Interventions to Improve Influenza, Pneumococcal Polysaccharide, And

Interventions to Improve Inﬂuenza, Pneumococcal Polysaccharide, and Hepatitis B Vaccination Coverage Among High-Risk Adults A Systematic Review Serigne M. Ndiaye, PhD, David P. Hopkins, MD, MPH, Abigail M. Shefer, MD, Alan R. Hinman, MD, MPH, Peter A. Briss, MD, MPH, Lance Rodewald, MD, Bayo Willis, MPH, Task Force on Community Preventive Services

Overview alone. Of the 35 qualifying studies, 23 studies evaluated interventions implemented in combination. We found nfluenza, pneumococcal infections, and hepatitis strong evidence of effectiveness in increasing targeted B, three vaccine-preventable diseases, cause signif- vaccination coverage when interventions to enhance icant morbidity and mortality in the United States. I access to vaccination services were combined with pro- Rates of morbidity and mortality are higher among vider- or system-based interventions and/or interven- adults with certain medical conditions, occupational tions to increase client or community demand for exposures, or risk behaviors. Vaccination coverage rates vaccinations. in these target populations remain low and below These reviews form the basis of the recommenda- national health objectives. tions by the Task Force on Community Preventive Using methods previously developed for the Guide to Services presented elsewhere in this supplement. Evi- Community Preventive Services for reviews of universally dence reviews and recommendations can assist decision recommended vaccines (those that should be adminis- makers in selecting and implementing effective inter- tered to all people in a given age group), we conducted ventions to address gaps in targeted vaccination cover- systematic reviews to evaluate the evidence on effective- age for influenza, pneumococcal polysaccharide, and ness of 11 interventions to improve vaccination cover- hepatitis B vaccines. age in targeted populations (those with risk factors that make them particularly susceptible to a disease). Elec- tronic databases and reference lists of retrieved papers Introduction were searched for all relevant citations in the period Influenza, pneumococcal disease, and hepatitis 1980 to August 2000. More than 2450 citations were B—three vaccine-preventable diseases—cause signifi- screened; of these 35 studies met the quality criteria cant morbidity and mortality in the United States. and became part of the review. Determinations of Factors that contribute to infection, illness, and death intervention effectiveness were based primarily on mea- vary by disease and include medical conditions, occu- surements of change in vaccination coverage rates for pational exposures, and high-risk behaviors. Despite influenza, pneumococcal polysaccharide, and hepatitis the availability of effective vaccines, vaccination cover- B vaccination. age rates remain low among adults at high risk for Reviews identified strong evidence of effectiveness of infection or complications of infection. Indications for provider reminder systems, when implemented alone, vaccination are provided in Table 1.1–7 in increasing targeted vaccination coverage. We found insufficient evidence, however, to determine the effectiveness of all other interventions when implemented Influenza Each year in the United States, influenza causes an estimated 114,000 excess hospitalizations8 and 36,000 From the National Immunization Program (Ndiaye, Shefer, Rode- 9 wald, Willis), and Division of Prevention Research and Analytic deaths. Morbidity and mortality rates are high among Methods, Epidemiology Program Office (Hopkins, Briss), Centers for adults aged Ն65, and among younger people who have Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; and Task Force for medical conditions, such as diabetes or lung or heart Child Survival and Development (Hinman), Atlanta, Georgia The names and affiliations of the Task Force members are listed at disease, that place them at risk for complications from the front of this supplement and at www.thecommunityguide.org. the disease.10–12 In one study, case fatality rates among Address correspondence to: David P. Hopkins, Community adults aged 44 to 64 years with two or more risk Guide Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 13,14 Buford Highway, MS K-95, Chamblee, GA 30341. E-mail: conditions were estimated at 377/100,000. In com- [email protected]. parison, case fatality rates for adults Ն65 without other

248 Am J Prev Med 2005;28(5S) 0749-3797/05/$–see front matter © 2005 American Journal of Preventive Medicine • Published by Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.02.016 Table 1. Indications for influenza, pneumococcal polysaccharide, and hepatitis B vaccines1–7 Universal recommendationsa Targeted indicationsb Influenza Adults aged Ն50 years Medical indications: People with heart disease, lung disease, diabetes, renal dysfunction, hemoglobinopathies, immunosuppression, and/or people living in nursing homes and other chronic care facilities. Children aged 6 to 23 months Children and adolescents (aged 6 months to 18 years) who are receiving long-term aspirin therapy and, therefore, might be at risk for experiencing Reye syndrome after influenza infection. Occupational indications: Healthcare workers and those who provide key community services. Other indications: People working or living with at-risk people. Household contacts and out-of-home caregivers of children aged 0 to 23 months. Students and other people in institutional settings. Women who will be pregnant during the influenza season. Travelers to areas where influenza activity exists or when traveling among people from areas of the world with current influenza activity. Anyone who wishes to reduce the likelihood of becoming ill with influenza. Pneumococcal polysaccharide Adults aged Ն65 years Medical indications: People who have chronic illness including cardiac or pulmonary diseases, chronic liver Note: The heptavalent disease, alcoholism, diabetes mellitus, or cerebrospinal fluid leaks. People who have other medical risk factors pneumococcal conjugate vaccine such as anatomic or functional asplenia, or sickle cell disease. People who are immunocompromised including is recommended for all children those with HIV infection, leukemia, lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease, multiple myeloma, generalized malignancy, aged 2 to 23 months (and for chronic renal failure, or nephritic syndrome. People receiving immunosuppressive chemotherapy (including certain children aged 24 to 59 corticosteroids). Organ or bone marrow transplant recipients. Candidates for or recipients of cochlear implants. months) Pregnant women with high-risk conditions should be vaccinated if not done previously. Other indications: People living in special environments or social settings (including Alaska Natives and certain American Indian populations). Hepatitis B Children and adolescents Medical indications: Hemodialysis patients, patients who receive clotting-factor concentrates. Occupational indications: Healthcare workers and public safety workers who have exposure to blood in the

mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am workplace, people training in schools of medicine, dentistry, nursing, laboratory technology, and other allied health professions. Behavioral indications: Injecting drug users, people with more than one sex partner in the previous 6 months, people with recently acquired STDs, all clients in STD clinics, and men who have sex with men. Other indications: Household contacts and sex partners of people with chronic HBV infection, clients and staff of institutions for the developmentally disabled, international travelers who will be in countries with high or intermediate prevalence of chronic HBV infection for Ͼ6 months, inmates of correctional facilities. aUniversally recommended vaccination means that all people in a given age group should receive the vaccine. bTargeted indications include medical, occupational, behavioral, or other risk factors that increase susceptibility to the disease and identify people who should receive the appropriate vaccine. 249 risk conditions were estimated at 9/100,000.14,15 The Hepatitis B number of people aged Ͻ65 years with at-risk medical An estimated 1.25 million people in the United States conditions for influenza-related complications was re- are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV),29 cently estimated to be 12 million adults aged 50 to 64, of whom 5000 die of HBV-related cirrhosis or liver 18 million adults aged 18 to 49, and 8 million 30–32 16 cancer annually. Risk conditions for hepatitis B children. include occupational exposures and risk behaviors such Annual vaccination is recommended for people who as injection drug use and multiple sex partners. Al- are at risk (Table 1), especially during the winter though reported cases of HBV declined by 76% in the months from October through March. Influenza vacci- period 1987–1998,33 the annual number of new infec- nation is effective in preventing hospitalization and tions remains significant, with 73,000 cases estimated in 17 death in people with high-risk medical conditions. 2003.32 18 The vaccine is effective in people infected with HIV. Indications and recommendations for hepatitis B Among elderly people not in nursing homes, the vaccination are shown in Table 1. Despite the availabil- effectiveness of the vaccine varies between 30% and ity of an effective vaccine, vaccination coverage rates 70% in preventing hospitalization from pneumonia remain low in most populations with targeted indica- and influenza.19–21 tions. In one study, for example, only 9% of men who Influenza coverage rates among adults aged Ͻ65 have sex with men (MSM) had serologic evidence of years with risk conditions remain low, as noted by the hepatitis B vaccination in 1998.34 Among injection drug Institute of Medicine in its 2002 report.22 In 2000, users attending a sexually transmitted disease clinic in vaccination coverage for adults aged 18 to 64 with San Diego from 1998 to 2001, vaccination coverage high-risk conditions was 33%, well below the Healthy with hepatitis B was only 6%.35 HBV infection is also an People 2010 goal of 60%.23 Among high-risk adults aged occupational exposure associated with both routine 50 to 64, coverage rates were only 44%.8 and emergency care delivered by health, rescue, and law enforcement personnel. With the initiation of routine vaccination, the annual number of HBV infec- Pneumococcal Disease tions among healthcare workers declined dramatically, 36 In the United States, about 3500 people aged Յ65 die from 17,000 in 1983 to 400 in 1995. every year as a result of pneumococcal disease.24 Pneu- Over the last decade, improvements in adult vaccina- mococcal infections cause an estimated 3000 cases of tion coverage have been unevenly distributed. Al- meningitis, 50,000 cases of bacteremia, and 500,000 though coverage rates for influenza and pneumococcal cases of pneumonia annually.2 Risk conditions for polysaccharide vaccines have steadily improved among Ն invasive pneumococcal disease include chronic illness adults aged 65 years, improvements in vaccination and cardiac and pulmonary diseases.10,11,25 In one coverage in younger adults with risk conditions have been less dramatic and coverage rates remain low.22 report, case fatality rates among adults aged 18 to 64 Similarly, significant increases in vaccination coverage with risk conditions was 12.1% compared with a case- for HBV among healthcare workers have not been fatality rate of 5.4% for adults without risk conditions.24 matched in harder to reach populations that engage in Recommendations for pneumococcal polysaccharide high-risk behaviors. To remedy these gaps, communi- vaccination are provided in Table 1. Efficacy rates for ties, healthcare systems, and providers may consider the current 23-valent vaccine in studies of immunocom- implementing or adding one or more interventions to petent adults range from 65% to 75% in the prevention 26,27 improve vaccination coverage among adults at high of pneumococcal bacteremia and meningitis. De- risk. spite the efficacy of the vaccine, vaccination coverage As part of the Guide to Community Preventive Services remains low for younger adults (aged 18 to 64) with risk (The Community Guide), this report provides a systematic conditions. National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) review of the evidence on effectiveness of interventions data from 2002 indicate that only 19.1% of high-risk implemented to increase coverage rates for vaccines adults aged 18 to 64 have ever received the pneumo- indicated for adult populations (aged 18 to 64 years) coccal polysaccharide vaccine (NHIS, 2002, unpub- with risk conditions, occupational exposures, or risk lished data). behaviors. As a group, we will refer to these as targeted Universal and targeted indications for influenza and vaccines and to efforts to improve coverage as targeted pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccination are similar, vaccination interventions. (These same vaccines—influ- and combined or coordinated efforts to improve vacci- enza, pneumococcal polysaccharide, and hepatitis nation coverage rates for both are possible. In one B—are appropriate for use in the general population. study, receipt of both vaccines was associated with a The difference between universally recommended and 72% reduction in hospitalization and an 82% reduction targeted vaccines is the indicated use, not the vaccines.) in mortality among people with chronic lung disease.28 Although other vaccines have targeted indications

250 American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 28, Number 5S (e.g., the hepatitis A vaccine is recommended for ● Interventions to enhance access to vaccination ser- people with chronic liver disease), this review focused vices. These efforts reduce the barriers clients may on the evidence on effectiveness of interventions to encounter in attempting to receive vaccinations. increase targeted vaccination coverage for inﬂuenza, ● Provider- or system-based interventions. These inter- pneumococcal polysaccharide, and hepatitis B. This ventions provide information or deliver timely re- report is designed to complement the initial set of minders or periodic feedback to healthcare provid- systematic reviews of interventions to improve vaccina- ers with the intent of increasing provider counseling tion coverage for universally recommended vaccina- about, and administration of, appropriate vaccinations in children, adolescents, and adults.37,38 tions to clients.

Conceptual Approach Methods We adopted the conceptual approach developed for The general methods for conducting systematic reviews the Community Guide reviews of evidence on interven- for the Community Guide have been described in detail tions to improve vaccination coverage for universally elsewhere.39 The specific methods used to conduct recommended vaccines.37 The logic framework shown these systematic reviews, and to organize the evidence in Figure 1 provides a concise depiction of the strategy on effectiveness into a menu format recommendation and intervention options for increasing vaccination from the Task Force, are presented elsewhere in this coverage in populations at high risk. The conceptual volume.40 This section briefly describes pertinent gen- (strategic) categories for interventions directly relevant eral and specific methods employed in this systematic to the conduct and conclusions of this review are: review. ● Interventions to increase client or community de- A systematic review development team (made up of mand for vaccines and vaccination services. These Community Guide researchers and methodologists, Task efforts provide or disseminate information, advice, Force members, and other subject matter specialists) or both to clients, to increase and improve their was recruited to provide oversight and subject matter efforts to seek appropriate vaccination. expertise. As noted above, the conceptual approach

Figure 1. Logic framework depicting the conceptual approach used in these reviews. Adapted from: Briss PA, et al.37

Am J Prev Med 2005;28(5S) 251 and the interventions selected for review were adopted or improve their demand for and receipt of vaccina- from the preceding systematic review of interventions tions. In this category, we reviewed the following single- to increase coverage for universally recommended vac- component interventions: clinic-based client educa- cines.37 The team searched for published studies in 12 tion, client reminder systems, community-wide electronic databases and in reference lists from re- education, client or family incentives, and vaccination trieved papers. Studies were included if (1) they were requirements. We found insufficient evidence to deter- published between 1980 and August 2001 as a journal mine whether any of these interventions alone in- article in English; (2) they evaluated an intervention to creases targeted vaccine coverage. deliver influenza, pneumococcal polysaccharide, or hepatitis B vaccinations in a population at risk, or Clinic-based client education when implemented included information on risk populations (subsets) as alone. Clinic-based education interventions provide part of a larger vaccination effort; and (3) outcome information to clients served in specific medical or measurements included changes in vaccination public health clinic settings. Information can help coverage. clients identify their risk status, indications for spe- Two reviewers abstracted identified studies,41 and cific vaccines, and the potential benefits of vaccina- differences in assessment of study design and quality of tion. Education can also reduce or remove barriers execution were resolved by consensus of the team. The by changing negative attitudes and beliefs about primary outcome measures used to evaluate interven- vaccination. Education efforts used a variety of for- tion effectiveness were changes in vaccination coverage mats, including letters, newsletters, brochures, and in the at-risk study population (or subset). Results posters. including a median effect measurement and the range Effectiveness. We identified two studies evaluating the are summarized in the text of the review (below) and effectiveness of client education when implemented are displayed graphically where appropriate. alone.42,43 Details of the two qualifying studies are Evidence on effectiveness is presented below in two provided in the Appendix and at www.thecommuni- sections. In the first section, we review the evidence on tyguide.org/vaccine. Both studies evaluated the im- effectiveness for each intervention when implemented plementation of brochures. One study42 evaluated alone. In the second section, we review the evidence on two versions of health information given to health- effectiveness for interventions when implemented in care providers and observed increases of 2 and 10 combination. For our review of multicomponent inter- percentage points, respectively, in the proportion ventions, we developed additional methods for organiz- screened or vaccinated for hepatitis B. The second ing, evaluating, and displaying the evidence on effec- study evaluated the impact on subsequent receipt of tiveness. These methods are described in detail in the pneumococcal vaccination of an educational hand- accompanying article.40 In short, studies of multicom- out given to patients at triage.43 Vaccination rates ponent interventions were reorganized into combina- among patients with at-risk medical conditions im- tions across categories of vaccination demand and proved by 16.1 percentage points compared with delivery. Results were summarized and evaluated ac- patients who were not provided the information at cording to the evidence on effectiveness within each triage. category combination. Category combinations with ev- Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 avail- idence of effectiveness were then presented in a menu able studies provided insufficient evidence to deter- format identifying effective combinations and specific mine the effectiveness of clinic-based client education interventions within each category. The menu format when implemented alone in increasing targeted vacci- provides a new option for presenting conclusions on nation coverage in adult populations at high risk. effectiveness regarding evidence from multicomponent Evidence was insufficient because we found only two studies. studies, with fair quality of execution, that evaluated this intervention when implemented alone. The evidence on effectiveness of clinic-based client education Results Part 1: Reviews of Evidence for Interventions when combined with additional interventions is re- to Increase Targeted Vaccine Coverage When viewed below (see Results Part 2). Implemented Alone Interventions to Increase Community or Client Client reminder systems when implemented alone. Client Demand for Vaccinations reminder systems provide information or advice directly to individual clients to inform or encourage them Interventions to increase demand for vaccination ser- to obtain an appropriate vaccination. Examples of vices provide information, advice, or both to individual client reminders include letters or postcards sent from clients or to at-risk community members. Information a provider office, healthcare system, or insurance car- and advice delivered to individuals at risk may increase rier. Frequently, the content of client reminders over-

252 American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 28, Number 5S laps with client education interventions. In this review, for retailers) or to avoid penalties (e.g., being excluded we categorized interventions as client reminders if the from participating in a program).45 intervention (1) identified and notified individual cli- Effectiveness. We identified one study evaluating the ents at high risk and (2) included an individual recom- effectiveness of client incentives when implemented mendation about vaccination from the client’s health- alone.45 Details of the qualifying study are provided in care provider or system. the Appendix and at www.thecommunityguide.org/ Effectiveness. We identified one study evaluating the vaccine. This study evaluated the implementation of effectiveness of client reminder systems when imple- monetary incentives ($10.00) to increase hepatitis B mented alone.44 Details of the qualifying study are vaccination coverage among recruited injection drug provided in the Appendix and at www.thecommuni- users and observed an improvement over baseline of 35 tyguide.org/vaccine. In this study, patients identified at percentage points. high risk for influenza received a postcard with a Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 evi- personal message signed by their physician. At follow- dence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of up, self-reported vaccination for influenza improved by client incentives when implemented alone in increas- 3.7 percentage points compared with patients who did ing targeted vaccination coverage among adults at high not receive a postcard reminder. risk because only one study, with fair quality of execu- Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 the tion, qualified for this review. In addition, we identified evidence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness no studies that evaluated client or family incentives of client reminder systems when implemented alone in when combined with additional interventions. increasing targeted vaccination coverage of high-risk adults because only one study, with fair quality of Vaccination requirements when implemented alone. execution, was identified. The evidence on effective- Vaccination requirements are laws or policies requiring ness of client reminder systems when combined with vaccinations, other documentation of immunity, or additional interventions is reviewed below (see Results documentation of declining to receive a vaccination as Part 2). a condition of attendance, participation, or employ- ment. Although some hospitals may have policies re- Community-wide education when implemented alone. quiring their staff to be vaccinated against influenza, no Community-wide education interventions provide in- state or federal laws in the United States require formation to most or all of a target population in a vaccination of high-risk adults with influenza, pneumo- geographic area, sometimes including vaccination pro- coccal polysaccharide, or hepatitis B vaccines. Current viders. Educational messages can be delivered by vari- Occupational Safety and Health Administration stan- ous methods (e.g., mail, radio, newspapers, television, dards mandate that employers offer the hepatitis B or posters). Community-wide education is intended to vaccination series, at no cost, to any employee whose increase or improve the availability of information work is reasonably anticipated to include exposure to about vaccinations and increase knowledge, thereby blood or other potentially infectious materials.46 Em- changing behavior. It can result in increasing vaccina- ployees can opt to sign a form declining the tion coverage by increasing acceptance and demand for vaccination. 37 vaccination among clients. Effectiveness. Our search identified one study evaluat- Effectiveness. Our search identified no studies of com- ing vaccination requirements for high-risk people, in- munity-wide education when implemented alone. cluding healthcare workers and drug users, in the 47 39 Czech Republic. The study did not qualify for our Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules, evi- review due to limited quality of execution. dence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of community-wide education when implemented alone Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 evi- in increasing targeted vaccination coverage of high-risk dence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of adults, because we identified no studies of this inter- vaccination requirements alone in increasing vaccina- vention. In addition, we identified no studies of com- tion coverage among high-risk adults because the single munity-wide education when combined with additional identified study did not qualify for review. interventions. Interventions to Enhance Access to Vaccination Client or family incentives when implemented alone. Services Client or family incentives seek to motivate people to accept vaccinations by providing either rewards or Interventions that enhance access to vaccination ser- penalties. These interventions are based on the assump- vices are designed to reduce the cost or to increase the tion that clients will be motivated to seek vaccinations if convenience of obtaining vaccinations. The two inter- they receive rewards (e.g., money or discount coupons ventions we reviewed were reducing out-of-pocket costs

Am J Prev Med 2005;28(5S) 253 to the client and expanding access in healthcare set- healthcare settings when combined with additional tings. We found insufficient evidence to determine interventions is reviewed below (see Results Part 2). whether either intervention, by itself, is effective in increasing targeted vaccination coverage. Provider- or System-Based Interventions Provider- or system-based interventions are imple- Reducing client out-of-pocket costs when implemented mented primarily through healthcare systems with the alone. Reducing out-of-pocket costs to individuals for goal of reducing missed opportunities for vaccination. vaccines or their administration can be implemented by We reviewed provider reminder systems, provider edu- paying for the vaccine or its administration, providing cation, provider assessment and feedback, and standing insurance coverage, or reducing co-payments for vacci- orders. nations at the point of services.37 Reducing client out-of-pocket costs can result in increases in vaccination Provider reminder systems when implemented coverage either by improving availability of vaccinations alone. Provider reminder interventions inform vaccine or increasing demand for vaccinations. providers that individual clients are due for specific vaccinations. Techniques by which reminders are deliv- Effectiveness. Our search identified no studies evaluat- ered vary, and include the use of notations in clients’ ing the effectiveness of reducing client out-of-pocket charts, attached chart prompts or stickers, or standard- costs when implemented alone. ized checklists generated by the clinical staff or drawn Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 evi- from computer databases and registries. Reminders can dence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of be directed at the primary healthcare provider or to reducing client out-of-pocket costs alone in increasing one or more members of the clinic staff. targeted vaccination coverage of high-risk adults be- Provider reminder systems make information about cause no studies were identified in this review. The the client’s immunization status available to providers evidence on reducing client out-of-pocket costs when either manually or through a computerized system. All combined with additional interventions is reviewed the reminder systems described in the studies identified below (see Results Part 2). in this review delivered information to the provider at the time of the scheduled appointment. Expanding access in health care settings when imple- Effectiveness. Our search identified seven studies of the mented alone. Expanding access increases the avail- effectiveness of provider reminder systems in increasing ability of vaccines in medical or public health clinic targeted vaccination coverage.48–54 These studies focused settings in which vaccinations are offered by (1) reduc- on influenza and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines. ing the distance from the setting to the population; Details of the seven qualifying studies are provided in the (2) increasing or changing hours during which vacci- Appendix and at www.thecommunityguide.org/vaccine. nation services are provided; (3) delivering vaccina- The provider reminder systems evaluated in the qualify- tions in clinical settings where they were previously not ing studies included attachments to the patient chart provided (e.g., emergency departments, inpatient generated by computer programs48,49,51,52 or by clinic units, or subspecialty clinics); or (4) reducing adminis- staff.50,53 One study evaluated a reminder questionnaire trative barriers to obtaining vaccination services within designed as a letter from a colleague.51 Two studies clinics (e.g., developing a “drop-in” clinic or an “ex- reported measurements of changes in influenza vaccine press lane” vaccination service).37 coverage.49,50 One study reported measurements of Inconvenient hours and locations, as well as burden- changes in pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine cover- some administrative requirements, are important bar- age.53 Four studies provided measurements of changes in riers to obtaining vaccinations. These barriers are par- coverage for both influenza and pneumococcal polysac- ticularly significant among patients who do not have charide vaccinations.48,51,52,54 Figure 2 shows the results of regular clinic visits, have transportation problems, or studies reporting changes in vaccination coverage. The have difficulties making clinical appointments during nine study arms in the seven qualifying studies showed a the months when the vaccine is available. median improvement in vaccination coverage of 17.9 Effectiveness. We found no studies evaluating the effec- percentage points (range, Ϫ1 to 72). Overall, the data tiveness of expanding access in healthcare settings provide strong evidence of the effectiveness of provider when implemented alone. reminder systems when implemented alone. Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 evi- Applicability. The seven qualifying studies evaluated the dence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of effectiveness of provider reminder systems on resident expanding access in healthcare settings when imple- and faculty physicians48,49,51–53 and on nurses.50,52 The mented alone in increasing targeted vaccination cover- client populations in the qualifying studies were patients age of high-risk adults because we identified no studies with chronic illnesses. All studies were implemented and in this review. The evidence on expanded access in evaluated in academic healthcare settings, including hos-

254 American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 28, Number 5S Effectiveness. Our review identified no studies of provider education interventions when implemented alone. Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 evidence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of provider education when implemented alone in increasing targeted vaccination coverage of high-risk adults because no studies were identified in this review. The evidence on provider education when combined with additional interventions is reviewed below (see Figure 2. Percentage point change in vaccination coverage Results Part 2). attributable to provider reminders when implemented alone, from the studies included in this review. Number in paren- Standing orders when implemented alone. Require- theses is baseline coverage. ments for physical examinations prior to vaccination and lack of personnel to administer vaccines are two administrative barriers that may contribute to missed opportunities to pitals and clinics. None of the studies identified in this vaccinate. Standing orders authorize healthcare personnel review evaluated outcomes of hepatitis B vaccination (e.g., nurses or pharmacists) to prescribe or deliver vaccina- coverage in high-risk populations or settings. tions to clients by protocol without direct physician involve- ment at the time of the interaction. Empowering nonphysi- Other positive or negative effects. Three studies evaluated cian personnel to deliver vaccinations might reduce barriers provider reminder systems that included prompts for the to vaccination and missed opportunities, resulting in im- delivery of additional preventive services or clinical care proved vaccination delivery.37 practices, including fecal occult blood exam, Pap smear, mammography, dental exam, tetanus vaccine, cancer Effectiveness. Our search identified no studies providing screening, or measurements of serum cholesterol.48,50,52 measurements of the effectiveness of standing orders No harms of provider reminder systems were reported in when implemented alone. the identified studies. Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 evidence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of Economic efficiency. No studies were identified that met standing orders when implemented alone in increasing the requirements for inclusion in a Community Guide targeted vaccination coverage of high-risk adults be- review.55,56 cause no studies were identified in this review. The Barriers to intervention implementation. Potential barriers evidence on standing orders when combined with to the implementation of provider reminder systems additional interventions is reviewed below (see Results include concerns among some providers about the effi- Part 2). 52,53 51 cacy and safety of pneumococcal polysaccharide Provider assessment and feedback when implemented 49,51 vaccination. Clients may also refuse to be vaccinated. alone. Provider assessment and feedback involve both Cost is another potential burden in implementing re- retrospective evaluation of provider performance in minder systems.49 delivering one or more vaccinations to client popula- Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 strong tions and giving this information to providers. Assess- evidence shows that provider reminder systems, when ment and feedback can result in improvements in vaccination coverage either by changing provider used alone, are effective in improving targeted vaccina- knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, or by stimulating tion coverage among high-risk adults. The evidence on use of additional changes in the vaccination delivery provider reminders when combined with additional inter- system (e.g., reminders or standing orders).37 ventions is reviewed below (see Results Part 2). Effectiveness. We identified one study that evaluated the Provider education when implemented alone. Provider effectiveness of provider assessment and feedback when education involves giving providers information about implemented alone.57 Details of this qualifying study vaccinations to increase their knowledge or change are provided in the Appendix and at www.thecommu- their attitudes. Receipt of such information might nityguide.org/vaccine. The study examined the impact result in fewer missed vaccination opportunities, and, of annual chart reviews and feedback to resident phy- consequently, a greater proportion of eligible patients sicians on coverage for influenza and pneumococcal receiving indicated vaccinations. Techniques by which polysaccharide vaccines and found that vaccination information is delivered can include written materials, coverage among at-risk patients improved by 32 per- videos, lectures, continuing medical education pro- centage points for influenza vaccine and 18 percentage grams, or computerized software. points for pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine.

Am J Prev Med 2005;28(5S) 255 Table 2. Intervention combinations evaluated in studies qualifying for review of multicomponent strategies to increase targeted vaccination coverage (n ϭ 26 study arms from 23 studies) Interventions to enhance access

Interventions to increase demand Provider- or system-based interventions Expanded Reducing access in out-of- Client Client Client Standing Provider Provider Provider healthcare pocket Study (year)ref education reminders incentives orders reminders feedback education settings costs Baker (1998)58 XX X Barton (1990)59 XXX Becker (1989)48 XX Brimberry (1988)61 XX Carter (1986)62 XX X Coyne (2000)65 XXX Fedson (1996)68 XXX Harbarth (1998)73 XX X X Hogg (1998)75 XX X (two arms) X X X Jans (2000)76 XX Klein (1986)78 XXXX Landis (1995)80 XX Larson (1982)44 XX Moran (1996)83 XX X X (three arms) X X X X XXX X X Nichol (1990)84 XX XX X Nichol (1998)85 XX X Overhage (1996)87 XX Sellors (1997)90 X X Spaulding (1991)93 XXX Thomas (1993)95 X XX Turner (1990)97 XX van Essen (1997)98 XXX Yassi (1993)101 XX X X Totals (arms) 14 16 2 5 7 4 4 15 12

Conclusion. According to Community Guide rules,39 evi- A full description of the methods used in the following dence was insufficient to determine the effectiveness of evaluation of effectiveness, and in constructing a menu provider assessment and feedback interventions when format as part of the Task Force recommendation, is implemented alone in increasing targeted vaccination provided elsewhere in this supplement,40 and a brief coverage among high-risk patients because only one description is included at the end of the Methods study, with fair quality of execution, qualified for re- section of this article. view. The evidence on effectiveness of provider assessment and feedback when combined with additional interventions is reviewed below (see Results Part 2). Effectiveness Our systematic review identified a total of 47 studies Results Part 2. Reviews of Evidence for Interventions evaluating interventions to increase vaccination coverage among at-risk populations when implemented to Increase Vaccine Coverage When Implemented in 44,47,48,58–101 Combination in combination (multicomponent). Two papers provided additional information on studies al- Most of the available evidence on effectiveness identi- ready included in the review.102,103 Twenty-four studies fied in this review of interventions to increase targeted were excluded due to limited quality of execu- vaccines coverage comes from studies that evaluated tion60,63,66,74,77,81,82,88,89,96 or least suitable study de- interventions implemented in combination (multicom- sign.47,64,67,69–72,79,86,91,92,94,99,100 Details of the 23 qualifying ponent interventions). The paucity of evidence on the studies44,48,58,59,61,62,65,68,73,75,76,78,80,83–85,87,90,93,95,97,98,101 effectiveness of interventions when implemented alone are provided in the Appendix andatwww. (see Results Part 1) and the variety of intervention thecommunityguide.org/vaccine. combinations evaluated complicate assessment of the The intervention combinations evaluated in each of effectiveness of this multicomponent body of evidence. the qualifying studies are presented in Table 2. Overall,

256 American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 28, Number 5S Table 3. Combinations of intervention categories and differences in targeted vaccination coverage observed in qualifying studies Interventions Percentage point to increase difference in client or Provider- or Interventions Interventions vaccination community system-based to enhance across all coverage Median change Study (year)ref demand interventions access categories (vaccine) (percentage points) Studies evaluating interventions combined within a single category: community demand Larson (1982)44 22ϩ13.6 (I) ϩ13.6 Studies evaluating interventions combined within a single category: provider- or system-based Jans (2000)76 22ϩ11 (I) ϩ11 Studies evaluating interventions combined across two conceptual categories: community demand ؉ provider- or system-based Barton (1990)59 12 3ϩ28.9 (I) Becker (1989)48 11 2ϩ16.1 (I) ϩ0.8(P) ϩ3.7 (range: Ϫ2 Coyne (2000)65 12 3ϩ3.7 (HB) to ϩ28.9) Turner (1990)97 11 2ϩ18 (I) Ϫ2 (P) van Essen (1997)98 12 3ϩ1.1 (I) Studies evaluating interventions combined across two conceptual categories: community demand ؉ enhanced access Baker (1998)58 213ϩ3.1 (I) Brimberry (1988)61 112ϩ5.5 (I) Carter (1986)62 213ϩ13 (I) Harbarth (1998)73 224ϩ10 (I) Moran (1996)83 224ϩ14 (I) ϩ14 (range: ϩ3.1 (three arms) 2 2 4 ϩ14 (I) to ϩ46) 325ϩ17 (I) Sellors (1997)90 112ϩ23 (HB) Spaulding (1991)93 123ϩ16.1 (I) Thomas (1993)95 123ϩ46 (I) Yassi (1993)101 224ϩ19.6 (HB) Studies evaluating interventions combined across two conceptual categories: provider- or system-based ؉ enhanced access Fedson (1996)68 123ϩ31 (I) Landis (1995)80 112ϩ27.8 (P) ϩ27.8 (range: Ϫ0.5 Overhage (1996)87 112Ϫ0.5 (P) to ϩ31) Studies evaluating interventions combined across all three conceptual categories Nichol (1990)84 2215ϩ28.4 (I) Nichol (1998)85 1113ϩ17.2 (I) ϩ32.1 (P) ϩ22.8 (range: Ϫ5.9 Hogg (1998)75 1113Ϫ5.9 (I) to ϩ67) (two arms) 1 1 1 3 ϩ2.6 (I) Klein (1986)78 1214ϩ67 (P) HB, hepatitis B; I, influenza; P, pneumococcal polysaccharide. the 23 qualifying studies provided 26 study arms evalu- tions to increase client demand) and performed strat- ating 22 different combinations of interventions. Seven ified analyses on these categories. In Table 3, categories study arms in seven studies48,58,62,73,83,97,101 evaluated subsume the specific interventions, and the qualifying one of three specific intervention combinations: two studies are reorganized into similar combinations studies evaluated a combination of client reminders across categories. Of the qualifying studies, 21 of 23 (24 and provider reminders48,97; two studies implemented of 26 study arms) evaluated the effectiveness of inter- a combination of client education, client reminders, ventions combined across two or three conceptual and expanded access in a healthcare setting58,62; and categories. three studies implemented a combination of client Figure 3 presents the results from the 26 multicom- education, client reminders, expanded access, and re- ponent study arms organized into combinations duced client out-of-pocket costs.73,83,101 The remaining within a category (two categories: increasing commu- 19 study arms evaluated unique combinations of nity or client demand; provider- or system-based interventions. interventions) or across categories (four combina- We conducted additional analyses to examine the tions: increased community or client demand plus combinations of interventions described in the qualify- provider- or system-based interventions; increased ing studies. We consolidated individual interventions demand plus enhanced access; provider- or system- into categories of vaccination delivery (e.g., interven- based interventions plus enhanced access; increased

Am J Prev Med 2005;28(5S) 257 ported in these studies was an increase of 3.7 percentage points (range, Ϫ2toϩ28.9 percentage points). Nine studies evaluated one or two interventions to increase client demand when combined with one or two interventions to enhance access to vaccination services,58,61,62,73,83,90,93,95,101 providing nine measurements of changes in vaccination coverage. The median change was an improvement of 14 percentage points (range, 3.1 to 46 percentage points). Three studies evaluated one or two provider- or system-based interventions when combined with one or two interventions to enhance access to vaccination services.68,80,87 Two studies observed improvements in vaccination coverage of 31 and 27.8 percentage points.68,80 The remaining study observed a minimal change in coverage (Ϫ0.5 percentage points) for the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine.87 Finally, four studies evaluated combinations of interventions to increase vaccination coverage drawn from all three categories.75,78,84,85 These four studies provided six measurements of changes in vaccination Figure 3. Percentage point change in vaccination coverage coverage. The median change was an improvement of attributable to interventions implemented in combination in Ϫ ϩ the studies included in this review. Number in parentheses is 22.8 percentage points (range, 5.9 to 67). baseline coverage. The effectiveness of combinations that included one or more interventions to enhance access to vaccination services with one or more interventions from one or demand, provider- or system-based interventions, both of the other two categories was evaluated in a total and enhanced access). of 19 study arms from 16 qualifying stud- Only two qualifying studies evaluated interventions ies.58,61,62,68,73,75,78,80,83–85,87,90,93,95,101 Within this sub- combined within a single conceptual category.44,76 One set of combined interventions, vaccination coverage study44 evaluated the combination of client education improved by a median of 16.5 percentage points and client reminders to increase client demand for (range, Ϫ5.9 to ϩ67). Overall, we found strong evi- influenza vaccination. At follow-up, vaccination cover- dence of the effectiveness of the combination of inter- age had improved by 13.6 percentage points. The ventions shown in Table 4 in increasing targeted vac- second study76 evaluated two provider- or system-based cine coverage. interventions: provider education and provider assessment and feedback. At follow-up, influenza vaccination Applicability coverage had improved by 11 percentage points. An intervention to increase client demand was com- These findings should be applicable to a range of bined with one or two provider- or system-based inter- clients, providers, and healthcare settings. Studies ex- ventions in five studies.48,59,65,97,98 These five studies amined client populations including outpatients,58,83 provided seven measurements of changes in vaccina- inpatients,78,80,87 and healthcare workers.73,95,101 The tion. The median change in vaccination coverage re- evaluated provider populations included nurses84,85,101

Table 4. Combinations of interventions demonstrating strong evidence of effectiveness in increasing targeted vaccine coverage Evidence on Combinations of interventions across categories effectiveness Results Provider- or Number of Enhancing access system-based Increasing demand studies (arms) Median change One or more of these Plus one or more And/or one or more of 16 (19) ϩ16.5 percentage interventionsa of these these interventionsc points (range, Ϫ5.9 interventionsb to ϩ67) aInterventions to enhance access include expanded access and reducing out-of-pocket costs. bProvider- or system-based interventions include standing orders, provider reminders, and provider feedback. cInterventions to increase client or community demand include client education and client reminders.

258 American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 28, Number 5S and faculty physicians.62,73,83,101 The healthcare set- number of qualifying studies. These single-component tings evaluated were academic programs,62,73,83,101 out- interventions, therefore, do not appear among the patient clinics,58,83,101 hospitals,62,73,84,85 long-term care choices in the menu format (see Table 4). facilities,95 and the workplace.73,101 Finally, the available studies provided insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of provider Other Positive or Negative Effects education as an option for combinations of provider- or system-based interventions. Evidence was considered We identified no additional effects specific to the insufficient because the small number of qualifying combination of interventions in this review. Positive or studies reported results that were inconsistent and negative effects of single-component interventions may small in magnitude when compared with other inter- remain relevant when the interventions are imple- vention combinations. mented in combination. Results Part 3. Research Issues Economic Efficiency Effectiveness No studies were found that met the requirements for inclusion in a Community Guide review.55,56 The qualifying studies identified in this review provide strong evidence of the effectiveness of provider reminder systems when implemented alone in improving Barriers to Intervention Implementation targeted vaccination coverage among adults at high risk. Strong evidence of effectiveness was also identified Barriers to the implementation of single-component in multicomponent programs directed at clients and interventions are likely to remain relevant to combined providers, when these programs included one or more efforts. Additional barriers, such as lack of infrastruc- interventions to enhance access to vaccination com- ture, may be encountered in efforts to coordinate these bined with one or more interventions to increase interventions. demand, one or more provider- or system-based interventions, or both. However, significant gaps remain in our evaluation of intervention effectiveness. Conclusions Further consideration and research into the effectiveness of single-component interventions should ad- According to Community Guide rules,39 the available dress the questions of whether these interventions qualifying studies provide evidence that interventions combined across categories are effective in (other than provider reminder systems, for which ef- increasing vaccination coverage in adult populations fectiveness was established) are consistently effective in at high risk. We found strong evidence of effective- improving targeted vaccine coverage. ness in studies evaluating interventions to enhance The conclusions about effectiveness of interventions access to vaccination services (expanding access in when implemented in combination represent an initial healthcare settings, reducing client out-of-pocket effort to evaluate a complicated body of evidence. costs) combined with provider- or system-based inter- Although this summary confirms one aspect of the ventions (provider reminders, provider assessment evidence on effectiveness (interventions combined and feedback, standing orders) and/or interventions across conceptual approaches to vaccination delivery), to increase client demand for vaccination services important research questions remain about the effec- (client education, client reminders) (Table 4). tiveness of specific intervention combinations. Available studies provided insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of combinations that did Are combinations of interventions to increase client not include one or more interventions to enhance and community demand for vaccination effective? access to vaccination services (specifically, combina- Are combinations of provider- or system-based interventions across the two categories of interventions to tions to increase targeted vaccination coverage increase client demand and provider- or system- effective? based interventions). Evidence was considered insuf- Are combinations of interventions to enhance access to ficient because the small number of qualifying stud- vaccination services effective? ies reported inconsistent effects on vaccination Are interventions combined across strategic categories coverage in populations at high risk. of vaccination effective because they are synergistic? The available studies also provided insufficient evi- What specific combinations of interventions are most dence to determine the effectiveness of either client effective in improving targeted vaccination coverage? incentives or community-wide education as options for Do effective combinations differ by target population interventions to increase demand for vaccination. Evi- or setting? Do effective combinations differ by dence was considered insufficient because of the small vaccine?

Am J Prev Med 2005;28(5S) 259 Designated staff empowered by standing orders were Other Positive or Negative Effects used in three of the qualifying studies68,78,80 to direct The studies identified in this review provided little vaccination efforts for healthcare workers or hospital information about other positive or negative effects of inpatients. The available evidence suggests that desig- targeted vaccination efforts. No significant research nated staff may be an effective intervention in these and issues were identified. other settings (e.g., long-term care facilities). Addi- tional research would expand the body of evidence on effectiveness. Economic Efficiency Eight study arms from seven studies evaluated the We did not identify any studies providing economic effectiveness of the same intervention(s) (five single- information or evaluations of targeted vaccination in- component arms and three combination arms) in improv- terventions. Basic economic research needs to be con- ing coverage rates for both influenza and pneumococcal ducted to investigate the following questions: polysaccharide vaccines.48,51,52,54,57,85,97 With similar indications and populations at risk, these vaccines offer the What is the cost of implementing a single-component potential for coordinated, targeted efforts within a com- intervention? munity or healthcare system. Although the evidence is What is the cost of implementing multicomponent already sufficient to conclude on the effectiveness of interventions? provider reminder systems, research questions remain Are multicomponent interventions more cost-effective about the effectiveness of other interventions or combi- than single-component interventions? nations of interventions in improving vaccination cover- What are the costs per additional person vaccinated, in age for both vaccines in the same population. single- or multi-component interventions? What is the cost-benefit or cost-utility of these interventions? Applicability Overwhelmingly, the evidence identified in this review Barriers to Implementation is derived from interventions implemented and evalu- Several studies identified in this review discussed barri- ated in healthcare systems. The evidence on effective- ers to vaccination. These included refusals to be vacci- ness should be applicable in most healthcare settings nated78 as well as fear of side effects73 and needles.95 and adult patient populations. A number of important Although these represent obstacles to the vaccination research questions about specific high-risk populations of individual clients, and are not specific to interven- and settings should still be addressed. tions, vaccination coverage rates may respond to efforts Can these intervention combinations be imple- that address client concerns. mented as effectively in smaller healthcare settings, such as clinics and private practices? Are client education efforts effective in increasing What interventions and combinations of interven- client requests for vaccination (or reducing client tions are effective in increasing hepatitis B coverage refusals to be vaccinated)? among people at high risk because of behaviors (e.g., Barriers specific to the implementation of interventions injection drug users, multiple sex partners)? This re- include the administrative burdens and infrastruc- view identified only two qualifying studies of interven- ture requirements of targeted vaccination efforts. Do tions directed at populations with risk behaviors45,90 registries facilitate the adoption of interventions and that provided insufficient evidence to determine the intervention combinations focused on high-risk adult effectiveness of interventions or intervention combina- populations? tions in improving hepatitis B vaccination coverage in What impact would providing insurance coverage have these populations. Evaluations of the effectiveness of on the administration and receipt of hepatitis B expanded access in non-healthcare settings, reduced vaccine among people with risk behaviors? client out-of-pocket costs, standing orders (designated How frequent are missed opportunities to administer vaccination staff), client education, and client incen- each of these vaccines, and what factors contribute to tives are areas for further research. these missed opportunities? Are interventions to increase hepatitis B vaccination coverage among healthcare workers equally effective in Discussion other populations who are at risk of hepatitis B infection? Evidence from studies conducted in healthcare This report introduces a new qualitative technique for settings may not translate to the community-based the organization and assessment of evidence on effec- requirements of a vaccination effort directed at people tiveness of interventions. These methods provide a with risk behaviors. Challenges, including low percep- useful framework for evaluating a complicated body of tions of risk, limited access to health care, and poor evidence, and attempt to incorporate evidence on adherence to follow-up, may be significant. effectiveness both for specific interventions and for less

260 American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 28, Number 5S specific combinations across conceptual categories intervention combinations than were demonstrated (strategies). The qualitative techniques developed and in the qualifying studies. implemented here are potentially adaptable to other systematic reviews conducted for the Guide to Community Significant gaps in the available evidence on effec- Preventive Services. tiveness remain, and provide an important agenda for The information and conclusions about targeted further research. One critical gap is the paucity of vaccine strategies complement and expand the initial economic evaluations of population-based interven- Community Guide review of interventions to increase tions to improve vaccination coverage. We did not vaccine coverage for universally recommended vac- identify any economic evaluations of the targeted vaccines.37,38 Taken together, the initial and current re- cination interventions in this review. ports provide an increasingly complete assessment of In contrast to the evidence on effectiveness of uni- intervention options available to programs and plan- versally recommended vaccines, the published evi- ners seeking to improve vaccination coverage rates in dence about efforts to increase targeted vaccine cover- communities and healthcare systems. age includes few studies of interventions when In 2000, concerned about the low influenza vaccina- implemented alone. The available studies of intervention rates among people aged 50 to 64 with risk tions combined across conceptual categories broadly conditions, the Advisory Committee on Immunization support the current conclusions, but provide limited Practices expanded their universal recommendation information to compare and contrast potential combi- for annual influenza vaccination to include all adults in nations of interventions. this age group.104 Program planners dedicated to in- The evidence on effectiveness identified in this re- creasing influenza vaccination coverage within this view is divided among three vaccines, a number of “new” population should consider recommendations targeted populations with different indications for vac- from either or both applicable Task Force reviews. For cination, and a variety of community and healthcare initial efforts, program planners may find that the settings. The evidence is limited for many of these recommendations in the original, universal review37,38 combinations (vaccine ϩ target group ϩ setting) when provide a number of effective and flexible intervention considered individually. Nevertheless, the review con- options. Planners attempting to enhance initial pro- clusions presented here should be considered as gram efforts may find the information on intervention broadly applicable, except as noted below. Much of the combinations recommended in this targeted review evidence identified in this review evaluated interven- helpful. tion efforts implemented within a healthcare system, Several limitations should be noted about the con- either to improve coverage among healthcare workers clusions of this review. or among patients with medical indications. The results summarized in this review suggest that vaccination (1) The available evidence on effectiveness was not coverage can be improved in both populations with the stratified by targeted vaccine or by targeted indica- application of provider reminder systems alone or with tions (e.g., medical, occupational, behavioral, other). the appropriate combination of interventions. For ex- As noted below, few studies evaluated the effective- ample, combinations of interventions were effective in ness of interventions to increase targeted hepatitis B increasing coverage for influenza among healthcare vaccine coverage, especially among people with high- workers, and similar combinations of interventions risk behaviors. In our review, we opted to organize were also effective in increasing coverage for influenza the available information according to the interven- or pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines among pa- tion or combinations of interventions implemented tients with medical indications. Differences in the vac- and evaluated. Within this format, further stratifica- cines, in the target groups (such as baseline knowledge tion by vaccine or by targeted indication resulted in and motivations to be vaccinated), and in the settings insufficient evidence to support more specific con- (hospitals, outpatient clinics, and practictioners’ of- clusions on effectiveness. We recognize the value of fices) remain important factors that may require tailor- these stratified evaluations, however, and expect that ing of the content and conduct of the interventions additional studies will enable future reviews to illu- selected to address specific gaps in vaccination minate any differences. coverage. (2) The conceptual categories adopted for this review Few studies identified in this review evaluated the consolidate the evidence on effectiveness (or ineffec- effectiveness of interventions to increase coverage for tiveness) of the specific interventions within that hepatitis B vaccine, and most of these studies evaluated category. This method for organizing the evidence interventions to increase coverage rates among health- obscures some information about the contribution of care workers. Significant gaps remain in the evidence any specific intervention to a combined effort. on the implementation, evaluation, and effectiveness of (3) The category-based conclusions on effectiveness community-based efforts to increase coverage among support a significantly greater number of specific people at high risk for hepatitis B infection. A number

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264 American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 28, Number 5S Appendix. Qualifying studies of effectiveness of interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented alone (single-component interventions) Becker (1989)48 Location: Virginia Patients with chronic (1) Inﬂuenza 8.9% I 17.8% ϩ8.9 pct points 12 months (1986–1987) Components: Provider conditions vaccination rate Greatest: Individual reminders (single- n ϭ 1050 (2) Pneumococcal 6.9% I2 8.8% ϩ1.9 pct points randomized trial component arm) polysaccharide Fair Comparison: Usual vaccination rate Academic medical clinic care

Chambers (1991)49 Location: Providers randomized (1) Inﬂuenza 22% Always ϩ19 pct points 2 months (1987) Philadelphia, PA to intervention vaccination rate reminded pϽ0.001 Greatest: Individual Components: Provider arms during study 41% randomized trial reminders (chart n ϭ 32 period Sometimes Fair prompts) Patients of providers reminded Family practice program -All patients nϭ864 eligible 38% -One-half of patients nϭ686 (79%) Comparison: Usual evaluated care

Clancy (1988)42 Location: University All faculty and (1) Percentage of 13% Info only 15% ϩ2 pct points 12 months (1983–1984) of Pennsylvania resident physicians study providers Info ϩ IDA ϩ10 pct points Greatest: Group Components: Client Nϭ1280 screened or 23% randomized trial education (2 arms) Information only: vaccinated for mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am Fair Info only: information nϭ264 hepatitis B University hospital only Information ϩ Info ϩ IDA: individualized information plus decision analysis: individualized nϭ753 decision analysis Comparison: nϭ263 Comparison: Usual care (continued on next page) 265 266 mrcnJunlo rvnieMdcn,Vlm 8 ubr5S Number 28, Volume Medicine, Preventive of Journal American

Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented alone (single-component interventions) Davidson (1984)50 Location: North Healthcare providers (1) Inﬂuenza Cross- Cross- ϩ22 pct points p Ͻ 12 months (1979–1981) Carolina Memorial Patients with chronic vaccination rates sectional sectional 0.001 Moderate: Hospital illnesses at study points 18% 40% Retrospective cohort; Components: Provider Cross-sectional also cross-sectional reminders (chart sample comparisons reminder slip) nϭ150 Fair Comparison: Usual Historical cohort Academic outpatient care nϭ170 clinics nϭ205

Gelfman (1986)51 Location: Medical Patients with chronic (1) Inﬂuenza 2.9% 75% ϩ72 pct points 7 months (1983–1984) College of Virginia illnesses vaccination pϽ0.001 Moderate: Time series Components: Provider nϭ381 over 3 study rates Fair reminders (chart periods (2) Pneumococcal 5.5% 67% ϩ61.5 pct points Academic medicine prompt letter) polysaccharide pϽ0.001 clinic Before and after vaccination rates

Harris (1990)52 Location: North Random sample of (1) Inﬂuenza 12% Post 1 43% ϩ31 pct points 5 years (1979–1984) Carolina Memorial female patients vaccination Post 2 59% ϩ47 pct points Moderate: Retrospective Hospital Ͼ50 years of age rates during pϽ0.001 cohort Components: Provider visiting clinic Ն2 study period Fair reminders (chart times in the (2) Pneumococcal 11% Post 1 18% ϩ7 pct points Academic outpatient prompts) preceeding 12 polysaccharide Post 2 19% ϩ8 pct points Not clinic Post 1: Nurse initiated months vaccination signiﬁcant Post 2: Computer Pre: nϭ50 rates during generated Post 1: nϭ150 study period Comparison: Before– Post 2: nϭ150 after (retrospective assessment) (continued on next page) Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented alone (single-component interventions) Jacobson (1999)43 Location: Atlanta GA; Patients with chart (1) Patient receipt 3.8% 19.9% ϩ16.1 pct points 2 months (1998) Grady Health documented high- of pϽ0.001 Greatest: Individual System risk conditions pneumococcal Multivariate analysis randomized trial Components: Client nϭ1830 total vaccination RRϭ5.28 Fair education nϭ922 eligible 95% CI Medical center (educational sheet nϭ433 (2.8–9.93) outpatient clinics attached to patient’s randomized chart and given to Intervention: nϭ221 patient at triage) Comparison: nϭ212 Comparison: Usual care (nutrition information sheet)

Kern (1990)57 Location: Maryland Resident physicians (1) Inﬂuenza 24% 56% ϩ32 pct points 6 years (1981–1987) Components: Provider nϭ139 vaccination rate Moderate: Time series assessment and Patients of resident (2) Pneumococcal 25% 43% ϩ18 pct points Fair feedback (annual physicians during vaccination rate University teaching feedback to the study year with hospital residents based on chronic conditions chart audits) nϭnot reported Comparison: Before– after

mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am Klein (1983)53 Location: New York Patients at risk for (1) Pneumococcal 2.1% 20% ϩ17.9 pct points 15 months (1980–1981) City pneumococcal polysaccharide pϽ0.001 Greatest: Individual Components: Provider infection identiﬁed vaccination of randomized trial reminders (chart by admission lists eligible patients Fair prompts) over 2 years Academic medical Comparison: Usual Randomly assigned to centers care study arms Year 1Year 2 Inter 100 100 Comp 100 100 Cohort 150 150 (continued on next page) 267 268 mrcnJunlo rvnieMdcn,Vlm 8 ubr5S Number 28, Volume Medicine, Preventive of Journal American

Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline Reported effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented alone (single-component interventions) Larson (1982)44 Location: Seattle, WA High-risk patients of the (1) Inﬂuenza 1977–1978 pre 1978–1979 post (1978–1979) Components: Client study clinic vaccination rate Greatest: Individual reminders (mailed nϭ395 identiﬁed (self-reported) randomized trial postcards with a nϭ307 available Personal message I 51.1% I 41.0% ϩ3.7 pct points 12 months Fair personal message nϭ283 (92%) at C 34.0% C 20.2% ϩ13.6 pct points Academic family signed by patient’s analysis Health belief I 51.6% I 51.4% ϩ4.3 pct points medical center provider) Study arms model C 34.0% C 20.2% Comparison: Usual Personal message: nϭ61 Neutral I 34.5% I 25.0% care Health belief model: nϭ70 C 34.0% C 34.0% Neutral content: nϭ68 Comparison: nϭ84

McDonald (1992)54 Location: University Healthcare providers (1) Influenza Influenza 1978– Influenza Influenza 3 years (1978–1981) of Indiana during 3 study periods vaccination 1979 1979– 1980– Ϫ0.5 pct points Greatest: Individual Components: Provider Inter Comp rates for I 35.3% 1980 1981 randomized trial reminders (patient 1978–1979 61 54 patients with C 17.4% I 30.7% 42.9% Fair list and 1979–1980 61 54 chronic C 18.9% 25.5% School of medicine identification of 1980–1981 61 54 conditions clinic eligible preventive (2) Pneumococcal Pneumococcal Pneumococcal Pneumococcal clinical actions) polysaccharide polysaccharide polysaccharide polysaccharide Comparison: Usual vaccination 1978–1979 1979– 1980– ϩ6.4 pct points care rates for I 49.2% 1980 1981 patients with C 15.5% I 60.3% 64.9% chronic C 20.8% 24.8% conditions (continued on next page) Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Trubatch (1998)45 Location: Anchorage, Recruited patients (1) Proportion of 8% 43% ϩ35 pct points Not (Not reported) Alaska from ongoing study study patients pϽ0.001 reported Greatest: Individual Components: client of injection drug who received Logistic regression nonrandomized trial incentive ($10.00) users the first dose of analysis ORϭ8.43 Fair Comparison: Usual Intervention: nϭ75 hepatitis B 95% CI (3.95–18.0) Local health clinics care Comparison: nϭ144 vaccine

Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Baker (1998)58 Location: Michigan High-risk patients in (1) Inﬂuenza 2 months (1995) Components: Client medical group vaccination Greatest: Individual education (posters, nϭ24,743 rate during randomized trial postcard, telephone Subset: Patients at study period Fair information service) high risk Ͻ65 years Personalized C 35.8% I 38.9% ϩ3.1 pct points Medical group clinic ϩ Client reminder nϭ10,573 postcard 95% CI (0.91–6.4) (postcard; letter) ϩ Generic postcard C 35.8% I 37.5% ϩ1.7 pct points Expanded access Tailored letter C 35.8% I 38.9% ϩ3.1 pct points (walk-in clinic) mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am Comparison: Expanded access in healthcare settings ϩ Client education (continued on next page) 269 270 mrcnJunlo rvnieMdcn,Vlm 8 ubr5S Number 28, Volume Medicine, Preventive of Journal American

Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Barton (1990)59 Location: Random sample of (1) Influenza 27.0% 55.9% ϩ28 pct points 3 years (1984–1987) Massachusetts clinic patients vaccination rate 95% CI Moderate: Retrospective Components: Client nϭ647 over the study (16–40) cohort reminders High-risk patients period (subset: Fair (postcard) ϩ Ͻ65 years, nϭ198 diabetic patients HMO clinics Provider reminders Analyses conducted aged 40–65 (chart flag) ϩ on a subset of years) Provider feedback diabetic patients (2) Influenza 38% 55% ϩ17 pct points 3 years (in year 3) aged 40–65 years vaccination rates Comparison: Inter nϭ143 over the study (1) Client reminders Comp nϭ111 period (high-risk (2) Before–after patients aged Ͻ65 years)

Becker (1989)48 Location: Virginia Patients with chronic (1) Inﬂuenza C 8.9% I 25% ϩ16.1 pct points 12 months (1986–1987) Components: (multi- conditions vaccination rate Greatest: Individual arm) Client nϭ1050 randomized trial reminders ϩ Fair Provider reminders (2) Pneumococcal C 6.9% I 7.7% ϩ0.8 pct points Academic medical clinic (chart memo) polysaccharide Comparison: Usual vaccination rate care

Brimberry (1988)61 Location: Little Rock, High-risk patients (1) Inﬂuenza C 3.8% I Mail 9.7% ϩ5.9 pct points 5 months (1984–1985) Arkansas nϭ832 (45 vaccination rate pϽ0.02 Greatest: Individual Components: Client vaccinated) I Telephone ϩ5.5 pct points randomized trial reminders (mail or nϭ787 eligible 9.3% pϽ0.02 Fair telephone) ϩ Mail reminder: Academic family Expanded access nϭ267 practice (no appointment Telephone: nϭ258 needed) Usual care: nϭ262 Comparison: Usual care (continued on next page) Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Carter (1986)62 Location: Seattle, WA High-risk patients who (1) Inﬂuenza 23% 36% ϩ13 pct points Not (Not reported) Components: Client were not vaccinated vaccination pϽ0.025 reported Greatest: Individual education in the year prior to (self-reported randomized trial (brochures sent by study receipt) Fair mail) ϩ Client nϭ284 randomized VA medical center reminders (letters) nϭ235 (83%) at f/u ϩ Expanded Access Iϭ114 (special clinic and 2 Cϭ121 week period) Comparison: Client reminders ϩ Expanded access

Coyne (2000)65 Location: Iowa, Chronic hemodialysis (1) Hepatitis B 72.4% 76.1% ϩ3.7 pct points NS 19 months (1998–1999) Missouri, Kansas, patients vaccination Moderate: Time series Nebraska Baseline: nϭ5555 rate: subset of Fair Components: Client (74.5% of patients) units with pre– Hemodialysis network education (posters Second follow-up: post measures and brochures) ϩ nϭ6602 (77.1% of mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am Provider education patients) (posters and Subset of units brochures) ϩ (nϭ138) provided Provider feedback baseline ϩ f/u (to the center) results Comparison: Before– after (continued on next page) 271 272 mrcnJunlo rvnieMdcn,Vlm 8 ubr5S Number 28, Volume Medicine, Preventive of Journal American

Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Fedson (1996)68 Location: University Vaccination program (1)Inﬂuenza 1993 1994 ϩ31 pct points 1 year (1986–1994) of Virginia Health for healthcare vaccination 63% 94% Moderate: Time series Sciences Center providers (medical coverage Fair Components: residents) among medical Academic general Standing orders nϭNot reported residents medicine clinic (designated staff) ϩ 1993: No Expanded access designated staff (vaccination carts) person ϩ Reduced client 1994: Designated out-of-pocket costs staff (free vaccinations) Comparison: Before– after

Harbarth (1998)73 Location: Switzerland; Vaccination program (1) Influenza 12 months (1995–1997) Geneva for healthcare vaccination Greatest: Other design Components: Client workers in 3 high- coverage with concurrent education risk departments High-risk High risk 37% ϩ10 pct points comparison group (conferences, Inter Comp departments 13% pϽ0.001 Fair newsletter, posters) Pre 1076 4356 (intervention) Academic employee ϩ Client reminders Post 1092 4422 Other Other 9% 23% health clinic (mail, letters) ϩ Comparison: Other departments (healthcare workers) Expanded access departments (comparison) (on-site Both groups vaccinations) ϩ received some Reduced out-of- interventions pocket costs (free vaccinations) Comparison (subset): Client education ϩ Client reminders ϩ Rreduced out-of- pocket costs (continued on next page) Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Hogg (1998)75 Location: Canada; Randomly selected (1) Influenza Provider ϩClient Ϫ5.9 pct points 7 months (1990–1991) Quebec province families vaccination of reminders education Greatest: Group Components: 2 arms nϭ719 families eligible family ϩ 9.1% randomized trial Client education Client education ϩ members reduced Fair (mailed letter; provider reminders costs Private rural medical general preventive ϩ reduced out-of- 15% center information) pocket costs: Client reminders nϭ252 ϩClient ϩ2.6 pct points (mailed, patient Client reminders ϩ reminders specific reminder) provider reminders 17.6% ϩ Provider ϩ reduced out-of- reminders pocket costs: (computerized) ϩ nϭ204 Reduced client out- Provider reminders ϩ of-pocket costs (free reduced out-of- vaccination) pocket costs: Comparison: Provider nϭ263 reminders ϩ Reduced out-of- pocket costs

Jans (2000)76 Location: The Recruited general (1) Mean 50% 61% ϩ11 pct points 12 months (1993, 1994) Netherlands medicine practices percentage of pϾ0.2 NS Greatest: Other design Components: Provider Inter: nϭ14 practices study patients mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am with concurrent education Comp: nϭ5 practices receiving comparison (guidelines, Recruited patients inﬂuenza Fair meetings) ϩ with asthma or vaccine General medicine clinics Provider feedback COPD (personal feedback Inter: 455 about patient care 427 (94%) f/u provided at Comp: 152 educational 146 (96%) f/u meetings) Comparison: Usual care (continued on next page) 273 274 mrcnJunlo rvnieMdcn,Vlm 8 ubr5S Number 28, Volume Medicine, Preventive of Journal American

Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Klein (1986)78 Location: New York Hospitalized (1) Pneumococcal I9% I 78% ϩ67 pct points 6 months (1984) City inpatients on two polysaccharide C2% C4% pϽ0.001 Greatest: Individual Components: Client medical wards vaccination nonrandomized trial education (posters) during study status at Fair ϩ Standing orders period discharge Academic medical (designated staff) ϩ Intervention centers Provider education nϭ136 patients total (posters in hospital) nϭ101 (74%) high ϩ Expanded access risk (hospital inpatients) Comparison Comparison: Client ϩ nϭ122 patients total Provider education nϭ99 (81%) high (posters) ϩ risk Expanded access

Landis (1995)80 Location: Asheville Hospital inpatients (1) Percentage of 4.1% 31.8% ϩ27.7 pct points 4 months (1993) NC admitted to one of patients pϽ0.001 Greatest: Group Components: six nursing care receiving nonrandomized trial Standing orders units: nϭ1252 pneumococcal Fair (designated staff) ϩ patients vaccine Regional hospital Reduced client out- Note: Program of-pocket costs (free included universal vaccination) and targeted Comparison: vaccinations Enhanced usual care (client education) (continued on next page) Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Larson (1982)44 Location: Seattle WA High risk patients of (1) Influenza 1977– 1978–1979 (1978–1979) Components: study clinic vaccination rate 1978 post Greatest: Individual Multicomponent nϭ395 identified (self-reported) pre randomized trial arm (based on nϭ307 available Health belief I 51.6% I 51.4% ϩ13.6 pct points 12 months Fair content) nϭ283 (92%) at model C 34.0% C 20.2% pϽ0.001 Note: Academic family Client education ϩ analysis Minimal change in medical center Client reminders Three intevention intervention arm, (mailed postcards arms but significant with content based Health belief model: decrease in on health belief nϭ70 comparison arm model) Personal message: Comparison: Usual nϭ61 care Neutral content: nϭ68 Control: nϭ84

Moran (1996)83 Location: High-risk patients of (1) Inﬂuenza (1991–1992) Massachusetts urban community vaccination Greatest: Individual Components: Client health center rate randomized trial education nϭ816 identiﬁed Client reminders C9% I 23% ϩ14 pct points 6 months Good (brochure) ϩ nϭ797 (97%) ϩ client Community health Client reminders random education ϩ center (mail) ϩ Client Brochure nϭ198 access ϩ incentive (lottery Incentive nϭ198 reduced costs mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am contest) ϩ Brochure ϩ Client reminders C9% I 26% ϩ14 pct points Expanded access Incentive: nϭ198 ϩ client (walk-in clinic) ϩ Usual care (access ϩ incentive ϩ Reduced out-of- reduced costs): access ϩ pocket costs (free nϭ202 reduced costs vaccine) Note: Results for Client reminders C9% I 26% ϩ17 pct points Comparison: subset of patients ϩ client Expanded access ϩ aged Ͻ65 years education ϩ Reduced out-of- reported here client incentive pocket costs ϩ access ϩ reduced costs (continued on next page) 275 276 mrcnJunlo rvnieMdcn,Vlm 8 ubr5S Number 28, Volume Medicine, Preventive of Journal American

Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Nichol (1990)84 Location: Minneapolis Randomly selected (1) Inﬂuenza 29.9% 58.3% ϩ28.4 pct points 2 months (1987) MN outpatients vaccination pϽ0.000001 Greatest: Group Components: Client Intervention VA: (patient self- nonrandomized trial education (mailed nϭ500 reported Fair letter) ϩ Client nϭ267 (70.6%) receipt) VA medical center reminders (clinic patients responded appt notice) ϩ ϩ high-risk Provider reminders indications (stamp) ϩ Standing Comparison VA: orders (nurses) ϩ nϭ1500 Expanded access nϭ697 (69.9%) (walk-in clinic; patients responded lobby) ϩ high-risk Comparison: Client indications education ϩ Expanded access

Nichol (1998)85 Location: Minneapolis VA patients (1) Percentage of 1987– 1996–1997 (1987–1997) MN (inpatient program patients self- 1988 Moderate: Time series Components: Client was added to reporting 52.2% 69.4% ϩ17.2 pct points 10 years Fair education (annual outpatient program receipt of VA medical center mailed info.) ϩ over study period) inﬂuenza Standing orders Annual patient vaccination (nurse) ϩ surveys nϭ500/year (2) Percentage of 1994– 1996–1997 Expanded access Response rates patients self- 1995 (walk-in clinics) 77% to 81% reporting 19.5% 51.6% ϩ32.1 pct points 3 years Note: Previous paper Note: Results from receipt of (Nichol, 1990) also high-risk subset ϩ pneumococcal described client and age Ͻ65 years vaccination provider reminders reported here Comparison: Before– after (continued on next page) Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Overhage (1996)87 Location: Providers of (1) Percentage of 2.6% 2.1% Ϫ0.5 pct points 6 months (1992–1993) Indianapolis, hospitalized hospitalized pϭ0.69 Greatest: Individual Indiana University patients patients randomized trial Components: Provider nϭ78 physicians on receiving Fair reminders 24 teams (12 I, pneumococcal Academic medical (computer 12 C) vaccination center notiﬁcation; daily reports) ϩ Expanded access (inpatient vaccinations) Comparison: Usual care

Sellors (1997)90 Location: Canada; Consecutive, self- (1) Proportion of 25% 48% ϩ23 pct points 10 months (1992–1993) Hamilton, Ontario referred patients of initially pϭ0.008 Greatest: Individual Components: Client study STD clinic noncompliant randomized trial reminders nϭ385 patients who Fair (telephone) ϩ nϭ256 (66.5%) received STD clinic Reduced client out- HBsAG negative at second dose of of-pocket costs (free baseline hepatitis B mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am in Canadian Random assignment vaccine healthcare system) of patients who Comparison: Client failed to present reminders for second dose (appointment Inter: nϭ67 letters at 3 months Comp: nϭ69 sent by mail) ϩ Reduced client out- of-pocket costs (continued on next page) 277 278 Appendix (continued) ref mrcnJunlo rvnieMdcn,Vlm 8 ubr5S Number 28, Volume Medicine, Preventive of Journal American Author (year) (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) Spaulding (1991)93 Location: Patients (1) Percentage 9.1% 25.2% ϩ16.1 pct 6 months (1983–1984) Washington State identiﬁed as of patients points Greatest: Individual Components: Client high-risk receiving pϽ0.001 randomized trial reminders nϭ1068 inﬂuenza Fair (postcard) ϩ Intervention: vaccination Army medical Enhanced access nϭ519 during study center (walk-in clinic) ϩ Comparison: period Reduced client nϭ549 out-of-pocket costs (free) Comparison: Enhanced access ϩ Reduced client out-of-pocket costs

Thomas (1993)95 Location: Winston- Healthcare (1) Percentage 1990 1992 ϩ46 pct 2 years (1990–1992) Salem NC workers in of healthcare 8% 54% points Moderate: Time series Components: Client study facility workers Fair education nϭ195 receiving Life-care community (reviewed CDC inﬂuenza guidelines with vaccination staff) ϩ Expanded access (vaccination fair) ϩ Reduced client out-of- pocket costs (free) Comparison: Before- after

Turner (1990)97 Location: Greenville Resident (1) Provider 29% 47% ϩ18 pct 9 months (1987–1988) NC physicians delivered points Greatest: Group Components: Client Intervention: influenza p Ͻ 0.002 randomized trial reminders nϭ12 vaccination Fair (preventive Comparison: as prompted Academic medical services card) ϩ nϭ12 (2) Provider 24% 22% Ϫ2 pct points center Provider Patients of study delivered pϭ0.34 reminders (chart providers pneumococcal prompts) nϭ423 enrolled vaccination Comparison: Inter: nϭ177 as prompted Provider Comp: nϭ246 reminders (chart prompt) (continued on next page) Appendix (continued) Author (year)ref (Study period) Results Design suitability: design Study population Quality of execution Intervention and description Reported Reported Value used in Follow-up Evaluation setting comparison elements Sample size Effect measure baseline effect summary time Studies evaluating interventions to increase targeted vaccine coverage when implemented in combination (multicomponent interventions) van Essen (1997)98 Location: The GPs in study (1) Estimates of 1992 1993 Mean number 12 months (1992–1993) Netherlands: communities patient I 7.7% I 9.3% of influenza Greatest: Other design Amersfoot and Intervention: influenza C 8.5% C 9.0% vaccines per with a concurrent Arnhem Amersfoot nϭ82 vaccination 100 insured comparison group Components: Client practices/118 GPs rate calculated patients Fair education Comparison: Arnhem from influenza ϩ1.1 95% CI GPs in community (guideline nϭ97 practices/124 vaccine (0.6–1.6) dissemination) ϩ GPs prescriptions (ϩ1.1 pct Provider education and patient points) (guideline meetings population of GPs) ϩ Provider feedback (data on vaccine prescriptions filled) Comparison: Usual care

Yassi (1993)101 Location: Canada; Healthcare workers (1) Hepatitis B 1988 1990 (1988 and 1990) Winnipeg, Manitoba employed in areas vaccination I 41.1% I 54.7% ϩ19.6 pct 12 months Greatest: Other design Components: Client designated as high rate C 42.4% C 36.4% points with a concurrent education (posters, risk comparison group handouts, video) ϩ 1988: nϭ1203 Fair Client reminders 1990: nϭ1107 Academic medical (letters for follow- mJPe e 2005;28(5S) Med Prev J Am center up doses) ϩ Expand access (on- site clinics) ϩ Reduced client out- of-pocket costs (free to healthcare workers in high-risk areas) Comparison: Usual care C or Comp, comparison group; CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; CI, conﬁdence interval; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; f/u, follow-up; GP, general practitioner; I or Inter, intervention group; NS, not signiﬁcant; OR, odds ratio; pct points, percentage points (absolute difference); RR, relative risk; STD, sexually transmitted disease; VA, Veterans Affairs medical center. 279