TheSociety of Arts and Government,1754-1800 Public Encouragementof Arts,Manufactures, and Commercein Eighteenth- CenturyEngland

D. G. C. ALLAN

THE FOUNDATION AND SUPPORT of"Oeconomical Societies"-as of artisticand scientificacademies, hospitals, universities, botanical gardens,and other public, civic, and royal amenities-was a feature ofthe international culture of the "Enlightenment." At Philadelphia andat St.Petersburg, in German princely states and in thefree city of Hamburg,in Dutchand Swisstowns, and in Frenchand even Spanishprovinces organizations were set up to stimulateindustry andagriculture by means of monetary grants, honorific awards, and thediffusion of knowledge.'Though Italy and Francecould claim thelead in scientificand artisticfoundations, it was to theBritish Isles,first to Dublinand after1754 to London,that the nations lookedfor models of these new institutions. "The Societyfor the Encouragement of Arts,Manufactures and Commerce,instituted at London,Anno. MDCCLIV" was admired inits early years by British and foreign observers who were struck by thecoincidence of itsexistence and thegrowth in thewealth and powerof the nation which had fostered it. Nineteenth-century writers notedthe discrepancy between the value of theSociety's early re-

Thisarticle is substantiallythe same as thepaper read at theAnglo-American Con- ferenceof Historians,University of London,July 1972, underthe titleof "Public Encouragementof Arts,Manufactures and Commercein Eighteenth-CenturyEn- gland." 1 Thereis a considerableliterature on theindividual societies; the following cover theareas mentioned:S. W. Fletcher,The PhiladelphiaSociety for Promoting Agri- culture(Philadelphia, 1959); J. A. Prescott,"The RussianFree (Imperial)Economic Society,1765-1917," Journal of the Royal Societyof Arts (hereafterJRSA), 114 (1965), 33-37; R. Rubberdt,Die okonomischenSozietdten (Wiirzburg, 1934); H. Hubrig,Die patriotischenGesellschaften des 18. Jahrhunderts(Weinheim, Berlin, 1957). 434

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 20 Dec 2014 16:58:00 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions THE SOCIETY OF ARTS AND GOVERNMENT 435 wards(sums distributed to individualsrarely exceeded two figures) andthe extent of the economic developments itclaimed to have pro- duced.The institutionsurvived and flourished,in changingforms, duringVictoria's reign, and inevitably its domestic chroniclers gave themost favorable interpretations toits eighteenth-century exertions. Historiansat largehad littleto say aboutan organizationwhich seemedno part of the main stream of political or even economic his- toryand were confused after 1908 when the Society was granted the prefix"Royal."2 When period specialists began to focustheir atten- tionon theSociety's early history in ourtime the old battle of "opti- mists"and "pessimists" was resumed.Bowden was full of praise but Ashtonsaw the Society's awards as "smallbait." Hudson and Luck- hurst's1954 history naturally strove to stressthe Society's successes, andSmelser, writing soon afterwards, saw the Society as an initiating agentin industrialchange and dismissedas irrelevant"many of the criticismsof the Society's effectiveness, as well as belligerentasser- tionsof its practical value."3 The seriesof monographs, "Studies in theSociety's History and Archives,"have corrected and expanded Hudsonand Luckhurst in a numberof ways, and have led to further researchinto the ramifications ofthe Society's early membership, in whichR. E. Schofieldplayed a pioneerrole. The extensive range and varietyof the Society's eighteenth-century premium lists, with their six categoriesof "agriculture,""," "colonies and trade," "manufactures,""mechanics," and "politearts," continue to invite attentionand to repay(as Gittinsshowed in thecase ofpotash and Harleyover the surveys of counties)the effort of closerinvestiga- tion.4In theintangible area ofthe communication ofscientific and

2 For an exampleof extravagantpraise at home see EncyclopaediaBritannica, 3rd ed. (Dublin, 1786), XVII, 587; for foreignpraise see below. Historiesof the Societywritten by membersof its staffinclude S. T. Davenport,The Societyof Arts Past and Present(London, 1869); H. B. Wheatley,"The Societyof Arts,"Engineer- ing,51 (1891),83-86; and SirH. T. Wood,The Historyof theRoyal Societyof Arts (London,1913). An outstandingcase of confusionbetween the Societyof Artsand theRoyal Society can be foundin J.Newman, "The Enigmaof JoshuaSteele," Jour- nal BarbadosMuseum and HistoricalSociety, 19, No. 1 (1952), 6. 3 N. J. Smelser,Social Change in the IndustrialRevolution: An Applicationof Theoryto theLancashire Cotton Industry 1770-1840 (London, 1949), pp. 82-85; thebicentenary history was D. Hudsonand K. W. Luckhurst,The Royal Societyof Arts,1754-1954 (London, 1954). See also W. Bowden,Industrial Society in Towardsthe End of theEighteenth Century (New York, 1925), pp. 40-44; T. S. Ashton,The IndustrialRevolution, 1760-1830 (London,1948), pp. 13, 21, 62, 128. 4 The "Studies"have appearedregularly in the Society'sJournal since 1958; see

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technicalknowledge and the contributionthat this made to the In- dustrialRevolution (subjects illuminated in recentyears by Eric Rob- insonand A. E. Musson) theearly history of the Societyof Artsis clearlyimportant.5 The presentarticle is concernedwith revaluating therelationship between the Societyof Artsand the institutionsof governmentin theeighteenth century.

In 1786 Sophievon La Roche visitedthe Adelphi in London and wentinto ecstasies of Anglomaniaover what she termed the "Volun- tarySociety for the Improvementof Agricultureand the Arts." "Whatthousands of people have been encouraged,"she wrotein her diary,"since a fine,upright man ofthe name ofMr. Shipleyfounded theSociety. A largepicture runs the whole round of thishonourable and esteemed society's conferencehall . .. depicting all the labours and activitiesof mankind . .. My heart was big with blessings, and tearsof joy filledmy eyes at thelist of themany names to whichre- wardshad been givenfor improved methods of cultivationor inven- tionof tools."6"Le CitoyenChantreau," as he subsequentlycalled himself,came to theSociety of Artsin 1788 and marveledthat such an institutionwas foundednot by those who held the reins of govern- mentbut by , "cultivateur modeste,"-a manhe had neverseen mentionedin biographicalhistories, which, he averred, dealtonly with Jesuits or Virtuosi.7Speaking at theannual distribu- tionof awardsin 1797, SamuelMore, the Secretaryof the Society, admittedthat its "liberal way of conducting . .. Business" had "im- pressedon theminds of Foreigners a highdegree of veneration."On a similaroccasion in 1818 ArthurAikin, a latersecretary, observed that

in particularD. C. Coleman,"Premiums for Paper: The Societyand theEarly Paper Industry,"JRSA, 107 (1959), 361. R. E. Schofield,"The Societyof Arts and the LunarSociety of Birmingham,"ibid., pp. 512, 668; L. Gittins,"Premiums for Vege- table Alkali-the Societyand theSupply of Potash,Barilla and Kelp, 1758-1827," ibid.,111 (1963), 577; J.B. Harley,"The Societyof Artsand theSurveys of English Counties,"ibid., 112 (1964), 43, 119, 269, 538. 5 See A. E. Mussonand Eric Robinson,Science and Technologyin theIndustrial Revolution(Manchester, 1969), passim. 6 C. Williams,trans., Sophie in London,1786 (London,1933), p. 161. 7 P. N. Chantreau,Voyage dans les trois royaumesd'Angleterre, d'Ecosse et d'Irlande(, 1792), pp. 174-79.

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theremarkable difference between the literary and scientificinstitutions of England,when compared with those of the continent ofEurope, is, that the formerhave arisen from, and have continued to be supportedby, the volun- taryexertions of individuals,liberal of theirtime, their talents, and their money,for the public good; whereas the latter have been, for the most part, producedunder the fostering influence of their respective governments, and continuedto derivefrom the state most of thefunds necessary for their support.

He wenton to praise

thefounders of this Institution, who, in proposing to themselvesand to their successorsso vasta rangeas thecommerce, the arts, the agriculture, and the manufacturesofthe country, forebore to circumscribe itwithin the bounds of eventhe most liberal charter that the munificence of theSovereign could bestow.8

Fromthe vantage point of the 1860s Mr. Gladstonedeclaimed the saga ofthe Society's origins:

It was... ina darkperiod that the founders of this Society set themselves to theirwork; and those who now contemplated with admiration the immense developmentswhich this age had seen, and who regarded with confidence the futureprogress which would be achieved(because in these developments was containedthe promise of the future), must not forget through what difficulties in theirearly stage, those developments were accomplished.. . . He might also notice,especially with reference to thepresence of so manyof their foreignfriends, that it was to no patronage,tono countenanceofthe state, to nolarge profusion-indeed, tono application,whether large or small, of the publictreasure, that this Society owed the means by which it had achieved thiswork. It hadbeen from the first-in its infancy, in itsyouth, and in its maturity-thespontaneous offspring ofprivate intelligence, and had reflected in itsproceedings, as a voluntaryinstitution, all the features of theEnglish character.9

More surprisingly,this view is reiteratedin thebicentenary history of theSociety where a traditionof "sturdyindependence" is offered as a correctiveto theetatisme of mid-twentieth-century Britain. 10 Yet

8 RoyalSociety of ArtsArchives (hereafter RSAA), Samuel More,MS "Address"; ArthurAikin, An AddressDelivered on the20th of May, 1818, at theAnnual Dis- tribution. . . of . . . theSociety of Arts(London, 1818), pp. 4-5. 9 Reportof speechat annualdinner of the Societyof Arts,1862, Journalof the Societyof Arts,10 (1862), 504. 10Hudson and Luckhurst,Royal Societyof Arts,p. 371.

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strikinglydifferent principles and objectivesare revealedwhen we look moreclosely at thework and membershipof theSociety of Arts forthe period 1754 to 1800. To beginwith the founder, William Shipley: while it is truethat he said nothingabout a charteror governmentaid in eitherhis Pro- posals (in whichhe speakssimply of "a bodyof generousand public spiritedpersons") or in his Schemefor putting the proposals in exe- cution(where he proposesthat "a sufficientnumber of Subscribers ... formthemselves into a body, by the name of a Society for the En- couragementof Arts, Sciences and Manufactures"),'1it is clearfrom a letterhe wroteto BenjaminFranklin that he was averseto neither. "It is expected,"he toldFranklin in September1755, "thatwe shall soon be incorporatedand perhapsmay have grantsfrom Parliament sufficientto promoteby PremiumsThings of the UttermostPublic Utility."'2This was onlyeighteen months after the foundation meet- ing at Rawthmell'sCoffee House whenthe Societyhad but eleven members.Shipley could hardlyhave expectedincorporation to take place sooner,and had it done so in 1755 the Societyof Artswould have achievedchartered status in less timethan the Royal Society, theSociety of Antiquaries, or theDublin Society.'3 The constitutionalarrangements of these three senior incorporated societieswere well known to thefounding members of theSociety of Arts.The ReverendDr. StephenHales, JohnShort, Gustavus Bran- der,and HenryBaker wereall Fellowsof theRoyal Societyand the last twowere also Fellowsof theAntiquarian Society. Baker in par- ticularwas activein theaffairs of both the Royal and theAntiquaries and in 1751, whenShipley was planningthe formation of an English Societyof Arts,Baker had offered"to oblige" him "withmaterials fromthe Dublin Society."''4 The "Dublin Societyfor Promoting Hus- bandryand otheruseful arts" had beenfounded in 173 1, and in 1740 had adopteda plan forawarding premiums put forwardby theRev- erendDr. SamuelMadden whichforeshadowed Shipley's Proposals.

11 For a modemreprinting of thetexts see D. G. C. Allan, WilliamShipley (Lon- don, 1968),pp. 42-45. 12 WilliamShipley to BenjaminFranklin, 13 September1755, Am. Phil. Soc. MSS, FranklinPaper 1, 1, 38. 13 Afterinformal beginnings in 1660 or earlierthe Royal Societyreceived a char- ter in 1662; the Antiquariesbegan in 1707 and were incorporatedby 1751. The DublinSociety began in 1731 and was incorporatedin 1750. 14 Allan, WilliamShipley, p. 47.

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In 1750 it was incorporatedby Royal Charterand in the re- ceived grantsfrom the Irish Parliament."5Madden seems to have beendelighted at Shipley'sEnglish version of theDublin Societyand wrotean encouragingletter to himin 1757 stressingthe value ofboth a charterof incorporation-"withoutthat, as I formallyventured to tellyou, your Society is but a rope of sand"-and of Royal patron- age. He recalledhow he had once submitteda plan forgiving prem- iums in England to his "dear and ever honouredMaster the late Princeof Wales, but I am sorryto say," Madden continuedin his letterto Shipley,"though the Prince approved it and myzeal, he told me his Financeswould not bear such a burden,which was fitterfor his Royal Father'sEncouragement (or wordsto thateffect) than his, and so ithad droppedneglected." 16 Throughanother founding member of theSociety of ArtsShipley could have heard of the zeal for artisticand scientificpatronage whichwas stillmaintained at LeicesterHouse and Kew. Dr. Stephen Hales had been Chaplainto thePrincess Dowager of Wales sinceher husband'sdeath in 1751. A veteranscientist and inventorwho had won internationalfame for his writingson theflow of blood in ani- mals and sap in plants,and theuse of ventilatingmachines, he was quitehappy to amusehis royalmistress and her childrenwith land- scapes made of sea mossesand withrefrigeration devices. Both the Princessand "theworthy Lord Bute" tooka real interestin thenew botanicaldiscoveries he showedthem, and his plansfor a "hotgreen house." In 1753 Hales had givenShipley "the greatestencourage- mentto proceed"with the foundation of a Societyof Arts and he was electeda Vice-Presidentof theinfant institution when officers were firstchosen in 1755. He broughtto thenew organizationexperience and knowledgeof everyaspect of the workingsof mid-eighteenth- centurysocieties and theirassociations with government. He was on thecouncil of the Royal Societyand was an honorarymember of the Royal Academyof Sciences at Paris. He had been a Trusteeand CommonCouncil Man of Georgia,and had advisedthe House of Commonson thequestion of rewardingMrs. Stephenswith ?5,000 of public moneyfor her cure of the stone.Hales knew the use of charters,parliamentary grants, and royalpatronage. "Thus you see," 15 M. F. Berry,History of theRoyal Dublin Society(London, 1915), pp. 54-86. 16 SamuelMadden to Shipley,26 November1757, RSAA, Guard Book III, 119. Allan,William Shipley, pp. 16-17. (In quotationsfrom MSS, spellingis modernized.)

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he once told a fellowbotanist, "a king'sor Princess'sword runneth swiftly,as Solomonobserves."'97 Thoughthe minutes of theSociety of Artssay nothingabout ob- taininga charterof incorporation in theyears when Shipley was writ- ing about thematter to Franklinand Madden,they do note there- ceipt in February1756 of "A plan foran Academy,of Painting, Sculptureetc., presentedby Mr. Chere [HenryChere, the sculp- tor]."18 Chereenvisaged what he called "A Royal Academyof Arts" to be regulatedby a charter.He was notthe first to proposesuch an institutionin England; the idea had been frequentlycanvassed amongstthe talentedgroup of artistsassociated with the courtof Frederick,Prince of Wales, the St. Martin'sLane Academy,and Old Slaughter'sCoffee House. Shipleyhad manylinks with this group and we maybe surehe welcomedChere's plan.'9 The Societyagreed to correspond"with the said Academy"should it be founded,and in 1761 proposedto publishthe plan and draftcharter together with its own earlyminutes and otherfoundation documents as a "Historical Register."20That some earlymembers of the Societyconceived the maintainingof an academyof artsas a properextension of itswork ofjudging premiums can be seenfrom an undatedplan drawnup by WilliamChambers for a "Buildingfor the Society of Arts,Manufac- turesand Commerce."Chambers envisaged a block on thescale of his subsequentrebuilding of SomersetHouse. There was to be a columned"Gallery for the candidatesattending the Society,in the mannerof an EgyptianHall"; an oval-shaped"Theatre for the Gen- eral Meetingsof theSociety." Committee Rooms openedout of the Theatreand secretarialoffices out of the Hall. Two long galleries wereto be availablefor the exhibition of paintings and drawings,and formachinery and mechanicalperformances. There were to be spe- cial pavilionsfor sculpture and artist'smodels. Chambers evidently believedthat the Society might receive the government subsidy of "at least?100,000" forbuilding, which Robert Wood, UnderSecretary

17 StephenHales to JohnEllis, 3 February1752, printed in Sir J. E. Smith,Cor- respondenceof Linnaeusand OtherNaturalists (London, 1821), p. 26. For Hales in generalsee A. E. Clark-Kennedy,Stephen Hales, D. D., F. R. S.: An Eighteenth CenturyBiography (Cambridge, 1929). Dr. R. E. Schofieldof Case WesternRe- serveUniversity is engagedon a newlife of Hales in connectionwith the author. 18 RSAA, SocietyMinutes, 19 February1755. 19 Allan, WilliamShipley, p. 17. 20 Wood,History of theRoyal Societyof Arts,p. 232.

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of State,hinted to himin 1759 as likelyfor a nationalAcademy of Arts.21 In thatyear he began theconversion of a largewarehouse in the Strandinto a magnificentif insecuresetting for the Society'smeet- ings.By 1760, accordingto HenryBaker, Chambers had provideda "finelarge new room 51' x 38': 24' highwith a cupola rising16' more,supported by fourfine Corinthian Pillars." However, by Octo- ber 1762 Baker was complaining,"The Societyof Arts is under GreatDifficulties. Their fine room which was builtby Mr. Chambers theKing's Architect, is alreadytumbling down, and thoughstrongly proppedis unsafeto meetin."22 After a numberof falsestarts in ac- quiringbuilding sites and alternativearchitects the Societycame to termswith the Adam brothers(Chambers' rivals) in 1771. The busi- nesslikeJames Adam pointedout that"as theSociety is not a body corporate,and consequentlyhas no Legal Existence,I think'tis reas- onable formy Brothers and me to expectsome securityfor the per- formanceof covenants.. . . My Brothersand me have long been membersof thisSociety, and nobodycould be moresincerely solici- tousfor its success, and thoughthe Society should never fix with us, yetwe cannothelp suggestingthat we shouldbe extremelyhappy to see itfixed somewhere, as we are stronglyof opinion,that an Elegant and establishedResidence would give to theSociety a greaterappear- ance of permanancyand Eclat."23Chambers had by thisdate ob- tainedfrom the King himself"patronage, protection and support"24 fora RoyalAcademy of Arts, and wouldsoon be buildingfor them a headquartersof equal magnificenceto theAdams' Adelphi. KingGeorge III's patronage"in a peculiarmanner [of] thePolite Arts,and also. . . NaturalHistory and Mechanics"was notedin the dedicationof Dossie's Memoirsof Agricultureand otherOeconomi- cal Arts(Vol. I, 1768), a publicationsponsored by the Society of Arts

21 See J.Harris, "A Plan by SirWilliam Chambers for the Society of Arts,"JRSA, 110 (1962), 351. Mr. Harrisquotes a letterin theBute Papers from Robert Wood to Bute,28 October1759. 22 HenryBaker to WilliamArderon, April 1760 and October1762, Victoria and AlbertMuseum, Forster Collection, Baker/Arderon Correspondence, lV, 130, 190 (see D. G. C. Allan,Houses of theRoyal Societyof Arts[London, 1966], pp. 8-9). 23 JamesAdam to theSociety of Arts, 5 November1771, RSAA MS Transactions, 1771; Allan,Houses of theRoyal Societyof Arts,pp. 9-13. 24 Royal AcademyInstrument of Foundationsigned by the King, 10 December 1768(printed, S. C. Hutchison,The Historyof theRoyal Academy, 1768-1968 [Lon- don, 1968],p. 209).

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 20 Dec 2014 16:58:00 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 442 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES andlargely made up ofan accountof its proceedings.25 The dedica- tioncontinued with the hope that "the proceedings of a Societyin- stitutedfor the Encouragement of Arts,Manufactures and Com- merce... willnot be thoughtwholly unworthy ofyour royal notice." The Kingprobably read Dossie's Memoirs and, of course, knew Ar- thurYoung's Annals, where the Society's agricultural work received fulsomepraise.26 He mayhave heard disconcerting stories about the Societyin the 1780s whenit was allowingthe hot-tempered Irish artist,James Barry, to publicizeits aims. The Kingdeclined to give theSociety the trouble which he said would be causedby a royalvisit to inspectBarry's paintings in theSociety's ,Great Room.27 The re- fusalwas probablya deeplyfelt snub, but Barry's portrayal of the "Progressof human culture" showed in onecanvas an an,ry-looking Americaand in anothera portraitof Edmund Burke (Plates 1 and 2), whilehis descriptive account of thepaintings contained strong hintson Irishindependence and thevirtues of Popery.28In 1799, however,the King made amends by allowinga fullaccount of the improvementshe had carriedout on thefarm in theGreat Park at Windsorto be communicatedtothe Transactions of the Society.29 The Societyhad little control of the subject matter of Barry's con- troversialpaintings. He hadconsulted it overonly one of the series- thefifth painting which he entitledthe "Distribution ofPremiums in theSociety of Arts," and even there he introducedthe figure of the Princeof Wales on his own initiative.30 Atfirst this gave general satis- factionand it was proposedto electthe Prince as patronof the So- ciety.But then came the Prince's "marriage" to Mrs.Fitzherbert in December1785, news of which may well have caused the Society to "postpone"the election, for fear of givingfurther offense to the King.31 P. N. Chantreau,the republican eulogist quoted at thebeginning ofthis paper, stressed that the Society of Artshad notbeen estab-

25 Wood,History of theRoyal Societyof Arts,p. 330. 26 Ibid.,p. 117; M. Betham-Edwards,The Autobiographyof ArthurYoung (Lon- don, 1898),p. 112. 27 Earl of Radnorto theSociety, 18 April1783, RSAA, BarryPapers, I, 60. 28 JamesBarry, An Accountof a Series of Picturesin the GreatRoom of the Societyof Arts(London, 1783), pp. 59, 76, 127-28. 29 Transactionsof theSociety of Arts,17 (1799), 120. 30 See my note,"James Barry's Fifth Picture: Some Problemsof Identification," JRSA,120 (1972), 536. 31 See JoannaRichardson, George IV, A Portrait(London, 1966), pp. 49-50.

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PLATE 2. Detail fromJames Barry's fifth painting in the Societyof Arts' MeetingRoom, showingEdmund Burke (left center),with the Duke of Richmond,the Rev. Dr. Hales, and other Vice-Presidentsof the Society. (Reproducedby courtesy of theRoyal Society of Arts.)

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lishedby persons who held thereins of governmentin theirhands.32 Certainlythis applied to the small group of "Noblemen,Clergy, Gentlemenand Merchants"who met at Rawthmell'sCoffee House in March1754. Yet Shipleyhimself had been encouragedto go to Lon- don fromNorthampton in orderto establishthe Society by thePresi- dentof the Board of Trade, Lord Halifax,33and in the fouryears followingthe firstmeeting strong links were formedbetween the membersof the government and theSociety of Arts. On 28 February 1758, HenryBaker wrotean enthusiasticletter describing the prog- ressof what he called "thisSociety":

ThisSociety now consists of near 700 Members,all theMinisters of State, andmost of the chief nobility; and 20 newmembers atthe least come in every week:we canafford to giveaway at least?1,500 a year,and are ready to encourageanything [which] can be proposedto serve the Public.... So much publicspirit is no whereelse to be foundand the Attendance and Care of all itsMembers is almostincredible. I doubt not in a fewyears they will gain and saveMillions to thisNation and its Colonies.34

Baker certainlyexaggerated in sayingthat "all the Ministersof State"were members of the Society of Arts in February1758, though thereindeed were some greatnames in the membershiplist of that time.On it couldbe foundthe First Lord of theTreasury, the Duke of Newcastle,35the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Henry Bilson Legge,36the Secretariesof State,William Pitt37 and Lord Holder- nesse,38the First Lord of theAdmiralty, Lord Anson,39and theAt- torneyGeneral, Charles Pratt (later better known as Lord Chancellor Camden).40The Earls of Chesterfield,Lichfield, and Harcourt,Sir GeorgeSavile, Sir FrancisDashwood, Lord Willoughbyof Parham, the Duke of Portland,the Marquess of Rockingham,and Charles Townshend41had been electedbefore Baker wrote his letter,and by

32 Chantreau,Voyage dans les troisroyaumes, pp. 174-75. 33 Allan,William Shipley, p. 49. 34 Bakerto Arderon,28 February1758, Baker/Arderon Correspondence, IV, 41. 35 Elected15 February1758. 36 Elected 15 February1758. 37 Elected15 February1758. 38 Elected22 February1758. 39 Elected 1 February1758. 40 Elected1 February1758. 41 Elected16 April1755; 31 March,14 April,14 April1756; 23 March,23 April, 11 May, 1 June,14 December1757.

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November1761 the Dukes of Richmondand Grafton,the Earl of Halifax,the Duke of Devonshire,Lord North,and theEarl of Bute had joinedthe Society.42 Thesegrandees generally subscribed more than the customary two guineasannual subscription, and Lord Bute,in particular,is remem- beredfor his exceptional donation of ?40 insteadof the usual twenty guineas required "for perpetualmembership."43 Six of them- Lords Lichfield,Willoughby, and Harcourt,Sir George Savile, the Duke ofRichmond, and theEarl (afterwardsDuke) ofNorthumber- land-served as Vice-Presidentsof the Society. Others showed favors to theSociety by virtueof theoffices they held in thestate. As Post- masterGeneral, Sir FrancesDashwood (createdLord Le Despencer in 1766) orderedthe premium lists of the Societyto be distributed freeof charge to all thepost offices of GreatBritain in 1772 and suc- ceedingyears.44 Lord Halifax,as Presidentof the Board of Trade, gave countenanceto theSociety's work for the colonies. He had been proposedas a memberof the Society of Arts by JohnPownall, Secre- taryof theBoard, who was himselfan activemember of longstand- ing.45Pownall served as chairmanof theSociety's own "Committee of Coloniesand Trade" from1761 to 1765. He is an exampleof the many administrativeofficials who joined the Society-for besides "The PlantationOffice," which he gave as hisaddress, other members are listedin 1764, forinstance, as being at "The Treasury,""The Secretaryof State'sOffice," "The Admiralty,""The Navy Office," "The War Office,""The Pay Office,""The Mint,"and the"General Post Office."46 BesidesLord Halifax,fourteen of the Lords ofTrade had become membersof the Society by the time the Board was abolishedin 1782, one of thembeing the Earl of Hillsborough,Halifax's successor as President.4Charles Jenkinson, Lord Hawkesbury(later Earl of Liv- erpool),the President of therevived Board of Trade, joined theSo- cietyin 1789 and was electedone ofits Vice-Presidents in 1791; his 42 Elected 22 February,8 March 1758; 9 April 1760; 21 January,29 July,21 October1761. 43 Wood,History of theRoyal Societyof Arts,p. 20. 44 RSAA, SocietyMinutes, 20 May 1772; 14 April1779. 45 Elected 31 December1755. 46 RSAA, MS SubscriptionBook, 1764-1772. 47 For therelationship between the Society of Artsand Board of Trade see below and my article,"The Societyof Artsand the Committeeof the PrivyCouncil for Trade, 1786-1815,"JRSA, 109 (1960), 388.

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obituaryin theTransactions of the Society mentioned "the very great attentionwhich his Lordshipever paid to the interestsof the com- merceof thiscountry, which had givenhim a peculiarclaim to the respectof theSociety," and the "longperiod" during which he had enjoyedHis Majesty'sconfidence.48 Shipley'sWelsh correspondent Charles Powell had hoped thatthe foundationof a societyto encouragearts, manufactures, and com- mercewould "not onlyunite in one commonBond all real Patriots ... butwill in time,I hope utterlyextirpate all Partydistinctions, the Bar of Societyand Civil Government."49Certainly the membership of theSociety embraced a wide spectrumof politicalattitudes rang- ingfrom Thomas Hollis' "Republican"eccentricities to Dr. Johnson's robustloyalty.50 Apart from the American troubles, which we know dividedthe members, we cannotsay whateffect the political storms of theperiod had on theSociety.51 In publicit was alwaysimpartial and we mayassume that the Members of Parliamentwho tookpart in its activitiessaw it as just anotherworthy cause-like thesupport of charitiesand publicworks-providing them with "rational enter- tainment"and theesteem of theirfellows. Shipley,it maybe recalled,had expectedboth a charterof incor- porationand "grantsfrom Parliament sufficient to promoteby Prem- iumsThings of theUttermost Public Utility,"and he was probably fortifiedin thisbelief by theease withwhich the Society obtained an act modifyingthe collectionof titheson madderin 1755, and the stirwhich Charles Whitworth and otherM.P.'s made about the So- ciety'saffairs during the first five years of itsexistence.52 Though no directfinancial aid was forthcomingfrom Parliament to the Society ofArts, a contributionof ?2,500 was votedin 1764 to CaptainJohn Blake's London fish-supplyproject following on the?3,500 already paid by the Society.53More significantwas the influenceof Parlia- menton thepractices and policiesof the Society.

48 Transactionsof theSociety of Arts,27 (1809). i. 49 Allan, WilliamShipley, p. 17. 50 See J.L. Abbott,"Thomas Hollis and theSociety, 1756-74," JRSA, 119 (1971), 711, and Abbott,"Dr. Johnsonand theSociety," ibid., 115 (1967),486. 51See JoshuaSteele's attitude to Franklin'srights as a memberin October1778, citedin M. H. Combe Martin,"Joshua Steele," Pt 2, JRSA,117 (1969), 133. 52 For madder,see Wood, Historyof the Royal Societyof Arts;for Whitworth, see Allan,William Shipley, p. 58. 53See WalterM. Stern,"Fish Suppliesfor London in the 1760s: An Experiment in OverlandTransport," JRSA, 118 (1970), 360, 433.

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Propositionslaid beforethe Societyby its membershad to pass throughstages of debate,similar to thoseof a bill in the Houses of Parliament.The Society'smeeting room was said by AndrewKippis to be "the place wheremany persons choose to try,or to display, theiroratorical abilities. Dr. Goldsmith,I remember,made an at- temptat a speech,but was obligedto sitdown in confusion.I once heardDr. Johnsonspeak there, upon a subjectrelative to mechanics, witha propriety,perspicuity and energywhich excited general ad- miration."Johnson, himself, told Sir William Scott that "several times"when he triedto speak in theSociety of Artsand Scienceshe had "foundhe could notget on."54 In 1758 the Societyapproved the following"Order of Proceed- ings":

At allMeetings when any Member speaketh, he shallstand up, and address himselfto thePresident or Chairman, and the rest shall remain silent. When twoor moreoffer to speaktogether, the President is to determinewho shall speakfirst. To beginupon Business at sixo'Clock precisely. The Minutes of LastMeeting to be read.Candidates to be ballotedfor; during which Time theBusiness of the Evening is to be proceededon. The Minutesof the last Meetingto be reada secondTime; and no otherMatter to be proposedtill thesame have been consider'd. NewMatter to be consider'dof. Lettersto be read. Memorandumstobe movedfor. The Namesof the Candidates who have been proposed this Evening to be read.No Meetingis to be adjourneduntfl the Majority of theMembers present,upon the Question put, do agreethereto.65

In 1764, whenthe Societyreceived a "letterfrom certain Fish- mongerscontaining an indecentExpression in theBeginning of it," a motionwas solemnlycarried in the House of Commonsmanner: "That the Letter ... be burntby the Porter . . . Agreed to, and the same was accordinglyburnt."56 However, this pseudoparliamentary methodof carrying on theSociety's affairs had certaindisadvantages. JohnEllis, colonial agentand botanist,suggested among otherre- formshe draftedthat the meetings should be limitedto two hours. r4 BiographiaBrittannia, 2nd ed. (London,1789), IV, 266; Boswell'sLife of John- son (Oxford,1934-1950), II, 39; see Abbott,"Dr. Johnsonand theSociety," p. 395. r5 Rules and Ordersof theSociet ... of Arts(London, 1758), p. 12. 56 RSAA, SocietyMinutes, 1 February1764.

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His statementof complaintis veryrevealing. He had often,he said, attendedthe meetings of theSociety and "too manytimes with great regretbeen obligedto depart,without hearing anything said, that mightbe of use to thepublic; and have seen thattime which is pre- cious to people in business,taken up altogetherin cavallingabout trifles,and spentin settlingthe most trivial points of ceremonyand economy.I have at othertimes to myamazement seen a partymade to carrya point,which has afterwardsproved to be a uselessexpence to theSociety."57 Similarcomplaints were made in a letterwritten in replyto a cir- cularabout unpaid subscriptions in 1776:

For thefirst years that I hadthe honour of being a memberI paid my sub- scriptionsregularly and attended as oftenas I could;on those occasions I saw, or thoughtI saw, that the Society's concerns were made a job ofby a little pratingDoctor, whose voice was loudest on everyoccasion. At oneof these meetingsa Friend of mine, a member,happened to differin opinionfrom thisOracle, on whichhe gavehim a challengein the face of the whole com- pany:now as I didnot find myself disposed to venture my life with a petulant manwho seemed determined tocut every man's throat who differed from him in opinion,and as I couldnot always fall in withhis notions I thoughtit both safestand best to withdraw from the Society with a wholeskin.58

Here,we are veryclose to Smollett'sworld. In theExpedition of HumphryClinker, Mr. Bramble'snephew writes: "We are become membersof theSociety for the encouragement of Artsand have as- sisted at some of theirdeliberations, which were conductedwith equal spiritand sagacity.My uncle is extremelyfond of theInstitu- tion,which will certainlybe productiveof greatadvantages to the public, if fromits democraticalform, it does not degenerateinto cabal and corruption."59Smollett's misgivings would have been con- firmedhad he attendedthe Society in the autumnof 1769 whenin- ternalstrife competed with the affairs of John Wilkes for space in the

57 LinnaeanSociety MS, draftletter from to Lord Folkestone,President of the Societyof Arts,ca. 1756-1760,printed, S. Savage, Calendarof Ellis Mss (London,1948), p. 86. Dr. R. A. Rauschenbergof Ohio Universityis preparinga studyof JohnEllis and theSociety. 58RSAA, Loose Archives,A8/30. 59T. Smollett,The Expeditionof HumphryClinker (1771) quoted in Wood, Historyof the Royal Societyof Arts,p. 18. See G. S. Rousseau, "'No Boasted Academyof Christendom: Smollett and theSociety of Arts,"JRSA, 121 (1973), 468.

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London newspapers.60The vacancyin the Secretaryshipcaused by thedeath of Dr. PeterTempleman on 23 September1769 was to be filledby a ballotin whichthe entire membership of theSociety was entitledto participate.The electionwas as hotlycontested as anyfor a seatin Parliament.For amongstthe candidates was a manwho was himselfwell acquaintedwith political life. This was JohnStewart, sometimesecret agent for the Earl of Shelbumeand at thisdate at- tachedto theinterests of the Marquess of Rockingham and on terms ofpersonal friendship with Edmund Burke. To win,Stewart would have had to overcomethree opponents. The mostformidable was the ultimatelysuccessful Samuel More, an in- fluentialmember of the Society, who had assistedDr. Templemanin themanagement of the secretarial business, and whowas, as his sub- sequentrecord revealed, admirably qualified for the office. The others wereTimothy Brecknock, a lawyerwith some literary reputation and LemuelDole Nelme,a Board ofTrade officialwith a specialinterest in linguistics.These werelightweights who would presentno prob- lemsto More and Stewart. The candidatescanvassed for votes in advertisementswhich they insertedin the London newspapers.Their partisansextended the campaignby writingletters to theeditors or by insertingannounce- mentsof their own. John Stewart was subjectedto a prolongedattack in whichhis attemptto pack themembership of theSociety was ex- posed to thepublic in a savage mannerand his Scottishnationality heldup to ridicule. Afterthree months of turmoil the election was held on 23 January 1770. It began at 11 A.M. and lastedfor five hours. Scrutineers were electedby showof hands at the startof themeeting; counting took place between4 P.M. and 8 P.M. The scrutineersthen announced:

Thatthey had proceeded to openthe Ballot Glass and found the lists to be 487 innumber as follows: ForMr. S. More...... 292 Mr.J. Stewart . . . . . 192 Mr.Brecknock . . . . . 1 Irregularlists. 2

Whereuponthe meetingconcluded with an announcementfrom 60 See myaccount of the dispute over the Society's secretaryship, JRSA, 110 (1964), 715 ff.,and HistoryStudies, 2 (1968).

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the Vice-Presidentin the Chair thatMr. Samuel More was "duly ElectedSecretary." Thus endedthe contest which had done so much to justifySmollett's worries about the Society's "democratical form." So welland forso longdid SamuelMore dischargehis office that his- toriansof the Society have not only neglected the story of his fight for thesecretaryship but have givento histenure the symmetrical dating 1769-1799, forgettingthe troubled interregnum when his succession musthave seemedfar from certain. Fortunately More's lengthysec- retaryshipminimized such scandal as a tolerantage mighthave at- tachedto theSociety. Soon afterhis triumph a correspondentwished him"all thejoy and happinesshe can possiblyexpect in beingelected secretary,to themost respectable Society in theworld." 61 The premiumsand bounties offered by the Society of Arts followed closelythe established pattern of commerciallegislation. Charles II's Hemp Act was read aloud at a meetingof theSociety and theSecre- tarywas oftenasked to produceCustoms figures so thatthe Society could assistin thenational struggle to ensurea favorablebalance of trade.62In theNorth American colonies the Society stimulated royal governorsand coloniallegislatures to encourageeconomic develop- ment."Influenced by the tenorand spiritof sundryacts of Parlia- mentsubsisting for more than a centurypast," the Society-so wrote SamuelMore as editorof Volume One ofthe Transactions-was "of opinionthat to encouragein the BritishColonies the cultureand produce of such commoditiesas we must otherwiseimport from Foreignnations, would be moreadvantageous to thenavigation and commerceof thekingdom than if thelike thingscould be raisedin theisland of GreatBritain."63 Even moretraditional objectives were in themind of the authorof a "Memorial"entitled "Considerations of theimprovement of theManufacture of Wool in GreatBritain," whichalso citedMore's introduction to thefirst volume of the Trans- 61J. Reynolds to SamuelMore, 18 March 1770,RSAA, G. B., A, 135. More,who had been trainedas an apothecary,was well knownto theWedgwoods as an indus- trialchemist. See J. K. des Fontaines,"The Societyand the Early Wedgwoods," JRSA,119 (1971),328. 62 The Act was 15 Car. 2 cap. 15. See RSAA, SocietyMinutes, 9 February1757. At thevery first meeting of theSociety, Shipley was "desiredto searchthe Books of entriesat theCustom House" in regardto smalt,zaffer, and madderimports, ibid., 22 March1754. 63 "Observationson theEffects of RewardsBestowed in theClass of Coloniesand Trade," Transactions of the Society of Arts, 1 (1783), 23. For the Society's coopera- tionwith the governmentof Virginiasee R. L. Hilldrup,"A Campaignto Promote the Prosperityof ColonialVirginia," JRSA, 108 (1960), 940.

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actionsand was copied twicein manuscriptby him between1783 and 1787.64 Afterpraising the mechanization of the cottonindustry, the Me- morialpointed out thatmechanical wool spinningwould be even morevaluable to thenation. As soon as foreignrivals obtained the machinerythey would import cotton from the East and spinit, but as wool was England's "staplecommodity" a mechanizedwoolen in- dustrywould never be affectedby foreigncompetition. Wool smug- glingwould be reduced,the value ofland increased,and theprice of provisionsdiminished, all time-honoredMercantilist objectives. The Memorialsuggested that as "thefirst hint" of mechanical cotton spin- ninghad come fromthe Society of Arts,it wouldhave been appro- priatefor the Society to offera substantialpremium for mechanical wool spinning.But theSociety's financial reserves being limited, Par- liament,which had alreadyrewarded the discoveryof an effective meansof determininglongitude, was urgedto vote a sufficientsum and thecompetitors were to submittheir machines to theinvestiga- tionsof theSociety, "assisted by theadvice of otherable Mechanics and Manufacturers."It was true,concluded the Memorial, that "the Parliamenthas alreadybestowed rewards on ingeniouspersons for theirdiscoveries but no objecthitherto brought before them, whether consideredwith respect to magnitudeor utility,has been in any de- gree comparablewith this now mentioned.The rewardtherefore shouldbe proportionedaccordingly and, ifit succeeds,there is nota doubtbut the staple trade of these Kingdoms will receive from it such benefitas willeternize the memory of thosewho proposedor in any degreecontributed to thebringing it to perfection." One copy of theMemorial has been preservedwith the Society's Archivesand anotherwith the LiverpoolPapers in theBritish Mu- seum.Both copies are in SamuelMore's handwriting,but he cannot be establishedas its author.65Its stylelacks the facilityand grace whichhad becomehabitual to himafter years of writing minutes and letterson behalfof theSociety. Most likelyit was one of manypro- posals whichwere addressedto him as Secretary.He decidedto re- gardit as a requestfor Parliamentary action and to sendit to George 64 See myarticle, "A ProposedNational Reward for Mechanical Wool Spinning," JRSA,110 (1962), 529. 65RSAA, Loose Archives,A13/45; British Museum, Add. MSS 38221,fols. 105-8.

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Dempster,a Memberof Parliamentwho was knownfor his interest in economicmatters. A shortletter from Dempster confirms that More had senthim a copy of theMemorial in March 1785: "Your Memorialis perfect.I can neitheradd to it norretrench a word,and shall make properuse of it whenthe House meets."Dempster did not raisethe question in Parliament,and two yearslater More cor- respondedabout the Memorial with Lord Hawkesbury,President of theBoard of Trade. Thoughno resultsappear to have followedfrom Hawkesbury's in- terestin mechanicalwool spinning,he and hisdepartment continued to correspondwith the Society of Arts on variouseconomic matters.66 On threeoccasions these exchanges between the Society of Artsand theBoard of Trade resultedin legislation.In 1790 the dutyon the importationof WestIndian cashewgum, a productuseful in dyeing and dressingblack silk,was lowered.In 1791 theduty on imported tannedgoatskins was raisedand thaton rawgoatskins removed, thus encouragingthe production of embossed leather in England.In 1796 theduty on importedblack lead was reducedby meansof an Act for "themore effectual preserving and encouragingthe Manufacture of Black Lead MeltingPots." In each case Parliamentwas responding to thewishes of the Society of Arts expressed through the medium of the Board of Trade, whilethe vigorousimplementation of existing Acts of Parliamentfor encouraging the supplyof hemp-"so abso- lutelyrequisite both for our defenseand trade"-followedon close collaborationbetween the Societyand theBoard in the yearsfrom 1786 to 1789 and againin 1805.67 Duringthe first half century of its existence the Society of Arts was associatedthrough its membership and itspolicies with the executive and legislativebranches of government.Its foundingmembers and guidingofficers sought to bringabout directstate support for their objectives.Had theybeen successfulthey might well have criticized encroachmentson theirfreedom in a way whichwould have been impossibleon the Continent.But it is to misreadtheir intentions to imaginethat just because theywere Englishmen they necessarily dis-

66 See Allan, "The Societyof Artsand the Committeeof the PrivyCouncil for Trade, 1786-1815,"Pts. 2 and 3, JRSA,109 (1961), 629, 807. 67 See JRSA, 109 (1961), 389-94, and R. Dossie, Memoirs of Agriculture and Other Oeconomical Art, Vol I (London, 1768), 51.

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The RoyalSociety of Arts

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