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The Future of : The NASA Paradigm

Philip R. Harris

Management challenges The challenges will be not just From a New Space Era in terms of technology and its management but also human and The prototypes of 21 st century cultural in dimension (see my paper management, particularly for large- "The Influence of Culture on Space scale enterprises, may well be found Developments" in this volume). A within the aerospace industry. The recent NASA study, Living Aloft, space era inaugurated a number begins to describe the human of projects of such scope and requirements for extended space magnitude that another type of flight involving diverse spacefarers management had to be created to (Connors, Harrison, and Akins 1985). ensure successful achievement. In an article on extraterrestrial society The pushing out of the space (1985), William MacDaniel, professor frontier may prove to be a emeritus, Niagara University, aptly powerful catalyst not only for the described the multiple challenges in development of new technologies terms of just one undertaking of the but also for the emergence of next decade--a space station: macromanagement. Any way that we look at it... With further extension of human NASA will be confronted with presence into space during the management problems that will next 25 years, new opportunities be totally unique. Space station will be offered to those responsible management is going to be an for such projects, whether in the entirely new ball game, requiring public or in the private sector. new and imaginative approaches Satellite expansion, a space station, if serious problems are to be and possibly a lunar outpost will resolved and conflict avoided. require new technologies and systems for more complex missions MacDaniel, a sociologist and that involve multiple locations and cofounder of the Space Settlement greater numbers and varieties of Studies Project (3SP) at his personnel. Whether in activities of university, then analyzed one the National Aeronautics and Space people management dimension Administration, the Department that results from the sociocultural of Defense or military branches, mix of international scientific and the aerospace industry or new engineering teams and onboard commercial enterprises, there will space crews. The multicultural be a passage from the way space inhabitants of the space station operations have been managed will have to cope with many for the first quarter century of practical aspects of their cultural development to the way they must differences--differences that alter be led and administered in the their perceptions and ways of decades ahead. functioning relative to everything

120 from communication and problem- the inauguration of the space solving to spatial needs and diet. program by NASA around 1960. Whether the orbiting of increased NASA, in conjunction with its numbers of people for longer partners in the aerospace business, periods of time is done by the innovated in more than space U.S.A. or the U.S.S.R., Japan or technologyl Because of the very Europe, project leaders will have to complexity of the Apollo lunar include managing cultural mission, NASA also invented new differences and promoting synergy ways of organizing and managing. among their priorities (Moran and Harris 1982). The Apollo project which landed a team of American In any event, futurists, students of astronauts on the Moon is management, and those concerned generally considered as one of with technological administration the greatest technological would do well to review the endeavors in the history of literature of emerging space mankind. But in order to management for its wider achieve this, a managerial implications. NASA offers a effort, no less prodigious than paradigm, or demonstrated model, the technological one, was of future trends in the field of required. management at large. (Seamans and Ordway 1977)

It is my contention that much The Apollo Heritage in of what is currently being Innovative Management characterized as the "new management" is partially the A transformation is under way from heritage of that space effort, industrial designs of organization a harbinger of tomorrow's and styles of management to a new management. This idea is work culture (Harris 1983 and especially pertinent to the building 1985a). In an AT&T report on of large-scale technological emerging issues, the term projects, whether on this planet metaindustrial was used to or in space. Those engaged in designate the new management complex endeavors that involve and the approach to human many systems, disciplines, systems that is evolving (Coleman institutions, and even nations will 1980). One catalyst for this have to apply in even more creative transition may very well have been ways the legacy that the Apollo

121 program gave to management as meaning "postindustrial (Levine 1982). Investigations management," while I understand should be directed to what it to refer to "the management of constitutes macromanagement. macroprojects" (see fig. 15). McFarland (1985) sees this term

Competent human Long-term resources resources Competent Management contractor services of interfaces management (reward/ penalty system) Strategic planning resource skills access {Government, universities, research centers} Global management of of large-scale Sociopolitical international negotiation enterprises tradeoffs in joint ventures management-- Govern ment commitment with Figure 15 political/public Relevant communication management md cooperation information Macromanagement of Large.Scale systems resources/ Ecological/ Enterprises environmental/ technical ergonomics The management of long-term projects reliability by sensitivity and configurational costing $100 million or more will have management many aspects Examples of such management and multidisciplinary " macroprojects" are rebuilding innovation American infrastructure and building a space infrastructure.

122 In the inaugural issue of New Dr. O'Toole was later (1985) to Management, the editor listed elaborate on this theme in a book 10 orientations that lead to entitled Vanguard Management. organizational excellence today (O'Toole 1983). An organization An examination of the history of can excel if it is oriented toward the Apollo Program indicates that NASA leaders followed such 1. Tomorrow--attuned to the principles. A possible exception is long-term future the third item, which does not quite 2. People-developing human apply to a public agency, but resources leaders among the aerospace contractors must have had this 3. Product--committed to the concern for the consumer (in this consumer market case NASA itself) or the Moon 4. Technology--employing the mission would not have been so most advanced tools successful. NASA, over two decades ago, anticipated the 5. Quality--emphasizing emergence of metaindustrial excellence, service, and management. The very scope and competence complexity of putting humans on 6. External environment-- the lunar surface forced such concerned for all innovations. stakeholders Among the many management 7. Free-market competition-- innovations to come out of the imbued with the spirit of space program was the matrix risk-taking capitalism organization, with its emphasis on 8. Continuing examination and team management. The revision of organizational complexity of the Apollo values, compensation, undertaking necessitated its rewards, and incentives creation because traditional management approaches proved 9. Basic management inadequate. Among the many concerns--making and space contractors, TRW Systems selling products or providing in Redondo Beach, California, was services a leader in this process, which was 10. Innovation and openness to eventually to become a chief new ideas--nurturing and feature of the "new" management encouraging those who two decades later. Their vice question organizational president at the time, Sheldon assumptions and propose Davis, pioneered as bold changes a means to help technical people

123 work together to reach a common Today a profile of a metaindustrial goal (Harris 1985a). Other organization would include these contractors used the project characteristics (Harris 1983 and management and team strategy as 1985a): a form of ad hoc organization for new starts. General Dynamics, for • Use of state-of-the-art instance, could quickly assemble technology, ranging from experienced team members for microcomputers to robotics its Shuttle-Centaur project from • Flexibility in management previous work groups that had policies, procedures, and developed the Atlas-Centaur priorities, continuously rocket. adapting to the market--a norm of ultrastability (that is, A principal exponent of the matrix building continuous change as a way of managing complex into the system) space projects was Hughes Aircraft. One of its executives, • Autonomy and decentralization, Jack Baugh, did a doctoral so that people have more dissertation in 1981 on how over their own work decision-making is accomplished space and are responsible through a matrix organization. for decisions yet work under His thesis was that matrix integrating controls management is essential to • Open, circular communication an aerospace project when with emphasis on rapid simultaneous decisions are needed feedback, relevant information in a situation of great uncertainty exchange at all locations, generated by high information- networking, and the use of processing requirements; when multimedia financial and • Participation and involvement are strongly constrained; when of personnel encouraged, the decision-making process especially through team, must be speeded up; and when project, or matrix management the quantity of data, products, and services would otherwise • Work relations that are be overwhelming. Obviously, informal and interdependent, managers outside the space cooperative and mutually fraternity agreed, adopting the respectful, adaptive and method. cross-functional

124 • Organizationalnormsthat Because those in the management supportcompetence,high of research and development, performance,professionalism, especially those coming from innovation,andrisk-taking, engineering and technological evento makingallowancefor fields, may have some failureoccasionally misconceptions about the • A creativeworkenvironment management process, I have thatenergizespeopleand included figure 16. This paradigm enhancesthequalityof by R. Alec Mackenzie (1969) worklife,sothatit is more illustrates the comprehensiveness meaningful of management activity. The conceptual model is a • A researchanddevelopment multidimensional approach to the orientationthatcontinually art and science of managing both seeksto identifythebest human and material resources people,processes,products, effectively. It highlights, among its markets,services,soasto central facets, the management of achievethemission change and differences. This paradigm still seems relevant for It isinterestingthatmanyof managing large-scale undertakings, thesequalitieswereidentified whether on Earth or in orbit. From 15yearsagoas essential to the my viewpoint as a management interdisciplinary character of large- psychologist who has served as a scale endeavors (Sayles and NASA consultant, it would appear Chandler 1971). These were that the main difficulties facing also the characteristics practiced, space management in the future to a great extent, by NASA will be found On the right side, management in the Apollo era in the people dimensions. (Levine 1982). They are Unfortunate|y, this opinion was considered essential for confirmed by the Presidential organizational excellence now Commission on the Space Shuttle and in the future, particularly Challenger Accident, which for large-scale programs such concluded that there had been as renewing the American a human systems failure infrastructure or developing a within NASA and its contractors, permanent presence in space. particularly in regard to information flow and decision-making.

125 /

Figure 16

The Management Process From R. Alec Mackenzie, 1969, "The Management Process in 3-D," Harvard Business Review 47 (6-Nov.-Dec.): 80-87.

126 Perhaps the origins of many mechanism for conveying- 21 st century management styles explicitly, ambiguously, or may be traced someday to the implicitly--the values, norms, and 20th century management of assumptions of the institution. research and development Organizational culture is embedded institutions. Mark and Levine and transmitted through (1984) make a case for such a • Formal statements of thesis by pointing to the Federal philosophy or mission, Government laboratories that charters, creeds, published promoted the technology materials for recruitment or development that resulted in personnel macroprograms like the Manhattan Project, the Apollo missions, and • Design of physical spaces, the Space Shuttle. They facades, buildings document both technical and • Leader role modeling, managerial innovations produced training, coaching, or by bringing together advanced assessing R&D people in relatively small, quasi-independent groups dubbed • Explicit reward and status "skunkworks." Such groups system, promotion criteria produced some of the most • Organizational fit-- successful modern aircraft. recruitment, selection, That form of management was career development, eventually popularized by Tom retirement, or Peters (1982, 1985) as a central "excomm unication" theme of the new management . • Stories, legends, myths, parables about key people and events

The Impact of • Leader reactions to or coping Organizational Culture with organizational crises and critical situations The work culture affects • Design, structure, and organizational planning, decisions, systems of the organization and behavior. MIT professor Edgar Schein (1985) maintains • Policies, procedures, and that the work culture is the processes

127 In another paper in this volume organizations manifest strong ("The Influence of Culture on functional cultures, NASA obviously Space Developments"), I analyze did this during its Apollo period. the effect of the organizational Has it been doing so in the Space culture on NASA and the Shuttle phase of its development? aerospace industry. Figure 17 is a The 1986 setbacks and subsequent diagram of space organizational investigations would indicate a culture, which illustrates the many negative response. One outcome dimensions of a system's of current reorganization needs to expression of identity. Since be a strengthened NASA culture. research indicates that excellent

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Products. services, Survival. trained personnel, growth, end and public information development Communication/ language

Decision-making/ problem-solving Values/ ethics Structure/ titudes/ technologies Work space/ principles OUTPUT INPUT facilities

Rules/ regul 'ship/ Control/ styles reporting Work appearance/ Policies/ attendance Roles/ procedures relationships

Norms/ standards

Compensation/rewards

Needs, expectations, information, and Personnel practices Figure 17 resources

Tools/equipment Space Organizational Culture

128 In 1984, our study team people. In order for NASA and its considering space management corporate aerospace partners to concluded that a survey and develop space vigorously in the next analysis of NASA organizational 25 years, they must confront the culture from its headquarters to the following cultural issues. field centers would facilitate change and renewal as further space (1) The mind-set of the engineer development is planned. If plans and technologist requires for a lunar base are to be expansion to include effectively implemented, then a generalist thinking. Too transformation in management often present approaches attitudes, styles, strategies, and exclude consideration operations at NASA may also be of human issues, and necessary. In the post-Apollo era, the contribution of the NASA and its contractors drifted managerial and behavioral back into an industrial, more sciences to planning and bureaucratic style. The work decision-making are culture, whether of NASA as an downpiayed. organizational system or of its aerospace contract partners, (2) More synergistic relationships must shift from this industrial or in space endeavors should bureaucratic mode back to the replace obsolete competitive mode of enterprises characterized postures by individual as metaindustrial. Only then, it companies. The tasks of seems to me, will the main exploiting space resources actors in the space business be are so immense that global positioned to take advantage of space agencies need to the vast resources on the "high collaborate more effectively. frontier" (O'Neill 1977). Inside NASA, the power games between headquarters Management consultants see and its centers must give organizations as energy exchange way to mutual cooperation. systems. Institutional culture can Archaic antitrust regulations encourage use of the psychic and must be gotten around to physical energies of its people in permit aerospace companies achieving organizational goals. to work together to solve This is the lesson of the Apollo common problems, be they Moon project. On the other hand, matters of quality control institutional culture can undermine on launch pads and space or dissipate the efforts of its vehicles or greater sharing of

129 research and development (4) Technology development knowledge. The large timespans have been space corporations can do lengthened, rather than more for the nation's space shortened, because those program by joint venturing in the space arena have and sharing than by become more bureaucratic, competitive duplication. less entrepreneurial and Furthermore, new ways for innovative. From goal- synergistic inclusion of setting to implementation, university and Government Apollo's mission was research laboratories accomplished in less than should be explored--again a decade. Now NASA as in the Apollo era (Levine planners use a 12-to-15- 1982). Perhaps the model year timeframe from currently being developed inception to completion by the European Space of a new technology. Agency is worthy of Meanwhile, the growing emulation in North America; high technology industry it involves cooperation (an industry that is a both between nations and direct spinoff of space between institutions. technology) has shortened its development timeframe. (3) As space endeavors reach With due regard to spacefarer out to include business safety, perhaps the time has participation beyond that of come to reexamine the the aerospace companies, cultural assumptions by attitudes toward and which the practices of regulations of contractors redundancy, over-design, deserve revision. Perhaps over-preparation, over-study, the NASA tradition of and excessive timidity partnership with its suppliers become embedded habits is more appropriate than the and traditions. Certainly, Department of Defense such cultural proclivities are mentality of seeing its less justified in unmanned contractors as "users." missions and nontechnical Space enterprises would areas, like conference benefit from marketplace management and reporting. concerns for satisfying There is reasonable and clients and customers acceptable risk in the (Webb 1985). experimental situation of

130 space flight. What seems Space Institute and sponsored by more important is effective the NASA-related University Space management of quality Research Association, business control on equipment and and academic researchers applying parts that go into space automation and robotics to the transportation systems and space station and other ventures habitats. on the high frontier have combined their brain power and established a (5) Organizational renewal joint data bank (see, for example, implies a continuing C-STAR Study Group 1988). process of clarification of roles, relationships, and The experience with the Shuttle missions. It requires would seem to confirm that NASA change from the ways moved the project too quickly from we always did it to the research and development into adaptations and inventions operations. In the transition to necessary to remain a 21st century space management, player in the emerging the private sector may dominate 21st century "space the space transportation business game." Perhaps the and commercial launches, leaving habitat modules of space NASA to pursue a technological stations and lunar outposts and scientific research role. would be better designed by architects and hotel These are but a few of the issues chains than by traditional that deserve consideration by aerospace vehicle management leaders in the space designers. Perhaps the community who would revitalize functions of such space their organizational cultures and facilities should be design a management strategy privatized, so that the attuned to future demands. NASA centers can take a role more supervisory than operational, thus freeing New Roles for Earth- and them for more basic space Space-Based Managers research and development. The five issues just listed are A case relative to cultural issue 2, basically cultural and point up the on synergistic relationships, is the need for planned changes. At our industry-university Consortium for summer study, resource speakers Space and Terrestrial Automation provided numerous suggestions for and Robotics (C-STAR). Led by renewing the American space David Criswell of the California program and bringing it to new

131 levels of achievement. Several of operations on the station, the more telling comments relate each "feeding" on the other's to our topic. needs, is not only stimulating to thought but also changes the William E. Wright, Defense roles and relationships of public Advanced Research Projects and private participants in Agency, said that the space undertakings. aerospace industry culture is extraordinarily conservative. Peter Vajk, now an independent It suffers from a syndrome: space consultant, also cited "If it hasn't been done for examples of new, more the last 20 years, forget it." sophisticated management The industry and NASA are information systems that can not bold enough in their alter the role of space project planning and requests for managers. New computer funding. A major program tools, such as relational data comes into being because base management systems, someone champions it (puts give managers a better his reputation on the line and capability to search the helps bring it into being). literature, while new software like "Hypertext" from Xanadu Peter Vajk, SAI, and Michael Corporation (Menlo Park, CA) Simon, General Dynamics, provides greater access to presented a "stock documentation. prospectus" for the establishment of a fictional Ronald Maehl, RCA, pointed corporation, "Consolidated out that management issues Space Enterprises." It related to a space station and envisioned nine companies lunar base represent a that could profit by serving departure from traditional customer needs and NASA management practices. functions on the space First, there is the matter of station. Four were providers managing the development of such space services as of such projects and precursor transport, repair, research, missions; then there is and products; three were the issue of operational housekeeping companies management of a space that would provide hotel, facility when it is functioning. power, and communication There are precedents in the services; two were support experience of the National companies providing special Oceanic and Atmospheric space services and fuel. Administration (NOAA) and The concept of commercial commercial operators with

132 meteorological and time" (signal delays between communication satellites. operator command and machine There are new challenges response and between machine relative to man/machine response and verification or receipt interactions, operational cost of data). The management of containment, and private automation and robotics in space participation in such space was the subject of another activities. California Space Institute study for NASA (Automation and Robotics These four inputs of experts Panel 1985). are but indications of new developments related to the As more manned space of tomorrow's space occur at more locations, we will enterprises--developments that need a new infrastructure on this warrant more research and call planet to support them. Instead of for policy changes by NASA a single mission control center, headquarters and its centers. there may be regional support Organizational energy and centers--some under Government resources directed to such issues, or military auspices and some run particularly that of the differences by private corporations. For the between developmental and next 50 years, we are likely to operational management, would experiment with a variety of Earth- have greater payoff than the based management plans for internal struggles of NASA centers space activities, beginning with the to control future programs. space station and a lunar base.

Analysis must be made of the Even more interesting will be expertise and skills needed by management in space of either Earth-based managers of projects manned or unmanned ventures. that are hundreds or thousands of People onsite at a lunar outpost miles away from them. New space will require more freedom for project managers have much to decision-making and creative learn in this regard from previous problem-solving than the project managers of unmanned astronauts currently enjoy with probes by spacecraft, such as mission control in Houston. Voyager and Viking, Pioneer and Decentralized, onsite space Mariner. The tasks range from management will come into limited controls to teleoperations, prominence with the building of the or the control on Earth by an space station. Now is the time to operator of a machine that is begin planning for the practical at a remote location such as in matters to be faced by station space. Management problems managers, especially when the experienced include "queuing personnel and organizational

133 components come from various selling shares or bonds in space sources beyond NASA itself. In technological venturing, and regard to an operational lunar other forms of public financial base, research is needed now on participation beyond annual such management concerns as congressional appropriations. communications and leadership The commercialization of space and how these functions should will be a profound force in be divided between the Earth altering the management of and the Moon. space projects (Webb 1985).

Mixed crews (men and women, As the crews in tomorrow's space military and civilian, public and habitations increase in size and private sector workers, Americans heterogeneity, as well as in length and other nationalities, scientists of stay away from this planet, and other professionals) will invoke planners must expect more stress more complex management and strain and must provide space challenges and responses. inhabitants with more autonomy, The people who, in increasing reminds Ben Finney, a University numbers, visit a space station or of Hawaii anthropologist, later in lunar outpost by 2025 will include this volume. To maximize safe, more than astronauts or even effective, congenial performance "astrotechnicians." They will by such pioneers, new programs include a broad segment of Earth's in behavioral science should be society, from politicians to tourists. instituted. Studies should be made of team development and group In past colonial explorations, trading dynamics, new leadership training companies were formed to manage and responsibilities, and even operations in new, remote environs. wellness programs in space Perhaps this previous solution communities. Such a program could be replicated in a Space should be part of a planned Trading Company. If the bold plan "space deployment system" I am for future space developments proposing to facilitate acculturation outlined by the National Commission in a strange, alien, sometimes on Space (Paine 1986) is to be hostile space environment (Harris implemented, then more innovative 1985b). ways for funding and managing space projects will have to be For multicultural crews to function invented. Whether it is financing a well in space, participants must fourth orbiter or building a space be able to deal with remoteness, station, there are historical they must be self-sufficient and precedents for national lotteries, multiskilled, and they must be

134 sensitiveto otherpeopleand programs require a new type of respectthenormof competence. macromanagement, whether to Becausespacestationsin both rebuild this planet's infrastructure lowandgeosynchronousEarth or to create a space infrastructure. orbitanda lunarora martianbase Figure 15 offers an illustration of aresuchcostly,risky,andlong- the scope of such an undertaking termprograms,theywillrequire from a management perspective. newmanagementmechanisms Long-term projects costing thatcanprovidecontinuityand $100 million or more require the consistencyregardlessof application of:administrative skills personnelchanges. across a range of activities that begins with strategic planning and Anothermanagementconcernto extends to global or interplanetary beaddressedmorevigorouslyis management of material and thatof multipurposemissions, human resources. suchasoneinvolvingbothcivilian andmilitarypayloads(Brooks Macro-engineering projects have 1983).Economiesof scaleand shaped our past and may well piggybackingto containcostsare shape our future (Davidson 1983). argumentsforcombinedmissions. Space programs, like Apollo and Technicalandmanagement the Shuttle, have advanced the complexityandtheissuesof field and may be the force behind secrecy,foreignpolicy,and growth in an allied discipline-- internationalcooperationmay macromanagement. Most space provestrongercasesforkeeping programs are macroscopic commercialanddefensespace because they share these activitiesseparate. characteristics:

Spacemanagementwouldseem (1) They involve difficult, an idealsubjecton whichthe complex engineering and Academyof Managementand management problems otherscholarsshouldfocustheir which must be resolved researchandconferences. before the program is completed.

Macromanagement (2) They require significant in Space public and private sector resources that must be As has already been indicated, committed over long large-scale and complex technical timeframes.

135 (3) Theyincludescientificand by 2010, it will not only have to use technicalproblemsof macromanagement strategies, it unusualcomplexity,size, may also pioneer in the process. orcircumstances,andthe As more corporations participate in solutionsofteninvolve space ventures rather than just previouslyunknown those in the aerospace industry, technologiesor resources. NASA will face a new set of interface challenges with these (4) Theyhaveprofoundimpacts new stakeholders. Already space on theenvironment,legal entrepreneurs expect to launch andregulatorysituation, satellites and a variety of other economics,andpoliticsof commercial space ventures that thesocietiesthatdevelop require creating synergy with NASA them. (Webb 1985). Some of these space enterprises will necessitate (Davidson,Meador,andSalkeld the adoption of macromanagement 1980) methods. :z:z_ i :

Project management of large- Research funding should be scale enterprises has benefited directed into matters of from such new tools as the macromanagement by NASA, program evaiuat_and review global corporations, universities, technique (PERT), the critical path and others because it demands a method (CPM), and project new type of management thinking, management space systems style, and skills. For example, (PMSS) modeling. Developments macroprojects, whether on Earth in the supercomputer, software or in space, stand in need of packages, and management leadership capable of information systems have made macreprojects more feas_le and Synergy- facilitating manageable. Ma-n_, of these cooperation and management innovations owe their in bringing together diverse origins and refinements to the elements, so as to produce Department of Defense and NASA. more than the sum of the parts Macromanagement of large-scale enterprises may very well become Intercultural skill--overcoming a dominant theme in 21st century differences between peoples, management practice (McFarland groups, and nations, 1985). As NASA seeks to particularly through effective implement plans for a space station cross-cultural communication in the 1990s and a lunar outpost and negotiation

136 Political savvy--gaining together. Certainly, a traditionally agreement and support for educated engineer is not likely project goals from the to possess many of these skills. various political or Research on the education of governmental entities, as macro-engineers has been under well as from the public if way at MIT under the conduct their support is essential of Frank Davidson, and it is beginning at the University of Financial competence-- Texas' Large-Scale Programs understanding the economic Institute under the direction of realities of a long-term George Kozmetsky. Publications project and capable of such as Technology Review, putting together the published by MIT Press, are necessary funding to also addressing these concerns. complete the undertaking, These efforts should be expanded while containing excessive to include macromanagement expenditures as a subject of study. Kozmetsky (1985) calls for transformational Interface management-- management strategies, thus taking the lead in bringing indicating that macromanagement together on time the various may be one of the central issues resources (human, of 21st century management. informational, technical, material) required to achieve During our summer study, two project goals resource speakers pointed out existing management models Cosmopolitanism --sensitive worthy of further analysis by to global and interplanetary space planners. To create the issues affecting the project, necessary infrastructures for such as legal, ecological, tomorrow's space programs, environmental, and human consultant Kathleen Murphy concerns, and able to cope (1983) proposed that we could with such issues from an learn from large development international rather than a projects around the world. national perspective (See her paper in this volume.) Such major "greensite" These are but a sampling of projects have already resolved the qualities that are desirable in problems between owners the new macroproject executive and contractors--developing or manager. Perhaps no one techniques of conflict resolution person possesses all of them, and negotiation and making but a management team may reward and penalty provisions. exercise such competencies And they have tested financial

137 arrangements that might prove nonterrestrial resources can feasible for space development-- operate like these Earth-based including new financing models, analogs: "Space is just a different joint ventures, consortia, R&D place to do the same kinds of shared between Government and things we do on this planet." industry, and national bank syndicate investments. But space is a place for large-scale endeavors of a peaceful and ]'he other input came from commercial nature. It opens consulting engineer Peter Vajk, opportunities for human institutions who observed that global projects and governments to produce concerned with new terrestrial synergy, not war. It requires not materials may offer insights into only new mind-sets but new the exploration for and exploitation management. Over a decade ago, of space resources. Like NASA a classic work provided us with a projects, these projects are high- charter for that purpose. In risk and capital-intensive. They Managing Large Systems: involve very large costs for research Organizations for the Future and development, startup, and (1971), Sayles and Chandler operations. They are beginning to reminded us that such enterprises use a macromanagement approach are interdisciplinary in character in which a corporate headquarters and integrate an array of scientific, sets general policy, negotiates major technological, social, political, and contracts, and keeps accounting and other personalities and resources. systems records, while subsidiary This charter describes the large- facilities operate under distributed scale programs of NASA, as was or semiautonomous management. well understood by the key Projects in new terrestrial materials, administrators of the Apollo being technology- and skill-intensive, Program. involve macro-engineering. They own, lease, or hire their In 1986 the National Commission transportation. They operate on Space, appointed by the distribution centers, retail outlets, President, issued a report, and sales offices. Their programs Pioneering the Space Frontier. It are extended in time and space recommends spending $700 billion throughout the deployment and on the U.S. space program for operation phases. Their activities manned settlements on the Moon are transnational. They use within 30 years; a new generation sophisticated computer information of spacecraft that could voyage to networks involving high-rate data the Moon, Mars, and beyond; and a transfer. Vajk believes that new space infrastructure for macroprojects to develop interplanetary factories, spaceports,

138 andcommunitiestoaccommodate Space management in the future eventually one million space will necessitate crossing traditional travelers a day. Macroprojects, academic disciplines and industrial such as will be undertaken in space fields, as this quotation of Frank by the turn of this century, need Davidson (1983) so succinctly more than bold vision; they need implies: a system for managing continuity over long periods, despite Space development is a fluctuations in personnel, policy, critical case-in-point, because government administrations, it will test the ability of our and finances. Gaining a national diverse, rather relaxed consensus to support new space society to set long-range ventures is a cultural problem. goals, to hue [sic] the line Implementing plans for that purpose despite disappointments implies innovative approaches to and setbacks, and to devise space management, such as have institutional arrangements been discussed here. that will assure continuity .... Low-cost approaches are For existing space organizations, indispensable, because an such as NASA and its aerospace increasingly educated public partners, reeducation of personnel will rightly insist on [a] return is in order to prepare for the future on investment .... Now is demands of space management in the time, therefore, for the general and macromanagement in aerospace community to particular. New executive and reach out to the mining industry, the heavy programs should be designed to construction industry, and deal with these considerations. the ground transportation Technology or R&D managers need industry, so that joint ventures to become more general in their on land and sea, as well as outlook, more open to new ideas "up there" may set a pattern outside their own fields and of partnership and a network industries, more competent in of personal relationships management skills. For this to which will benefit all systems happen, schools of engineering engineering programs that are and business will have to design so necessary for the future joint curricula, while corporate health, safety, and prosperity specialists in human resources and of the Republic. development will have to cooperate with R&D professionals to create more appropriate in-house training.

139 Conclusions organizational culture, so as to ascertain what changes are Under the leadership of NASA, necessary for future space plans are being made for space management. For NASA, the developments in the next 25 years. management changes involve new At a minimum, the program will relationships with the military and include space and lunar stations the private sector, as well as with that will be complicated to international space consortia and construct and manage, require a possibly some new entities, such new generation of technology, and as a global space agency. cost billions of dollars. From these bases in space, planners envision Obviously, the next 25 years in mining the Moon, possibly mining space will also alter the way we an asteroid, and eventually manage enterprises in space. launching manned missions to Initially, we need more research Mars (maybe a joint mission with on issues of leadership for Earth- the Soviets). Such developments based projects in space and space- will require an organizational based programs with managers transformation of the National there. The days of the traditional Aeronautics and Space "mission control" may be waning. Administration. This may involve Second, we need to realize that structural changes that give the large-scale technical enterprises, agency more autonomy and such as are undertaken in space, flexibility, especially long-term require a new form of management. financing. Certainly, it should Therefore, NASA and other include planned organization responsible agencies are urged renewal so that NASA builds on the to study excellence in space technological and management macromanagement, including the innovations of its Apollo heritage. necessary multidisciplinary skills. If the national decision is to go to Two recommended targets are Mars jointly with the Soviets, then the application of general living the challenge will be the integration systems theory (Miller 1978; see of the two countries' space also his paper in this volume) and management systems. macromanagement concepts (McFarland 1985) for development To become and remain fully and operation of a space station metaindustrial, NASA and its in the 1990s. Such management aerospace partners will have to models may supply the positive create a new work culture. For that orientation now needed in planning purpose, I have proposed a survey America's aerospace future. and assessment of their current

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