The Muslim Concept of Surrender to God

In seeking to understand Muslims it is essential to grasp the dominating themes of their faith. Unity, guidance, and obedience rank particularly high. In this article the author traces thedevelopment of the most fundamental Muslim concept that forms the touchstone of their identity—surrender to God.

by Mark Nygard

he Pakistani Muslim leader Abul upon the value of stipulated property. Syria, Mu‘awiya engages the forces of T A’la Mawdudi, surely repre- 4. Sawm, fasting during daylight ‘Ali, son-in-law of Muhammad and sents many Muslims when he expressed hours during the month of Ramadan. natural heir to power, in a contest for suc- pride that his religion was not, like so cession. After two weeks of battle, 5. Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca many others, named after a specific per- at least once during the lifetime of each ‘Ali agrees to arbitration of the issue on son or group. He points out that Muslim for those who can afford it.2 the basis of the Qur’an. Suddenly, a Christianity takes its name from Christ, number of ‘Ali’s men withdraw from his A sixth pillar is sometimes added, Buddhism from Buddha, Zoroastrian- camp in protest. How is it possible, jihad, which means “‘striving, or ism from Zoroaster, Judaism from the they ask, that the will of God as revealed exertion’ in the way of God,” either per- Jews. Islam, however, takes its name in the Qur’an should be mediated by sonally by struggle against lack of from “an attributive title,” that is, Islam human authorities? How can it be that faith and devotion, or publicly, by preach- describes anyone who has the attrib- their hero, ‘Ali, should compromise ing, teaching and, if necessary, armed ute of islam (surrender), and of being his faith and religious principles by con- struggle.3 Emphasizing the aspect of day- muslim (one who has so surrendered), sorting with the followers of a pre- to-day obedience, these pillars are of having surrendered himself to God or tender? In negotiating with one who was fundamental requirements of Muslim sur- resigned his will to God’s will in such outside God’s will, ‘Ali demonstrates render so basic that there is virtually a way that he experiences the well-being that he himself is outside God’s will and of God’s peace.1 Surrender to God is no disagreement over them among the thus, in fact, neither a true Muslim seen by Muslims as the defining charac- various branches of Islam. nor qualified to lead true Muslims.4 teristic of their faith, basic to their Nevertheless, when one considers Those who “went out” (kharaja) own sense of identity as Muslims and that there are persons widely consid- from ‘Ali became the kernel of the Khari- touchstone to their sense of unity. The ered to be Muslims who neglect all but jite movement. The dominating char- question is: Exactly what does surrender the first pillar for significant parts of acteristic of this movement was the con- to God mean for Muslims? their lives, such simple definitions begin viction that the faith of a Muslim had Straightforward definitions of surren- to seem illusive. The fact of the mat- to be accompanied by appropriate works der exist. Perhaps the first to be ter is that Muslim thought on surrender is or it was no Islam at all. Morality was offered by a Muslim on the street is a more complex, and is the fruit of a more important than profession of faith practical one: accomplishment of history of development by a human com- since it exposed one’s faith. Faithful- what are called the five “pillars of Islam.” munity faced with a wide variety of ness in surrender to God meant single- One who surrenders to God is one circumstances and decisions over a period minded integrity of action as proof of who practices the following divinely of 1400 years. Its full breadth and the word, lest faith be proven false. A fail- ordained acts: beauty can be more adequately appre- ure of integrity at any point indicated 1. Shahada, the witness that there is ciated by considering, however an incompleteness of surrender, betraying no God but Allah and that Muham- briefly, some key moments in that history. the fact that one was not really the mad is his Prophet. Surrender as Uncompromising Muslim one professed to be, and Khari- 2. Salat, the ritual prayers, or Obedience jites removed such persons from the worship services, performed daily during community.5 five specified intervals. The year is 656, and the third caliph of the new Islamic movement has The uncompromising character 3. Zakat, ritual alms giving based been murdered. The governor of of the Kharijite position was so driving INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:3 JULY-SEPT. 1996 126 Surrender to God that the movement splintered, as sect Implicit in this concept of postponement was a position that relieved the commu- judged fellow-sect unworthy of the was the idea that profession of faith nity of the need to make difficult name Muslim. In political issues there must be taken seriously, even when excluding decisions concerning its mem- was no toleration for a ruler who actions might not seem to all observ- bers. Sociologically, Muslim identity appeared to the faithful to have fallen into ers to correspond with it. The claim to be before the community was established by sin. In personal matters there was no a Muslim must be respected on its confession of faith, and both believer recourse for error, no mercy or forgive- own merit and not be called into question and community were enabled to pass on ness. They could not structure a world by actions. By this doctrine al-Hasan to other questions of life and faith themselves, and they were hotly pursued was giving opponents on all sides a theo- beyond the issue of identity. Not only so, for their unyielding criticism of the logical rationale for setting aside a Muslim individual or group confi- legitimacy of the world of others. While judgment on a potentially disruptive issue dent of their inward belief could respond theirs was not to be the defining posi- that was not likely to be resolved more resiliently to occasional human tion, the passionate insistence of the Kha- soon. Those who accepted this approach failure, knowing that it was not intrinsi- rijites on the totality of surrender came to be known as people of defer- cally related to their identity as Mus- undoubtedly reflects the passionate insis- ment, or Murji’ites.7 lims. It is, therefore, perhaps not surpris- tence of the Qur’an on the incompara- Eventually, the issue of succes- ing that the Murji’ite position became ble uniqueness of God. It may be argued sion died down,’Ali was accepted as one widely accepted in Islam as the pragmatic that the resurgence of Islamic funda- of “the four rightly-guided caliphs,” approach to self-definition, even mentalism in our century renews some and the Murji’ite idea of postponing judg- though periodic calls for more moral rigor Kharijite themes. ment of rulers ceased to be quite so occurred. Surrender as an Inward Belief critical an issue. What remained impor- Surrender as a Freely Chosen Human Some thirty years have passed tant, however, was a concept of faith Possibility since the Kharijites “went out” from ‘Ali. that fundamentally excludes consideration Sometime between the years 694 and The successors of Mu‘awiya have not of a person’s acts. In the words of 699 a man named Hasan al-Basri sits only established their dynasty after the Gibbs and Kramers, “a Muslim does not down to write a letter to the caliph. lose his faith through sin,” or eschato- death of ‘Ali in 661, but managed to Hasan’s views are rumored to be unu- logically, “where there is faith, sins will put down a second civil war of dissatis- sual, and the caliph has asked him to do no harm.”8 “We do not consider faction with their leadership. Around account for himself. Carefully Hasan every campfire, discussion of the recent anyone to be an infidel on account of sin,” pens a document, still extant, that includes war ends with the same debate: Who declares article one of the Murji’ite these words: confession, Fikh Aqbar I.9 In effect, islam really should have been caliph back in God creates only good; evil stems ‘Ali’s day? Are these Umayyads is identified with iman: surrender is from men or from Satan. Man God’s choice of leadership for Muslims? most essentially a matter of faith. Misin- chooses freely between the two; but God knows from all eternity what Should the ‘Ali line be returned to terpretation of religious duty does not man will choose. He only “leads him power? Maybe some other leader is really negate faith; neither does committing for- into error”...if man has first given him the right one? The temptation to be bidden acts. Erroneous believers and occasion for this through his sin.10 intolerant of rival points of view and sinful believers are Muslims nonetheless Without denying God’s will and create division within the movement because of their faith. This emphasis foreknowledge entirety, Hasan allowed is very real, not for Kharijites only, but on faith came to be the defining hallmark for the possibility of free human for the whole Muslim community.6 of the Murji’ite movement in contrast choice. Based on Quranic exegesis, he From this time a book has come to Kharijites with their emphasis on corre- granted that God is determinative not down to us, written by al-Hasan, sponding acts. only of external events such as poverty grandson of ‘Ali entitled Kitab al-Irja’, or Such a definition of surrender had the and famine, but also of internal Book of Deferment. In this book al- effect of internalizing its basic nature. human workings connected with surren- Hasan proposed that the question of the It became impossible to establish the pres- der, such as faith and obedience. But rightness or wrongness of each ence of true islam by empirical obser- most significantly, Hasan also maintained party’s candidate should be postponed, or vation, so its confession by an individual that God determines these only after deferred (irja’), to God’s own ulti- had to be accepted by the community. human choice and leading. God’s power mate judgment, and that meanwhile Mus- God alone could know the posture of the may be active in the relationship that lims should refrain from declaring heart, so God alone could judge the comes about through surrender, but it is themselves on the disputed matter. true Muslim from the pretender. Thus, it active only as each person chooses to

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Mark Nygard 127 make it so. This human participation is Wasil and others refuse to take the usual law takes on a kind of transcendent qual- important for practical piety. When sides and finally leave the fellowship ity. That which is perceived to be the choice goes awry, the person who of their master, prompting him to say, “He good on this earth will be seen as good by made it is responsible for the conse- has withdrawn (i’tazala) from us.”13 God and be rewarded accordingly. quences. God’s responsibility in the The group came to be known as the Likewise with that which is wrong, God human realm is limited to that which Mu‘tazilites (those who have with- will not let it go unpunished. If this 11 is good. drawn), and over the next century their be true, then God is not capricious in his This position came to be known influence in the Muslim world became dealings with humankind; the fact as Qadarite, the idea of limitation of God’s enormous. Borrowing logical methods that he is just in a way intelligible to power (qadar) to permit some sem- from Greek philosophy and applying humankind makes him predictably blance of responsible human so. Mu‘tazilites could even choice. Although Hasan describe God as al-Basri is the first record of Every Muslim knew that the God of obliged to act in a certain such views that we pos- the Qur’an was a commanding way in a certain situa- sess, they were apparently not God, ordaining laws and promising tion, lest he be proven uncommon during the unjust. With this obli- first Islamic centuries. A mod- reward or threatening gation of God in mind, erate position, sensitive to punishment depending on how those Mu‘tazilites could Quranic witness, it seems that laws were fulfilled. argue amongst themselves it was considered by the whether God had the faithful to be neither particu- power to do that which larly unorthodox nor dangerous until them to Muslim data, Mu‘tazilite thinkers was unjust. Indeed, it appeared to its ultimate consequences were realized by systematized Muslim thought in a way some that the omnipotence of God was the more systematic approach of the most convincing for their age. By 833 compromised by this principle of jus- 16 Mu‘tazilites.12 their teaching became temporarily the tice. official position of the caliphate in Bagh- Every Muslim knew that the God Surrender as Human Response to a dad and for centuries after retained of the Qur’an was a commanding God, Just God influential spokes persons for its cause.14 ordaining laws and promising reward A young disciple of the Hasan al- Though Mu‘tazilite thought has long or threatening punishment depending on Basri mentioned above, Wasil ibn-‘Ata’, been out of fashion it may be argued that a how those laws were fulfilled. For sits among a group of men discussing number of significant modern Muslim Mu‘tazilites this meant that humankind the issue of faith and works. He listens thinkers have taken positions that resem- must have the power to obey those intently as his master is asked just ble Mu‘tazilite points of view. commands, lest the consequences what will become of a grave sinner who is Behind the idea of an intermediate attached to the laws and the God who nevertheless a Muslim. The Kharijite state lies a powerful sense that God’s attached them be shown unjust. Surely answer is, of course, that such a sinner justice would not assign those to paradise God could not justly hold people could certainly not be a true Muslim or hell who did not fully deserve responsible for deeds they did not have and so was lost forever. The Murji’ite them. Though all Muslims hold that God the will or power to commit or refrain answer, on the other hand, is that, is just, Mu‘tazilites gave particular from committing. “Obligation and sanc- since the name Muslim was dependent emphasis to the reasoned principle of jus- tion can only be understood in refer- upon confession of faith rather than 17 tice, to the extent that God’s justice ence to a responsible being.” The impli- moral uprightness, he must still be des- has been called “their fundamental cation was that God did not coerce, tined for paradise. For a Qadarite who dogma.”15 Using the analogy of the but had given the freedom to humankind affirms a responsible human will, the invisible to the visible, a philosophical to act or not to act in a given situa- choice is uncomfortable, and Hasan principle that one can deduce what is tion. The concern for a free human choice hesitates between the two possibilities. As true for the invisible realm by observing prior to divine determination was he does so, young Wasil, his student, what is true for the visible, Mu‘tazi- thus clothed with a theological system speaks up in his place. “A grave sinner can lites argued that the same apprehension of that emphasized God’s justice. be classified as neither believer nor justice and injustice that is valued by Implicit in this freedom was real unbeliever,” he asserts. “For these people humankind must be valued by God as power to act. Since God is the source there must be some ‘intermediate posi- well. By this principle human moral of all power to act, two important affirma- tion.” Vigorous discussion ensues, but

VOL 13:3 JULY-SEPT. 1996 128 Surrender to God tions about the way God gives this power will. Anything less than a comprehensive sophical question of ultimate responsibil- were necessary. First, the power to act divine will seemed to him to attribute ity, it does in fact satisfy the daily must come from God in some way prior to to God either “unmindfulness and neglect” perception and experience of most people the moment when the action was or “weakness, impotence, feebleness, who think of themselves as being required so that the individual could be and failure to attain His desire.”21 God responsible agents, how ever that power responsible for the way the God-given revealed himself to be a comprehen- to be responsible came to exist. power was used or not used. Otherwise the sively willing God in such Quranic verses Since both what humanly seems action would seem to be God’s and as 76:30, “But you shall not will good and what humanly seems evil not that of the person acting. And sec- unless God will.”22 In al-Ash‘ari’s under- come from God and God alone, then the ondly, a just God would not give standing, our impression that events human creature is forever “either the grace (luff) inequitably, determining happen because other events cause them is recipient of a favor for which he must human actions by the amount or kind an illusion. The real reason for hap- give thanks, or the object of a trial of grace given.18 In the name of justice penings of all sorts is because, moment by which he must endure patiently.”27 One God must give freely and abundantly moment, “God creates necessary who is surrendered to the will of such to all, so that the deciding factor in surren- motion.”23 a God, then, is one whose life rotates der as in other actions will be not In particular, the kind of human between thankfulness and patient divine economy, but the human response. faith and actions that might be involved in endurance. He believes that God sends surrender cannot be the result of moment by moment what he wills, Surrender as Divine Gift of an human willing but rather of God’s. Al- and he accepts it. For Ash‘arites it is this Omnipotent God Ash’ari goes so far as to affirm and quality of belief that is essential for It is the middle of a tenth-century offer proof that they are “produced” by the surrendered attitude before the om- night in what is now Iraq. An aspiring God, even “created” by God. The nipotent God. teacher of the Mu‘tazilite school, human individual simply “acquires” them awakes suddenly from his sleep and sits Al Ghazali: Surrender, a Unity of Body from God. By this “doctrine of acqui- and Soul bolt upright. Al-Ash‘ari has had a sition” (kasb) a person does what he does dream. In his dream God himself has “in virtue of a created power.”24 That It is the last half of the tenth century spoken to him and has called his power is not his own; it is put in place by in what is now northeastern Iran, and teaching into question. God has asked him God at the very moment it is needed, al-Ghazali is on the search for knowledge to defend his Mu‘tazilite position on and not before. There is no time interval in of God. He finds he can’t believe the basis of the sayings of Muhammad, which humans may be in control of it. something just because others have said and if he cannot, to give it up. This is It is truly at every instance and at the deep- so (taqlid ), and he wonders about the not the first time al-Ash‘ari has had such a est level God’s power. elegant logical rationales for proving and dream, and he is shaken. He decides defending knowledge (‘aql) used by This is not viewed by al-Ash’ari as he must abandon a promising career the Mu‘tazilites and Ash‘arites. He yearns necessity, because he defines neces- among his Mu‘tazilite teachers and for more certainty, and his search sity on the basis of what is experienced to take up the position of their opponents. leads him to the Muslim mystics, the be necessary at the level of creaturely But he will not give up the methods he Sufis, with their mystical intuition of perception: “that to which the thing is con- has learned. God (dhawq). With them he disciplines strained and compelled and forced, himself to arrive at that point where In the years ahead al-Ash‘ari and from which it can find no way to get “there is no veil between you and [God] would become a powerful champion free or to escape, even though it strive except your pre-occupation with against the Mu‘tazilite teaching using to be freed from it and want to escape aught else.”28 This is “union with God” the very logical methods that made those from it and exhaust its endeavors to do 19 which al-Ghazali afterward described teachings so popular. The school of so.”25 There is no struggle in an acquired in three ways: thought that followed him, the Ash- act, no sense of the involuntary obliga- 1. The character of the mystic ‘arites, would come to be regarded as tion to commit an act that this definition “the most important single school of sys- would require. The individual finds becomes God-like, “as if only God 20 tematic theology in orthodox Islam,” that one has the power to do what the indi- (God’s character) is within him.” with a wide following into our present vidual wants to do and does it, even 2. The consciousness of the mystic is day. claiming responsibility for the deed so fixed on God in love and adoration Al-Ash‘ari predicated his theology accomplished.26 Whether or not this that it is aware of nothing else. upon an affirmation of God’s almighty definition of necessity satisfies the philo- 3. It is seen that “there is naught

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Mark Nygard 129 in existence except Allah, that all exis- and his body. For assuredly if the brance of God by the soul, and therefore mind is perfected and purified it will tence is in His Aspect.”29 This “union “perseverance in [the act] means per- improve the deeds of the body, so that means that God and man are in harmony, they too will become commendable. severance in remembrance, as a result of and that man’s heart reflects God.”30 And conversely, if the impressions which love of God and intimacy with that are given to the mind by the body Him are produced in the soul. Thus, the Yet, even now, with this mystical are wholesome they will put the mind union, al-Ghazali is not satisfied that in a favorable state, and the disposi- ultimate aim of devotional acts he knows God’s inner nature. Through the tions will tend to become agreeable. emerges as love of God and nearness to Therefore the way to purify the mind 34 mystical experience he has gained a Him.” is to make habitual these actions sense of assurance of belief, a subjective which are completely pure, having in Al-Ghazali’s surrender must be confidence of belief (yaqin), but he is view that when this has become a cus- understood in terms of this twofold not convinced that he can discipline. It is the outward thereby attain fresh con- life of obedience to the tent of belief, fresh illumina- For the Muslim... the ultimate divinely-commanded ritual tion from God himself aim of devotional acts and action, accompa- (wahi).31 For this he returns nied by inward conscious- to the Qur’an. The emerges as love of God and ness of its spiritual chasm between the world of nearness to him. meaning and intention. Sur- humankind and the render is thus a unity of realm of God yawns wide tom by means of frequent repetition, meaning and action in an for al-Ghazali, too wide for reason, then the state that has been produced individual’s life that prepares the soul 33 too wide for mystical approach. Only God on the mind will become constant. for its blessed eternal existence with God can overcome it, and al-Ghazali Recognition of purity in actions . believes God has done that miracle in the requires that their meaning be known The Muslim Concept of Surrender: Qur’an. and reflected upon. Thus it is important A Flow of Thought Al-Ghazali is remembered by Mus- that the commendable action be per- There is not enough space to pursue lims today not because he had a mysti- formed in full consciousness of its mean- other significant moments of the cal experience of God. Countless Sufi ing, so that the full impact on the soul Islamic story. One could discuss surren- mystics had gone this way before, pro- be obtained. der as an outward manifestation of an ceeding far beyond Ghazali to heterodox For the Muslim seeker after God inner love (Ibm Taymiyya), or surrender experiences of direct contact, unity, this has tremendous significance. It means as a courageous struggle for personal and even mystical identity with the Deity. that devotional acts–in particular, the growth in intensity and mastery of the Rather, the accomplishment of al- pillars of Islam prescribed by the universe (Muhammad Iqbal). One Ghazali is that he afterwards returned to Qur’an—must be appreciated for their could consider how daring new efforts to orthodox Muslim teaching based in inward as well as their outward aspects. understand surrender continue to be the Qur’an and so linked it with his mysti- These aspects correspond to the soul attempted in response to the challenges cal experiences that the warmth and and body of the human individual and are and possibilities of the modern situa- assurance of their approach was made inseparable. It is not possible to per- tion. But perhaps enough has been said to available to orthodox Muslim faithful. form the devotional acts in a “sound” man- demonstrate the vitality of the con- He brought Sufism into the heart of sur- ner without knowing their deeper cept. It is not so much a vocabulary term render to God. meaning and performing it “with single- to be understood as it is a river of How did he do this? Without entering minded devotion, purity of thought thought, flowing across the varied land- into his philosophical rationale it may and absolute sincerity,” and al-Ghazali scape of Muslim history, to be pon- be said that al-Ghazali makes much of the criticized Muslim jurisprudence of the dered and appreciated. In its simplicity it observation that what the body per- time for allowing it. But neither is it possi- can be grasped by a child: awed ceives and does profoundly affects the ble to neglect the outward manifesta- acknowledgment of God’s uniqueness. In reflective soul, and conversely, what tions of the acts in preference for inward its straight forwardness it can be the soul becomes in the process of acquir- and spiritual approaches to God applied by the working day world: obedi- ing experience profoundly affects its according to the practice of some Sufis. In ence to God’s ordinances. In its sig- use of the body32 In his own words, his synthesis of shari‘a and Sufis insight al-Ghazali held that the purpose of nificance it can be relished at length by Everyone is undoubtedly influenced theologian and philosopher, for its by this inter-relation of his mind [soul] every act of devotion is the remem- ramifications touch all aspects of life. VOL 13:3 JULY-SEPT. 1996 130 Surrender to God

The concept of surrender to God 7. Wilfred F. Madelung, “Murdji’a,” Unknowable God (Leiden: E. J. Brill, invites consideration by Christians Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: E. 1964) 59. and those of other religious persuasions, J. Brill, 1993) 7:605 29. Ibid., 32-33. for the struggles for self- 8. H. A. R. Gibbs and J. H. Kramers, 30. Ibid. understanding that are played out around eds., Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam 31. “A Short Creed by al-Ghazzali,” Dun- this theme in the Muslim theater of (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1953) 412. can B. Macdonald, Development history are often the very same struggles 9. A. J. Wensinck, The Muslim Creed: Its of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence that we have experienced ourselves. In Genesis and Historical Develop- and Constitutional Theory surrender to God we see devout people ment (London: Frank Cass, 1932, (Lahore: Premier Book House, 1960, wrestling with theological questions 1965) 103. 1964, first published 1903) 303- that are our own: the relationship between 10. Joseph van Ess, “Kadariyya,” Encyclo- 304 faith and good works, the awareness pedia of Islam (Leiden: E. J. Brill) of power versus a sense of human respon- 32. Muhammad Abul Quasem, The 1:369. sibility, the relationship of theology Ethics of Al-Ghazali: A Composite 11. Watt, lslamic Philosophy, 27. and our practice of the faith, etc. What Ethics in Islam (Petaling Jaya, makes it so interesting is that Muslims 12. van Ess, “Kadariyya,” 1:369. Selangor, Malaysia: Central Printing have done their wrestlings and built their 13. Watt, Islamic Philosophy, 47. Sendirian Berhad, 1975) 46-47. reflections with quite a different set of 14. Joseph van Ess, “Mu‘tazilah,” The 33. Dwight M. Donaldson, Studies in data in quite a different set of circum- Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mir- Muslim Ethics (London: S.P.C.K., stances. Those of us whose faith is dif- cea Eliade, 16 vols. (New York: Mac- 1963) 140-142, in which he translates ferent will surely have a better understand- millan, 1987) 10:221-225. See also portions of al-Ghazali’s Ihya’ ing of ourselves and our faith in God D. Gimaret, “Mu‘tazilah,” Encyclope- III:48-50. for having sought to understand Muslims dia of Islam, 7:783-787. 34. Quasem, Ethics of al-Ghazali, 47- in their surrender to him. 15. D. Gimaret, “Mu‘tazilah,” 7:759. 48. See also Umar-ud-Din, Ethical Philosophy of al-Ghazzali End Notes 16. Ibid. (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1. Abul A‘la Mawdudi, Towards 17. Ibid., 790. 1972) 163. “...The ‘Ibadat [ordi- Understanding Islam, tr, Khurshid 18. Ibid. nances for worship] have been Ahmad (Lahore: Idara Tarjumanul- 19. W. Montgomery Watt, “Al-Ash ‘ari, ordained only for achieving the Qur’an, 1977) 17. Abu ‘1-Hasan,” Encyclopedia of remembrance of God, and it this object 2. For succinct summaries see Cyril Islam, 1:694. See also his Islamic Phi- is not realized. there is no value in Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of losophy and Theology, 65. Salat [prayer ritual].” Islam (San Francisco: Harper Col- 20. R. M. Frank, “Ash‘ariyah.” The Ency- lins, 1989) 132, and Frederick Mathew- clopedia of Religion, 1:449. son Denny. An Introduction to 21. Richard McCarthy, ed., The Theology Islam (New York. Macmillan, of Ash‘ari (Beirut: Imprimerie 1994)118-136. Catholique, 1953) 41, in which he Mark Nygard is currently engaged in 3. Denny, Introduction to Islam, 136. translates al-Ash‘ar’s Luma’. mission service in Senegal, West Africa, under the appointment of the 4. Albert Hourani, A History of the 22. Ibid., 34. Other Quranic verses cited Evangelical Lutheran Church in Arab Peoples (Cambridge, MA. Har- elsewhere include 10:99, 32:13, vard University, 1991) 25. America. He was previously in similar 85:16, l1:107-109, 6:112, and 2:253/ service in Cameroon, West Africa. 5. G. Levi Della Vida, “Kharidjites,” 254. Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden. E. 23. ibid., 56-59. J. BrilI, 1978) 3:1074-76. 24. Ibid. 6. W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic [Editor’s note: This article is a reprint 25. Ibid., 59. Philosophy and Theology: An Extended from a special issue on Islam from Survey (Edinburgh: Edinburgh 26. Ibid. Word and World, Theology for Chris- University, 1985) 21. See also Hourani, 27. Ibid., 64. tian Ministry, Spring 1996. Reprint History of the Arab Peoples, 487. 28. Fadlou Shehadi, Ghazali’s Unique permission granted.]

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS