincides with thc locally nost po2ulm and traditi- owl crossing point, along with being thc technically best placo for bridgc building in the area.

- A largo, costly, and cvidcntly unnocess~zryexcavation aras mado abovc the towcr on the right bank out of concern of possible landslides. A norc thorough site investigation could have lod to tho conclusion that landslides were unlikely .

- Local gorsons csn often provide extremely valuable advicc concorning such matters as scil conditions, high flood level, possibilitics of changes in river course, ctc., and should bc listoncd to carcfully. A nore thorougll discussion with local persons conccrning landslide possibility could have -been highly useful in m,aking the ongineering decision concerning the right

bank excavation 2t Syabrubcsi.

- Tho Syabrubosi Bridge is an example of a bridge in ovorall good condition, including planking, which has beer. rccently rcplacod. All the other bridges of this study, except for Darondi, had planking in less than good condition.

- Thc use of steel crossbcarss with diagonal bracing and thc placo~lentof wind cables to tho sides of the walkway rather than crossing undcrnoath, as in tho

BEST AVAILABLE COPY BRC stand'md design, resulted in the Syabrubesi Bridge being significantly norc resistant to latoral sway than bridges of thc BRC stand,u'd design.

- mc to the incorrect setting of the main cablc sag during crcction, the walkway is nc,mly lcvol rather than having an upward cambor. Upt11,wd cambor would hzvc bcen dcsirnblo as it adds to tho graceful appcarancc of a bridgc, and freebo,vd clo,vancc nt midspan, rhoro floating trocs arc more likely to hit thc walkaray undcr high flood conditions, and alloars tensioning of thc road ropc cable to be nore cffcctive in danponing oscillatfons of the bridgc than if thcre were no canbcr.

- Building up rrind cablo anchors in front of the left towor, rathcr than setting the anchors furthcr back into cliff rock and thereby saving ccnent, is an exGmplc of a failurc to utilize thc bridgc site fully and to nako an econoaical bridgc dcsign. Persons designing bridgos should always visit thc site, if possible, and strive to nininizo fabrication and construction costs by adapting bridgc design to suit actual site conditions.

- The towers of Syabrubosi Bridge me equipped nrith auxiliary bnckstays which arc unnecessary since the towers arc fixed base and tho bending nonent in than is small. The situation is sinilar to tho auxiliary back and forostays of the BRC stnndnrd design, which could have boon clininated without dm.cgo to the structural integrity of tho bridgo. 'How~ver, these stay cables clo servc to hold tho towers in place during crcction and loading condition which night bc possiblc during subsequent planking chango.

- Care should bc t,?kcn in the design of walkway dotails of bridgos. At Sgabru- bosi Bridge, a dcsign feature which called for thc nailing of planks directly into stool crossbcans which were providod ~rlthholcs provcd to bc in,nractical, Furthcrnoro, in some placcs fencing matorial uscd was too thin for good strength and is now brokon. The fencing and hancl cables ,arc also too low to be roached easily by persons of avcrago Mcpalesc height.

- Coal tar uscd on thc towers of the nomby hngtang Kholn Bridge is still effective as a protective coating dospitc severnl dacadcs of use. Coal tar is a feasible alternative to galvanizing, which is not available in Nopal, and also a feasible alternative to paint, which requires periodic reapplication to prevent rusting. BEST AVAILABLE COPY

Pedertrdn brw biror Trail ------Local trail -...

Falr weathw rwd *====.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY TABLE OF CONTENTS

3. KAGm BRIDGE 3.1 C~LSEHISTORY 3 1 ARZA DESCRIPTIOW iGTD HISTORY - Geographic Setting - Bridge Sita Description - Relationship with Regional Transportation System - General Cultural Setting - Services Available in the Area - Bridge Location History and Decision Process 3.2 ANALYSIS 3.2 ,i SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

- Land and People , - Structure of the Fanily - Marriage Practices - Funeral Practices - Education and Health Practices - Festival, Fairs and Religiou~dctivities - Changes in the Roles of Women - Changes in Beliefs and Habits

3 02 -2 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS - Local Participation - Institutional Impact of the Bridge 3 2.3 ECOFOII C ANALYSIS - Geographic Area and Population Served - Estimated Traffic Flow - Agriculture - Rural and Cottage Industries - Labor Force Situation and Employment - Trade Flow Pattorn - Xnvironnental Effects

BEST AVAILABLE COPY 3 .2 a4 ENGINEERING ANBLYSIS - Site Selection, Design and Construction Methods - Present Bridge and Approach Trails: Conditions and Recommended Improvements - Past Maintenance Work 3.3 ,FINDINGS SOCIO-ANTHROWLOGICAL INSTITUTIONAL

344 ILLUSTRATIVE PHOTOGRAPHS (3.P.l to 3.P.5)

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ond of the report

GLOSSARY end of the report

LIST OF TABLES -1Estimated Number and Percentage of Households by Ethnic Group (Kalyanpur pancfiayat) 3-T-2 Percentage of Respondents Indicating a Change in Women's Activities Because of the Bridge )-To3 Percentage Traffic Indicating Origin, Destination and Purpose of Travel in the Study Areas

LIST OF FIGURES 3-F-1 Area Location - Kagune Suspension Bridge ,3-F-2 Amthang Transect (Schematic) 3 a CASE HISTORY

3.1.1 RREA DESCRIVTIOF AND HISTORY

- Oeoarn~hicSettinq

The Kagunc Bridge, is a tubular truss bridgo locatod northwest of Kathnandu ovor tho Kagune Kholn. It lios in tho Kalyanpur villagc parrch,ayat of Nuwdsot District. Tho Kalyanpur village panchnyat is about a tsro to throe hour walk northwest of Trisuli Bazaar. To thc wost lios thc District of Dhading and to the north is Rasuwa District. As shown in thc a'oa location nap (fig 3-F-1), tho bridge connects an old min trail fron lh.thnandu to Gorkha and othcr parts of Western Nepal.

Tho Kagunc Khola and tho Sancari Khola ncrgc a couplo of hundrod yz.rds south of thc bridgo.

Thcrc is a 45 Lcile long highway connecting Kathmandu with Trisuli Bazaar, a major township in Nuwakot District. The Iixgunc Bridgo site is about 2500 ft. above 6oa levole

- Brid~eSitc Descriation

The main rivers in the vicinity of tho bridgo arc tho TrisuUganga and the Sanari Khola. A nunber of small Kh01c.s~ which flow only during the monsoon, arc also prcscnt. muno Khola (also cnllcd the Khdiare Khcln) is one of thoso urct wcathcr Kholas. Thi6 Kholn, though rsuch smallor than the SanarilZqola, is norc risky to ford during ttc monsoons bccause of its stcop gradient and turbulent flow. Howcvor cvon the Samarj. Khola har s~rcltaway a nunber of cattlo and sonotinos evon pooplo, that try to cross it during tho rainy sc~won. The local pooplo have madc tonporary woo3an bridgcs at sevornl points along the SwiKhola. The other thrco Kholas, the knorc,the Syalc and tho Khorsanc can be forded throughout the y0p.r without tho help of bridges.

The o1.d trail ?long the loft bank at' the Sm,ri Khola, (soo the aron location Fig. 3-F-l), crossos tho Kaguna o-ola ncnr Kagunc Bazaar. Part of this trail doos not oxiet noar bocmso it has bcon nc-gloctcd for many

BES7AVAILABLE COPY years. The morc popu1,ar trail pnsscs from thc right bank of tho Sanclri ncm thc Kagune confluonce, adthus avoids tho Kagunc Bridec cross in^. This bridge, however, connects surrounding local. ncccss trails joinins kthnng, Mane, Kalyanpur and Harkapur villagos .

Tlic right, abutacnt of tho bridgo is in tlic niddlc of tllc flood plain, and is raised over a plun concrcte work, and thc loft abutncnt stcnds aver the definod natural bank. The bridgo deck is uroll abovc high flood lovel, Thc highest flood lcvol obscrved locally was in 1971, it wes about & ft, bclow the soffit lovcl of tho bridge.

On both thc banks, thcre arc torraccd fields. Thc soil condition on tho right bank is c,arth nixod with bouldcrs, which indicatcs an old rivcr bed. Tho loft bank is conposed of oath mixed with rock formatians, with occasio~~ltorracing.

- Rolationshi~with Reaional Transportation Systci;~

An old tr'ail still oxists botween Kathmnclu to Pokhma, via Gorkha. The trail, onwcards fron Triculi, novos west, crosscs thc Saxzri Kl~olatPncc and clinbs up to thc Sanari Pass, and continues to hcad arcst to Gcr'd~aa~cl Pokhara. This was and is still baing usod as a postal routc for ccrtain hill areas west of Kathmandu. This trail has a significant history behind it. King Prithivi Narayan Shah, some 200 yocars aco, dcvclopt3d and usod this trail to move his troops to conqucr the Vnllcy, which was thcn ruled by tho Malla Kings.

After the construction of the Kathmandu-Trisuli Highway, in 1962, the trail became nor0 important. But, its importance has bcen sigcificnntly roducod sincc- the construction of tho Kathmandu-Pokl~va Highway in 1971. Peopla fron Gorkha and othcr aroas no% uso tho Kathm.ndu-Pokhma Highway to

-1/ A structure composed of concrete and largc stoncs 10 to 12 in. in dianetor, generally used for nass concreting.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY This trail is, hotircvcr, still uscc? by locnl villnecr~and by thosc people who cannot afford tho Kathmandu-Pokhcara bus f,vc. No nirficld oxists nearby which ni~htaffcct tho traffic over thc bridgz.

- Gcnoral Cultural set tin^

Tho socio-cultural bnckground of tho nrca rcscnbles the scae broa?: cultmnl setting of thc othor western hill regions of Ncpal, p,?rticul,vly thzt of NuwLakot, Dhading and Gorkha Districts, Thc okhnic groups settled in thcsc

Districts ,are: Brnixtins, ThAuris, Chhctrisj NesrLms, Tamzngs, MCL~~VS Ik jhis and thc untoucha.blcs. T,unangs, Gurungs, Magars ni~dthe high castc Hindu groups such as Brahnins, Thakuris and Chhctris, ilominntc thc ~arca. Thc high castc Hindu Groups rcprescnt thc typical Hindu culture and follow tho Hindu traditions. Tho untoucliablcs particularly Kamis, Danni~and Scarfis, cxclusi- voly spc,& tho Mcpalcsc lnnguagc, and their cultural patterns, in nany cascs, rcscnble thosc of thc highcr castc Hindu groups.

- Scrvicos Available in the Aroa

Prior to thc construction of thc Xa~uneBridge, no govcrnmcnt services were availzblc in tho ~mca. Pcoplc of this ,vcn hnd to go to tho District Hcadqwtcrs at Bidur, about 4 ulles frou tho bridgo sitc, in ordcr to use any gcvornncnt services.

In thc course of timo, certain institutions bccarnc opcrntivc in th:: 'mcn. Thc villagc panchayat has bcon active in trail construction 2nd the naking of tonpor,vy wooclun bridgos across the S,mari Khola ,around the villago area. Tiiore me also thrcc primry schools and a nidrllc school in Kalyanpur p2,nchayat. High school studonts must to go to Trisuli &?zna.r.

Rccontly an Agr:riculturo Devolopmcnt Bank sct up a branch officc at Kagunc to providc loans for agriculturc tools, inprovcd sccd and fcrtilizor. May people still go to Trisuli Bazaar for other services, 6uch as ncdical trcatnont, markctine;, ctc. A vilk~gopost officc has also boon oponod in I Kalyanpur villagc .

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Bri8.m Location History and Daclsion Process

The people of tho Kaguno nroa and tho rural postnan, or w, used to uso voodon plank brldeo to cross the Kaguno Khola ilurine the nonsoon season. In 1954, high flood waters washed this tcngorary structure away, naking it inpossiblc to cross tho rivor for thc rost of tho nonscon. Durine; tho following wntcr soason, when the low vator lovol >ornits easy fording, tho woodcn brid~owca6 rebuilt.

In 1958, His Ihjesty the lnto King M'ahcndra, urhilo travelliizg ta tho wostern Mstricts, passod through tho Kaguno moa. Tho pcoplc prascnted hia with a pctition roquesting thc construction of a bridgc'across tho SLulari Khola= near Douri. His Majosty, in a graciouo gesture, granted Rs. 2,5OO/- to~uardsthe construction of tho bridgo .

Tho District Govornor or Badn Hakim, postponed tho construction because hc felt that the amount of money givon was not sufficient to undertake and cornplotc thc construction of the bridgc.

Heavy nonsoon rains in 1961 brpught tho Kngune Khofa into flood, and resultod in the dcstruction of the wooden bridgo. The Aul&ia who was returning to Xathn,mdu, was delcayed at tho crosoing for almost a iwcek. This pronptod him to filc a rcquost for a bridge.

For tho noxt two yoars nothing happened in connection with building the bridgo, cithor ovor the Kaguno Kholil or thc Sanari Khola, Thon, cLarly in 1963, two American oneineers flow to Kaeune and surveyod tho area for ~ossiblc bridge sitcs. Local poople told us that they wero not qucstionod at all about thoir proferonces for n bridge site. Tho second engincoring tcm to visit tho aroa mas to1d.b look for a bridgo sito which would fit tho 100 ft. spn profabricated tubular truss bridgo that was to be built in thc area. Sincc tho dry season water lovol is lout, and rivor width is snall, the original surveys show02 that only a short span bridgo was required. The tubulex truss dosie was chosen bocauao its total cost was much loss tlmn nornal cnblo

BEST AVAIL ABLE COPY suspension bridges for Earrow spans The ultilnato decision on a bridge site was determined by the span limitations imposed by tho prefabricated bridge, and not by local preference.

The entire project took place during the Second Plan period, and tho plan document outlined HMG's schome to develcp its national trail infrac- tructure. It was under this drive that the Kagune Bridge was finally conpletcd in 1964. Tho inauguration in April of that year was attended by both Nepalose and American officials.

2/ An experimental, short span, 125 ft. suspension bridge built over the - Boxi Khola,, revealad that the suspension bridge is costlier for smaller spans. A firm in Calcutta advised that the use of prefabricated tubular truss bridges would bring the costs for small span bridges down to accei.table levels,

BEST AVAILA BLE COPY 3 a2 ANALYSIS

SOCIO-AN3!HFiOPOMOICAL ANALYSIS

- Land and Pooplc

The population of Kalyanpur panchnyat is nndc up of Brahuins, Nowars, Tmngs, Hagcars, G1lcmtis, Kmis and Dc-is, The nzjor cthnic groups, in this panchcayat, ~zrcTnmngs and Chhotris as shown in thc follovfing tcblc, basod on our own estimtcs.

Table 3-T-1: Estinntod nwbor and Porccntagc of Houscholcls by Ethnic Group (F-alyanpur Panchayat)

s Ethnic Group Households Pcrccntagc

Chhotri

Bralmin Kami mnmi Ghmti

-- -- . - .. . Total 913 100%

Sourco: ECE Field Survey

Brahmins, Th,akuris and Chhctris are pri~mrilyfarucrc although cbout 50 to 60 pcoplc are also cngagod in n vcxioty of clcricnl jobs in Trisuli Bc?l;aar, Bidur and Kathmandu, Thcrc arc no portcrc fron t:lcsc groups. NCVA~S also practicc agriculture but a few of thou havc shops in Kagunc ancl Rrrksingh. Local pcoplo told us that nost of them Nc~vnrs~iip-ntod frou Trisuli Bazaar qnd Nuwakot, and still follow their own socio-cultural tradi- tions 'and observe their own fostival cyclcs and fairs. Tnm.ngs ~zrcbasically

BESTAVAILABLE COPY fmnors, but many of thou arc forced to work as farn laborers on othcr fans becausc of thcir povorty. Ono of tho interesting ch,axactcristics of thc Tmang pcoplc is that both the mcn and the women wc~vclo thcs nadc frog hndbwovon cloth: Tile traditional garments of thc woncn consist of a slci~t, and a blousc or a,both from thc hand-v~ovcn cloth. Tho Magars . are fmncrs and laborors. The Dnrds and Xanis prcicticc thcir traciitional casto occupations as tailors and black sniths, SoDh working undcr tile traditional syston of w.Thc Ghwtis' tradition21 castc occupation of carrying tho bridc and groor.1 to and fron thc wcdCllng ccrcnony in a hnnnock or m, has bccn given up in favor of agriculture. Thc pcoplc of thc xca told us that nost of tho Tanang, Magar, Kacli, and Dami fron thls panchayat workod as laborors during thc ccnstruction of thc Kathnandu-Pokhara Road.

Each ethnic group spoaks its own dialect, but thc Txmng dizlcct is predominant and TG usod by alnost all othcr ethnic groups.

In thc villago panchayat, a Chhctri is thc Fradhan PLmcha or Load, and, a Tamng is Upapradhan Pzncha or dcputy. T~LTOCT~;langs, onc Th,-Lkuri., two Chhctris and one NOIVELP arc wsmd ncnbcrs. This shows that Brahnins have not nade headway into the local villago politics. They howevcr claia supremacy in thc cultural and social sphcrcs.

Tho mjority of tho population livo at an altitude bctwecn 2,50C St. and 5,000 ft. The panchayat is a rocky plateau, and oxccpt in thc low-lyids river vallcys or Bensi, thorc is very little water for irrigation. In thc -Bcnsi area, nostly paddy, wheat, barley and soyabean ,arc cultivated. Thc sottloment aroa lies above the Bonsi fiolds. Thc houbcs ,ve surrounded by clry lands, scrub forost and sono pasturngo, FYm~oodand fodcler ~mccollcctcd from a forcst a 2 to 3 hour walk fron tho sottlencnt ~aroas. Most of tho fire wood is collected during tho dry season whcn tho S,m,ari Khola is fordable. This forcst arca bosidos providing fuol wood is tho only good pasturogc ,vca for the poople of Kalyanpur panchayat, If tho indiscri~~inatcctcforostation continues this good pasture land all, in tiuc, erode aurny,

BEST AVAILABLE COPY In the lowor and tho uppor dry lands or m, of tho scttlcncnt cxcas, maize, ~illctand becans are primarily cultivntcd. Tho lanc? is cxtcnsi- vely cultivated and no excoss land is avnilablc for thc creation of new fcv~1s. A trcnscct of Anthang hcmlct, a ward of Kalyanpur villagc pcrAchyat is given in Fig. 3-F-2. This ell present a fair picturc of the topo~~nphyand settlcuent patterns prcscnt in the area.

The staplc diet in thc villago is ~w.izo, nillet and barlcy, supplc- mentod occasionally by rice and whoat. It is said that ncat is consu3cd primxily during f cstivale.

- Structure of tho Fnnily

Far~ilyand hausehold ,are tarns uscci ejnonynously in thc ~arca. A f,aidly moans: all monbers of a housohold who cat at the sane hearth 2nd sham in all the household affairs. Joint and nuclenr f,milics cxist in tho The avcrngo family sizc rangos, among diffcrcnt cthnic groups, fron 5 to 10

Thc strccturo of thc family has not undergone any chnngos duc to tho construction of thc bridge. Whon arc asked peoplc in thc arca if thcy had comanguinnl relatives, that lived on the other sidc of thc bridge, only 19 people out of 75, or 25%, rospondcd positivcly. These consanguinal relatives were ego 8s cousia*s brothors and cgols fnthcr 1s brothcrs and thcir falilics. This broak-up of the fcmily structuro, in thc Kagune Bridge sito arca, tools placc in reccnt yocars since oeofs sons and brotlrcrs arc not yct scparntoc! from tho trnclition,al joint family structuro. The brcak-up of the faii~lytook plncc at thc tina of cgofs fathcrgs poriod and, from that pcriod onward, fLmilics wcre living on either sidc of tho Kagunc Khola. This stablc. fari.1~sltuatio~? indicates tlmt tho Kagune Bridge has not stimulated thc oconorly of thc mca. In othor studies, where tho bridge played a rolc in stinulating thc local oconouy, thorc was an increase in the nunbcr of fanily units which novcd to opposito sides of the river.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Forest area.

Dry lands: Maize, Millet, ...... Beans.

Maize, Millet, Beans.

Forest area for fodder firewood collection and grazing area.

......

Settlement Area.

......

Dry londs: Maize, Millet, Beans.

Wet land: Paddy, Wheat and Barley.

Forest area for fodder,firewood collection andgrazing.

Dry iando: Maize ,Millet, Beano.

......

Waf lands : Paddy, Wheat, Barley, Soyabean8,etc.

I

Fig. 3 - F - 2: Amthang Transect (Schematic )

Source: EC E Field Survey

BEST AVAILABLE COPY In this scction an attompt will be nndc to discus^ how far thc Kasunc Bridgc has facilitated thc ,vrangonont of n,vringcs betureen people of cithor side of thc Khola.

Marriages botwccn people fron either side of the Kngunc Khola occurrcd cvcn bcforc tho construction of bridgo, and me still occurring today. Bhcn wc zskcd thc pcoplo urhcther they had boon willing to n,mry thcir daughters to. faxilies on the othor sidc of the Kagune Khola in thc absence of tho bridgo; 52% cf tho rcspondcnta said that thcy hacl bccn arilling. This indicates that a mjority of peoplc have not rcgLwdod tho rivcr as an obstacle to n,vriages bctvecn peoplo fron opposite sides of tho river. Tho traditional narriagcablc agc for daughtcrrs in Nopal, cspccially ariong thc Brnhnins, Thakuris ancl Chhetris, is befor0 thcir first nonstruation or just after that; that is, boturcen thc agcs of 12 to 18. During this period, if any prospsctivc bride- croon ia available from the acccptcd casto of thc'p,?rticul,v ethn2c ;roup, thc girls' fanilics arc only too happy to ~vrangcsuch a nLvriagc. During most cf thc year the Kagunc Khola is easily fordod, and only during a vcry hoctvy noasoon sonson will it creatc any groat hindorallco to psoplo who ivant to cross. Tnis is p-21-t of the rcnson for the number of cross-river n

Eo~rovcr, tho Kaguno Bridgc has fulfilled n soc~nd~vyrolc in rcla- tion to rwriagcs by mking it easy for affinal relatives froa cithcr sidc of the rivcr to visit cach othcr ,and to cxchangc socinl.obligations. M,vriod daughters and sistcrs find it csyccially ansy'to visit thcir parcnts during the dlffercnt fcstivulf and religious occasions which occur Curing tho monsoon season.

BEST AVAlLABU COPY Tho ICagunc Bridge, hzzs not changed thc tra~litionalpractice of carrying tho dcad body to thc place of burial. Thc Tnniangs bury their dead near thc banks of the Kagunc and the Samvi Kholas, whilc thc othcr Hindu groups of the area carry thc dcad body to thc Trisuli River, abcut n 2 to 3 hours walk fron thc Galy,mpur panchayat. They can rcach thc Trisuli Rivor without usin5 the Kagunc Bridgc. It is a comon bclicf ,axJong thc Hindus that thc dcad pcrson .should bc cronated on tho bank of a big rivcr, profcrably onc whosc scurco is in tl~choly Himalayas. This srill load the cleccascdQs soul to tho cclostial city for thc dcad, wherc it will cnjoy eterr-ml rest.

Thc Hindus of this ~vcaalso bolicvo that tho dcnd body should not bo c'vricd ovcr a bridge, and strictly follow this taboo, Dccausc of tlds bclicf, pcoplo prcfor to crcnato thc doad body at thc ccnfluoncc of tho Kaguno and S,un,vi Kholns, rcthcr than to carry it ovcr tho bridgc during floods, whcn they cannot ford the Kaeuno Khola. ~hcrcfore,when thc quostion mas nskcd about my changes in their traditional funeral ritos, since thc construction of thc bridge, 65% rcspondod that thoro was no chnngc at all. Thoy gntrc the sane rcnsons as nontionod abovc. Howovcr, 35% of tho people rospondsd tlnt the Kagune Bridge has helped tho local poople in othcr nr2ys rcg,arcling funeral ritos. For cxmplc, it has ~zdcit cnsicr and quickcr for >coplo tz buy shrouds and tho nocossary itoms to purify the clcacl from Trisuli Bnzaczr, ovsr. when thc SLmiRivor i~ floodcd. In addition, tho briclgc has bccn 1lLmti- culcarly helpful by n,Mng it possible and onsy for all thc rclntivcs of thc dccc,~sed, especially thoso n,arriod daughters ancl ~istcrswho livc on thc opposite sidc of tho rivcr, to assotlblc at thc honc; of tho dcceascd for thc purification .corononics.

- Education and Hcdth Practices

.Thcrc arc throe prinary schools and one nidcl.lc school in I

BESTAVAILABLE COPY school 5.p 1976. Sincc this nfddlc school is locntcci fLv away for thc pcoplc of IUiacikatar, Mathili Rip and ovcn Anthang, thcy scnG tllcir children

to iz rricldle ~ch301locatcd at Sm'ari panchayat, Thc Gognno middlc school primarily sorvcs thc pcoplo of Gognnc and HGvkapur h,unlcts, thoy do not, haircvcr, !lave to uso thc bridgc. Thc pooplo of K,?lyanpuI'; Apt,ar and Ranis~vanra, send thei;. chilcl-cn to Trisuli Bazam for thcir primary lcvcl'oducation. Tho pri~~iryschool locntod in Anthang sorvos tho pcoplc of Anthang, L~gunc.and Kalyanpuro Thcro arc! taro other prim,vy schools, also in Khaclkaiar an& H,arnkapur, vhich rorc initiated by tho locnl villa~crsbut ,we not yet sanctioned by HMG. Thesc schools, hnvc not bcon affoctcd by thc bridgo. Tho younz students of Knlyanpur and Kagune hamlets, who acrc wblc to nttcncl Amth,mg prim'iry school, due to risk involvcd in fording Kaguno Kllola, cspccially duri~gthc nonsoon, stcartcd nttcndine this school rc~ul~arlyaftor the construc- tion of bridgc, Though thc number of stuclcnt~fron lucst of the Kn~uncKholn has not significantly incroasod, tho bridgc hns indirectly generated an i~terestin childror, education in the local people because of easy accesG to school. Therc is no health post or hospital in thc imcdinte vicinity. For tiinor injurics or illncss, tho villagers nninly dcpcnd on the trnditioml hcrbal ncdlcinos aild the scrviccs of tho local hcalcrs or shznnns, Jhankri, Dh=.~lj.~ Thcsc sh,wans arc nostly from the Tamang cthnic group, and many of thcm, work cffcctivcly in curing tho sick. When a hospital was cstablishsd in Tri~uli BLwaar Bagaincha, in connection with tho Trisuli Hydrocloctric Projcct, tho locnl pcoplc bogan to usc it$ scrviccs for scrious cascs. Today if a pcrson h~.sa scrious problcn, pcoplc can t,&c tho sick pcrson to tho Trisuli Fospital ovcn during the rainy soason, by ul~ingtho bridgc. Our finclings show that 87% of tho pcoplc rcspondcd that thoro has been a ch,mgo in hcnlth and curing ;~racticcsaftor tho construction of thc Sridgc. HOL~~CVC~,it docs not ooan that thoy hnvc conplctely given up the traditional mcthods of curing thc sick. This only indicates that thcy have increasingly usins thc nodcrn ncd5cal facilitics at tho Trisuli Bazaar hospital.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Festivals, Fairs and Religious Activities

68 percent of the people questioned point out that 1,argcr nunbcrs of pocple linve asscrlblcd during festivals, after tho construction of the bridge than had aoselnbled before Its construction. During tho fostivals of Sauno Sankranti, Janai Purnina, Jnnmasthani and oven sonctimes in Da the poople gather at certain places to ruorship specific deitics 2nd to celebrate tile occasion. As nost of these fcstivals occur during the rainy scnson, tho people living on either side of the Kagune Ehola use the bridge often, cspocially when the Sawi Khola Is not fordable. Those pooplc qucstioncd also pointod out that woncn, and young boys and girls also gnthcr in larger numbors than bofore, during these fcstivals because of the risk-free crossing provided by the bridge. 20% of inform.nts replied to the same quostion in the nogativc and pointed out that thcrc has been no extonsion of any fcstivals as such and poople celebrate the tr~ditionalfcstivals just as before. Nc new festivals hnvo developod in the zrea, but mcre people now celobrato the original local festivals, since tho constrpctio:~of the bridgc.

Of the people questioned, 65 pcrccnt said that tho bridge has not halpc! to ixrcaso the nu~tberof dovotoes urho travel to the local. villngc shrines except to the tcnplo of Sundharn Mahadcv. This bridge does not link Kagunc to any nnjor tonplcs in tho surrounding village panchayats. 34% of the infornants pointod out that the bridge has facilitatccl the pooplc living to the east of the Sanari Khola to worship at tho Sunclhara shrine, uhich is located nt Kagunc Baza,~.

- ChZm~osin the Rolcs of Wonon

Thl: rural. vomcn cf >Tcpnl porforn fiost of tlto d0ncstj.c si.;royl~s requirod for a household. Those daily activities include: the clenning the house and courtymd, collecting drinlung ~uatcr,gatherin@ fodder and firewood, preparing foocl, caring the young children ns rrroll ac tho old fx-lily ncmbers, washing clothes, looking af tcr the dor.iostic aninals, and ccndinc the childron off to school.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY A2at fron those ilousehold chores thc ivoc;cn circ also cng2gocl in a v'vioty of ay;rlcnltural nctivitics. Thcsc connonly consist of; wcccling, planting, light cultivation, hmvcsting and hclping noighbors with fLmm work cluring peak scasons, Tho luoncn don't spcnd all thoir ti~loworkin&, thcy nlso p,artlcipatc in conr.lunn1 danccs, nariagcs, fostivals, fairs, and rcli~iousactivitics. In tho follo~ingtable wc have catcgorizcd thc activities of rror.cn am?. tried to show how thcsc nctivitios have boon facili- tatcd or changed sincc tllc construction of tlzo hriclgc.

Tablc 3-T-2: Pcrccntagc of Rcspondcnts Indlcatinp, a Change in Vloncnvs Activiti-os Becauso of the Bridgc

Activitie~02 Wonon Af fir~ytivcRcsponsos ---- Extension of ritual friendships

P,articipction in n,vrin~os, festivals, fairs mcl rolj-gious activitt:.sc 56% Othcrs [collection of firewood fodder, securing mtcr and other household work) 36%

Sourco: ECE Fi~ldSurvey (Wet Season).

The Kngune Bridec is used by the wonon of the moa nostly during weddings, fcctivals, fairs, ancl religious activitics. Sincc the construction of the bridge, woncn, as well as childrcn, have bccn able to attond all tho festivals, 'and pLvticipatc in rclieious activities cvon during tho floods of the rainy scnson. Thc rainy scason fostivals and fairs ~vo: Sauno Sankati, Jand hmfi.rn, Jamlasthami, Tij Panchani' and Gai Jatra. During theso

occasions, thc Sanmi and Knguno Khol~sELTO floodccl and the wonen, along with all the othcr pcoplc, utilize thc Kaguno Bridgc.

Tho Kngunc Bridgo has also playod a role in tho cxtcntioal of ritual friendships, or Mtori, ~mongthc women of thc area. This Miterl rclctionship is mdc uso of for tho oxchnngo of labor on a rcciprocal basis, Pwima, during the agricultural scason. As thorc is noro pmticipation in

BEST AVAILABLE COPY fairs, fostivals, etc., anonc the wonon cf thc =-en siiico thc construction of the brici~o, thc ties of ritual friendship ,arc increasing an6 nore intercaste Mitpri relationshiis have becn observccl.

Before the construction of the bridge, rromcn from tho =ore popu- L~tcd,left side of the Kagunc Khcln and the right siclo of the W.,ari Khola had to cross these rivcrs to get to thc major forcsted rogions to collcct both fuel wood and fcddor, During the monsoon scason they werc cithcr forcer1 to mzke a long detour to crcss the flooded rivers, or thoy had to walk to a forested aroa that uras a long way fron thcir horns. Now, with the brid~o, wonen of the area do not havc to spend a lot of thoir tine on tho~etasks, and they can go to the other sido of tho Kngunc Khola at thcir convenionco and without risk. This sin11 mount of surplus tinc that they savo by being able to cross the rivcr without difficulty is used to do other household chores, and for socializing ,and relcacation.

A survey was done during the dry season to find out changes that have occurred in tho socio-econonic roles of cronen. It was conductec! within the Kaguno Bridgo site aroa during phaso I1 of this study. At this tinc 17 wonen of the stuclg wore intorviowecl in detail. The mwinun use of the Kaguno Bridge, by thc wonen of thc ~vca,is clurirlg the Llonsoon season. Because of this, the bridge has affcctod then least in relation to their

clrysoason activities. ' If thoy havc to collcct firc:vood or fodder, or have to attend any socio-religious occasions, or have to go to Trisuli Bazaar to purchase donostic ~oods,they do not uso thc bridge at all since tho rivcr is easily fordable at myspots.

The rosponscs of tho wonen to quostions on whothcr thoy saved any tine since the construction of bridge, were inconclusivo. They statod that they save sonc tine during the rainy season and utilizo this tino to pcrforn agricultural activities.

BESTAVA!LABLE COPY - Chmgcs in Bclicfs and Habits I

Thc. Kagune Brid~ohas not made any ilzipact Qn the ;rnc!iti on21 language patterns of tho moa. Brahnin~,Thakuris, Chhotris, Gh'vtis cncl untouc':ables spcak the Nopnlcse lnneuagc, but Taaangs, Magars and Nccrczrs gcncrally spa& thoir own dialects, Of the pco2lc poiled, ll?6 said that thoro has boon a chango-over fr0~1thc local dialcct to Nc~alcsc. IIcvcver, sincc Tauzincs ,vo in the najority, mny Ncpnlcsc spccdcinc groups can also sp&< the clialect fluently.

Fron our sanplo, 51% statod that therc has bccn a chnr.~~in thc clothing styles in the 'men since tho constructj.on of the Sridzc. licv, 9rci-i during tho rainy season, clothes can bc bought at Trisuli Eaza,~, without any difficulty , Especially for the rainy soason f ostivals such as Janr~nsth~~1, Ti.j PanchLani an? Jami Purnima, wonsn, chilc'aon and mcu likc to hcvc nov clothes.

Bccausc of thoir unhindorcd access ts Trisuli Eaznar pcoplc hav~ startod to use ncw spiccs. Ton, sug~ar, fashionable clothing nnc? ncdicinc wc slowly being introduced into tho daily lifo of tbc villagcra.

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS

- Local Participation

It scens there has not boon much coardinntion bctwcon thc local devcloplinent plans and tho construction of the bridge by the central gavcrme~t. Many village pnnchayats were mobilized by tho District Panchayat fcr tho construction of a notoraklo trnck on the south of tho Sam,ari River, srlfich wac started beforo the construction of the bridge. It scons that no consii,cration wns givon to the cffocts that thio now notorablc track would have on tho olcl m,*n trail. Tho rnotornblc track whon completed, was shorter and morc confort- able than tho old m-in trail, and pcoplc stwtod using it instcad of tho Kaguno trail, to trnvol westwG-trd. Pcoplo prefcrrcd to cross tho Sm~,viat Dcotli, ovor a locally-mdo log bridge, and follcw tho notorablo track.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Local pcoplc indicatcd that thoy werc ncvor ccnsultcd about tho present location of thc bridge, Tho volunt,my labor for transporting riatorials was not ~~denvailablo, although it was thcn nupposed to be a $ri!reqtclsil;e for tlle construction of all bridges. All work was paid for' by the ~ovornmont.

Tho villagers wore supposed to inprovc tho trail linking the bridge, but they nevcr folt tho need for widening and naintninin~thc trail, sinco this trail would only bo usod during tho monsoon, Thc villagers did not find tho bridgc usoful and they rcquosted the District Panchayat and District Office for pernission to shift the bridgo to a more suitable location. At onc point, the District Panchnyat agrocd to the request, but tho local villagers-them- selves withdrew thoir proposal bocause they later folt that it vas their bricgo and did not want to givo it to another villagc.

Tho villa@c p~nc~jatvms supposed to look aftcr thc naintc-nancc of thc bridge, but in this caso, the village panchayat hns never done so properly. The villagers feel that since ~oncbodycame fron the central ~ovcrnnentand colutructcd tho bridzo, tahich is not very usoful tc~thc1i1 thc ccntral covcrn- mcnt should maintain it as well. Secondly, thc high cost of naintcm.ncc required in t'tc szst on this bridge was boyond thc villagc panchayntls ::cnnE any v.ny.

Howcvcr, in 1977 tho village lxinchayat did roplacc sonc of thc broken wooclcn planks of the bridgo using its own resources.

In carlicr days, cvory bridgo used to have a watch.xzn to look after it* Thesc watclmon, who we paid for thcir job, arc usually forner soldiers, and when naintonance was roquirccl, they would rcport to tho concorncd agency md things urould be fixcd quickly. Now, this institution hns been abolishod and rcsponsibility eivon to the village panchayat, Thc pancht~lt has not tnkon this rosponsibility soriously, and it is cozlnonly thought that the mntonanco is tho rosponsibility of the ccntral covcrnncnt,

Rosourcc nobilizntion for the naintonance of the Ihgunc Bridec is difficult, The history of tho district indicates that thc pcople resent tolls bcing raised and the District Panchayat has had to abandon such proposals,

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Institutional Inpact of the Bridgc

Tho uscfulncss of the bridge is linited. Thc people at Sai,?ri Bhanjyans stated that this bridgo is only useful clurini; tflc Idonsoon. T!~c;se pooplo would havc to spend nuch nore tinc to travel fron thcir honcs to Trisuli Baz8,v and back if they usc the bridge. They thcrcfcro, prcfcr to takc a shortcr routc crossing the river at Deocli.

Pco2lo fron thc mall settlcu~ntnear thc bridcc, have stz,rtcclto novc away whilc norc people ,are uoving into the new tLio;;pin, center on the othcr side of tho Sanmi Yhola on tho min trail to San,ari Ehnnjynng 2nd bcycnd.

Alciost all government offices aro located in Tri~uliBazn,ar, a two hour walk from thc brid~ositc, ,and thc people go tlicre to cxry out various official busincss. They also go to Triculi Bnza,ar to buy thcir supljli~sand scll thcir products.

hs fcv as thc importance of tho bridge is conccrnce, it is scrving a limited aroa without a mide spread cffcct on institutions.

ECONOMIC ANUYSIS

- ffoo~~aphicArea and Po~ulntionServed

Thc Kaguno Bridgo, is relation to tho ,men trail systen, is prcsontly aligned to a linitod 'vca access trail, and scrves n linitod nunbcr of pccple.

The bridge currently serves thc two hamlets cf Knlyanpur villnge panchyat and two of Samvi village panchayat,

Most of tho travel from thcsc four haclctsto Trisuli Bazaar znd Bi2u.r is for trnclc, cnploynent, bank loans, pilginagcs, social interaction, otc. ~ronthe cstimc.tcd traffic fl~w,51% of tho flow is for econollic j?urposes, and 49% for social purposes. Hcncc thc ccononic scrvicos of thc bridgo do not nppom to be significant.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Frau the traffic flow cstimat e, Bhogtxni and DhuarLzkot pnnchaynts of Dhnding District, approxinatcly n day's walk fron Uiclur or Trfauli Eaznm, also appear to usc the bridge to a small extent. Tho actual ~~gnitucloof the inpact of this bridgc on those aroas is very questiorlablc for twc nnin reasons; firstly, those pnnch,ayats have many othcr options as fLxr 2s n,arkots and enploymcnt center@vo conccrnocl. We wcrc infcr~ec!, in thc fisld, that . the Rrughat Bazaar of Dhnding District sorvcs as a good market ccntcr for tho moplo of these pCmchayats. In addition to thic, Bcnighzt Bazacx, ljrin~

on the Kathmandu-Pokhcya Hi~hway, is close C~OUG~for tilcse piichayats to

use. Secondly, it was also argueclby the Pradhnn Pancha and the 0th- officials of Kalyanpur and Sanari panchayats, that traf fic flcvr fron tliose panchayats of DhaUng District has bccn gradually declining through thc yc~u's, cepocially since tho fornation of th~mkot at Bonighat.

- Estinated Traffic Flow

This section norely indicates brid~euse, an$. docs not attcngt to quantify tho cconor~icSenofits accrued to tho ufiors of the briclgc.

Thc traffic count was undortakon during tho wet season for only one day, to test the mgnitude nnd direction of tho traffic flow. 125 poraons used tho brid&o that day, and this agroocl with thc locnl ofitinate on traffic flow. Local yooplo said that tho bridsc use is high only clurinc tho wet soason.

Tho results of tho quostionnairo administored to tho bridgc users showed tbat 51% of the traffic is accounted for by oconomic purposes of travol, tho highost yoportion of this being represented by pooplo on a buying activity. Alnost all of this flow was dcstinod :or Trisuli mzacm. Ranking sacond in this order of use is cmploynont, for which pooplo also go to Trisuli &-am. Selling goods and visiting tho Agricultural Dovolopnont Bank at Bidur, isr relatively low.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY ~~bl~34-3: Porccntzgc Traffic Indicating Originl kstinatioll and Purpoec of Travel in tho Study Arcas

Plncc of Economic Activities

Buyf n~ Goods 2% - 24% - - - 1 - 8% 1 - - - - 3%

Apiculturc I ~znk(Loan) 5% 5% - - - 3% 3% ------P I a I Scekin~ En2loyncnt ' 16:: 16% - - - 3% - 3% - - 8% - 3% - (Portorar;~)- ' C t

Others, non- ccononic 49% - 8% 15% 26% 5% 18% 15% - 5% - 3% - - Total -Loo%48% 8% 18% 26% .22% 24% 2 3% 5% 8% 3% 3% 3% Source: ECE Fiol? Survey(Mct SG~EO~)

*W .N : Ward Nunbor

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Tnblc 3-T-3, gives an estinntion of tho tr3ffic flow nnd purpose of visits; this infornation based on ficld obsorvnticns. Thc lxgost prolmr- tion cf the flow is clostincd for Trisuli Baznar with imst of th2 pocplc sccliing work, buying or selling. Thc flow dcstincc! for thc vLzricus parts of Kalympur village panchaynt, though high, docs not, have ixuch to clc with work, buying or selling, SiuilLarly, tho pcople travcliin,; to Kath~lzndulrrerc cloing so for rcnsons othcr than economic.

The traffic data is also analyzed in rclation to thc places of origin acd dcstimtion. Of the total flow, 46% ori;:inntcd in ,'hthan~ (FEaril No. 2)and IZa~unc(l'l,ard No. 3) of Salynnpr village panchayat, Sinilarly, 29% of the uscrs rrcre coning from(Wcard No. 1)of Sam,~i, Trisu1.T BazaLv is the rmjor destination, accounting for 48% of thc travcllcrs. This is folloaecl by Kalycnpur with 18h, 'and Kathmandu, with &$. Tlio rcn'aininc 26% af the trcvcllors rrorc clentined to nuueroue sixall vil1a;:cs in thc neighborhood of the brid&c .

Thc bridgc vras visited again during thc fixy smson tc obscrve any changes in the scasoml v'miation of traffic flo~r. Tho concral pattern of traffic flow ovcr thc ICagunc Bridge during thc dry mason appcnrqcc! to 'sc. osscntinlly local, and confinccl to tho inuccliatc vicinity of Lho Sri-c!~e. As a conera1 rulc thc l~obilityof tho pcoplo in thc hills incrcaecs onor!~uslg dminc the clry season primarily duo to thc reduction in farm 2.ctivity. Tbe traffic flow, observod for ono day at the briclgc, rcvcaled a flour of only 50 2crsocs. Although 'thc traffic clcnsity over the ccrridor 5raLl fro11 Tri~uli to Arbhan!y, Tato2ani 2nd further tho north, appc,ared to bc sicnificnnt, a11 lonz-clistance traffic uses the log bridccs ovcr thc SanCvi --K71c.la anc! join tho trnil to go to thc north or south, The Kz~gunc Brid~enypccrs to be used laore whcn tho log brid~osget washed awr2.y durin~tho nonsocn. Tho lcwcr bridgc use during tho clry season is essentially thc rosult of tile nnny altornntivcs, ~uchas log bridgos, nvailablo in tho vicinity of bri~lgclocation.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - dgrictflturo

Thc study is limitcd t~ four baalots in the nciehborhood of tho *icl~e. A~riculturcis thc n'xinstay and pinmy occupation of all the pecple in thc ,area. Thc main crops Grown ,arc paf.cly, n'aizc, nillct and soyabeanc Paddy i~cultivated twice n yc'ar, tnc nonsoon crop in Septcnbcr/~ctober, and the winter crop in Dccctlbcr/Janu,wy. It is cuitivatcd Ln thc rrct lands, ::hc_t_, which conprisc the plains. Maizc is cultivated once a yen in May/Junc on thc rlry land hill terraces, or m. Millct is cultivntcr! si~~lultnncoucljr with mize and soyabean.

Thc avorage size of the land holdinc is 0.41 to 0.84 hcctmc :?cr household, which Givcs an avcrago por capita cultivnted Inn:! 3f 0.1 hectare. It was observo~lthnt both Knlyanpur and Sawvi :ancllnyats ,arc n,vginally dcficicnt in food grains.

It was assunled t11c.t thc bridg~would fncilitatc tho accocs of thc. f farnors to their fms and, at the sanc tine, it urculcl onsurt n greater usc of

modern a~riculturalinputs ~hichwould result in an incrcasc ill productivity. But on cloccr observation, it 1was noted thnt thc inpact of this bridge on tha agricultural pattern has bccn n,vginal.

Frocl among tho inpact arcns of the bric3.gc, ~?:,proxiaatolj- tarclvc households in the innec?iato vicinlty of thc bl-iclgc ocm lnnrl on tho other ciCc

of the river. I

Tho local pooplo said thnt the river :I?& nzvcr poventcd then fror.1 Going to thcir lanil to cultivato it, that they iv3uld cvcn for$. it durlng thc monsoon. 'I'boy added that the bridgo has ~~ar!oit c~slcrand sate? nuvr to ~etto their 2nd.

Thc 5ridze has only narcinally bolpod, r.lainly thc t~iroarLwcls (~Inthanl;and Kagune) of Knlyanpur villa~cpanc hayat and (wLvd 30. 1) o i Su?xl pnnch,qyat,to gct fertilizer, cvcn clurin~thc nonsoon. Pcoglc have stated to use fcrtilizor bccnuso of the pronotional noasurcc used by the asricult-ma1 coopcrativcs, and not cluc to the prcscncc af thc bridgs.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY The role of this bridgc in prouoting thc ue~e of a~ricultur,21loan6 fron the A~riculturnlDevelopnont Bank (ADB), 2.t Bidur, is also noninal. One reason for this is that the use of an ADB loan to 'acquire aodcrn apiculturzil inputs has. bcon stLvtcd vory rcccntly. Seconclly, the flov of porsonE going to a~pc~arsto bc negligible cvon for tho imodiatc ~vcaof tho briclgc, such as Anthang and Kagunc, lct alone fron thc othor wards in tho ~voa.

Irny-rovcd sccd '2nd fertilizers havc very rccently bocn introducocl in tho area. Tho coopcrativo officials of thc ADE inclicnto that only about 10 to 18 hectares of land in the Kalyanpur and Sarxari pnnchayat arcas have rcccntly been plantod with inprovcd scoc! and fortilizcp uccd.

- Rural and Cotta~eIndustrios

Rural and cottage inclustrics aro a sc.condmy occupation for tllc pco2lc. They nvrnally provide thcn, to sorlc cxtcnt, with aclditlonrrl in con,^ which supploncnts their subsistence cconoay. But rvaraL industry ixplics cxtrcnely snall, labor-intcnsivo processing nctivitie~undcrtakcr by thc rural households. Most of the products arc for honc c~nsunptionand scl2on sold.

Thcsc houscholds activities include cotton amvin~,thc use of imtor turbines or Ghatta for pain milling, thc making of bn~boogoods, ccu';mn- try m.d iron working. Most of the rural in2ustrinl activities are concentrated iu the Kalyanpur villagc l~nchayat,with Sancxi panchayat being relatively inactive in tho area of rural industry. A nuaber of reasons wcro observed for the lopsided dovelop~~cntof rural industry in tho SanLari pancbayat ~vca. Tho obvious rcason is that the cotton weaving activitios ano orionted to a spocific othnic poup the Tnmangs. And this community is primwily scttlcd in Kalyanpur panchayat .

Tho cottagc industsial activity in thc Kalyanpur panchayat, includes 350 houscholds which arc involvcd in tho wcaving of cotton cloth, a 1mgc nunbcr of wonon participate in this activity. Apcvt fron this, thcrc arc 22 wator turbinos for grinding wheat and maize, and 1 traditional water

BEST AVAILABL E COPY nil1 for paddy husking, which to a moat extent fulfills locnl do1;r.n~: for main processing. For paddy husking, howevor, tho dxicting water uill is not sufficient evcn thouch it is baing oi~oratcdat full 'capacityc 1~zood lmrt of tho fooC main processing is c,vriccl out in tllc traditional nanucl de-hu~kin~dcviccs called the Dhiki and Janto.

Although thc mca has not undercone any substantial chances in the rural or cottage Industrial satterns in terms of new production techniques after the construction of the bridgo, thcrc hag bccn a rcnark~~blcamount of ~rcwthof the cotton weaving activities. This hns occurred cainly in the Anthang harnlct of Kalyanpur villagc panchayat and is prtly at&ributablc to the brirleo. We \17erc told that the people of Allthant; havo bocn able to bring cotton yarn fron Trisuli Bczarrr without much difficulty since tho construc- ti~nof tho bridge.

Apart fron this, the bridge has also bccn of sonc hclp to the local blacksniths in throo wards of Kalyanpur and San,ari panchayats. It hns cnablod then to bring in thoirraar materials throughout tho yc~zr.

- Labor Forco Situation sad Enolon~ent

The infornation on thc aspects of the populnti.cn is prin,arily dorived from our own cstinates, bscd on thc ccnsus rccorfi-c 2nd fiol~!infornn- tion, Tho estinatcd total population of Satrxi pnnchayat is 3,582. Of this, 51% me malcs nnc? 4977 arc fenalos. Hourevcr, the sieo of the labor fcrcc, as rcprescntod by the econo~callyactive population I' in the .-go group 10 ye~arsof ago 2nd over, is cstimtcd to be 4.W of tht: total populztion.

As nontionod in an eLwlior scction, thc bridgo rminly servos two hru;llots of Samari pnnchayat. Tho total population of these hanlcts is cstiuatod at 361 and the econonically cctivo population served by tho brid~cis calculated at 170 porsons.

Tho ccononically activc popuh~tionuay be defined as the number of porsons in thc ace poup 10 yoars and over who contribute to tho production of goods and serviccs.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY As fLv ns Kalyanpur lmnchayat is canccrncd, thc sizc of its totzl population is cstinatcd to bc 5,000; of this, nnlcs coiistitutc 482 ancl thc fecales, 52%. The econor.iically active populxtian is cstinatocl to bc I+?% of the total population. The bridgo servos crLards number 2, 3, 5, 6 anc! 7, of ICalyr.npur panchnyat. To this extent, tho total pcpulntion of this ;~aiichaynt, served by the bridge, cones to about 2,436 2nd thc ccor-onically nctivc population scrvcd is 1,162 pcrsons.

Tho cottage industrial activities havc n ci~nificantp~ol of scni-skillod laborors, and mainly consisting of cotton scavcrs, blacbuiths and c,mycntcrs. Scni-skilled labor constitutos alriost 91t% of thc total size of industrial labor. In this, tho ~mjorshmc is cccupiod by cotton

weaver 6.

Of tho soni-skillcd labor forcc 95% ,are cottoil acavcrs, black- smiths con~r;lec411, and carpcntcrs, 1%. Other rural industrial wrorkcrs are engaeod in thc nnnufacturin~of banboo &;oods, and operating thc rater hills.

Thc bridge has had very littic iqact on cnploymont. E-~cnbcforc thc bridco, tho povcrty-stricken economic structure of this ?xca hacl forccc? tho pcoplc to scck onplopcnt in Trisuli Baza,~. Pcoplc uainly GO to t113 Bazacm to do portcring Land for othor unskillcd worlc.

- Trado Flow Pattorn

The najor comoditios inportcd into the area arc: korosono, salt, cotton yarn,

Local people indicate that there has boon sono changes in tho total volume of ccrtnin coclmodities being inportcd. Thcse coorioditios includc mnly cotton yarn, fertilizer and pig iron, brought fron tho

BEST AVAILABLE COPY narlcets in Trisuli Bazaar nnd Biclur. The bridge allovas t!iic flay of &ooc!s to continue throughout tho ycar.

IhlyCmpur panchayat , mainly thc Anth,?ng vrxrc!, has bccn tliroctly affoctod by tho bridge. Thc bricl~chas played a koy rolc ir, thc ir.,portatic:i of increasing quantities of cotton ycva for tho lit~thacz\'arc:, cl?ccificnllg during the Donsoon. This cotton yarn is thc raar natcricl fcr the cottat-2 industrial activity' of \vrrcaving cotton cloth, nr,d the 'oricl,;~ fzcilitatcs this inportation to go on throughout the ycar.

Thc brid~chas not yct hcd any nctnblc inpact sr the ini~ci-tan:, uso of fertilizers bccau~cits usc is rclativcly ceur to the aron. Pool~fc has stca.rtcd to bring in fertilizers fron Trisuli Bazaar, and thc codpcmtive society has distributed about 200 bags. Thc i~lpnctsf thc brid~cin tor:= ~f the inportation of fertilizer is linitcd to thc two nLarc!.s En::unc and k1than~ of Kalyanpur Panchaynt , anci (wCaril No. 1) of Snvi.

- Enviromcntal Effects

The rclation of thc brid~oto the usc nncl/or nis-~scof the natural rosourcos of the area is insignificant. Thc l3cal pn~chnynts, as ivoll as thc Forcst DcpCvtnapt, have bocn successful in controllin;: tl,c usc of forest resources. Most of tho troc cutting a~dfodder collcctin; t:\:ics plauo ic tZc! imediate aroa of cach villa~e,and therefore the briclz~has not cci~tribu'icr! to thls.

ENGINEERING ANaYS IS

- Site Sclcction. Dcsi~nand Construction PIctllods

Aftor thc dccision mas a7dc on the bridzc location, and procurcncnt of n 100 ft. span tubular truss bridge madc, thc first survoy was done. This was dono by USOM Engineer Mr. J. B. Wcavor and n Nopalcsc technician, Mr. Y. N. Lmichhnna fron the DOR. A sccond, and narc detailed Eurvcy was conductcd by

BES J AVAILABLE COPY Mr. D. P. ShLv~m,also a DOR technician. Thc site aras re-oxatlined by h-1.r.1, and finalized in November 1363.

A recent visit to the sitc rcvcalcd that thc sitc that vas sclcct~d was ths only possiblc onc given thc span rostriction and thc niniaun detour frou thc old trail.

An nttcnpt w2.s nadc to protoct thc right h,mk abutnont foundation by ;~rovicling a clivcrsion inall, but its length upstrcan docs not socn good enough to protect it fron high water. It shoulcl havc hcon constructed right through tho cclgc of tho abutment, at loast up to the oncl of thc rivor bcnd upstream. It is folt that propor observations of soil conditions, hydrological chtnils, ctc,, werc not nadc whilo dcsignin~and c~nstructingthe abutil~nts, ns well as tho river training works of thc bridgc.

No design calculations arc available for tho stccl truss, but thd bridge looks over-dosigned for only podostrian loncls.

Local pooplc infornod us that alno~tall the unskilled laborcrs used cano fron thc ,area. Skillcd laborers, es;~ccially thc brid~cfittcrs, tvcrc brought from Kathnanclu. Local masons constructccl the plun concrctc abutncnts.

Erection was vcry oasy. Dry stonc walls wore raised to zive false support at each of the ncdc points of the truss, and tho bridge pnncls wore crcctcd with tho hclp of thcsc false supports. This was possiblc bccausc the construction was done during the dry season whcn tho Kagunc Kholn is virtually dry.

This also nvoidod the nore difficult truss lcnchin: process, and ttc bridge erection took only two months.

Construction work started in January 1964 an?%was coml>lotcd in May of tho same year. Tho bridgo was inaugurated on June 11, 1964.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY

Refcr to

CPhoto~ravb No.

Virtually no approach trail exist& to thi~ bridge. Pooplo using this bridge just walk on n tonporary trncl:.

NcLmli two-thirds of tho prcscnt planks ncod rcplacer~ent. Now plaLnks hcvo to be placed at thc cnd of thc lcft bank. Thick cross planks, an avcragc of 3.7 cn in thiclcnoss, rest clircctly over tho longitu- diw.l an~lciron, Thcrc is no fixation Lvrz.ngcment. This ~vtkoscross ?lank6 looso. Thc bo~twray to avoid this is to place, at both ends, two 3 in. x 4 in, wooden curbs nailed with cross planks.

Thc pipe railing should be re-fastcnocl at 3-p-2 its propor ?lace. A ri~htbank cpproach, along with gabion protection on right bank, should be pro2crly nadc. The gabion length should be extended anr! hcig!lt incrcascd.

1,gproach trails nust be clzdo for about 1% t nilos on lcft bmk and for about 2 nilcs on tho right ' 1' ! bank to help this briQc attract norc traffic in I

BESTAVAILABLE COPY - Past I~iaintcnancoWork I - 1

->la&: The 197: flooc! dan'vo'd the right bank diversion wall and brcacbod thc ?ii;ht bank approacll fill. Thc river branchccl off frm thc upstroar.1 twn, and aisu cut the risht bank terrace,

This iln~a~evras repaired in 1974, ancl lcvir ~;abionwall uraa construc- tcd.(scc photo 3-P-5) to protect the right La~llcapproach fron further danagc. Repairs vrcre doce by the ST'T) of HMG. Thc hcight r,f tho eabicn itfall is lon, aud it is said that duria:: hc monsoon, the Khola till i'lows ovc? thc toil, >nc? through the richt flank cut tin^ off thc approach fron the right bank.

Thc apprcximtc cost of rcpair wcs saicl to bc Rs. Ob,~~~/-.This typo of naintcnancc is very costly and is boyoncl the rcnch of local resources.

--l4inor: Minor repairs, such as tho replacing of planks, vrcre done by local panch,aynts. A few planks wero replaced, but the timber quality an~?the ivorkmnshiI, is bclow standmd, as can bo socn in thc photo 3-P-3. A fe1.v planks arc still missing, and local people inforncc? us that thcoc vcrc lcCt after tho repair work iiraS donc by the panchayat .

BEST AVAILABLE COPY 3 -3 FINDINGS

- The Taririnngs czlrl othcr cthnic groups of Anthang, H,a.rkapur and kguno haw nnrital relations with each other and have rclativcs (consan~uinnl, sffinal, as well‘ as ritual friends) across tho Khol~.ancl licncc thc asc of tho brid~o,during thc rmny social and religious occcsicns is high, cspeciclly durinz the nonsoon scason.

- The local poople prinLzrily use thc bridgo for agriculture, the collection of fircwood and fodder, coanodity purchases and to trnvel to Triauli Baza~x and Bidur .

- The bridge has facilitated aonen and chilckcn to go to Trisuli Bazanr fcr social, as are11 as r.lany uther inportant purpo~cs, cspccially during tlic

IETSTITUTIONAL

- Tho use of thc old trail has boon reduced because of tho net highway linking Pokh'ara and Kathn,mdu. People boyond Sm.iCvi prefer tc usc tiic highway rather than tho trail.

- No link between loccl devclopncnt activities and the conotruction of thc bridge could 5c soen. Thc local pooplc had plails to construct a notornblc road on tho othcr side of tho ,%ulari Khola, with voluntary local labor, to connect tho ~vcawith Tri~uliBazam. NO considerati~naras given to this aspoct, ,md the bridge srao constructed on the traditional trail routc i;tUch tho nnjority of the people havo.noar abandoned. Duo to tho lack of ~ooc: coordination of the efforts of the local pcoplc for a now road and tbc bridge, the utility of thc bridge has becor.~~n,vginal.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - T11c local pcoylc do cot considcr thc bridge as a part of tlicir livcs sc t11c.y ,me not concerned very much with its maintenance nor that of tho acccsz trails. In thc casc of ICa,wnc Bridge, thcrc was no involvc~cntof thc ?coplo, beyond that cf the paid laborers, in thc construction of the briGgc, sc thc aLaintonanco of th? bridgo is ncglectcd. Only recently, the village panchagat clid rcplncc sono of thc dcck pla~ksof thc bridge.

- Due to tho ina2propriatc location of the briclce, lcvying tolls ic not possible. As n rcsult, local rcsourccs for thc anintennncc of thc bridge are not available.

- Sincc thcre ,arc n number of cafiy altcrnativos with chcrt clotours, tho iapact of tho Kzgunc Bridge on tho zxca ic relatively s~~~ll.

- At prcccnt, the bridge iupact arca it~clfis linitod to tlroc \KZT~C of thc two panchayats.

- Due to poor locntional rclntion~hipof tho briclgo to tho ,area trail ilctwork, the bridge has had narcinn1 inpact on thc ru'ca's oconony.

-. Cottage industries in tho hill areas nood ncccss to nmkcts f~rthc ig?~curc- ncct of raiu mctcrials and for thc cc:lc of finished l2roducto. In thc casc of Kaguno, only cotton wo?.ving and iron-wcrkin(; activitlbs rcquirc ilnportcci rav natcrials. For thc cotton ~ronvorsof Knlyanpur village panchayat, thc bridge has bccn important has holpcd thcn grocuro cotton ymn and sell thcir cloth. For othcr cotton woavcrs thc impact Is very ncgligiblo bccnuse , they live in LWCL?S urhcre the impact of thc briclgc is nilrinal.

- The inpact of thc bridge on tho physical cnvironmcnt is ncgligiblc.

- In Kaguno the citc had to be solectod to fit an already procured span; this did not produco very good results. Tho bridgc span is not ndcquntc

BESTAVAILABLE COPY ancl this n,V be one of thc reasons why tho bridgo n~cclccl~CL?VY .3ark protection uorks after its construction,

- Tlic briclgc appears to bc ovcr-dcsignecl for thc traffic clcnsity it serves. An zt tcr,~ptSI~GU~CI havc bccn nadc tourcard cconoi:iical dcsityn, cmsidcrl~;~; traffic dencity.

- Wire ncoh railine would bo a good substitute fcr l)ipc railings, Loczl pocplc reel that animals rcfuse to cross this kridgc bccnusc of tlic pipe railings.

- At thc tinc of plannizg this bridcc, it was considcrod that truss bridges vcrc nore ocononicnl than suspension bridgc~for spons up to 150 ftr, ax! USdID haci plans to procure 7 norc truss briclgcs. This was, howcvcr, nevcr iapl=nontccl, Cost r'ecluction rhasurcs after thc expericncc gained from this briclgo construction .wore nevor aclol~tcdat latcr dates.

- Thc idea of proc:wing prcdeterninod bricl~ospans tc fit diffcrcnt ~itesis ncccptnble, considering thc shorta~cof design engineers and also thc ccononics. Such predetermined spans should however, be in no case bo forcibly stalled in placos urhoro they we not applicable.

- Thoro 2x0 virtually no approach trails, and thesc should havc bcon construct- cd along with thc bridge rather than leaving it to panchayate, It is stroncly fclt that whcnovor thc approach trail conclitione aro poor or some- tines non-existent, they must bo improvod or constructed during the bridge construction, It my bo quite possible that pooplo stLmtod to take other routes because of total lack of asproach trails and thc bridgc was virtually lcft unusod.

- Thc rcspomibility of mjor repairs shoulcl be talcen up by thc central a govcrilj;lc;lt in vicw of thc lack of *resources in the locLal panchayats. Local panchzyats sh-ould only be nokcd ta unclert,ake ~dnorropllrs.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY

UNITED STATES TRAIL SUSPENSION BRIDGE STuCY / AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1 NEPAL AREA LOCATlON EAST CONSULTING ENGINEERS WCHUWARGHAT SUSPENSION BRIDGE * KATtiMANDLI

BEST AVAILABLE COPY TABU OF CONTENTS

4. PACHUWARGHAT BRIDGE 4rl CASE\ HISTORY 4*lrl &$&DESCRImION AND HISTORY - Geographic Setting . - Bridge Site Description - Relationship with Regional Transportation Systen - General Cultural Setting - Services Available in the Area - Bridge Location History and Decision Process ' 4r2 ANALYSIS

- Land and People - Structure of the Family

i. Marriage Fractices - Funeral Practices - Education and Health Practices - Festival, Fairs and Religious Activities - Changes in'the Roles of Women - Changes in Beliefs and Habits 4 e2 e2 &HSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS - Local Participation I - Institutional Impact of the Bridge 4.2.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - Geographic Area and Population Served - Estimated Traffic Flow - Agriculture - Rural and Cottage Industries - Labor Force Situation and Employment - Trade Flow Pattern - Environmental Effects 4.2 EIJGINIBRING ANALYSIS - Site Selection, De~ignand Construction licthcdr; - Present Bridge and Approach Trails: Conditions and R~comendec?Improvements - Past Plaintenace Work

4.3 FINDINGS SOC 10-At?TEROPOLOGI CAL INSTITUTIONAL -ECONOFUC F2JGII'JEZRING

4.4 ILLUSTRATIVE i?HDTOGP?HS (4,P.1 to 4 .P.10)

LIST OF .!ABBREVI~~TIONS end of t!~c report GLOSSARY end of the report LIST OF TABLES 4-T-1 Estimated ITucr-ber 2nd Percentage of Kouce9olds by Ethnic Group (Sarsuikharka Pmchayat) 4-T-2 Estimated Nmber and Percentage of Households by Ethnic Group (Fanchakumari Panchayat) 4-T-3 Estinatod Number and Percentage on^ Households by Ethnic Group (Doorali ~anchayat) 4-T-4 Percentage of Male Respondcllts Indicatir~gan Increase in Yomensf Activities Becaucc of the Rridg.2 4-T-5 Description of Local Shriaos and Fabs 4-T-6 Percentage of Female Responses on the Utilization of Surplus Tine Saved due to the Presence 01 %he Bridge 4-T-7 Percentage Traffic Flow (Origin, Destination) 4-~-8 Purpose of Travel 4-T-9 Esti~mtodPopulation and Labor Force

LIST OF FIGURES 4-F-1 Aroa Locaticn - Pachwarghat Scspension Bridge 4-3'12 Chalthali and Sarauthali Transcct (Sdheizatic)

BESTAVAILABLE COPY 4*1 CASE HISTORY

AREA DESCI1IM'IOUD HISTORY

- Geoma~hicSetting

The Pachumghat Bridge lies northeast of Kathmandu, in the Kame Palanchok District. It spans the Sunkosi river at a site approximately a 4.-hour walk downstroam from Dolalghat. Dolalghat is about 36 miles from Kathmandu on the Kathmandu-Kodari Highway and it is also the point of confluence of the Indrawati and Sunkosi rivers. The Sunlzosi is a major r,.Lver in eastern Nepal.

Even prior to the construction of the bridge, Pachuwarghat was one of the main ferry crossing points on the Sunkosi River, The bridge links two panchayats In its immediate ricinity, Sarsuikharka wnchayat on the right bank, and Panchakumari panchayat on the left bank of the river.

The terrain of the area is characterized by extremely rugged topo- graphic structure and irregular surface configuration, tho elevation ranges from 2,000 to 6,000 ft. A major proportion of the area consists of steep hills and sloping land with vvy little scope for full-scale agricultural land use. The plains area is relatively insignificant and lies on the periphery of the river banks. Since a significant proportion of the aroa is either barren, steep or rocky, it supports only marginal agricultural production. Apart from the ruggedness of the terrain, there is widespread deforeetation and rsoil erosion which has contributed to the declining agricultural productivity and recurring acute food shortages and famine.

As already mentioned, the bridge links two village panchayats in Kame Palanchok District; Smsuikharka and Panchakumari. There are small hamlets, MajNgaun, Timalbesi and Chukhabesi, along the trail from Dolalghat to the Packuwarghert Bridge. There is a wet weather river, the Jhiku wUch has to be crossed on the way. The Jhiku && is easily fordable during winter,but it becomes difficult to ford during the rainy soason. Local

BEST AVAILABLE COPY people say that the Khola sweeps away both livestock and pebple who try to cross during the monsoon. The danger is increased by the flash floods which occur during this season.

The trail condition from Dolalghat to Pachuwarghat is not good. At a few places the trail virtually does not exist (See photo 4-P-1 and 4-P-2). In addition, people have to walk knee-deep through thc river, as well as across hills where no trails have been cut.

The Jhiku Khola is about an hour's walk upstream, and the Chaunri K&& K&& is about a +hour walk downstream from the bridge. The left bank of the bridge site is at a much lower level than the right bank. The presence of earth mixed with boulders on left bank, indicates that it is a flood plain. Tho right bank is composed of soft, crumbled rocks.

The 1971 flood level was the highest recorded in recent years. It rose within 5 ft. of the deck of the bridge. IIowever, the bridge was constructed at a safe height.

- Relationship with Regional Transportation Sgstelu I Pachuurarghat Bridge lies on one of the trails which links Kame Filanchok and tho western part of the Ramechhap Mstrict with the Kathmandu- Kodari Highway. This highway, 65 dlos in length, built with the absistance of the People16 Republic of China, has changed the previously sparse trail system of the area. The highway runs through Dhulikhel and Panchakhal, until it reaches Dolalghat, nearly 36 miles &om Kathmandu. .Before the construction of this road, the present Dolalghat-Pachuwarghat trail, traversing the right flank of tho Sunkosi River, barely existed. The main trail used by the people of the Panchakhal and Dhulikhel areas, to travel to Ramechhap and beyond, was the one which follows the Jhlku Khola bed. During monsoon, hovevor, this trail ascends a hill, to the left of the Jhiku w, runs through Kaling Tar and Timalbesi, and meets the Sunkosi near the Jhiku Khola- SUnko~iconfluence. Some people also used to follow the right flank of the Jhiku Khoh via Kanpur and Kalapani, and descend at the JhikuSunkosi confluence, From there they traveled towards Pachuwarghat along the right bank of the Sunkosi. Prior to tho construction of the bridge, they crossed the river here at an old, traditional boat crossing about 300 ft. upstream from the present bridge site. However, the trail now runs over the bridge, After crossing the bridgo, the trail then follows the left bank of the Sunkosi, crossos tho ~haunriKhola and enters Ramechhap District. Following tho Kathmandu-Kodari Hightray construction, a near trail, from Dolalghat* connecting Ramcchhap and Kavro Palanchok Districts with DkuUUiol and Panchakhal, has been developod along the side of tho Sunkosi River. This trail is now being used more frequently since it saves marly an hour's travol time when compared with the Jhiku Khola route.

Sinco the Kathmandu-Kodari Highway ams complctod at the same time the Pachuwarghat Bridgc was, the highway has diroctly affected tho volume of traffic that use the bridge.

No airfields exist near this bridge which could have any bearing on the bridge usc.

- General Cultural Sotting

The area or study embraces the broad cultural setting of the hilly regions of eastern IJepal, particularly Kavre Palancholc, Sindhu Palchok, Cola- kha and Ramechhap Districts, The major inhabitants of these Districts are: Brahmins, Thalzui, Chhetri, Ncwar, Tamang, Magar, Thami, Majhi, Jirol, Jogi and the untouchable groups, Thosc ethnic groups can broadly be categorized into three distinct eocio-religious groups;\ They aro; the high-caste Hindu groups, the Matwali, or liquor-consuming groups, and v.ntouchablcs , BralLmins, Thakuris and Chhetris compose the high-caste Hindu groups who wear sacred thread and are collectively called the cloan casto, Cho-klio Jat. This group dominates the sozio-cultural activities of the ,voa. The Matwali groups,thc traditionally liquor-consuming castes, are the Ncwar, Magar, Tauang, Thami, Majhi, Jirol and Jogi. Though they do not wear tho sacred thread thoy are also called Chokho Jat. Among thosc caste groups, Nawms have tho most complex social structuro.

The untouchables aro Krsmi, blacksmiths, Damai, tailors and musi- cians, and Sarki, cobblers, TheFr work is definod by tradition and caste, and thoy sell their services to the higher casto groups,

Tho composition of the high casto Hindu groups and tho unt-ouchable groups reflocts the typical Hindu, Indo-Aryan hill culture. Each Matwali group, however, has its own culture. Tho language, clothing, architecture, festivals and fairs, shrinos, deities, marriage prnctices,etc., of each group is distinctive. Though these pooplos havo thoir own cultures, thoy have many things in common; the caste system, the Nepalese language, and tho Nepalese Hindu culture. The sharing of common beliefs and traditions allows tho social intorgration of these groups.

- Services Available in the Area

Though the Pachurarghat Bridge is located on a trail that links the market centers of Dolalghat, Banopa, and Kathmandu with the eastern hinterlands of Kame Palanchok, Sindhu Palchok, Ramochhap and beyond, the services availablo in tho immediate vicinity of the bridge are not noteworthy. Besides tho village panchayats of Sarsuikharka, Panchakumaxi and Dcorali, thoro are fow other institutions. There are nino primary schools, one lowor socondnry school and ono secondary school. Of thoso, only the secondary school in Panchakumari and the primary school in Saramthali havo been diroctly affected by the bridge construction. The bridge has facilitated tho enrollment and continued attondance of students; this despito tho hazardous condition of tho river during the monsoon.

The only othor sorvice in the area is tho police poet in Saramthali villago.

I BEST AVAILABLE COPY The othsr place where similar services aro available is Dolalghat, which has not only a major polico station, but also, a bank and a for privately-owned grocery stores.

- Bridge Location History and Decision Process

Tho bridgc is named after a villago called Pachuwar, which is inhabited primarily by Majhis, tho traditional ferry-oporators. Evon during the monsoon the Majhis fcrricd people across tho Sunkosi Rivcr, bofore tho construction of the bridgo. The Mnjhisl forry chnrge was Esg 50 psr person during tho winter, and Rs. 1/- during tho monsoon. Thero r,rore also additional charges for goats, shcop, and buffaloes. Tho charge varied fron Rs. 2 to 5 per hozd. bcol pooplo urorc exempt from this toll, and instoad hclped tho Majhis to make their dugout canoas, and prov.l.dod them with food during tho Dosain f cstivals .

It is said that there was n govornmont docroo or Sanad, made long ago, which required the Majhis to forry people across the river at least once a day, even during the monsoon. Any non-compliance with this command would result in the immediate beheading, in tho boat itsolf, of the disobedient Majhi.

Komal Raj Giri, responding to the nccds and demands of the local people, was the first person to initiato a campaign for the construction of the Pachuwarghat Bridgc. He began a petiti.cn and was ablo to collect the signatures of ovoryono in tho area. He forwarded the petition, with theee signatures, to tho, then, Prime Minister, Mohan Shumshcr Janga Bshadur Rana. Mohan Shumshor rejected tho proposal on tho ground that thorc was no stool available to construct a bridgc. The next day. Mr. Giri agair, ~ciwith t;c Prime Minister, and again requested that a stool suspension bridge be bullt at the Pachumghat sita. The Prime Minister finally acqulescod and sent Mr. Nrip Shumshor Rana, an engineer, to survey tho site in 1949. Though Mr. Rana surveyod the location of the present bridgo, no construction followred,

BEST AVAILABLE COPY In 1961, Mr. Giri appealad to the poworful Inspcctj.on Committce, the Daucbha, on tour from Kathmandu. This Committcc was onzpowored to nakc on-the-spot decisions in such matters, but again, tharo vcro no results.

During tho smo period, a man working in Kcit-bandu, Mr. Chandra Prastid Panday of Kalleri village in Narayanthan panchayat, approached IPllG asking for tho construction of a bridge at Pachu-ghat. He also approached His Majosty, the late King Mahendra tutico on thia matter, once in 1959 and again in 1964. At this time, I*, Panday loarnod that tile U.S. govarnmant wished to offer financial and other assistance towrards tho construction of sono suspension bridgos in Mepal. This was to be dono through a joint project, involving HMG and USAID. Mr. Panday contacted the project office and assurod its officials that if the bridge wero to bc built, ho would arrango voluntary labor for tho transporting of briac parts. An agreement was roachod, tho bridge site was solectod, and finally, tho steol parts were dispatched ts tho nearest roadhead in Dhulikbel in 1964.

Nearly 4,000 persons, from about five village pan~~yats,contribu- ted their labor to carry tho suspension bridge parts to Pachuwarghat. However, project officers later noticed that many parts had beon mi~placodand they were forced to hire laborers to bring the missing parts up to the Pachuwarghnt site.

Tho bridge arn~finally completed in 1967, however in 1971, four years after its construction it collapsed due to high floods. Reconstruction utas imediately begun in 1972, (for more details, seo the section on Past PIaintenanc e Work) .

Many factors, sociological, economic and technical aro inpoztani in determining tho logistics for the construction of a bridge. Because all. of theso elcment~act on each other, it Is difficult to ascertain which is dominant. During the monsoon, the wat ar level s~rellsto dangerous proportions and often the boatmen refuse to ferry people across the river. The possibi- lity of loss of livestoclr and/or life succintly states the reasons for the popular demand for the bridge,

BESTAVAILABLE COPY The people of tho arca made immense efforts, over a period of two decades, to have a bridge constructed in their 'area, and this seons to he the dominant factor which influenced the Government to docide to build this bridge. Also, at this time, the HMG~SAIDSuspension Bridge Projcct vns selecting sites to install the 13 British-made suspension bridges., Onc ~f the conditions which predetcrminod the site selection YKLS the contribution of volunt,a-y labor and other local participation. Iil the caso of Pachuvmrghnt, this was no problen since connittod voluntary labor to support thio projoct

U~Gavnilak20. All this, when coupled with the command of His Majesty, tho latc King Mahcndra, rcsultod in the dccision lcading to thc construction of the bridgc.

The Pachuwarghat Bridgo was constructed during the Third Plan poriod (1965-70). According to plan documents, the Third Plan had envisioned the construction of some 15 bridgcs. Thoir construction would increase thc mobility of tho populace, thc accessibility to renoto areas, and establish a continually-open transport link to the mountnih ~voassf tho Kingdom. Thc Thlrd Plan did not however, mention the specific moas whero the bridge vould be constructed, It was thought that the construction of a bridge at Pack.uumr- ghat would fulfill thcso objectives. The bridge-would help to est.ablis3 2 continual traffic flow, and a connection with thc trail systcm that liilkcd Ramechhap District with Dhulikhol, Banopa and Kathmndu.

After the voluntary labor commitment madc by the local'panchayats, tho SBD decided to conduct a sitc survey. Becauso there wcrc only 220 to 300 ft. span BRC bridges locally ava;Llablc, the crew had to find a sitc with a span no widor than 300 ft. Wlth reservations, they rcconncnded a 300 ft, span sit0 at tho prcsont location, though a longor span would have bcon technically bottor. Thc prodominant ongincering consideration was to locate 300 ft. span bridgo on stablc banks, and tc enhance tho cxisting trail system.

The cost factor also influenced the decision to choose this loca- tion. Because of tho contribution of voluntmy labor, transportation costs wore not figurod into tho construction cost estimates. It urns thought that a bridge built at this site would bo more oconomicnl than others.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY ANALYSIS

4.2 01 SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGICA,L ANALYSIS

- Land and Pco~lc

~suilsharka,Pcznchnkunari and Dcorali villagc pat:k-a;~at~arc tl~i primary local areas inZluoncod by the Pachuwarghat Bridge. Sarsui,khzx!rn panchayat lies on the right sido, and Panchalrurncui and Dcorall pnnck,y'lts lic- on tho loft sidc of tlic Sunkosi River,

There was a reorganization of the panclmyats aiid Di~trf-ctcin Nopal in 1975-76. During this process, two panchayats, Sarsuikharka and Saramthali, were amalgamated and became Sarsuikhnrka panchayat, Similarly, Bitra Dcorali and Gothpani panchayats wore amalgamated to Porx Panchokar~~zri panchayat , and Katekc Dcornli and Madan Dcorali dcnck-agats wcrc ccmbinod to form Dcorali panchayat.

The population of Sarsuikharka panchayat is mad9 u2 of Bmhdns, Nowars, T-ngs, Magars, Msjhis, Kmis and Dnnais. The total cstl~ilstod households of each ethnic group in thc panchayat is shown in tho follcwing table .

Tablo 4-T-1: Estimated Nunbor and Porccntagc of H~?usoholds by Ethnic Group (Sarsuikharka Panchayat)

Ethnic Group Households Per centngc WI

Brahmin 329 325:

Kami Damai

Total 1,013 100% t Source: ECE Field Survey

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Tho figuroo show that Tamangs and arahninc arc the jor ethnic groups in Snrsuikharka panchayat . The avorago faz1il.y size of thi~panchayat is about 7 to 8 pcrscns.

Tho population of Panchakumi panchayat is made up cthnic groups similar to thosc of Sarsuikharka pcmchayat. Therc arc no mgars, but thcrc are two othor ethnic groups, Chhctris and Jogis. Tho total estimated houso- ' holds of cach ethnic group in tho pnnchayat followc.

Table 4-T-2: Estimated Nunber and Percentage of Households by Ethnic Group (Pan~hakun~ariPanchayat)

Ethnic Group Housoholds Percentago

Brahmin 387 . 49%

Jogi .Ma j hi Chhotri

No war 5 belour 1%

Total 79 7 10%

Source: ECE Fiold Survey

Horc also, wo obsorvo Brahmins and Tamngs conpoecd the major ethnic group. Tho average family sizo is about 6 to 7 gersnns. b

The total estinatod households of cach ethnic group in Doorali panchayat is shown in tho following table.

BEST AVAltABLE COPY Table 4-T-3: Estimatod Number and Porcentago of Houscholds by Ethnic Group (Deorall ~anchaya8)

Ethnic Group Households Percentage

Brahmin 358 39% Tanang 265 29% Chho tri 123 14% Jogi 65 7% DaElai 37 4% Kami 21 3% Sarld 19 2% Thakuri 8 1% Majhi 8 1% Pahari 6 bclo~\r1%

Total 909 100%

Source: ECE Field Survey

Like the previous two panchayats, the major ethnic groups in this panchayat are also Brahuins and Tamangs, The average family sizo in this panchayat is about 7 to 8. Thus, the whole study area is dominated by Brahmins and Tamangs as far as the ethnic composition of the population is concerned, The general cultural sotting of these panchayats is similar.

Brahmins, Thakuris md Chhetris are nigrants from woatern Nepal. It is said that they have already spent sevoral generations in tho area and are now the real inhabitants of those panchayats. Brahmins and Chhotris play tho douinant role in village panchayat politics and local development activities such as the buildjng of schools, trails etc. During the field survey it was observed that most of tho Brahmins ,vo basically farmers and deeply attached to land, They themselves have managod to receive some oducntion, and their children are also seen in schools. Besides farming, sone of them are also involvod in government servicos. Brahmins do not do any manual labor other than farming. Thoy are comparatively better off than other ethnic groups. The Thakuri culture is sinilar to that of the Brahmin culture. They arc also deeply attached to land, and only z fear are involved in services. lbrriagc within these grtjups is endogamous.

Tamangs aro tho second dominant group in those panchayats, and arc said to be the indigenous group of tho rogion. They also aro mostly farmors. Many of thorn, howover, arc forced to do agricultural and othcr labor during wintcr bccauso of their poverty. In recont years most of the Tamang men hav~ gone to work on road construction in rostern Nopal. Hired by labor contrac-

tors, they generally work for 3 to d'months at a timo. Their oarnings are I mostly spent on thoir household expenditures. As in tha Kagune bridge area, the Tanangs of this area wear tholr traditional hotlcspun garb. Generally they are simple and naive people though it has b~onreported, that in some cases they were involved in looting and murdor.

Magars are also farmers. Their number is not significant, and they play no significant roles in the area. Many of them supplement their livelihood by doing manual labor.

Newars are also in tho minority. It is said that most of them havo migrated from Bliaktapur, Banepa and Kathmandu. Thoy have alroacly been so~tled for 4 to 5 generations in the area. Thoy also farm and n few of them also run small tea stalls along the route. They follow their own socio-cultural traditions and obsorvc their own festivals and frjrs.

Tho Majhi group has boon tho group no6t soriously affectod by tho construction of the bridge. There me altogether 38 Majhi households. In the Chaithali scttloment of Sarsuikharka panchayat, there are 18 Majhi households, the othcr 20 are in tho Pachuwar in Panchakurnari panchayat. It was reported during our ficld work that these Majhis belong to a single clan, known as the Kaskuswar Majhi. Thoy were scpwatod from their ancestral group within tho last 12 to 15 generations though today, thero is nobddy who can traco thov geneology. The Majhis of this area traditionally collectively owed their land undor a system called Kipat. Tho oldest Mnjhi wc spoko

BEST AVAILABLE COPY with, 75 year old Mr. Gaurang Mansing Majhi, said that his forefathers received Chaithali villago through a royal docrce, La1 Noh=. This docrec stated that the land be hold colloctivoly. It is still on thoir possession. Under govermcnt rsgulation, tho Majhls forriod people across tho Sudsosi # River, oven during floods. Pcople say they usod to collect noczrly ~s.15,000/- in cash, and about 203 lb. cr 90 Muris of grain por yoar. After the construc- tion of the bridge, they lost their positions as ferryncn as well as thcir prinnry sourco of incomc. Today they do all sorts of labor and fmning, a6 well as rope-making, to mako their living.

Jogis are tho descendants of high-caste aen and women who became ascetics and began begging alms. T'hey do not urea- sacred thrqnd and are pk~codin the category of clean caste groups ChoWlo Jat as me Tanangs, Magars and Majhis. Today thoy no longer follow thoir traditionnl occupation of begging alms. They are gonerally farmers, but also vork as laborers during tho agricultural slacls seasons.

Kamis, Damis and Sarkis aro placed in thc lowest social stratum of the Hindu Varna systom, Thoy are untouchablcs. Even today, peoplc in higher-caste groups will not accept water and food from then. Ramis and Damais ply their traditional caste occupation of iron-working and tailoring, respectivoly. The Sczrkis are loather workors by tradition, though some of thom have land and are also engaged in f,vming. Along with these various enploynonts, those groups also vork as unskilled lnborcrs tlwoughout the year, to naintnin thoir livolihood.

In this ~zrea,Brahmins, Thakuris, Chhotris, Jogis and the I untouchable groups exclusively speak the Nepalese language. Tamangs, Magars, Newars and Majhis speak their om dialects as well as Nepalese. Tho Tamng dialect is prodoninant in the area.

Intorcasto marriago is uncommon, though a fow T,unang woluon havo eloped with mon of the high caste groups. A fow cases of intercaste marriage wore observed between tho Tamange and Majhis.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Tho traditional client-pcctron rolntionship boturccn the highcr cnstcs clnd untouchablo groups is still followed. Many low cnstc groups ~xcstill almost conplctely depondont on tho high caste groups for cnploy~~cnt.

Tho Magars, Majhisj Jogis and cvcn sonc TLu;mngs have begun to adopt the Hindu religious calendLv showing that thc process of snnskritization is taking plzcc rapidly.

Thc najor proport.ion of tho population livo at an altitudo of about 2,000 ft. Thc highest altitude of tho scttleacnt nrca is 6,000 ft. In tho low-lying rivor valley, Bonsi, paddy is cultivated. On the banks of snnll rivers like the Jhikuj in Sarsuikhmka panchaynt, and othcrs in Khahare, htike and Tinroni in Pnnchak~n~aripnnchayat, and Shnunri in Dcorali panchayat, paddy, shcat, soynbeans and barloy arc cultivated. Above thc -Bonsi fields, lie thc najor sottlonont wens. The settlcnont pattorn is . scatterod. Tlle houses arc surroundcd by dry lands, Pakho,, scrub forest and sonc pasture nroas. Thcso sottlomcnt areas arc also locntod in the lowor, as wcll LV uppcr Pc&g lands. On this land, nostly naizo, millot, b'vlcy and lcgumes aro cultivated. In some areas, tobacco is also grown. A four smll forest mcas lic in thc upper Pakho sottloncnt arcas of Sa~~~ikhalia panchayat, but pooplo living in tho lowor Pakho settlcncnts and thc Bonsi 'areas, have to cross the Sunkosi rivor to colloct firewood and foddcr. A transoct of S,arsuikharkc? Panchayat follows.

- Structure of tho Familx

Tho avorage family size in the aron is about 6 to 8 pcrsons. Tmgs tend to live in tho nuclear family pattorn. Brahmins and Chhetris, on tho other hand, livo in tho traditional joint f,ul~ily structuro.

The prcscnco of tho Pachuwwghat Bridge, h,m not significantly influencod thc break-down of the traditional family structuro. When we asked 50 rospondcnts whether thcir consangui+il rolativos livc on thc other sido of thc constructed bridge, 25 informants rospondod positively. Thcso consanguidal rclativos ~votho ogols brothers, cousin-brothers and thcir fatherts brothorla families. Only four rospondents said that their own

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Altitude in ft.

Forest and ...... Rocky orea.

......

Sett lemont area.

......

Smd Forest orea tor tlrowood tolkctlon ond

......

Dqkndr: Malze, Millet, Dwky. Selllemrnl area.

Settlement ww. Wet land* : Caddy, Whoat, barhy,

... ..*...-....

Fig. 4 -F - 2: Choithali ond Saramtholi Tranwct (Schematic) 8ource: tCE Field krvw

BES 7 AVAILABLE COPY brothars had lcft their joint f,milics and startccl a new lifc on thc othc? side of thc rivcr. This soparation was not duc to tho bridgo but, rnthcr duo to the fact that they acquired bottcr land on thc othcr side of thc river. Tho other poople worc sepczratcd frou their joizlt faniilics fron thc tinc? of thcir cgols fatherls period, or prior tc~tho constructi3n of the bridge.

Tho bridge has, hoivevcr, brought about iccrcascd harmony and unity to tho traditional family ctructurc. Thcrc is noxr grcator interaction and cooperation ~mongthocc family nIC~bcr6who vlrerc separntcd. Tlie unity 2nd cohcsion among tlicsc fc-mily nenbers can be observod in rituals, and othcr comunal and cconouic activities.

- Marriago Practices

Cros6-river ~~~vriagcswore rcaroly solcnnizcd willingly bcforc thc , construction of tho bridge. Tho fcw cross-river marringcs which were' arrnngcd wore done so under prcosurc. When arc asked our infori~cntsvhcthcr thc peoplc were ready to give their daughters in narriagc to n mnn livin~on thc othcr side of thc rivcr prior to tho construction of thc bridgc, thc rcsponsc was 12% affirmtivo and 88% nogatlvc; this reflocts thc gcncral. nttit~dcof people. Whon rre aslrcd whcthor thc nunbe; of cross-rivcr r~nrriagcshad incroascd since thc construction of the bridge, 93%, ansvrcrcd positively.

Thus tho bridge sooms instrumental in pronoting thc numbor of cross-river marriages. Although the pczrents norlaally prcpvcd to arrangc thcir daughterst mcarriages to non residing in Sczrsuikharka and Narayanthan p~nchayats,or even as f,v nany ns Bnncpa or Kathmandu across tho rivcr, yet they were reluctant to do so bocausc it would bo difficult for their daughters to return to thoir mtnl homos, Maita, urhich thoy arc required to do during cortain fcstivc or roligious occasions. Prior to thc construc- tion of the bridgc, it was difficult, or cvon impossiblcl for tho srorncn married to uen across tho river to return to thcir natal hones during thc nonsoon. But now, aftor the bridge's construction, when ua asked rcspon- donts about how nany and what types of affinal relatives lived on cithcr

BEST AVAILABLE COPY side of tho rivcr, 88said that thoy had their affinal relatives on both ~idcsof thc rivcr. In other viords, a significant increase in the nunbcrs. of ~1,vriagcshas t'akon placci

- Funeral Practices

The prosenco of the bridgo has not cffectcd any change in thc traditional funcral rituals of tho ,area. Thc local pooplc do not cross the Sunkosi Rivcr to crcnatc thcir dcad. Thoy bclicvc that the dead body should not be c'vried ovcr the bridgc and this taboo is strictly followed. Luckily, they do not find it nccossnry to cross thc bridgc.

Social custon clictates that the dead body be cronated on thc banks of the largest and holiest rivcr in the aroa. In this ,area, the rivcr is the Surkosi, but in othcr ~vcns,such as the Kaeunc Bridge sito, pcoplc nust take thcir dcad to tho larger Trisuli River.

The facility of the bridgo, honrcvor, ~ccr.lsto havc hclpcci tho local pcoplc, in conducting the funcral rites. ~ikcvoodcollection and thc buying of shrouds Katro is now casier. Since firewood is not easily available on thc right bank of thc river, pcoplc havc to cross to tho lcft bnnk of thc river to colxaot kl.rriQaod, Before thc construction of the bridge, they had difficulties in collecting firewood for the gyre. The people living on the left bank of the river commented that the bridge has brought negative effects also. They claim that now their firewood is used by the people living on the right 'sank of the river. The bridge has fncilitnted the people living on the right on thoir journeys to DolalghaC to buy shroud materials and other items necess~aryfor the f'uneral rites. The bridge lins also helped the family and neighbors to assernblo quickly when a death occurs.

- Education and Health Practices

There is one high school in Deorali panchaynt and one middle school in Panchakumari panchayat . These schools were established after t!lo

BEST AVAILABLE COPY construction of the bridge, There are altogctlicr 34 students from Sarsui- kharka panchayat, who use the kchuwrghat Bridge to go to the high school and middle school situated acroas the river. 8inilarly, there mo eight studehts from lower Panchslkumnri panchayat who cross the bridge to attend the primnry school in Chaithali in Sarsuikl~arhpanchayat. The other schools located in these panchayats have no direct linkage with the bridge.

It ncs reported that after the construction of the bridge, ?an- chayats across the river were able to sustain n closer interaction, and schools were established through their joint efforts and cooperation. Also, the transportation of building m2,terials to construct these schools has been facilitated. Furthermore, interest in the education of the children, both rich and poor has increased. It has beon observed that some poor Majhi children from Pachuw, cross tho bridge to attond the primGary school located in Chaithali.

There is no hcalth post or hospital in tho im~odiatevlcinity of tho Pachu~~arghat-Bridge.Villagers had always depended on traditional herbal medicines and other sorvices of the local shamans, the Jhankri or Dhami, to cure sick or injured people. It was reported that there are a number of . Tmng Ban-Jhankri who cure their patients using charms, rnagic spells or by beating drumr In Sarsuikh,u'ka pnnchnyat, there ccro six BanJbankri vrho sorve the local villagers. However, since tho construction of the bridge in Pachuwarghat, the local people have become more awar~of vreutern medical cures and practices. Now, if the patient ic seriously ill and cannot be cured by local healers, they ,are taken to the Bancpa Hospital for medical treatment. In cases of sevore sickness or injury tho pooplc travel to Kathmandu. Boforo the installation of the bridge, the pooplc had sorious difficulties in reaching.,,_A:.health posts or hospitals, Our survoy showed that 92% of those we spoke with felt that there has bee3 a change in their health and curing practices since tho construction of the bridgod It can be inferred that this is partially due to the recent access to modern medical facilities in Banepa and Kathmandu. They also have come to boliove tht alleopathic medicines are more effective than tho traditioml cures.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Festivals, Fairs and Religious Activities,

(See Changes in the Roles of Women).

- C~L'U~RCS in the Roles of Women

Like other study ,areas, tho women of this ~veawork in the ilone and pLu'ticipate in communal activities, like n,arriages, danccc, fairs, festivals and religious occasions. In the follotiring tablc, cre havc c:.tegori- zed the genernl activities of the women, and how the men in the arm feel thcsc activities havc changed sinco tha construction 0it110 bridge.

Tzble 4-T-4: Percentage of Male Respondents Indicating an Increase in Womenst Activities Because of tho Bridge

Pcrccntnge of Womenst Activities - Respondents 1. Extension of ritual friendship 90% 2. Participation in communnl dances 22% 3. Participation in m,vriages, festivals, fairs, religious activities and ritual occasions 100% 4. Others (collection of firewood or fodder, securing of water, short torn labor and other household work) 100%

Source: ECE Field Survey

The tablo shows that tho maximum use of the Fachu~~~vghatbridge has boon llladc by women during ~arriages,festivals, fairs, religious actiX%tiec and on ritual occae;ions. The particulczr festivals in which 1,rcmcn ,we more involved ,me Saune Sankrati, Da~ain*and Bhcai Tikn (TihLv). This is a tine when it is iragortant for married daughters and sisters to return to thoir natal home^ to visit their pzents, brothers, sisters and rolativos. &?sain is a tine of grcnt rejoicing for all the Nepalese, characterized by joyous feasting, &inking, dancing, singing and ganlbling. Tllc head of the family and close relatives place n rod spot, the rituzl Tilra, on,the brow of the

BEST AVAILABLE COPY younger membors of the fL~ilyr SinilaPly, during Bhai Tika (TiGar) sistcrs put the ritual= on the forehead of their brothcrs so thct no cvil cxn harnJhom. During mmriagec, the married daughters and sisters 2lny ma.ior roles at their natal homes, and are treated as distinguished guests during thcir p,articipation in these ceremonies. In addition womcn nlso can a'ttcnd fairs outsidc of their own villages and travel to te~plcnor shrines at cnc tiria out of thcir range* Some of the plnccs of v~crsliipwhere the vqotlel oP the ,area usually go iolloxr.

Table 4-T-5: Doscription of Local Shrines and Pairs

Month the Fair Shrine Fair Location Takes Place m~devthan Bnlachaturdasl During the full moon Kmre (bhadev) period of Man~sir k-lanchok Chandi Purne During the full noon Kavre Palanchok Bhagara t i period District Dhanesm Siw,vatri On the new noon day Bncepn (ikvre Mahndev in the month of Pnla~chok Phalgun District Ifarayanthan Janai Purnima During the full nooil Nnrayanthan P?..nci:z- period of Bhadra yn-c (L~vrePnlnwhok District) On the first day 'Do1,akhn District of Magh Bhims enth?n Dolnkha District

Source: ECE Field Survey

Women of the mea also go to Kathmandu with' their huslz.nds to worship the gods and goddesses at Swayambhunath, Pa~hupati~thand Guhesurari

Another activity In which rural women me significantly involved is the collection of firewood and fodder. This activity has been facilitated by the bridge. Even ,young girls can now gather fuel and fodder. Women also assist the men in the terracing of fields 'and cle,ving of land, and in the

BEST AVAILABLE COPY planting, weeding, and h,vvesting of crops. Since the bridge has reduced ) the travel time spent in collecting fodder and firenrood, they have nore tinic td help the men on the farms. Finally, thc bridge has fncilitntod the nroncn of the ~veato work at short term labor jobs in other meas*

The bridge ha6 also facilitated the extension of ritual ,friend- ship, Miteri for tnc women of the aren. The Mitcri relation is sanctioned by religion. It is a system which formalizes existing warm interpersonal relationships, encourages the autual exchango of practical assistance and sarvcs to unite individuals during diffcrcnt social and religious occasions. A number of intercaste Miteri relationships havc been observed. Prior to the construction of the bridge, the Miteri was primaily limited to and conccn- trated at tho village lcvel. The Sunkosi River was a physical bnrrior to increase of w.During the field study, wro obscrvod tL?t Miteri relation- ships had increased thc cooperatPve exchange of labor, Parna, during the agricultural season,and~holpedto increase the voluntary assistanco necessary for diffcrcnt social and religious occasions.

During thc Tij ,and Panchmi ceremonies, the Hindu women, living on either sidc of the river, assemble at n connu3al ncoting place a:~d sing and dcznce throughout tho night. The bridge has providcc. an easy crossing facility resulting in an incroasod pzrticipc~tionby xromcn on all socio- reugious occasions. Foodless to say, the bridge has cncouragcd inorc social interaction,

In thc wet season survey, questio~ssroro askod only of men, but during the dry season survey 17 women were intcrvicprod. No \rOifien thought that the bridge had nssisted thom to increase their p,vticipation in tho comnunal dancos. Lhming tho rot season survey, 22% of the male respondents had noted an incrensc in this activity.

Only 47% of thc women said that the bridge has facilitated thom in the oxtension of Miteri, whereas in the wet season survey, 900k of the mc~lc respondents gave all affirmative reply to this question. However, all women

BEST AVAILABLE COPY stntod that sinco the construction of the bridgc, their ?nrtici$ation in marriages, festivals, fairs and religious activities has been Pncilitatod. The time spent at domestic work and agricultwc by thc wamcil has also

increased. This mas notod by both tho vlronen 612 =en crho were questioacd.

In addition, vromen were also asked about time savings due to thc transport facility provided by tho bridge, and hour they utilized that time. All women said that thc bridge has saved than sone time and they utilizc it to perform tho following activities, (Soe Tablo 4-T-6),

r" Table 43-6: Percentago of Fomalc Responses on the Utilization of Surplus Time Snvod due to tho Presence Of the Bridge

Activities Affirmative Responses

T2Mng morc ccve of tho children 29%

Cooking better food than before 41% Resting Socializing with other xronen Recreation Collection of firewood and foddor 100"k Gr,ming cattle across the bridgo 53%

Source: ECE Ficld Survcy

Tho tablc indicates that most of the wonen primarily utilize their surplus time for collecting firowood and fodder, and arorking on f,vns. 29% of the women also pointed out that they can now tC+o sonc rcst, IF other wards, though the bridgo has increased their workload, it has also bcen instrumcntnl in providing soiae rest tino for the :ironen.

- Changes in Beliefs and Habits

The Pnchuwarghnt Bridge has not brought about any significant

change in the traditional language pattorn: in the L~OL?. Only 3376 of thc

BEST AVAILABLE COPY inforri~ntsnoted a change in thc language; tKs being increased usage of tho official Nepalese language as opposed to the local dialects. In reality, the language chango notcd is not basically in response to facilities provided by the bridge. It is due to the dynamics of the political situation in Nepal since the establishcnt of the Panchayat Systcm. The bridge has, treraendously incronsed the mobility and socfal interaction of the people in the area, and thus exposed thcm to the official Nopalcsc language, the lingua franca of the country. It was said that Tmang and Mnjhi students speak reLctively botter Nepalese today than before the construction of the bridgc, sinco they nav Lzve access to the schools in tho 'men.

76% of tho respondents pointed out that there has been a noticeable change in clothing styles sincc tho construction of the bridge. This has rosultod from the incrcasod traffic betwoon the area and the n,arket ccntcrs at Dohlghat, Bancpa and Kathmandu, Before the construction of the bridgc, it was not always ensy to go to the markets, During festivals such as Dasain anc! Tih,v, it is an establishcd practice for children, and adults to xrccv new clothes. Informants also pointed out that there have been sone changes in fashions. Again, the increased nobility of the populaco has result@ in tho introduction of new styles in shirts, pants and lirorilcnts dresso~i.

Tho staple diet of the study ,areas is ck~ize,nillet and b,arlcy, supplemcntcd by rice and iirfioat. But, sincc thc construction of the bridgc, 76% of thoso src spoke sith notcd a change in their dietary habits. This is because thc bridgc has facilitated tho import of new food items into the area, Prior to the construction of the bridge, the local pcoplo had no alternative saurccs of food and had to dcpcnd on the food available locally, Today this is not the situation. If the people havo money, they can go to Dolalghat, Bancpa or Kathmandu to purchaso food.

The goneral stand,vd of living of thc people has b,xsicalljr not changod sincc the construction of the bridge, and their ocononic standcard ,not improved. Except for tho Majhi, no othor ethnic group has chnngod its

BEST AVAILABLE COPY traditional caste occupation. Ovor the years, the Majhis have developed an alternate E:ource of income in addition to thoir subsistonce farming. They have learnt the craft of making ropes from plant fibers, and each housohold oxports ropes, worth Rs, 400/- to 5OO/- annually. They have also made substantla1 inroads into the cultivation and export of tomatoos.

- Local Particiwtion

As montioncd oarlior, USAID funding for the oonstruction of a packago of 13 suspension bridgos was on its way. Ono of the prercquisitcs of this assistance was that voluntary labor should be contributed by the panchayats whorover bridge6 wcro to bc installed. In accord rdth this condLtion, thc offcr of voluntary labor by thc locals for tho transportation of materials, and addi- tional cheap labor during tho construction period was committed by Mr. Panday which was formally acknowlodgod in writing by tho SBD. Ho was furthcr afikod to furnish a dotailcd time ostimatc for tho transportation of tho bridge parts to tho site, Upon this, Mr. Panday offered, in writing, to fulfill all and any of the canditiom, and then rushcd to tho villngo of Sarnmthali whorc he convened n mooting of thc Badhan Pancha of Charkauli, Narayanthan, Sarsuil--harks and Panchakumari village panchayats, Tho meoting ondorsod Wr pan day!^ propocal, and thc fulfillment of tho stated conditions*

By tho end of 1964, thc construction matorinls for the bridge vero transportcd to Dhulikhol by tho SBD. The nntorial~could not be takon farthor bocauso at thi~timo, only a segmont of tho Kathmandu-Kodari Highway was motorablo. From that point, tho pcoplc from tlio villagc panchayats collcctod thc matorials ,and portcrcd thorn to the bridgo sitc, Half thc matorlnls wore transportcd by a contlngont of an ostimntcd 4,000 pooplo who contributed throc days labor,

By Octobar 1966, most of tho materials, except for the cablcs had boon transported to tho sito, At this timo it was docidod that tho rest

BEST AVAILABLE COPY of tho transportation would bc done by mid labor. This did causc a littlc troublc for a whilc, sincc pcoplo rho had contributed froo labor beforo this decision wrantcd to be payed rctroactivoly.

Rcg,arding thc actual construction work, throc ncthods wrcrc erdployod. Concnt and planks wcro brought from Kathnandu by contractors basod in Kathmahdu. This causcd considorablc resentnont anong hopeful local contractors. For some of the jobs that had to be dono on sito, such as rock- cutting and gravel-&?king, piecework contracts wcre awrar dod to groups of laborers. Tilis mnagcticnt technique was borrov~cdfror! the Chinese, who were thcn working on the Kathmandu-Kodari Highway. Under this arrangement, workers were paid on the basis of the quantity of utork done, this notivatcd thcn to work ovcrtinc. At onc point, oach of then nnde Rs. 13/- por day, conpaxod to the prevailing wage rate of Rs 3/- per day at that time.

Thc construction of tho bridge got under way under tho super- vision of a froshly-trained onginocr. He was assisted by an American Peacc Corps Volunteer, a trainod ,architect, who designed thc bridge. A small clerical staff and a police constable were also attached to the projoct. Masons wcrc not locally available and, had to be brought in from Kathmndu. The nearest bank was in Bancpa, and tho engineor had to regulcarly transport monoy totally more th'm RG. 1,00,000/- each tine.

Tho bridgc mas finally comploted in 1967 but it did not last long. It collapsed in 1971, leaving the villagers back where they v6erc before tho bridgc urns constructed. But Mr. Panday was again at work immediately. Following the same timc-proven method, hc pctitionod His Mjcsty tho King, as wcll as the concorned ministor, and soon got an enginecr dep-~tcdto undertake tho reconstruction.

Aftor its reconstruction in 1972, the condition of tho bridgo remained gcnorally good, although a fee signs of disrepair arc noticeable. For example, parts of tho virc mcsh netting of the bridgc were stolen. A few planks in the oraIkway nccd replacencnt and n aralkarcly cable has bcon

BEST AVAJLABLE COPY rubbed thin enough to need rcpnir. In the opinioii of the local people, this roquires tho attontion of come responsible agency which, for then, is the govcrmcnt. The bridgc was, after all, constructcd by thc govcrnr~cnt, Sonc even suspect that the bridge has not yet bccn officially approved by the government, because a vratchctan has not bccn deputed to look after it. Others think that while the need for taking continuous c,?r9 of the bridgc exists, thc- trio adjacont panchayats should be nado rorsponsible. At the noncnt there exists no individual or agcncy to undertake tho general rainten- ance repair of the bridgc.

- Institutional Inpact of the Bridge

One unforeseen beneficiary of the bridgc has been the Kavre Palanchok District Panchayat. Following an obscure provision in the District Pculchnyat Act (1962) empowering the District Panchayat to levy tolls, tllc Kame District Panchayat began lcvying tolls on this bridgc in 1971. This was done through a contractor, Tho contract= have since changed hcnds four tirncs, the latest contc~tbeing boturccn two ex-contractors; one offcrini RS. goo/- a year in two installnonts, and the other offering a straight dokm ppymcnt of Rs, 800/-. The former estimates that at least a Rs. 1,000/- could be raised.

The toll is lovied on buffaloes, gonts, castrated goats, mountain goats and sheop. year (1977), bur"fa1oes nrcre taxec; at 2s. 3/- per head, castrated gonts Rs. 1/- per head, and 50 paisa each for the other animals. Until three years ago, chickens were also included in this toll, but it has since been abandoned. The contractorts men stand guLzrd at the bridge fron six olclock in tho norning until six in the cvcniag. Neither tho contractor, nor the local people, have any knomladga pertaining to the use of the proceeds from this toll.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY 4.203 ECONOMIC AXALYSIS

- Gcomaphi~Aroa and Population Sorvcd

Tho bridgc servos tho pcoplc in the innodiato noighborhood of the bridgc, as srall as pcoplc fron tho noro difitnnt ~a-cas. Apmt fror.1 thc bcigl~borhoodpanchaynts of Kavrc District, thc bridgo al~oscrvcs eonc of thc p~nchayatsof Ranechhap District in the southvrcst, thc southcrn ,areas of DolaWla District, and the far western panchayats of Okhaldhunga District. Howcvor, aftor tho complction of tho now LanosnngulTiri Road, tho scrvico ,won of tho bridgc nay not extend to thso regions, sincc traffic divorsion to tho notorablo road is bound to occur.

Tho sorvice area of tho bridgo is very Iwgc bccausc many people have few other available routes, all of which aro costly in terms of tine, moncy 2nd risk.

Tho present study is limited only to thrcc panchayats; SLzrcuikharka on the right bank, and Panchakun,vi and Deorali pnnchayats on" the loft bank of the river. Thcsc throo panchaynts wo f,airly rcprcscntativc of the other panchayats in thc vicinity of the bridgo.

The scrvicc providcd by tho bridgo is not thc sane for nll pmchayats. The inpact of thc bridgc is granter on tho panchaynts lying dowmtrcm on the loft bank. For exanplc, Deorali panchaynt, which lies downstroan on the lcft bank, has no altornativo trLailor rivcr crossings other than the bridge, and for Panchak~;~,vipanchayat, also on tho lcft bank, but upstrom,tho bridgo serves only 50% of the population bccause there is an altornativo trail, along tho left bank, loading to Dolalghat. Sinil'arly, tho bridge has relatively little cconsmic use to the villago panchayats lying on right bank such as SGzrsuikhclrkabecause the pooplc do not have to use tho bridgo to roach the main trading or &vket contors, banks and govcrmcnt offices located in Dhulikhol, Banepa ctc., though it docs facilitate social intoraction between pooplc living on cithcr sido of tho bridgo. Thc bridgo,

BEST AVAILABLE COPY however, diroctly servos tho people of wards nunbor 8 and 9 of Sarsuikharka panchayat situated closo to tho bridge sito. They cross the river to got to thcir farm lands, and to collect fuel wood and foddcr.

- Estiwte.d Traffic Floor

Dospitc thc poor quality of the trail systcn, tho voluno of traffic flow is onornous, Tho Pachurrarghnt Bridge, bccauso it is locatod in a con~oni- ont site, scrviccs n lcargc arca and population. Most of the bridge users being lntervicwcd on the locntional aspect of tho bridge, rcpliod that thc bridge was constructed at thc proper placo. Only a fou had a negative opinion; that Bheompaila, about 2 niles downstrean, would hnvc been n tochnically bottcr sito bccauso of its rocky gorgc.

According to informed local sources, there is a wide seasonal varia- tion in the volume of traffic. Local people e~timatethat the traffic during the wet season ranges somewhere between 400 to 700 persons per day, ad during the dry season, it varies from 1,000 to 3,000 persons per day. At any rate, this is indicative of the usefulness of the bridge, and the extent to which it has facilitated the volume of traffic flow on a continual basis.

The head count, at tho bridge poiht, shovred a traffic flow of 600 persons on the day the survey was conducted. This needs some explanation. Firstly, the survey was conducted only for a singlo day, to test the reliabi- lity of the local people's estimate. Secondly, tho flow mainly consisted of local t-affic from tha vicinity of the bridge rather than long-distance traffic, Thirdly, the day on which the head count aras undertaken happened to coincide with a local festival day. This must have increased the traffic flow. This is a case where the volume of traffic flor: appaars to be excep- tionally high. On a diagnostic analysis, it appears that, tho greater part of the flolir is composed of local traffic making social visits. The figure stated by local people is probably overestimated and definetly open to question. By our om estimate, the traffic flow should not exceed 250 to 300 people per day, on the averago during the wet season, and 500 to 600 people per day during the dry season. Tho traffic survoy questionnairos ndministcrod to the bridge users, havo generated somo interesting results. They rovcal that for 83% of bridge users, thc bridge was tho normal routo uscd to cross thc river, while far 17% of tho bridge usors, it was an altornativo routo. Appnrcntly that 17% woro tho people living in the uppor half of Panchakmari panchayat, upstream, vhero both a trail and a bridgo exist. Howevor, during the wot soason this trail ofton bocomcs hazcardous and they usc tho routc on the right bank of the rivor via tho bridge to Dolelghat. The tino lost on tldc

detour is approldmtoly 4 ~OWS~As explained earlier, tho bridga directly serves only 50% of tho population inhabiting tho iowor half of ~anch~akumari panchaynt, and for the rest of the population this bridgc sorvcs only as an alternative ueam of roaching Dolalghat .

In order to dctornino tho magnitude of traffic flour during tho dry season in moro precise torms, traffic count was again conducted at tho bridge hoad for one day towards the end of February 1978. Thc trcffic count was mado separately for non-portors, portors, animals and pcoplo carrying londs of fuel wood and foddor. The non-porter traffic was 106 porsons; portor traffic, 149 porsons; 2 goats woro rocordod in tho animal traffic count, and 12 pooplo with londs of fuol wood and fodder \!fore noted. Thoro was a total flow of 267 peoplc using thc bridgo on that particular day.

Tho act&?l count rovoals that tho dry season flow is about a half of tho lowor rango of tho previous ostirilato, Local pooplo said that this is tho normal flour pattorn of traf Pic during tho dry season. On tho basis of actual flow count as woll as tho local ostimto, tho dry soason traffic flow needs to bo oxL.mincd again. A fairly good cstinato would limit tho range to 250 to 400 pcrsons pcr day. This dry season traffic cstimatc appoars to bo of nearly tho satlo nzzgnitudc as that of the wct scason. Tho uniformity of tho traffic flow during both seasons indLcntc6 that, although tho nobility of hill poop10 increases during the dry soason as a gonoral rule, thcro arc nany possible altornntivos for crossing tho river. A significant proportion of traffic uses tho forry, or othor moans of transit, if they fall on tko \ direct routo. Vory fov feoplo would nakc a dotour to wo tho bridgo.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY In an attempt to analyze the direction of traffic flow, tho origin and dostination of travel within the neighborhood has bocn lcft nsido, and only the placcs of econouic activities, such as Dolalghat, Dhulikhel, Banopa and Kathmandu have bcon considered hero (Tnblc 4-T-7). It appcars from tho traffic survoy, that 2% of the trnvcllors were dcstincd for ' KathWndu; Dolalghat accounted for 17%; follorrrcd by Banopa and Dhulikhel with 11%cach. Kathmandu is ono of tho major placcs for crnploynent, mmkoting and trading nctivitics, With tho construction of tho Kathmandu-Kodari Highsmy, Kathmandu has beconc easily accossiblo. Dolalghat is n seasonal trading center for nost pooplc. The volume of oconomic transaction a% Dolnlghat has becn increasing ovcr the years. People normally sell their products at Dolalghat, if prices arc favorable, and only if thc prices arc deprcsscd, do they pocood to oithor Bancpc? or Kathmandu. Dhulikhol is thc final dcstim- tion for 11%of the travcllcrs from the aroa. It is the District He~.dqu,artcrs whore most of the govornnent offices are locatcd, except forthe Agricultural Development Bank located at Banepa. be4 Percentage Traffic Flow (Origin, Destination)

Place of Economic Activity Origin Destination

2. Dolalghat 1s 17%

5, Others 1% 6% 6, Hone* 6'7% 33%

Total 100% 100%

Source: ECE Field Survey

Home includes many panchayats and villages within the service area of the bridge and their listing is deliberately omitted hero.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Thc frequency of bridge use sccm to vary in tcrms of ~arca, dist,mco and purpose. About 567& of tho bridge users uscd thc bi-idgc ircqucntly, sinco they live in tho i~lmodiatcncieh'borhood of thc bridgc. 1% of tllc traffic flow roprosontcd distant geographic regions such as thc Rancchhap 2nd Dolakha Districts, but thoir frcqucncy of bridge usc was l~vilr.

In torms of purposc of bridgo uso, 28% uscd thc bridge for social visits, 21%, for buying and 17%, for selling pur2oscs. (Tcblc 4-T-8 ). About

6% RiCI'G crossing the bridge to seek craployncnt, 16% to go to thc govcrnnent officos and 6% Rrerc students. Should thc ccono~icpuqoscs of travel incluclc buying, sclling and cnploymont, thcn tho combined pcrcontngc figure concs, to about 44:;. This is a rough indication that thc bridgc has bccn instruncntnl in facilitating ccononic transaction.

Tablc 4-T-8: Purposc of Travel

Purpose Percontagc

Buying 21% Sollint 17% Social Visit 2876 Enploynent Schooling 6% Offico 16% Othcr (not specific) 6%

Total l0Wi

Sourcc: ECE Field Survey ".. ..: . .

This study is csscntially liraltcd to tho thrcc village pnncliay?.tc, Pz.nchakunari, S,arsuikh,arka and Dcorali lying in thc vicinity of the bridge site.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Thc stcep hills and rugged terrain do not gerr~itfull scale culti- vation of thc land, Loss than half of the total ,area is under cultivaticn. Although thc use of chemical fertilizers appe~arsto bc increasing, it LI.E 11ad a nca.rgiml cffcct on thc ovorall agricultural productivity of thc arca. L 1;1~jar proportion of thc cultivatable land ~zcaconsists of dry uplands, -P&o, whcrc thc cultivation ie almost sololy dcpcndcnt on tkc nonsoon. Thc irrigated plains land is relatively very snall. There is linitcd usc of inprovod sccd and a total lack of uso of improved agricl~lturalinplenente.

Agriculture and animal husbandry constitute thc prir,,ary occupation for a majority of the pcoplc. Thc major crops grown in thc moa nrc; naize, ahoat, lcgwnos, and Thc land ovmcrship pattcrn varics froa 0.41 hectczres to 1.22 hectares, per houschold. Thc houschold unit oms, on thc average, 4 to 6 cows and buffaloes, 5 to 8 goats and 5 to 6 f&rl. Thc CvcraLe size of thc fLmily ranges from 6 to 8 mcnbers. SFncc thc agricultural yicld is insufficient to meet tho basic local food rcquirordonts, thu najority of tho pcoplc raise livestock, for commercial purposcs on a snall scnlc. Others work as laborcrs and porters. Thc cash inconc generatcd fron this work is used to purchaso basic goods such as food gr,xins, kcroscnc, salt, cloth, fertilizers ctc.

Paddy and whoat aro grown in the wet lands, w.Paddy is cultivated fron Junc/July through Novenber/Doceabcr. Aftcr thc paddy h,vvost, whcat is grown. Mc~izeand lcgumcs, pwticularly soyabcans, ,ai-c grovn in tho high lznds, Pakho. M~~izois grown in ~pril/!4ay, followed by soyabcans and lentils.

Thcro 21as bccn a &,matic change in tho ngriccltural pattern in thc ~mcasince thc construction of tho bridge. Thc panchayats lying on the left bank, such as Doorali, have shiftod thoir cultivation and cropping pattorn, Besidcs tho traditional crops, these panchayats now grow tonatoes, baranas, oranges, lines and peanuts, which arc cxL30rtcd i~ lzx&c quantities. Prior to thc bridge's construction, thc agricultural activity vas mainly

BEST AVAILABLE COPY confined to grosring bcsic food-crops. This turn tourardc vcgc";ble f,arning and horticulture, cash crop f,vning, is of vory recent origin and j.t has been incroasing rapidly, ovcr tho years. According to local opinion, thc bridgo has provide4 tho villagcrs with easy accoss to thc: nmliot ccnters of Kathnandu where they can sol1 thcb products at favorable priccs.

V!ith thc opening of tho agricultural coo>crativc and thc Agri- culture Dovclopnont Bank and its branches at Dolnlghat, Dhulilihcl and Banepa* the pcoplo are now becoming increasingly av~zroof the 3cncfits of using chemical fcrtilizcrs and inprovcd varieties of sced. 't w?.s notcd that pcoplo from as far aaray as Canechhap cone to Dolalgllnt to buy fcrtilizcrs. The bridge has facilitated the accossibilit; to stores solling fertilizers and seed. Dcorali panchayat has registorod a significant increase in the use of fortilizer and scod, follorcd to a lcsser dcgrcc by Pnnchakunari and Smsuikharka pncl~ayats. Again, agricultural lonns have irlcrcascd sincc peoplc can safoly and easily travel to the Agricultural Dank and its branches. The use of inprovcd agricultural iraplenento and tools aras not fiotcd.

- Rural and Cottage Industries

As fLzr as tho existing industries arc concorned, nc rcgistcrod cr orgariized units ncrc notod in tho area. There

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Tho inpact of the bridgc, on tho pattorn and growth of rurnl industries, is n,vginal. No now rural industries havc n~lergcdsince th? construction of the bridgo. Rural activities such as b,?;~bco-goods ~lckin~ and fishing.net nan~facturearo conflnod to household units, i-n '30th produc- tion and consunption.

One significant featurc is tho change in thc Ma-Jhis! occupation. They havc begun fishing-net and rope manufacturo beccusc their traeitio;>zl. occu- pation of ,providing a fcrry service has boconc redundant sincc thc construction of tho bridgc.

YJhilc the bridgo has facilitated sccss6 to tho r.~anufacturcdgoods market, this could havc negatively cffoctcd the grbuth of rural inclustrics in the area.

- L~borForce Situqtion and Enploynont

Tho esti~mtodtotal population, based on 1971 consu; figures, for the three villago panchayats within tho iurscdiatc noighborhood of thc bridge; Panchakumari, Doorali and Sarsuikharka, is 16,781 (Tablo 4-T-9). Of this 8,290 arc ualcsand 8,491 fcnxlcn. The total nur-ibcr of pcrsons in thc. nctl-i- ago group, 10 years of age and over, is cstin-tcd to bc 11,958. Hourcvcr, tho 6izo of tho total labor forco; dafinod as tl~onunber of ccononicaily active or incone o,vning persons in this ago grous, is estinntcd tc be 9,034. Of this, tho total nalc labor forco is 5,218 and tho fcnnlc 3,816* Tho total activity rate wrorks out to 54% and tho scx spocific activity rate for unlos - is 63%, and for females 45%.

It is cleLv from the table, that t!lc sizo of thc popu1ati.cn and lnbcr forco in Sarsuikh~zrkapanchayat oxceods that of Deornli and Panchnlrunari p~~nchayats.SmsuikhLzrlm pancha>at has a total populatior. of 6,121, 2nd a labor forco of 3,295, followod by Deornli, with a total poplation of 5,461 and a labor forco of 2,941. Pnnchaku~t~arihas thc lov~osttotal population, 5, 197, and a labor forco size of 2,798.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY Fron the provious figuros, it appe,vs that tho activity rat0 is fairly high for both the males and tho fornales. This may be nttributod to thc fact that the linitod agricultural land has to support an incrcasing po2ula- tion. Since agricultural production is insufficient to moot tho ba~icfood requironcnts, this is supplomcntcd by working at wage ecarning activities. The participation of the female labor forcc in agriculture and animal husbandry is significant.

Axart fron agriculture, tho primGary occupation in the ,area, the soconhry occupation consists of porterago (38%), horticulture (?87L), poultry and fishing (17%) and animal husbandry (l7.%).

The amount of the surplus labor forco in agiculturo could not be precisoly assessad. Since tho area is predoninantly agriculture., it is logical to assume, that there is a surplus labor fcrco. Agricultural worlcers do not rennin fully cmployod in agriculture tllroughout the year. According to tho local pooplo, thc avorage tho spont on full tine agricultural work is only about 120 days a year, mainly during thc planting and harvesting seasons. During tlic rest of the year, some are ongaged in livestock raising while others migrate to othor areas to seok smploynent as laborers, Hence the seasonal migration fron tho area is phondnenalj and indicativo of tho oxistonco of a surplus labor force. Due to lack of skills hovrovcr, most of the lztborors work seasonally in tho construction soctor as unskillod laborers or porters or push ccvt drivers. Tho nobility of the labor forcc also appc~arsto be fairly high.

According to thc information gatherod fron tho field survey, tho bridge has generally facilitated thc nobility of the labor force in sooking en3loyncnt. Thc nain labcr narket ,areaE are Dolalghat, Banepaj Dhulikhol and Kathndu. Besides, this, a l'arge nuibor of pcople, in labor groups or grangs, go to distant regions to work as unskilled laborers on road construction.

According to the local people, the bridge has also contributed to female labor mobility and romon aro, gradually ontoring into new wage earning activities, such as portoring.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - 34 - T?.blc 4-T-9: Estiaatod Population and Labor Forcc

1 I 1Econornically Active l-/ Total Poi3ulation Population Panchnyat 1 Total Population i ( 1977) 10 YeLars & Above 10 YCUS and Abovc ! Total Male Fennlc Totnl Male Felinlc ' Total Malc Fo%lo Panc halruna-i 15,197 2,590 2,607 3.703 1,051 2,652 2,798 1,616 1,182

Sarsuilshark 1 6,121 3,058 3,063 4,362 2,180 2,182 / 3,295 1,903 1,392

I ' Dcorali ! 5,463 2,642 2,821 3,893 1, 946 1.947 / 2,941 1,699 1,242 To tal 116,781 8,290 8,491 11,958 5,177 6,781 ; 9,034 5,218 3,816 Source: ECE Estinato Basod on 1971 Census

- Trade Flow Pattern

As explained oarliar, tho najor trade ccntcrs of the arc: Dolal- ghat, Dhulikhel, Bancpn and Kathnandu. Thesc are the prii-lo centers trrherc thc people go to sell thcir products and buy consunar goods. Thc bridgc has facilitated casy acccfisability to narkets on a continual basis.

The najor connodity outflow. fron the region, in declining sequential order, is; tonatoes, bananas, livestock and poultry. Thc connodity inflou Is pri~vilyccnpriscd of food grains, salt, cloth and fcrtilizcr.

Thc inpact of the bridge on the trade flow pattern appc~vsto be

significant. hftcr t.hc bridge was constructed, there eia; 2 c:ia.nge in tile cxport/inport trade. Since thc ~vcais serieusly deficient in food grains, a najor proportion of this rcquironcnt has to Lc inported fron othcr ~vcas. Local pooplo opine tht tho bridgc has directly contributed to thc inport of food grains, With the bridgc, people now hhavc. acccss to otllcr food surplus areas. Tho inport of food grains is followed by tlic ingort of nanufacturocl consuner goods. There has been an incrcased use of ngri-inputs, such as

-3/ Tho econowically activo population nay bc dcfincd as thc nunbor of porsons in tho agc group, 10 years and over, who LUG cngagcd in activities contributing to the ~roductionof goods and scrviccs.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - 3; -

chemical fertilizers, partially due to the casy access to the i~istitutiors I which supply thcso poducts.

Ic the cxport category, a najor ciiansc was notocl in the export of vegetables, fruit 2nd livcstock. Tho asoa is cndovlrcd vritll soil tor-ditions well suited to the cultivation of vcgotablcs and fruits. Sinco talc food crop yicld is inadequate and has to bc supplcr.icnted with ir~ports,thc shift towards tho cultivation of vcgctzblcs and fruits should b t,-.!;cr! ?.s a c:iar,z,: * froti food crop to cach crop f,nrning. Thc bridge hr.s beell instruncntnl in stinulating fruit faruing, and establishing an cxcl;c~n~erclztir~~~s'!il~ wit!? other arcns. According to local opixion, tho cxport tr?.dc :-ccrcascd niter the bridge was constructed. Particu1,arly bencfithd vrero ganchayats such as Dcornli lying domunstrcan, acrosc thc river on the lcft bank.

- Enviromontal Ef focts

Thc inpact of thc bridge on tho onvironlgcnt is pricarily rclctod to tho use of forcst resources for fucl, fodder and pasturc land. The najor poportion of laild in tho neighborhood of the bridge is rocky and ?;=crrcn. Thc forcst area is rclativcly sr~all. The indiscriminaic usc of the forest resources hac already roached sorious proportions.

Thc octtlcncnt pattern and the forcst area soeil to havc a?i invcrsc relationshi:? to each othcr. That is, thc snaller the sroodlands, thc closer thcy 'arc to tho sottlonont aroa. Tho sottlcneot arca of Sczrsu21~~1,arka~3anciiayat extends right up to the right bank, closc to the bridge, but there arc oilljr two or thrcc huts on the' left bank. Pooplc rcsidlng in Snrsuilcharkn pncha:r-l..t ' cross to thc othcr sido to c~lloct fuel wood, and fcddor for their livcetock. Thoro is lir~tcclpasture land for the livcstock. The usc of 2crcst ro;;ocdboa is not bnlhnced or supplcncntcd by an cffoctivc afforestation prograu. T:~orc arc no scic~tificncanG boin~used for soil prcscrvntion, and ~6thcnch nonsoon n goodly n~lountof top soil is srashcd away. The agricultural 1)roductivity has been declining ovor the ye,vs as a result of this serious

b

BEST AVAILABLE COPY * soil crcsion, This is indicntlve of tho cn~ironncr~tnldctcri~ration in thc ru'ctl. Ho:ucver, cnvironncntal dctcrioration ccnnot bc attrfbutcd tc thc inpact of the brid~calonc. It is rathcr n cu;?.ulatlvc result of vnriaus factors or~crativcin tho arca over a?ay yc~ars.

4.244 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS

- Sitc Sclcction, Dosign and Construction Mcth-

It was rcvcnlcd that the first survcy of tho Pa~huv~zrglnatsl~c was nndc 5y an nrqr cnginecr, Mr. Nriya Shum:lor Bacn, ill 1949. FIo suvcyed two possilslc altcrnatc sitcs, one about 600 ft, ilpstroz.~.: irol7 thc pro~cst sitc and thc othor, about 2 rdlos downstrcan, at Bhocni~niln. Tho second location had good geological featmcs but urns prohcbiy nbanc'oncd bccausc of the detour rcquircd in thc cxisting trail, and thc nccd for constructing a now approach trail on eithcr sidc of the rivcr.

Later, in 1966, Mr. N. J. Thapa, n technician fron SBD and a Pcacc Corp Volunteer Mr. B. Gundcrson, survcycd and sclcct.cd the present site. Thc Bhccnpcaila sitc, thc only available altcrnativc sitc for n 300 ft. span bridge, was also ro-survcycd but abandoned because of tho ~olidrock cliff on tho right bank.

Tho prcsont site is a good solcction, cxcopt for thc span, xrilich is shortor than dcsirablo. If the bridgo had a longer span, it xroulcl havc bcon structurally safer for this pcarticular sitc.

In Novorlbcr 1966, a ficld construction tca~,arrived at thc sitc. PCV, Mr. B. Gundorson, an architect by training, rc:~rescntcd USAID, and Hr, P. C. Joshi, an cnginecr from thc SBD, wcrc tho nail1 cngincering personnels involvcd in the construction of tinis bridge.

Mr. Gundcrson dosigned thc loft bank nbutnc~tand also clid tho 3tnking of the bridgo, minly during the initial pilasc of construc~ion, Civil work, fncluding oxcavation, was conplctcd within four months, A fcvf

BEST AVAILABLE COPY inspection trips 15rcre made by Mr. Koslri, thc Project Co3rclinntor frog USAID, and I*. L. K. Mnlla thc senior engincer of SBD, Thc cross-bcans and planks wcrc ordered from thc Hctauda Saw Mill and transported to thc sitc, It was thought bost to use scasoncd wood, if it was possiblc to find mch wood within a rcasonablc distance.

Tho excavation work was all done by nanual labor and it took a long tinc. Portable rock-drilling machines nrcre not available and snnll hand chisels had to bc uscd. This r.iadc blasting vmrk vcry incfficidat. Sinrlc crcction tools wcro uscd, such as chain hoists, spnnncrs and ~rronchoa, ctc., since transportation of hcavy or cunbcrsonc mchincs and tools was inpossiblc. Concroto was hand mixed. Local laborors, who had probably ncvcr scon ccccnt bcforo, wore hirod and trainod with grcat difficulty, in proper concrotc nixing opcrntions.

The British Ropcway Company, who had nanufacturcc! and supplied this bridgc, provided a dctailcd schcnatic. Bridgc crcction drawings lircrc also supplied, giving dotails of the progcr ercction proccclurc, but lmny nothods show had to bc conplctoly rcviscd to suit the sitcts conditions. Towers wcrc crcctcd by lifting the lowest part, using stay cablos, and tho tops parts rcrc joined ono aftor anothor. Bmboo scaffolding, uscd on other bridges to crcct t~wcrs,was avoidod hero, and this saved n lot of cxtra tine. (Although tho photographs of the construction show sone baiboo structures, they wcrc not usod for scaffolding.)

Road ropes wcro takon across thc rivor by boat. This ams found to be a vcry risky operation. The best way for cablc hoisting is to take thc snallest cablc or nylon rope first, and hoist other cables, onc by one, using a pulley over this snall cablo or nylon ropc.

Thc fixing of tho suspenders, using a locally-mado wooden box, was begun at both tomcrs at tho same tino. This was thc nethod ~doptedfor this bridge. This has boon found to bo tho nost convenient mcthcd and is goncrally uscd in similar construction rcrk. (Soc Standcard Trail Suspcnded and Suspension Manual, Pcvt B 10.301 and 10.302.)

BEST AVAILABLE COPY !l?hc tensioning of cnblcs, srithout tho nic! of a tcnsion notor ol: a torque mcnch, lms rosultod in many bridgos of thc BXC dcsign, inciitdinc this one, to swing unconfortably. This is bccausc of unequal :>rotcnsi~ns in the cablos.

Construction rorlr uras ~~ainlycczrriod out vitl the hclg of thc l~cnl labor forcc. Piccc work contracts verc uscd for rock excavation, and tile collection of, and the brc,?king of stonos. Tliic inprovccl thL spcdil cf vrorl; considerably. No big contractors wore used. S0ll.2 contractors frojl out~ic'r thc area wore used for transportin6 ccncnt, -.rooclen bcnns 2nd ?lnn!cs. S!-rLllcd labor, such as masons and bridgc fitters, lvcrc brought fro I K?,thnnnclu cr: no local skilled labor was available.

Rcfcr to Photo_Ernpli Ro.

The deck planks which ,VC rottcn, should bc rc;jlrtcccl I-1 as soon as possible, I : t Sonc nuts and bolts of top clanpsi nncl of cus3endcrs I ncod retightcning. All bulldog grips should Sc tightcncd. i !

The above ,arc ninor improvcnonts an<- nccd nttc- tio on ' I ,as soon as pocsiblc. I i

Sonc flaking of tho concrete 13lnstcr vorl: on thc I left bank abutacnt is clcarly visible* Scouring of tho abut- 4-p-3 i ncnt protection urn11 on tho loft bank has stwtcd and thcro ? is still clangcr to this bridge as fear as lcfi zbutncnt scotwing ; ie conccmncd. Phis sliould bc chcckcd. About 200 to 300 ft. [ of tho upstrcan left bank ~houldbo protcctod vith bic bouldcrs~ I or rocks. I !

The approach trails ara in good condition. Thc i right bank approach is littlc stoop near thc bridge sitc, and ' bcconos a little difficult during rains. A little work, if 1i provided, could inprovc thc approach.

- Past Maintcnancc Work u:This bridge collapsod in the flood scaaon of 1971 and eras constructcc! during the dry scason of the o,mc ycar.

Aftcr tho colln;>sc was reportod, an cnginccring tcni.1 fron tho DOR acconpnnicd by SBD officials, visitod thc situ to invcstigntc thc reasons of collapse .

Thcy rcportcd that bocauss of thc undornining of thc front stay anchor block, it sunk into tho river, pulling the toluor down uith it. This

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- runs possiblc as thc tovrcr was hingctl. BacIr stay cablas gave away probably bccausc the bulldog grips slippod because of tho suddcn jerk.

Mr. R. B. Kru'na, the SBD tcc)lnician vrhc re-orcctcc!, this bridge, and Mr. M. Upaclhyaya, who was involved in 2rcpming thc inventory for thc collap~cd bridgc, were intcrvicvrcd. According to then, all of thc suspenCcr~and about 7% of tho deck planks, as \roll as the bomm and wire ncsh vcrc surept away during the collapsc. Tho nain abutncnt block was at tho point of collapsc ns it had also bcen undcrnincd by the flood. A fclir tourcr bracing6 trorc also nissing.

Reconstruction work started during th~dry scason of 1971 rnrhcn 7. protcction wall, nado of stone m?sonry to a dopth of 8 ft, bclov ground levcl was constructcd (Soc photo 4-P-3).

New suspondcrs alrcrc ordcrcd fron B?.laju Yantra Shala in L~thnandu. Nc'vly l/3 of thc cross bom~sand planks, which wcrc found on tho bad=, srcrc re-usod, Others were supplied by the Tirnbcr Corporation in Kathmandu.

The stcady channel on thc righthand sidc xras conplctcly twisted. A concretc pill,^ (sholrm in photo 4-P-7) was cast wound this tvdstod chz.nncl, and a road rope was ticd through an eye-thinblc around it. This \iras a good idoa. It saved a lot of tino and trouble sincc trying tc bla~tout the dLmagcd channol and put in a nclir one would havc bocn timo-coz~suning and difficult* A concrcto pillL~was also nado ovor thc lcft hand channcl for ac~theticroacons, Evcn during rcconstruction no torquo msnchos nor tension ncters rcro uscd for protcnsioning the cablo,

-*Minor* No rcgulw n,aintcnance work has boen donc since tho rcconstruction. Though tho local panchoyats aro levying tolls on this bridgo, cPcn ninor rcpnirs, such as thc rollacing of rottcn planlrr, ,arc not bcicg cmridd out.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY FINDINGS

SOC IO-ANT'XROIQLOGI CAL

- Wlefi tkaro ma6 no bridge, people had a difficult time fordin2 thu rivcr, ~vcn with a dugout canoe. This urns particularly truo during the monsoons. The people used to pray to their gods and goddosscs for a safc croosi~lg. It is said that many people used vow to their family god, that if thcy reached thc other sidc of the rivcr safely, thoy would offcr an nninal sacrifice to Him. Once, five blajhi (boatmen) worc swept nuray by thc Sunkosi Rivcr. The p:.oplc risked thcir livcs while crossing tho rivcr in theso dcgouts. Thc bridgc has nor eliminated this problcm.

- Sociologically, the Pnchuararghat Bridge seems to be vitnl. It 11:s bccomc instrumental in extending m,vital relationships, fostiv?.ls, fzirs and religious activities in tho ~vca. Furthcrmorc, existing fnmily relationships, on cithcr sidc of the rivcr, mc nour cnhanccd by more frcqucnt visits. Thc ccse of access has also encouraged mutual assistance bctxrccn the villagers on both sides of the rivcr ,and has sorvcd to unite individunls during different social 'and religious occasions. Women can now onsily forn social rclation- ships, like Mitcri, as well as participate in practically nll of thc festivals, fairs, m'mriagos and religious activities in the ncigilboriiood ,area, and in distant villages. Furthermore, the bridge hcts also facilitated tho collecting of fircvrood and fodder, and in the cxchnngc of labor.

- Tho ethnic group most affcctod by the construction of thc bridgc, is thc Majhi caste. They have had to abandon their triditional occupation of ferrying, and thoir sourco of incomc has been lost. Thoy arc novr ongagcd in all sorts of labor nctivitics, including ropc-mking, to gcnorato an income.

INSTITUTIONAL

- If one norc to cxaminc thc Pachuvrwghat Bridge in tho context of the 1,argcr national pcrspcctivc, thcrc is no way of nscortaining larhcthcr the priority

BEST AVAILABLE COPY status of this bridge was justly givon. Thc SBD hnd only two conditions which dctor~rlincdtho status. Firstly, thc rccipicnt villz,gc or villages s1;ould bc willing to voluntcor labor for the transportation of m.tcrials, nnd also makc :~vailnble chcnp labor during construction. Secondly, a finite nunbcr of bridgcs, those on a list, wcro the only possible solcc- tions. This list no slay rcflccts thc quantity of bridges nccdcd in thc country. Thus, thc rcsourccs cxpondcd on thc bridgc mlght hnvc bocn misplnccd

from a relativc point of V~OU.

- In looliing at the mobillzntion of local rcso=ccc for thc bridgefs construc- tion, tho Lamount of free labor that was madc available dc~lonstrater;that with bottor organization, local resources could be an lmportnnt asset for any local developmcnt projects, not only bridgc construction. Furthcrmorc, thc fact that tolls arc collcctod from bridgc uscrs dcnonstratcs the feasibility of locally ~cncratingmonotary rcsourccs srhich could bc usod for the upkecp, repair and improvcmcnt of a pro jcct . What is prescntl:. lacking aro policy guidclincs governing the usc of thcsc rcsourccs.

- In thc caso of Pachuwrarghat Bridgo, people had participated in thc decision to construct thc bridgc. Eut, thcy do not sccm to be committed to its maintenance. Thorc exists a nood to dcvisc n program through which such responsibilities can be nssumod at the local lovcl. Onc of the reasons nhy the pooplc of Pachuwarghat look to the govcrnmcnt for the upkoop and mintc- nance of thc bridge is bccauso thoro is no policy to create tho ncccss~ary locnl institutions as to mc&o existing institutions, thc panch'ayats, dden tho scopo of thoir responsibility to include this function.

- Construction of projects in a placo liko Pachu~~arghatnot only crcatos a facility for tho locnl pooplo, but niso assists tho accretion of tcchnical kiow-how among them, Howcvcr, tho importation of &?sons and cnginocrs and the conspicuous abscnco of on-tho-job tr'aining for locnl craftsman have lcft tho local pcople without tho nccclss~zrytcchnical know-hotif to maintain thc bridgo.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Although thc District P,ulchaynt collacts tolls from this bridgc, this noncy gocs into a gcncral fund and not tor,ards tho rep,ir and maintcnancc of the bridgc .

- The service ~zroaof n bridgc incrcnses immensely when it is built over a perennial ,and turbulont rivor, likc the Sunkosi, arlicrc there arc no viablc nltermtives for fording thc river,

- Tho frequency of bridgc use is dopcnd'cnt upon thc area's trail systcm and its ne'mncss to motorablc roads. At Pa~huw~zrghat,the facillty of the bridgc is augmcntcd by its relationship to thc clrccls trail systcrn, and its ncarnoss to Dolnlghat, which is both a trading ccntcr and a bus terminal point.

- With thc PachuwLvghat bridge, people indicate that thcrc is timc snvcd on thcir journeys. Bcforo thc installation of bridgc at Pachuurarghat, travcl- lcrs to Dolalghat uscd to avoid fcrry crossings bccnuso of tllc risk involved, and instead, madc a dctour along thc left banlr. This mcant an extra 3 to 4 hour walk. With the advcnt of tho bridgc, t::crc is nocr a positive gain f;l tcrns of savcd hours of travclling time.

- In arcas wllich ,me not easily ncccssible, the bridgo can bc instrumental in cstcblishing cxchangc relationships based on resource crLdov~m~leat.For exmplc, there has been n distinct change in the ngriculturnl pattcrn of thc ,won. Following thc bridgols construction and thc ostnblishment of oxchangc links, cash crops, rathor than food crops, arc being grown. Pcoplc in tho ,wcn hnvc stLvted to grow fruits ,and vegotablcs, which thoy can easily sol1 at differont consumer ccntcrs in Dhulikhcl, Bancp-i, Kathmandu etc.

- The use of tllc bridgc is not greatly affcctcd by thc quality of tho trail if it happens to lic in a suitnblc placc. At Pschuaarghat, thc bridgc uso is high despite thc poor quality of the trail.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - The bridgc is instruclental in cxtcnding thc participation of thc fcrnnl~ labor force in to othcr arcas of wagc o,mning, such as portcrinx.

ENGINEERING

- Somc of thc major factors that contributed to thc collapsc of this bridge can bc summcd up 2s follows.

- Pachuvr,vghat Bridgc aras one of tho 13 suspension bridgcs procured by UZAI2 from Eritish Rope klay Compafiy Ltd. Thc sit0 solcctor hcd to finc:, n sitc to fit a p?cdctcrminod span. In this pnrticulLar casc, a few bridgc parts wcrc transported to tho sitc by volun-cLmy local labor cvon bcforc thc sitc arm surveyed. If thcrc had bocn no span limitation, any surveyor srould hnvc proposed n longcr span at this sitc. Tho liuitntion of thc span lod to onc of thc tovcr foundntiolls bcing placed too closc to tho river bod, rrhich rcsultcd in tho foundation boing undcrmincd by flood vrntcrs during thc monsoon.

- The dcsign considerations urorc not given enough attention. Thcrc sccms to be no record of tho checking of thc structural dosign cnlculationa ef thcso bridgcs. Thc frontstay cablc~in BRC bridgos put limitations on tlic offcc- tivc us0 of ovon this prcdctermincd span lcngth, sincc an extra space in front of tho bridge is rcquircd to fix thc cablos. It was later found that tho frontstay cablcs arc only uacd for touror crection and haw no relationship to tho structural stability of thc ?midge. Aftcr rcconstruc- tion, the front stay csblc was almost removed without introducing any instability to thc bridgc fitructurc.

- Thc dosigning of tho left bank abutticnt, in this caso, arc\r; dono cntircly by PCV Mr. B. Gundcrson, an czrchitoct. All design vorl: was donc at thc sito, during thc initial phaso of confitruction. Bccausc of tho lack of expcrionce, scour dopth was ncvor calculated and the foundation dcsign was

UI~SUCCOSS~U~.

BEST AVAILABLE COPY - Anothcr rcsult of this lack of oxporionco lcd to thc rornoval of a11 naturnl bouldcrs to construct thc cbutmcnt, lcaving thc bank nalrcd. An attcmpt nr2s hladc to protcct thc banl; by putting a riprap surfncc in front of thc tolircr foundation (scc photo 4-P-lo), but this was trashed out by floods in thc folloising season. Expcricnccd engineers should havc 2rovidcd spocific guidance during construction, trhen and urhcrc it was crarranted,

- Duc l;o thc lnck of ~aintcnanco,propcr nttcntion Frns not givcn tc thc banks aftcr undcrscouring startcd in 1968, cvcn thou& it Gas roportcd.

- As dcscribcd in tho Kaguno rcport, galvanizing was not ncccss~ary. Galva- nizing is an expcnsivc componont of thc bridge cost and is not rcquircd (reasons dcscribod in Kngunc findings),

- For thc first tine, somc attontion uras given to using sca~oncdand properly-sizcd iuoodcn bcams and planks from saw mills. Thcsc nrcrc trans- ported to the sitc from Hctauda Snv Mill. lillicnover possible, this should bc encour?.ged, as it m,&os for a ncat and durcrblc dock. Prcviously, locally-available tiinbcr of all kinds, was bcing usod for docking. This is undcsirablc .

- Excavation work, especially rock excavation, tool; much timc and moncy due to thc lack of propcr tools and cquipmcnt, Portable rock drills should inv'zriably be uscd in such work.

- Tho usc of a chain hoist which could only pull 3 to 4 in. on cnblc at n timc, should be replaced by n Tirfor machino. This will =void thc tine-consuming proccss of cablc hoisting*

- Cables wcrc hoistod and tension was applicd without knowing thc propcr applicd tonsion* This was bccauso of thc lnck of simplo tools 8ucl1 as a tcnsion actor and a torquc wench,

BEST AVAKABLE COPY 4 - In this caso, the bulldog grips worc fixed correctly, all the grips nrc on the tension sidc. This is an improvcmcnt as this is one of thc vital points of construction. Proviously bulldog grips arorc applied alternately without knowing thc reason for doing so. Turkoghat Bridge, over thc 0v.n Rivcr, collapsed due to a similar mistLako.

- Lastly, it cnn bo said that due to n Lack of initiative to chcck and mnkc thc necessary changes in tho BRC design, marly inprovcmcnts, such nu an incrcns?

in span, tho removal of tho front stays, tunnel, anchorago ii; the riglit bank, otc,, which wcro not c'arricd out, resulted in the extra constructioc cost without a corresponding incrcnsc in bridgc strength.

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LIST OF ABBREVIAT~

CEDA Centor for EconoLlic ~evcloIjnoatmd ~dnlnistration . CW Chic? District' Officcr _. CDR Contra1 Dcvelopont Rogf~nof IJopal DOR DcFxtnont of Iicads DAP. Mstrit t Acbinistration Plan ,of 1975 -, DP m~trictPQncl~ayat EAST cr :.. ECE East Consulting Enginems EDR Eastern Dovolopnont Rosion of 37cpe.l IWDR . F?,r 8:cstcrn 3vtr~lcpllantRcgicr? of Nepal

HFL IIigh flood lovci

IERD Intsrnntional Bznk fcr Reconstruction & Devolcpi.~ent IRR Ir_torn:~l3atc of Betxcn .JTA xTunior Technical Assistant of Deprtniint of ,lgriculturc LDD Lc5z.i Dcvo1opnor.t Dopmtmcnt 1m J:ixiatry sf Uorks md Transport NGCN Mctionzl hnstruction Conpany of Ncpnl NPC Hntional PlnnnirLg C~ninission F'rm htlic KV'lorks riew.rtrncnt, F'CV Pvacc Corps Vo hntecr muc Roynl Hogr\l Airlines Corporation SADP Smll Aron 3cvclop~onteogrz: SATA Srsis~Asaociatisn for locknicnl &sistc.nco . SBD Snsponsion Sric?eo D.ivisiar, STOL Sl!ort Tdce O f f and. IF ni'.ing

BEST AVAILABLE COPY WB World Bank WDR . Western Developnont Region of Nepal Bridgo Study Nnnber - A~pclzdilx - Appendix Nunbor Bridgc Study Nunber - Tablc - Teble 1Ju:bor Bridge Stucty Nunber - Figuro - Figuro Nuubor Bridgc. Study Nunbor - Photograph - Pnotograph Nunbor Sunnary Volunc - ~ppcndix- A-gpondix Numbor Sunmary Volunc - Tablo - Tcblo Nunbor Smru'y Volune - F'igure - Figure Numbcr Surzy Volu-no - Photograph - Photograph Ihmbcr

BEST AVAILABLE COPY 1 -A.kkai? - very difficult, particularly used for E. bad place on a trail, -Asad - Nepalese r:ont;h roughly correcpo~dingto Ju!le/Ju:y. medic - traditiomf nz turai retiedies, specifically herbal, - a type of graes froo which rcp?: are nado. Ikda Earn - the Ziatribt govzrr?or. -Badi - tha entertainment caste BaRar - river banic.1 . Ba~;arko dlun,t;ha- stones from the rivor- bank: Balseri Miteri - ritual friendship . - a systex iin vrhich t!le labore?.-s ~f sortain castes are paid in grain~rathor than in cash.

&ma-Jhznizi - sha~ai~ -Eensi - lob--lyir-e ri-*-er vallcyo. Ehaili grou? singit2 dona 9uring tta festival of Tiliu. I_Ce_ -

ijhaarani - c G3ddessl ,lame -P!?o~o - n ehort ,&-..nfs shirt si&i - - a typ of cigmettc ~jliasctrs-apping is made frop? laaves (cloo called u) Ckap - a lvood indigenous t~ certain ~~oasof Mopal Char Jat tke four castes; Brahmin, Chhet;*i, Vnisya z:?d Sudre -L.c - Chaut 2.ra - a resting giace along a hill tr.-.il. C hauid dar - see C110wkida- -Chowc - lvlido, flat mca Chkawo - hut CNllxa heaton rice, us~allyeaten as 2 s~lacii __3 - Ol~okhoJat - the cloa~caste, uppor crrstc liir:.cluc; -Cholo - short yrg;:~~~1 8 'blgl~,se , usucLlly 1.1:: i-.?! :~:Li;h :I ~;~ri -Chota - a yc.ul~g;3,z11 cS jrxringenljljlv 7.2~;:;pacifis t~ .i.;stzr~ Xepal Chotc C!hot.ti -Khclnc. - r? pl.ccc ycung peopls nee2- tc ~1~1:a~d daisc; s?.rilrlr (tc the Qoc'ii!;izl:~~'. Chotti n j'ou-ag :noa:an of lla:a*riagi?a't.i.:! age, specii3.c t;, ae:;i;orn Eepal 1 -

BEST AVAILABLE COPY G~SSARY Contd. - 2 - watchman, also Chaukidar soya ko Jholungo-a suspend bridge made by turned bamboo Chunnnr bcmboo or wood v'orker6 caste group -. --4- - Cha-eto - medicinal I.-qrb, lcinco~ha' ---DanOa - hill -Dalo - small basket - Hindi word for watchman - tailor ---Cssun - the moat important festival of the Hindu Nepalese --Daud~~ha - an inspection cornittee which periodically tours the district and i~enpowered to make on-the-spot decisions concerning issues such as land disputes, ztc. -Deuda - a folk circle dance; specific to tho far western districts. Devali a Nepalese festival celebrated in October/%o?omber __C .- - --Doarali - a place where shamans are initiated Dbara. - spring water tap

Dhi-Id manually egorptcd husking nnc1:irio .-a* .-a* A>- - -..-Dho ti - a singlo picco clothing usually of white cloth mapped around the lower half of tho body

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1-,. *-..., -.-T ..- --- 2 -L& . - womenvs clothing similar to a, * - i!romenfs blouse Eat-bazaar - ---)-LID- ---Hul,ki -Jat --Janto - lnanually oearatcd grinding nnc:linc -;a~-l - sacred white thread worn by the high caste Hindus -Jati.a - religious f& TI!,3:lkr i Jt.olunqe -Kacchad - sash -Kc.r 53 - skilled labcrer -Ilaun -.. :.in$ of 2:illet Khadder - handloomod cotton r:uueo cloth -Khadi - handloomed cotton c:rr,;. - 23.~~1 Khampa - people from Kham, a province In northeastern Tibet -C?as - the Chhetri people, a term indigenous to tho western areas -K!.s C. - wet farm land -- FFh~72 - c stream or a ~mllriver Kf~-it - collective ownorshig of l?.cd, also a p~xcelof land bestowed by royal cormand. -Rir an a - misccllanooua rotcil goods -1% t. - hillock Kumcin a 9of tho Brahmin -.-L-. - sub-c~ou;> oasto -Ln Iicr - blacksmith T.:>;I~~.~> a -..A*+. - po~~crr.working outsidc Nopal and also one - ~ervingin the forelgn arniies - royal decree; litorally, tho trod scalf - a priest or teacher of Tibetan or northorn Buddkian - hi& la114 usually ridge ,"Tons cf :'. ~lountain. - nat~lhome - i~~~~~~~&;cnc; ;rho. articipstes Ir: n fuucrcl procession or 2 fulloral - tho ruling feaLly of tho Kathm;l~lduVa!.l~y ketoraon the 16th an& 18th centurice.

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- .C .- --L r_.{ - a vo1u:xe aeaswe roughly equivalent to half a kllogan kcndir tomplo -. -...u - ;.ianiPo_ bLunb00 mat .-4--- - k!g 5 - Nepalese mclnth corrosponding to ~ovember/Dscember

?J,- ---1 .- , - black pulsu --..14zI;;iraL - liquor-consuming; appliod to certain castos or othnic groups

Hela. r - m- faFr i.ii%ri ritual friendship C 11-4 - Igist.rt skilled laborer -I=.--..- - P3.i- woman! 6 headscm f L- - . bTwi Pas c-. - a volume measure equal to 20 or 150 lb. iTa~'Yo crew -*.I - forermn of labor Fa1 &. tobacco pipo - 1- - ltt~ -. new --I;T-z - --7-1 - now bridgo Iu'~h3Aha father h- - social I'Ioba social mother -8-L - Pi-hn dry farm land -C'- - Pr,p sin . L-. - Panchas - political workers of Panchayat systom Pz-bzte n term primarily used by Kathmandu Valloy to --.-I_ - Nowars rofer to other Hindu caste groups P(.VUK? sgstorn of labor exchago --f-. - Pathi volume roughly oquivalont to lb. I_-- - measure 73 -Patwari - land rovenue collector ---Pandr i - local folk dmcc g&& t temporary log bridgo Pradhan Pmcha - head of the villago panchayat Pw:ci - lrirtuc - priest of a temple P;,L\i mi - co,mso woolen mts cind blankats -Rtrksi - distillod locally nado liquor -Rr?-:.r., - fair; term used io tho far wostorn areas of Nepal 20 di- ghpu- - cornunity moeting ~lncesrhora peoplo sing and dance.

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Roti unleavened bread made of wheat or millet flour _I - - national, ae in Rastrlya Panchayat, the national leglslativc body - suedo loathor

- black etone worshipped by Nepalese Hindus as a manifastation of tho Di~tnity;found aostly in the Kaligandaki Flver in Nepal.

- cultural valuos - womanis garment

Sw-ad - government docroo Shora Jat - sixteen cafitcs Taluk 1 - tax collection area -Tar - flat, low-altitude land in hilly arcas -Torai - tho southern plains of Nopal; borders India -Tika - red 1prark. placed c::. %:laforo:'rna$ 2:; -. 's:_,:- of .z& xrar.len -Tuni - a wood indigenous to certain areas of Nepal Usa Pradhan Pwchii - deputy hoad of n village panchayat %E%i - tho four majcr classos of tho Hindu casto system -Veda - the oldest literature of the Iiindc LW~S-~IC~L 2;anidar - land rovenue collectar 8ilh Karxalwn - district office Zilla Pacha~at- district 1cE;islative body Zi&-aaal - land revenue collector

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