424 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES

Food and Nutrition Security for the Sustainable Development of Nicaragua

Daily life in popular market Roberto Huembes from Managua, Nicaragua © Shutterstock

NICARAGUA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 425

Nicaragua Summary

Nicaragua’s economy relies on agriculture, representing the main income source of thousands of families in rural areas where poverty is concentrated. Despite continued efforts to increase agricultural [1] Jorge A. Huete-Pérez productivity, Nicaragua has the lowest yields of most of the important [2] Manuel Ortega Hegg crops in Central America. Many factors contribute to low productivity [3] Mario R. López in Nicaragua, including emerging pests and diseases, low soil fertility, [4] Mauricio Córdoba low quality of seeds and climate change. Climate change is expected [5] Salvador Montenegro to disproportionately affect smallholder farmers in Nicaragua, who [6] Katherine Vammen already face numerous risks to agricultural production. [7] María J. Cortez Smallholder agriculture and family farming is considered an engine [8] Ivania A. Cornejo for poverty reduction and sustainable development in Nicaragua. Food security in Nicaragua will demand improving water productivity and keeping good balances with food supply, although crop yield could increase through intensified irrigation. Furthermore, these practices along with temperature and rainfall changes may impact the soil -water balance affecting water productivity in the future. Vital technical, financial and institutional support is required to advance agricultural production and food security in Nicaragua, particularly to be more resilient to pest and disease outbreaks and extreme weather events. Agricultural biotechnology could be a key technological platform to foster sustainable economy and to enhance food security in Nicaragua. Some new varieties of relevance to Central America could be developed to overcome droughts, floods, new pest By enabling the and diseases and other problems derived from climate change. participation of Since most research and innovation in Nicaragua is conducted at public universities in public universities, encouraging their research capacities will enable them to play a more important role in technological innovations for the development of agriculture, including Genetic Modification (GM) research relevant to appropriate transgenic the needs of food security. By facilitating the participation of public universities in the Genetically Modified (GM) crop- development crops, Nicaragua could process, Nicaragua could reap the benefits of agricultural leverage the benefits biotechnology through a sustainable development approach. of agricultural Open dialog among policy makers, researchers and communities should be encouraged so that technologies and planning processes biotechnology respond not only to producers’ needs but most importantly to the through a sustainable needs of food and nutrition security. development approach. Introduction

Nicaragua has made progress over the past two decades in addressing food security and nutrition issues. However, there are many challenges facing this small Central- American nation that is still recovering from the wars and political polarization of the 20th century. Moreover,

NICARAGUA 426 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES

Nicaragua is constantly affected by major rainfall General and Sociodemographic fluctuations as well as periodic droughts that Characteristics affect agriculture, clearly reflecting the impact of climate change. Nicaragua is the largest country in Central This text draws on the experience of several America with an area of 129,494 km². It can be national institutions and organizations as well as divided into three major regions: the Pacific; the the work of several national and foreign authors central or mountainous zone and the Caribbean. who have contributed critical, purposeful analysis The Pacific region is characterized by flat of the current situation in matters related to food agricultural lands stretching from the coast of and nutrition security. This chapter begins with a that ocean approximately 75 km inland, until general presentation of the country from the point it meets the volcanic mountain range of Los of view of population, geography, socioeconomics Maribios belonging to the Pacific Ring of Fire, and ecosystems. The most important agricultural which extends as far as Chile. Sesame, peanut activities are described in order to outline the and sugar cane are grown in this region. Other institutional framework available for knowledge major crops are maize and soybean. The Pacific management and the state of scientific research region also includes the two largest freshwater regarding the issues addressed, which are lakes in Central America: the Xolotlán or Managua crucial for addressing the problem in a coherent, Lake (1,344 km2) and the Cocibolca or Nicaragua systematic way. This is followed by an overview Lake (9,000 km2). The central or mountainous of the use of science and technology, with region is characterized by mountain peaks rising particular emphasis on agriculture, livestock and 2,000 meters above sea level (masl), where aquaculture. The authors document the efficiency coffee plantations are developed. This region has of the national food system and address the numerous valleys producing vegetables, beans, link between food security and public health, maize and rice. specifically nutrition, obesity and foodborne The largest region is the Caribbean or Atlantic diseases. A critical reflection is presented on the region, encompassing 45% of Nicaraguan territo- core problems of food security in its relationship ry, subdivided into the autonomous regions of the with public policies, focusing on the role of the North and South Atlantic. This vast area is char- academic sector, universities and the Academy of acterized by lowlands crossed by numerous rivers Sciences. such as the Rio Grande de Matagalpa, Prinzapolca Last, a number of guidelines on how to and the Coco River that flow into the Caribbean. address the central challenges are offered, based The climate of Nicaragua is usually warm on the fact that food and nutritional security must tropical with slight temperature variations be a fundamental priority for Nicaraguan society. depending on the height above sea level. The

[1] Jorge A. Huete-Pérez, Chapter Coordinator. Molecular Biologist, Central American University and Academy of Sciences of Nicaragua, [email protected] [2] Manuel Ortega Hegg, Sociologist, University of Central America (UCA) and Academy of Sciences of Nicaragua, [email protected] [3] Mario R. López, Economist, National Autonomous University of Nicaragua and Academy of Sciences of Nicaragua, [email protected] [4] Mauricio Córdoba, Engineer, specializing in Territorial Development, University of Central America (UCA), [email protected] [5] Salvador Montenegro, Biologist, Specialist in Water Resources, Academy of Sciences of Nicaragua, [email protected] [6] Katherine Vammen, Microbiologist, Biochemist, Specialist in Water Resources, University of Central America (UCA) and Academy of Sciences of Nicaragua, [email protected] [7] María J. Cortez, Chemical Engineer, Food Technology Specialist, University of Central America (UCA), [email protected] [8] Ivania A. Cornejo, Engineer in Environmental Quality, Specialist in Environmental and Forestry Management, University of Central America (UCA), [email protected]

NICARAGUA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 427

Figure 1. Projection of size of Nicaraguan population (1950-2050)

8000000

7000000

6000000

5000000

4000000

3000000

2000000

Number of inhabitants (millions) (millions) inhabitants of Number 1000000

0 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060

Source: Drawn up by the author based on data from UNDP (2015). hot areas are the lowlands ranging from sea mortality, have favored the urbanization of the level to 750 masl. In these areas, daytime population, expected to be a major trend in the temperatures range from 30-33°C, while coming years (Figure 1). nighttime temperatures fluctuate between 21 and Nicaragua’s urbanization has accelerated 24°C. Cooler temperatures occur in the central since the 1990s. From 1970 to 1990, the urban region of Nicaragua at elevations ranging from population expanded at an annual rate of 4% 750 to 1,600 masl , fluctuating between 24 and and the rural population at just 2.3%. Population 27°C during the day and between 15 and 21°C at growth and relatively rapid urbanization require night, especially in the months of December and investments in infrastructure in terms of potable January. Temperatures in certain areas above water, basic services, improved sanitation 1,600 masl can go below 15°C. facilities, employment and wages, and health and Rainfall varies greatly in Nicaragua. The education. Caribbean region can receive an annual average According to the United Nations Development of 2,500 to 6,500 millimeters. However, in the Program (UNDP, 2015), Nicaragua has a zone known as the “Dry Corridor,” rainfall is population of 6.2 million, 58.5% of which is urban. erratic and less than 600 millimeters per year In 2014, the Human Development Index (HDI) for (INETER). This zone is extremely vulnerable Nicaragua was 0.631, meaning that it ranks 125 due to the long, recurrent periods of drought of 187 countries. Nicaragua’s HDI is slightly above accompanied by high temperatures, which make that of Guatemala and El Salvador, but below farming more difficult. the average of 0.748 for the remainder of the Most of the population is concentrated in the countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Life Pacific due to the greater service and commerce expectancy in Nicaragua is 74.9 years. infrastructure, and to a lower extent in the Nicaraguan migration has increased as a Caribbean region. From 1950 to 2000, Nicaragua result of climate change, especially among the increased its population five-fold to more than most vulnerable and rural populations where 5 million people -56% urban and 44% rural the highest levels of poverty are concentrated. (UNSD, 1999). An annual growth rate of 2.8% for Although the agricultural sector generates the period from 1995-2000 and growth rates of jobs, farm workers lack land and other means 4.8% for urban areas (due to immigration) and of production, therefore their incomes, which 1.3% for rural areas, as well as the reduction of is one of the causes of the historical trend in

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migrations. One way to curb this migration would common market, which later weakened. However, be to increase labor productivity in rural areas in the 1970s, the economy continued to grow, through the reinforcement of family farming. reaching a record high of Gross Domestic Product Poverty incidence is higher in rural areas: 68.5% (GDP) in 1974. However, these figures were and 30.5% for poverty and extreme poverty, influenced by investment in the reconstruction of respectively (UNDP, 2000). The lowest incidence the capital, Managua, following the earthquake of poverty is in the Pacific. The most severely of 1972. The growth of the economy declined affected groups are children under 14, equivalent drastically as a result of the war that ended the to 80% of the total in rural areas. Somoza dictatorship in 1979. During the 1980s, the Sandinista revolution, which had international aid, began a process of reconstructing the country in which education and health were prioritized. Key agricultural activities According to the National Agricultural Census (CENAGRO, 2011), the total area for agriculture Historically, agriculture has been Nicaragua’s is 8.6 million (1 manzana = 0.72 acres) Seventy- main economic activity. This condition has its five percent of the land is in the hands of farms roots in the Colonial era. In the 1500s, with the with an area of over 50 manzanas, while farms arrival of the Spaniards, indigenous productive with another 100 manzanas occupy 56% of the systems practically disappeared, since the native land. Farms ranging from 0.1 to 20 manzanas population was forced to work in the gold mines. barely account for 11% of Nicaragua’s arable land. In the 1600s, livestock production was introduced This last segment contains the type of family from Europe accompanied by traditional crops agriculture that supplies important foodstuffs to such as corn, indigo and tobacco. However, the Nicaraguan population, contributing greatly to Nicaragua’s incursion into the international market the nation’s food security (Figure 2). began in earnest during the coffee boom between Agriculture plays a key role in food security, 1840 and 1940, which marked the country’s particularly because since cereals are the main economy. After World War II, Nicaraguan source of protein and energy available to the agriculture diversified with new livestock breeds Nicaraguan population. From the 1960s to 2010, and other crops such as sugar cane and cotton cereal production showed an upward trend not were introduced, mainly in the Pacific region. only in relation to the planted area, but also During the 1960s, the economy continued to regarding yield (Figure 3). In the 1980s, the area- grow under the incentive of the Central American under-cultivation decreased due to the war in

Figure 2. Size of farms and percentage of total arable land available

> 500.01 mz

100.01 - 200 mz

20.1 - 50 mz

5.01 - 10 mz Area of farms of Area 1.01 - 2.5 mz

< 0.1 mz

0 5 10 15 20 Percentage of total arable land Source: Compiled by the authors with data from CENAGRO (2011).

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northern Nicaragua, although yield was higher for the 2011-2012 period, above the coffee sector, than in the 1970s. free zones and mining (CADIN, 2013). Of the total The livestock sector has accounted for a large exports for 2012, the highest growth was in the share of the economy in recent years, proving to meats and viscera sector, with 66%, followed by be the sector with the highest growth in exports the dairy sector, with 26% (Figure 4). Nicaragua’s

Figure 3. Total cereal production in Nicaragua (1962-2010)

500,000 25,000 Area (ha) Yield (hg/ha) 400,000 20,000

300,000 15,000 Tons Tons 200,000 10,000 Hectograms/hectare 100,000 5,000

0 0 1962 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: Compiled by the authors based on data from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2012).

Figure 4. Livestock sector production 2011-2012 Total exports of cattle origin, December 2012 565,648,790

Beef and viscera Dairy Products 437,263,768 172,987,993 Cattle Leather and by-products 27,340,088 Main export sectors (in million dollars) Caattle 659.6 22,056,941 635 2012 2011 544.4 518 453.7 443.7 419.8 375.9 * CADIN Members 255.2 218.9 185.4 174.4 133.9 132.6 109.8 93.3

*Livestock *Coee *Free zone Mining *Sugar industry Fishing Agriculture *Peanut industry industry industries (gold, silver, (sugar, rum, (Cultivated (Beans and other) industry (Beef, dairy, (Processed other) molasses, shrimp, leather, cattle) gold coee) alcohol) lobster)

Source: CADIN (2013).

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livestock sector has been characterized by the Departments of Nueva Segovia, Madriz, Estelí, extensive production with a low yield and high Chinandega, León, Managua, Rivas, Masaya, environmental impact. This poses the challenge Granada and Carazo, and part of the Departments of raising its technological level to increase its of Matagalpa, Jinotega, Boaco and Chontales with productivity while preserving the environment. a total of 116 municipalities (Baires et al., 2002). Livestock raising has created serious problems According to Baires et al. (2002), 80% of due to poor management and externalities of productive families in Nicaragua earn their disastrous magnitude for the population. However, livelihood from family agriculture. Family the problem is not agriculture or livestock, which agriculture is a model in Nicaraguan agriculture are necessary, but the conventional farming that contributes decisively to food sovereignty model. although not necessarily under the best The country’s agricultural exports remained production conditions. This type of agriculture above US $1 billion from 2010 to 2015, with 2012 has the highest number of farms in a smaller the year of greatest exports (581.7 million) and area of land, yet large production occupies most 2015 the year with highest imports (273.7 million) of the land in Nicaragua. The role of small family (Figure 5). farming is doubly commendable, not only because it guarantees food sovereignty, but also because it has preserved soils, water and biodiversity to guarantee its survival. Even under marginal Challenges of family farming conditions, agricultural family farming contributes significantly to the national agriculture. Agriculture and livestock raising constitute the This produces items that are vital to the link between society and nature and are the axis daily food supply of the Nicaraguan population, of economic, social and cultural life for the country supplying over 60% of beans, 50% of maize, and its inhabitants (Morales, 2011). The main 40% of pork and 30% of domestic production of impact of climate change is in the area known meat and milk, roots and tubers, vegetables and as the “Dry Corridor”. This geographical zone cacao (Figure 6). Family agriculture accounts for a represents 34% of Nicaraguan territory with an smaller portion of the poultry sector, since it has area of 41,148.03 km2, yet which concentrates mostly been acquired by transnational capital in 80% of the national population. This area includes the food industry.

Figure 5. Balance of exports and imports of agricultural products (2009-2015)

2000 Exports Imports 1800 265 1600 243.5 287 1400 266 273.7 1200 192.3 1000 176.1 1581.3 800 1364.8 Million US$ 1358.7 1301.4 1259.4 600 1133.7 916.5 400 200 0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Compiled by the authors based on data from ECLAC (2015), Perspectives on agriculture and rural development in the Americas.

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The application of Law 765 on the Promotion Figure 6. Percentage of items produced by family of Agroecology and its regulations should agriculture in Nicaragua encourage the family agriculture model -and its resilience. Poultry

Pigs

Beef and milk Environmental characteristics and ecosystem status Roots and tubers Coee Water status The water cycle annually deposits 311 km³ of Cacao rain in Nicaragua, which would cover the 130 thousand km² of the country with a layer of Vegetables nearly 2.5 m of water. Approximately 60 km³ Beans of water manage to infiltrate the soil while the rest evaporates, returning to the atmosphere, or Maize draining in the form of rivers towards the slopes of the Pacific and the Caribbean, remaining 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% temporarily in crater lakes and lagoons. FAO Source: Compiled by the authors. Data: FAO, 2015. global statistics system Aquastat shows that by 2014, per-capita renewable water resources were 27,056 m3/inhabitant/year, equivalent to 74,126 liters per person per day. Despite this nominal a game of chance based on uncontrollable factors abundance of water, the population’s access to influenced by variability and global climate change. potable water, especially of adequate quality, Nicaragua has the capacity to implement continues to limit national development. Worse measures to adapt to climate change at the local still, Aquastat shows that in 1992 Nicaragua’s level, responsibly correcting the effects caused total renewable water resources per capita by the absence of territorial administration at the totaled 37,886 (m3/inhab/year), equivalent national level. It is well known that environmental to 103.79 (liters/inhab/day). Thus, in just two stressors that are already commonplace such as decades (1992-2014), this indicator of the deforestation, soil use changes, waterproofing in daily water supply per person was reduced by water recharge areas, overexploitation of aquifers, 29,671 liters per day per person (approximately contamination of bodies of water by solid and 30% less). It is worrisome to note, moreover, a liquid waste, and abuse of toxic agrochemicals, significant upward trend in this daily loss per among others, cause erosion (water and person progressively. wind), reduction of groundwater, loss of water The effects of this progressive reduction in quality, reduction of water flows and even the access to water have been reported in documents disappearance of water sources. such as “Socio-Environmental Crisis of Nicaragua The need to build capacities to manage Post Drought 2016” (Centro Humboldt, 2016). water behavior once it reaches the surface of the Although Nicaragua has all the water of land is the goal of Integrated Water Resource optimal quality it needs to irrigate the best Management (IWRM), defined by the Technical agricultural soils and supply potable water to its Committee of the Global Water Partnership entire population with the excellent waters of as “a process that promotes the coordinated the Great Lake Cocibolca, it continues to depend management and development of water, land on increasingly unpredictable and irregular and related resources, in order to maximize the rainfall regimes, which means betting our food resulting social and economic well-being without security and national economic sustainability on compromising the sustainability of ecosystems”.

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IWRM could serve as a tool for watershed Implications of forest trends use and protection. This provision is contained Scattered forests and trees provide fruit, edible in Laws 620 (General Law on National Waters) seeds and other wild foods, sustaining much of and 699 (Law created by the Commission the food chain. The strong link between forests for Sustainable Development of the Apanás, and food and nutrition security has sometimes Xolotlán and Cocibolca Lakes and San Juan been overlooked, although it has gained greater River Basins, whose core is the Comprehensive recognition in recent years, together with the Management Plan for the Great Lakes Basin importance of the protection and sustainable of Nicaragua). The objective is to correct management of forests to ensure the food needs inadequate land uses that make Nicaragua of a growing population. particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate The national deforestation rate has been variability and change. The aim is not just to estimated at 70 thousand hectares (ha) per year, “reforest”, but to jointly plan and implement according to the latest National Forest Inventory (with the participation of the state, civil (INAFOR, 2008). At this rate, the 3.25 million ha of society, academia and all stakeholders) integral existing forests could disappear in under 50 years. development plans appropriate to each water As in other developing countries, the primary basin, correcting each of the environmental causes of deforestation in Nicaragua are related problems, in order to achieve social, economic to the change in land use caused by extensive and environmentally sustainable goals: water agriculture and livestock raising. for all uses and users. For this reason, the civil The loss and degradation of forests leads to society proposal formulated by the Nicaraguan the subsequent degradation of water resources, Alliance for Climate Change (ANACC), the soil health and biodiversity. This degradation of “2020 Environmental Agenda for Sustainable ecosystems can cause a decrease in populations Development, Nicaragua” (Centro Humboldt, of species which are important because of their 2016), emphasizes the need to implement the food and nutrition value, such as the case of the following actions: reduction of fish stocks in deforested watersheds. • Fulfill the commitments of the General Law Food and water are also becoming scarce in the of National Waters (Law 620), recorded as Pacific Dry Corridor due to longer drought periods Guiding Principles for Water Resources and caused by climate change, while deforested Management Instruments;- landscapes reduce the region’s resilience to these • Constitute the National Information System events. for Water Resources, consisting mainly of Firewood for cooking is another important geographic, meteorological, hydrological and piece in the link between forests and food security. hydrogeological information and including This is the most common use of forest products databank management, network operation (23.5%), even more so than wood (18.5%) and and maintenance and the dissemination of demand for it has also contributed to forest the information obtained. degradation and deforestation (INAFOR, 2008). • Implement Water Planning. The formulation According to the Economic Commission for Latin and integration of water planning will also America and the Caribbean (2015), approximately take the necessary criteria into account 60% of the population uses firewood for domestic to ensure the sustainable, beneficial and use. The 2011-2025 National Firewood and Coal integral use of the water resources of Strategy, promoted by the Ministry of Energy and watersheds and aquifers as management Mines and the National Forest Institute, seeks to units. Water planning involves the promote the sustainability of this resource and to formulation of a National Water Resource establish a fuel-wood production chain, ensuring Plan by the national water authority, which its quality and traceability. The forest-loss trend will serve as the basis for the development would progressively reduce the availability of of plans and programs by basin, under the firewood, affecting thousands of families in rural responsibility of the Basin Organizations. and urban areas.

NICARAGUA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 433

Map 1. Nicaraguan Regions

Map 2. Nicaraguan Agricultural Map

NICARAGUA 434 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES

The Caribbean region, where over 60% of A particular case related to the current context forests are located, is also the second region with of national forests is the Bosawas Biosphere the highest incidence of poverty and extreme Reserve, the largest forest reserve in Central poverty (INIDE, 2016). The impact on forest America (measuring 19,926 km2, 15% of the total ecosystems, due largely to inadequate agricultural area of Nicaragua) and the third largest worldwide. practices, threatens food security, especially for Declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1997, rural and indigenous communities that rely more it is one of the finest examples of tropical rainforest directly on forest resources for their basic needs, or and cloud forests in the region, with enormous are unable to afford other available food resources global relevance due to its wealth of biodiversity in urban centers at higher prices. and water resources. However, in recent decades, Regarding forest management, actions it has been severely affected by extractive have been taken in terms of legislation, policy deforestation. Since 2000, the Bosawas Biosphere development, forest fire prevention and control Reserve has been invaded by settlers who clear- systems, the forest traceability system and felled the forest to engage in agriculture and reforestation plans with special attention to riparian livestock raising. The threat is increasing and to date zones because of their importance for water more than 2,500 km² have been deforested. There resources (Bornemann et al., 2012). However, is a permanent situation of armed conflict that technical, financial and human resources in makes it impossible to implement a development the forest-management framework have been process with a forest protection and management insufficient, and the implementation of regulations plan. There are fierce social conflicts between the is as yet incipient, particularly in the protected areas indigenous population (Mayagnas and Miskitos) of the Caribbean and its buffer zones, where natural and the “settlers”, which has exacerbated the resource governance is precarious. poverty of the community and reduced biodiversity. Continuous damage to forests and their The existing Management Plan has not been ecosystems will increase negative impacts in implemented and there is currently no capacity or terms of the availability, access and stability of will to manage and defend this reserve. Unsolved food resources. Adequate policies and practices conflicts within Biosphere Reserves exacerbate in the agricultural and forestry sectors must be the vulnerability of indigenous communities with integrated as part of a national food and nutrition important implications to indigenous rights and security strategy. This need has been reflected in national food security the Food and Nutrition Sovereignty and Security Law (Law 693, 2009) as well as in the Inclusive Rural Development Sector Plan, which includes the National Food Plan, the National Forestry Program Institutional framework for the and the National Rural Agroindustry Program management of food security (MAGFOR, 2009, Córdoba, Ponce & Dietsch, 2014). knowledge in Nicaragua It is hoped that these efforts will continue and result in adequate financing and the promotion Over the past 50 years, scientific research in of research, small business and innovation, and Nicaragua in matters of food security has adopted effective forestry incentives. This would support a linear approach to technological generation and the management and reforestation of forest transfer, based on the green revolution (which ecosystems with emphasis on: improving forest made intensive use of the artificial management management practices to maintain or increase of fertility, mechanization and simplification of food supplies, transforming wild food products biodiversity) with negative impacts on forest cover, into value-added products, and promoting more with profound impacts on the environmental efficient production systems including agroforestry degradation and the quality of life of important systems. Forest governance, under a collaborative Central-American populations that face the and inclusive model, is key to the implementation of deterioration of their health. A supply-driven forest policies aimed at food and nutrition security. innovation model was designed.

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In 2000, the institutional organizational model Agricultural Research and Innovation (SNIA) in sought a turnaround for demand-driven innova- 2015. This was expressed in the NHDP model of tion, creating the Foundation for the Technological alliances of the NHDP for the purpose of improving Development of Agriculture and Forestry of Nica- coordination and complementing research and ragua (FUNICA), that brings together private and innovation processes among producers, universities, public universities, nongovernmental organizations public and private research centers and universities. and of the government. From 2007 to the present (2017), the institutional organizational model has Law of Sovereignty and National returned to an approach centered on the prepon- Food Security (Law 693) derant role of the State. Law 693 establishes specific functions for universi- The current institutional framework for the ties in the field of knowledge management through agricultural sector and food security was created the Sectoral Technical Councils of Food Security, re- between 2000 and 2005, driven by development sponsible for submitting technical recommendations cooperation. It is promoted by PRORURAL, a sec- to the FNSS Executive Secretariat, policy proposals toral instrument for the country’s rural and agri- and coordinating with territorial agencies. With this food development, which was renamed Inclusive is established a food system capable of sustainably PRORURAL in 2007 and given the mission of sup- providing safe, nutritious, culturally acceptable food, porting the development of family farming. Since framed in our cultural and environmental heritage. its formation, the Rural Public Agricultural System These articles promote the transfor­mation of the (RPAS) has interacted with the rural private rural means of production in the food system, “In harmo- system sporadically and its dynamics reflected the ny with the environment, by prioritizing small and existence of aid and cooperation from donors. medium production, to increase productivity and Current instruments for Food and Nutrition diversification within the framework of an inclusive, Security (FNS) were grouped together and com- fair market, oriented to achieving national food au- pleted in the period from 2007-2009, serving as tonomy based on the national food culture”. the basis for articles 30 and 31 of the Food and The law encourages a nutritional system “That Nutrition Sovereignty and Security Act (FNSSA). will meet energy, nutritional and cultural needs, The FNS approach is part of the National Human and guarantee the health and well-being of our Development Plan (NHDP) 2008-2012, and the communities, eliminate malnutrition, prioritize care instrument on which it is based, is the Zero Hunger for expectant mothers and infants and eradicate Program (ZHP). During this period, however the chronic childhood malnutrition”. food and nutrition security approach was expanded In education, the law establishes an edu­ to include food sovereignty, introducing elements cational system that trains entrepreneurial human of development. As a result of ZHP (2007), the sec- resources and promotes knowledge in the student tors involved have revised their instruments, and population and the school community which strengthened ZHP, through the Ministry of Health’s “Enables them to make more sustainable use of local Policy Toward the Eradication of Child Malnutrition resources, strengthens the culture of production and (MINSA 2008) and the FNS Policy of the Ministry consumption based on national cultural diversity of Agriculture and Forestry, MAGFOR (2009). and promotes behavioral changes to improve the During the period from 2012 to 2106, the food and nutrition status of Nicaraguan families”. It NHDP grouped together the policy instruments also promotes respect for the right to cultural food related to Law 693 and developed new public- diversity. policy instruments that demand new lines of In the environmental sphere, the law approves knowledge management and instruments such as a “natural environmental system that ensures the the Agroecological Policy (2011). quality of water, soil and biodiversity, within the The Universities of the National Council of framework of the conservation and sustainable Universities (CNU) begin a process of alliance with management of natural resources, which guarantees the National Institute of Agricultural Technology food and nutrition, health, culture and the richness (INTA) and established the National System of of our communities”.

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Law No. 881 makes Nicaragua the first The knowledge management development country in the world to have a Nicaraguan Legal model has been divorced from biodiversity Digest in Food and Nutrition Sovereignty and management and the dialogue of knowledge, Security (2014), establishing the comprehensive as a result of which agricultural technology limits of the scope of Law 693. has focused on a few monocrops, within the This law also determines how the results framework of artificial fertility management, presented in sectoral responsibilities should be which made agri-food production extremely achieved, indicating the coordination, articulation vulnerable to oil price increases (2007/2008, and harmonization of sectoral skills both 2010/2014), as well as controlling the area internally and with other sectors. This multi- by worker unit to optimize income (under sectoral, multi-territorial and multi-stakeholder the Central-American territorial conditions of adaptation represents significant advances restrictions on agricultural surface), rather than in integrated FNS approaches. However, the useful biomass per unit area to increase income. common understanding for linking sectoral and The intra-annual stabilization of labor territorial policies and among territorial levels markets or the construction of a territorial vision for a long-term vision is under construction. of rural labor markets have never been on the One of its weaknesses is that the territorial agenda. All this lies at the root of the country’s approach has been missing from the last two food and nutrition security weaknesses. national development plans. In this context, knowledge management is a central axis that Research capacities that require positions the academic sector as a key player in further development achieving an inclusive, integrated and sustainable Research capacities for the agro-food system in territorial-development model as a response to Nicaragua have focused on artificial fertility man- the challenges of the processes and territorial agement, biota simplification and mechanization. dynamics for the next 50 years. However, the recent introduction of agroecological policy (2011) into the Ministry of National Agricultural Research Systems Agriculture and the availability of this type of Nicaragua’s traditional agricultural research sys- degree program at universities with agricultural tem has been deficient regarding achevements sciences paves the way for substantial changes in agricultural yields, labor productivity and the in the territorial economic management of agri- sustainable intensification of the economy per food production systems, such as biodiversity unit area, fundamental in a country with 70% of management and the optimization of useful its territory located on slopes. biomass per unit area required for the recovery An analysis of productivity and technical of the environmental economies of the efficiency shows that, in the areas of basic hillsides, mainly in the dry tropics, and value grains, the improvement over 55 years has been chains structured on the basis of biodiversity due more to the extension of the area-under- management. cultivation than to the increase in yields (Zúñiga- Knowledge management designed to González, 2016), which has had a profound improve market conditions (by guaranteeing a impact on the country’s forest cover and minimum income and the intra-annual stability biodiversity. Hurtado (2016) notes that there has of labor markets) continues to be absent from been an increase in yield per area over the past academic and political reflection. 20 years, albeit below that of the U.S. and most Impact assessment remains a central Central-American countries, which increases problem in knowledge management. In part, this vulnerabilities to free trade treaties linked to agri- problem requires the creation of a solid analytical food trade. According to Baumester (2009), one and database management capacity that are in five producers and one in ten rural inhabitants weak areas with respect to the human capital are linked to basic grain production. involved in the analysis of technology generation

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in the agricultural sector (Tschirley, Flores, & Access to and maintenance of databases Mather, 2010). Data from scientific publications for monitoring farming systems (INASP, 2008) show that universities emphasize According to the Michigan State University areas related to agri-food production, which capacities study, Nicaragua has excellent provides them with the conditions for solving databases for monitoring FNS domains, although pressing FNSS problems in this area, although there are weaknesses in the management of very little effort is made in economic areas, which these bases. omits fundamental elements of the current SSH Law 693 establishes a National Evaluation determinants. and Monitoring System for food and nutrition sovereignty and security, based on sectoral Scientific collaboration networks evaluation and monitoring systems. However, it The system of internal scientific collaboration has not been functional due to the absence of the among universities in Nicaragua is still not robust, secretariat itself. Due to the sectoral approach to despite the fact that there are 59 universities FNS, public information has been centralized in in Nicaragua. Scientific collaboration and several ministries (Health, Education, Agriculture, collective management are necessary at various Development, Industry and Commerce), each territorial levels. Strengthening the knowledge with a different type of information management, management of CNU commissions as well as meaning that data are presented in a diverse, that of the National Environmental Information disintegrated way. Although there is a law on System (SINIA) at the national level could result access to public information, this situation makes in the formation of different types of networks, it difficult to access current, official data. Some systematically strengthening social capital for transborder municipalities have set up municipal research. In this respect, it is essential to work on FNS observatories. internal networks and those among universities. At the university level, the Central American This knowledge management space has University and the National Autonomous a research agenda that must be strengthened University of Nicaragua (UNAN-León) participate, by being linked to the knowledge management through their Law faculties, in the Observatory priorities and needs of public instruments or the on the Right to Food of Latin America and the demands of vulnerable populations regarding Caribbean (ODA). Efforts must be made to shift their human right to food. from a legalistic to a holistic approach from Research institutes at universities and public the determinants of FNS. It is an observatory institutes have yet to establish dynamic, stable which the Inter-University Council for Food and connections. Relational models are conditioned Nutrition Sovereignty and Security (CIUSSAN) by low funding for interaction and the creation of has begun to manage with FAO, within the a common, consensual agenda for interacting on framework of South-South Cooperation. key and priority issues such as productivity and Likewise, CIUSSAN hopes to enter ODA as the relationship with food security in the country. the first university consortium to submit this There are still no agreements for joint work in application. However, information from the seeking funds or the use of scholarships and monitoring and evaluation of government FNS grants. programs is limited. At the international level, the largest universities have implemented collaboration and Scientific development and infrastructure internationalization programs as a new dimension In Nicaragua, the universities produce the largest of links, which must be strengthened. Data from amount of research, although one problem is scientific publications show that universities the lack of systematization of their knowledge have international relations via research projects products, services and technologies. According and that academics are in contact with their to CONICTY studies (2008, 2014), there are 91 colleagues in the U.S., Europe and Costa Rica. Research and Development (R&D) units of the

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member universities of the National Council of The field of modeling the university’s Universities, together with 16 R&D units in the interactions with social actors is a deficient private university sector. area of study at universities. The creation In Nicaragua, scientific development ob- and protection of the value of knowledge served in the past 20 years, from the perspective at universities and their interactions with of universities, shows the following trends: communities, national and regional actors, and • The first phase reflects the evolutionary the indigenous population is weak and ephemeral path of a technical approach (acquisition of (Alänge & Scheinberg, 2006). Development of a equipment and artifacts). This phase was skilled labor force in Nicaragua is hampered by largely provided by Swedish and Spanish the country’s productive specialization pattern cooperation funds. characterized by low productivity, low wages and • A second phase of development of a deficient social security system. intellectual capital between the 1980s and Education systems operate in a dislocated, mid-2004, when many academics from disarticulated manner. The Achilles’ heel of the universities obtained doctorates from skilled labor development in the country’s rural countries in the Socialist bloc; subsequently and agricultural sectors is closely linked to the from Scandinavian countries and then from education level and retention and dropout rates universities in Central America. in the early stages of the education system • A third phase (2005-2016) shows user (usually after fourth grade), which fails to pressure for the system to be relevant on offer useful, attractive, education appropriate the demand side, with the National Council for rural development that would result in a of Universities (CNU) (CNU, 2011; 2012) sustainable food system. This has contributed activating the issue of social accountability. to rural migration and the aging of rural labor. This dynamic affects the leveraging of the The absence of a policy; law and a specific plan demographic bonus the country is currently has limited the progress of scientific matters. experiencing (Delgadillo, 2010). The reports of social accountability that the CNU Nicaragua’s private universities have a low annually submits to Nicaraguan society must be frequency of research. Very few are involved in more substantial regarding the analysis of data. providing data to update science and technology indicators (CONICYT, 2014). Within the Inter- and transdisciplinary research framework of the relationship with FAO under capacities, modeling the South-South Cooperation model, CIUSSAN Inter- and transdisciplinary research is infrequent establishes criteria to define the contribution at universities belonging to the National Council of research to FNS. These indicators will be of Universities (CNU) and virtually absent at delivered to the Nicaraguan National Council private universities. The shift from Mode 2 of Universities (NUC) once they have been Interaction and a Humboldt-type university in discussed with the Research Commission of that Nicaragua has yet to take place. Disciplinary organization. This effort will make it possible to models still prevail in the universities’ conceptual define parameters to quantify and qualify the frameworks and degree program structures. contribution of research to FNS. There are a number of research projects, albeit sporadic, at universities experimenting Perspectives for university work with inter- and transdisciplinarity, focusing on The role of universities in the national innovation the issue of rural development and improving system is vital, as is the creation of technological the Master degree programs taught at UNAN products and services to cope with the expected Managua (Hofmann-Souke et al., 2016 ) and increase in food demand due to population methods of interaction with communities growth, within the framework of a sustainable as actors (DEPARTIR, 2011) at the Agrarian food system. There are spaces to co-produce University, UNA. knowledge among the universities themselves,

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with the private sector and the indigenous grew 3.3%, which means a contribution of communities in the Nicaraguan Caribbean regions 0.3 points to GNP growth. This was driven (Alänge & Scheinberg, 2006). mainly by the input of coffee and basic grain Productivity in Nicaraguan agriculture is key crops (BCN, 2015). However, despite many to food security. It requires an integrated effort investments aiming to increase productivity, by the education system to influence its current when compared with other countries in Central state through the generation and accumulation of America, Nicaragua holds the lowest yields in knowledge. Work must be done regarding the high most major crops (Table 1). Crop yields such as rates of youth and poverty and low productivity maize and the common bean, key components (USAID/BFS/ARP-Funded-Project, 2014). of Nicaraguans’ diet, still are the least productive In order to meet these enormous challenges, ones. Conversely, groundnut and sorghum are knowledge management system must be among the highest, probably caused by the high thoroughly overhauled by: investments in inputs and technology by the • Strengthening university and inter-university private sector. collaboration. There are many factors that reduce • Establishing a funding system to encourage productivity; droughts, floods, occurrence of new synergies that will increase transdisciplinary pest and diseases, low soil fertility, low quality involvement and interaction with social actors of seeds, among others. Indeed, Nicaraguan regarding knowledge, protect intellectual agriculture faces many challenges to cope property and validate the co-production of with food production under climate-change knowledge. conditions following traditional approaches. • Integration of all education subsystems for the According to BCN (2015) and MAG (2015, 2016) development of human talent. “El Niño” phenomenon triggered two consecutive • Tackling the problem of food security and droughts in 2014 and 2015 that reduced the rural poverty will require the adoption of a food production of many important crops, comprehensive intervention approach that focused mainly on first cropping seasons. In will permit a major effort to incorporate new contrast, in 2016 rains were under normal levels technologies and promote innovation. after June, but its extension during November and December threatened the harvesting of sugar cane, common beans, maize, cacao and coffee. Probably, this fluctuating occurrence of Technology and Innovation rains will continue on in the next years. Climate simulations built using 16 different models Nicaragua’s economy relies on agriculture, suggest that by 2050, temperatures will increase representing the main income source of thousands an average of 1.8oC with a variation between -21 of families in rural areas where poverty is and 6% affecting mainly the months of March, concentrated. In 2015, agricultural activities May, June and July.

Table 1. Performance of economically important harvests (ton.ha-1) in 2014 Crops Country Maize Bean Rice Sorghum Soya Sugarcane Coffee Peanut Nicaragua 1.5 0.7 4.3 2.2 2.3 89.3 0.7 5.5 Costa Rica 1.7 0.7 3.9 NA NA 68.7 0.9 1.1 El Salvador 2.6 1.0 5.9 1.7 1.9 85 0.3 NA Honduras 1.7 0.8 6.4 1.2 2.1 82.4 0.9 0.5 Guatemala 2.1 0.9 2.9 1.7 2.5 103.6 0.9 1.2 Source: FAO (2014); NA = not available.

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Within the climate-change context, crops is carried out using as a start point high- agricultural biotechnology plays a crucial role quality seeds or plantlets applying a “conventional for droughts, floods, new pests and diseases and package” of inputs such as irrigation, fertilizers other problems derived from climate change. In and pesticides. Also, most of the fieldwork is Nicaragua, biotechnology tools and techniques conducted using machinery and automatized most applied are tissue culture and molecular technology. markers. In 2008, there were 35 investigators at On the other hand, In the second group we 10 national institutions with capacities to apply have those crops that are for subsistence, but biotechnology tools and techniques, five of these of course, they could have high potential, such universities, four government institutions and one as common beans, maize (synthetic varieties), private company (IICA 2008). sorghum, rice (rainfall systems), vegetables (not In the last decade, there have been some produced into greenhouse), plantain and fruits efforts to apply agricultural biotechnology that remain with a wide technological deficit and tools and techniques in plant breeding and then low productivity. plant pathology areas. All those research works Agricultural biotechnology has the potential provided tools applied to enforce the conservation to contribute to both groups with special of plant genetic resources, seed production and emphasis on the second one. First, it is important breeding programs in important species, for to consider the low use of high-quality seeds instance maize, common bean, cacao, coffee, red and plantlets which is less than 15%. Second, pine and cocoyam, through the identification of in case of vegetative propagated species, novel genetic variation and the use of molecular many seedborne diseases are spread through markers to assist phenotypic selection (Loáisiga propagules producing infections that increase 2007; Jiménez 2009; Loáisiga 2010; Rivera 2010; cost management by increasing the applications Loáisiga 2011; Ruiz et al., 2011; Aragón et al., 2012; of pesticides and threatening food safety. The Aragón et al., 2012b; Aragón et al., 2012c; Jiménez use of tissue-culture techniques corresponding to and Korpelainen 2012; Jiménez et al., 2012; somatic embryogenesis and shoot-tip culture has Tijerino 2012; INTA 2013; Jiménez 2014; Tijerino the advantage of providing healthy plants and and Korpelainen 2014). Also, some research has in some cases inducing tolerance to biotic and been focused of improving methodologies for the abiotic stresses. There techniques are suitable to detection of local strains of pathogens in tomato, provide plantlets of coffee, banana, sugar cane, potato, cocoyam, common bean and cacao pineapple, potato, roots and tubers. using molecular markers, providing insights of According to the national production map evolution and dynamic along cropping systems (INETER 2016), sugar cane, banana, plantain, and agroecosystems (Reyes et al., 2009; Herrera coffee and fruits are around 241,000 hectares, et al., 2011; Marcenaro and Valkonen 2016). thus the potential demand of plants is still high. Additionally, some efforts have been to provide Nonetheless, considering the high costs of vitro- new protocols to micropropagate cacao using plantlets, compared with conventional ways, it is somatic embryogenesis (Juárez 2012). important to continue investigating by means of new micropropagation protocols and conducting Plant agriculture innovations to allow produce vitro-plantlets at Plant production in Nicaragua, considering the lower costs. In this respect, the utilization of local current context, could be grouped as crops resources should occupy research agendas of with good profitability, such as sugar cane, private and governmental laboratories. groundnut, banana, coffee, tobacco, cacao (fine On the other hand, the use of benefic or aroma), oil palm, vegetables (on high lands microorganisms to be used to fertilize crops and into greenhouse), maize (hybrids) sorghum and to control pests and diseases has increased (red-seeded hybrids) and rice (irrigated systems). during the last decade in comparison with the Coffee represents around 54% of agricultural use of chemical compounds. The main reasons exports (BCN 2015). The production of those are the necessity of identifying new alternatives

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to restore the fertility of soils and to controlnew to some degree . However, climate change pests and diseases. There are many opportunities in the last decade has changed the national in this science field and more private companies agendas concerning plant breeding, focusing have increased the number of biological products on participatory plant breeding aiming to obtain offered to farmers. This field looks very promising varieties well-adapted to local conditions; for to the rise of innovative companies that aim to example, the project “Support to the Seed provide new solutions to crop management. Production of Basic Grains for Food Security in In 2016, the international conferences lead by Nicaragua” (http://intapapssan.info/papssan/) Nicaraguan Institute of Agricultural Technology drove participatory breeding using local (INTA) in cacao, coffee, fruits, roots and tubers, germplasm of maize, common bean, sorghum vegetables and agroecology have as a common and rice, implementing more than 160 breeding program the organization of a fair, showing process along the three years between 2011 and biological compounds produced using fungi from 2014. This means that genomic advances should the genera Glomus, Beauveria, Metarrizium, be connected to national initiatives in order to and Trichoderma. These events promoted plant speed up the genetic gains in those projects. In production under an agroecological approach with this sense, quality traits such as high nutritional the participation of small farmers who produce content and industrial characteristics could be their own bio-compounds with government added to national projects. support. Nonetheless, more efforts must be Genetic Modified Organisms (GMO) is a triggered in order to identify novel strains of common topic of discussion in conferences and biological agents that efficiently control pests and debates in Nicaragua. However, despite the diseases at lower costs, promoting their practical importance of many events to solve problems use in different crops. To achieve this, the research in agriculture and their commercial availability, must be oriented toward producing concentrated there are an immense technology gaps that has compounds easily used in large areas instead of not been exhausted to produce enough food in a toward the artisanal manner. sustainable way. The use of molecular markers to enhance The success of agricultural biotechnology in the conservation of plant genetic resources and Central America will rest on sufficient institutional breeding should be applied to more domesticated support to promote private-sector investments. species in order to estimate levels of genetic It will also require further stimulation of public diversity and enhancing the breeding. Although efforts, mainly at universities, to assess and adapt molecular markers could provide useful the technology to the specific regional needs. information, genomic selection may bring the Since 2000, the University of Central America significant advance in breeding projects. In this (UCA) at Managua has been organizing and regard, SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) hosting international biotechnology conferences detection has become a marker system with with world-renowned scientists and networking high potential, because of the high abundance opportunities for the scientific, nonscientific and of source polymorphisms and the ease with student communities. Some of these conferences which allele calls are automated and analyzed have focused on food security, biosafety and in important crops, for instance maize, rice and agricultural development (Huete-Pérez & common beans (Ariani et al., 2016; Spindel et al., Roberts, 2016). 2015; Gorjanc et al., 2016; Marulanda et al., 2016). There is no commercial production of GM Most of the varieties used in Nicaragua crops in Nicaragua. In 2010, the Nicaraguan are obtained from efforts of regional breeding Parliament approved Law 705 on “The Pre­ programs through the cooperation of INTA vention of Risks from Living Modified Organisms with International Research Centers, members Through Molecular Biotechnology”. Its app­ of CGIAR (Consultative Group on International lication, however, has been restricted due to Agricultural Research). Many of these breeding a lack of procedural norms necessary for its programs are supported with SNP technology implementation (Huete-Pérez & Roberts, 2016).

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Current national legislation and the performance and underutilized. In the same way as plants, of international markets could support the idea genomic selection in alliance with international that Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) research centers could provide novel breeds that could be in use soon in some crops with high fit new challenges of climate change, increasing profitability. Directing agricultural biotechnological poultry, egg and pork on-yard production and development toward sustainable growth and food improving food and nutritional security. On the security in Nicaragua must take into consideration other hand, the generation of animal vaccines and the wider environment available to facilitate the medicines, as well as novel products for nutrition, technology, as well as the possible impacts of is still emerging compared with other countries specific GM crops on rural livelihoods (Huete- in the region, and then it is important to promote Pérez & Roberts, 2016). However, it should be research projects and investments in this typed of noted that some academics do not share the enterprise. view that, in the case of Nicaragua, GMO could contribute to food security. Pests and diseases Climate change has multiple effects on agriculture, Animal agriculture but perhaps one of the most prominent is the Animal production is mainly concentrated in occurrence of new virulent strains of pests and cattle, pig and chicken production in Nicaragua. diseases that reduce the quality and productivity According to BCN (2015) the value added to of crops and animals. During 2016, for instance, livestock increased by 3.9%, contributing 0.2 the fall armyworm [Spodoptera frugiperda points to GNP growth. This was an effect of (Hübner)] produced huge damages in maize increased swine and chicken slaughter, and during the first cropping season, despite its the production of eggs and milk. Contrariwise, being considered a second-order pest. The same there were decrease sin cattle slaughter and the situation can be observed in other pests such exports of standing cattle. Thus, the growth of as the broad mite [Poliphagotarsonemus latus chicken and egg production is explained by more (Banks)] in sweet pepper, leaf miners (Liriomyza investments from the sector. On the other hand, spp.) in vegetables and the recent occurrence of swine slaughter was stimulated by higher demand yellow aphid in sorghum in 2016. Diseases also in the country. Finally, milk production increased have changed their dynamics, affecting crops the yields during that period of time. in monoculture arrangements. Some examples In Nicaragua, animal breeding is incipient and are brown spot in groundnut, root rot disease in it could be considered impractical in economical cocoyam, rust in coffee and black spot in maize. ways, because of the high investments related to Pests and diseases affect food security in formal animal-breeding projects in the developed vulnerable production systems by means of yield world. Also, the prices of specialized sires are reduction nd the increasing cost associated with significantly high. Then, it makes more sense to their management by small-scaled farmers, in improve the productive characteristics of herds by most cases with farmers trying to control pests using artificial insemination. There have been many and diseases, exceeding the economic threshold programs with the purpose to making available causing dramatic loses. Most of these infections the semen of many breeds, providing training are associated with unbalanced agroecosystems, opportunities. poor seed quality and soil contaminations. Other techniques such as embryo transplant Therefore, agricultural biotechnology may could also improve the genetic quality of reduce risks by providing good-quality seeds and herds significantly faster than using artificial propagules. Similarly, diagnoses using molecular insemination. Pig and chicken breeds are and biochemical techniques must aid in the timely specialized only in conventional production and focus on infections, preventing their spread. depend on the importation of pups and chicks. Currently, there are mechanisms that Even though there is high on-farm genetic diversity monitor pests and diseases and use agricultural in pigs and chicken, its potential remains unveiled biotechnological tools all in agreement with

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national legislation and norms. It is important The development of organic and agroecolog- that research results and protocols obtained in ical production will permit us to export to other the last decade are incorporated into the toolbox markets with more opportunities based on quality utilized by governmental authorities to improve more than on quantity. This also applies to special those mechanisms constantly (Reyes et al., varieties such as common beans known as “sedas”, 2009). Finally, use of beneficial microorganisms special coffee and fine cacao or aroma, for which would help decrease the impact of pests and international prices are often high and recognized. diseases by means of breaking down any resistance to chemical control. Technology opportunities and obstacles There are many opportunities to develop Prospects for novel agricultural products agriculture using modern technologies for crop In general, Nicaragua has been a producer of raw and animal management in Nicaragua. Many of materials over the last decades with poor added the practices are conducted using human labor value to agricultural products. The field produc- and techniques with low efficiency. Of course, tion of vegetables, cacao, coffee and fruits has in most cases, the modernization of agriculture a high potential for transformation and value requires changing paradigms and making strong adding. For instance, according to the national investments in technology. production map 2016 (INETER 2016) fruit species Crops such as sugar cane, groundnut, oil palm are established as plantations on 8,500 hect- and banana, which represent around 30% of ares in the Departments of Río San Juan, Carazo, arable land, are highly mechanized, using irrigation Masaya, Managua and Rivas, but in many species systems and a package of inputs. However, basic there is overproduction in short time periods, pro- grains that represent around 47% remains an ducing huge losses by fruit over-ripening without old technology. For instance, most grain-based any transformation. Similarly, the processing of farmers do not plan crop nutrition by conducting flour and chips from plantain, cassava, cocoyam soil examinations, under- or over-applying and other roots and tubers are still limited. fertilizers; the same situation can be reported for Thus, there are many opportunities to develop pest and disease management. innovative products taking advantage of the over- Protected agriculture that incorporates mod- production of fruits, cereals, roots and tubers, and ern irrigation and nutrition systems are not exten- plantain. To enforce this, it is necessary to develop sively used in Nicaragua. Tomato, potato, sweet agroindustry with some investments in machinery pepper, onion, flower and cucurbit production are and good manufacturing practices. conducted on open fields, exposing plants to virus There is global concern to promote good nu- vectors and pathogens and producing consider- trition in the population. In this respect, biofor- able losses in production and quality. tified varieties of common bean, sweet pota- Cattle, pig and chicken production is not to, maize, cassava and rice with a high content intensive; for instance, in cattle there are 1.5 of iron, zinc and β-carotene are attractive to be cows per hectare of land, using poor grass as transformed into new manufactured products feed, producing fewer than four liters of milk with high market acceptance, contributing to per cow. This demonstrates that there is a high healthy nutrition. The bean cookie manufactured potential to increase cattle productivity by by the University of Central America (UCA) using means of intensification and employing modern the common bean variety INTA Ferroso is a good technologies. Likewise, research could be example of this approach. Additionally, new crops promoted on new grass and forage systems that recently promoted in the Dry Corridor such as am- reduce CH4 emission intensity. aranth (cv. INTA Futuro) seem to be promising in complementing other products to add nutritional Aquaculture and marine resources value to products based on maize. Stevia also re- The production of marine shrimp is conducted in mains poorly valued, even though there are good ponds with capacities between 10 to 50 hectares, climate conditions for its production. under intensive, semi-intensive and artisanal using

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larvae from the wild. The expansion of the area social security. This economic model has favored of shrimp farming in the 2005 to 2014 period the importation of cheap food, with high rates increased the area by 4,233 hectares over a period of subsidies in their countries-of-origin, to the of nine years. The production of cultivated shrimp detriment of local agro-food production. This has reported by INPESCA in 2014 was 30,527,900 kg, entailed major consequences for the country’s with a growth of 61.81%. present vulnerabilities, such as high sensitivity to On the other hand, pisciculture units are international prices, loss of local food biota and limited to the small-scale production of fish with significant erosion of the food culture. between 0.10 and 0.2 hectares with the cultivation Hurtado (2016) notes that according to of introduced species (tilapia and carp) as part of FAOSTAT, Central America has 59 varieties of economic diversification and food security, on agri-food products. Nicaragua has 18, equivalent lands that have access to water. The innovation to approximately 31% of agri-food products, mak- of techniques for fish cultivation on farms can ing it the least diversified country in the region. contribute positively to develop this activity, but Since 1960, the per-capita supply of cereals fish nutrition, water oxygenation and management has increased from 0.13 to 0.17 t (30%). Accord- are key factors to include in research agendas in ing to these data, oilseeds for agroexport have upcoming years. There are no available reports of increased their yield more than six-fold, whereas wolf cichlid and gar fish on farms, but this activity roots and tubers as well as cereals have barely could provide good incomes to farmers who doubled theirs. Accordingly, average yields-per- develop innovative projects, because these fish unit-area of Nicaragua are a mere 20% of those are preferred species in many restaurants. There in the U.S. While legumes have barely maintained are some experiences in rizipisciculture by rice 1961 yield levels, citrus, fruit and vegetables have farmers who produce irrigated rice in conjunction yielded less than in 1961. with carps and tilapia. However, famers must The per-capita supply of domestically change the management of rice, avoiding the use produced animal protein expanded throughout of chemical compounds. Once again, the use of this period, from 0.15 ton/pc/year in 1961 to 0.17 biological agents looks promising for developing ton/pc/year in 2012 (13% for the whole period). this economic activity. At the beginning of the cycle, cattle accounted for 95% of the total supply, with dairy products comprising 85% of this production. By 2012, cattle production was equivalent to 85% of total Efficiency of the Nicaraguan national animal protein production (with dairy food system products accounting for 74%). Poultry production experienced a sustained expansion of the per- The Nicaraguan food system underwent profound capita supply of animal protein, increasing its changes following the introduction of the current relative share of the total domestic production agroexport model based on green revolution supply, from less than 5% to over 15%. Poultry technology (improved seed, agrochemicals, and beef production increased from 98.36% artificial fertility management, mechanization/ of the total national supply of animal protein in motorization). This change, begun in the 1950s, 1961 to 99.94% in 2013. Aquaculture production drove national food production from the plains expanded during the first period, although, and fertile valleys of the Pacific and center of the following the collapse of freshwater fishing, this country to the slopes and agricultural frontiers. type of availability per capita contracted in the The change made the quality of life of family mid-1970s, without reaching the production farming (both peasant and indigenous) more levels of the time. precarious. Since then, it has faced problems of The collapse of the last FTA safeguards has land access, inadequate infrastructure of all kinds an enormous potential to severely affect the basic and poor labor markets (regarding work stability grain sector, linked to 90% of the rural economy and minimum wages) coupled with a lack of and chicken and beef production, leading to

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greater vulnerability of the Nicaraguan food which translates into high levels of malnutrition, system if international prices are adopted, as reaching values of up to 16.9% of chronic happened in previous crises (2004-2011). malnutrition according to FAO. Although Since the Nicaraguan food system has not Nicaragua has a legal framework that establishes had a long-term strategy, it has been undertaken food and nutritional security as a human right on the worst land, with inadequate production (Law 693), the strategies used by the government models and poor knowledge management, as legal instruments of the law have mainly been resulting in a lack of food diversity, high designed as flagship programs. They regard postharvest losses and a deterioration of the the population as beneficiaries, and operate as water cycle due to pollution and deforestation. welfare programs, whereas in fact they are a Technical and financial service systems are legally stipulated right. (Gauster, 2014). deficient and market intelligence systems for the The Comprehensive School Nutrition Program sector non-existent. (PINE) is one of the flagship programs developed Whereas in the past the development to reduce child malnutrition. According to the of the food system has been exclusive and government, 1.2 million pre-school and primary- uncoordinated, as well as unsustainable in all the school students have benefited from a school territorial spaces it has occupied, this model is meal as a result of the program. However, the totally counterproductive in the face of climate incidence of the program in reducing child change. This model (monoculture or a succession malnutrition has not been clearly evaluated since of a few crops, deforestation and artificial fertility the last height and weight census, taken in 2004 management) has made a difference in society’s (Gobierno de Nicaragua, 2005). Moreover, the vulnerability to extreme events such as the El most recent official data on child malnutrition Niño and La Niña. These phenomena have ranged registered by the Pan-American Health from restrictions and excess water, which reduce Organization (PHO) obtained in 2007 reflected agri-food production, to real tragedies with a 23% prevalence of chronic child malnutrition human losses, mobilization of communities for (FAO/OMS/OPS, 2017). their protection and total agri-food losses. The lack of reliable official information The average age of basic grain producers in is a major obstacle in assessing government Central America is currently 49. Producers of strategies for implementing programs such as basic grains, especially maize and beans, farm PINE. Some international organizations, such on an average area of 2.8 ha in Nicaragua (Van as the World Food Programme, report a lack der Zee et al., 2012). This requires developing of access to information and limitations on an inclusive, integrated and sustainable new undertaking studies requiring direct information territorial economy, involving the development gathering (WFP, 2015). of value chains in an environmental economy In fact, there are no official reports on specific oriented toward the management of the overall nutrition studies for Nicaragua in the past five fertility and the diversity of its biota, its forest years. The last official report, which cites a 5% cover and water, in a culture of social and overall malnutrition rate and an even higher solidarity-based economy, together with a food percentage of malnutrition indicators in the rural culture combined with sustainable environmental population, was the Nicaraguan Demography and management that empowers women and is Health Survey, conducted in 2011-2012 (INIDE attractive to young people. y MINSA, 2013). In Nicaragua, malnutrition is characterized by a lack of access to protein and micronutrients. Climate change is a major factor because of Health Considerations the negative impact it has on the livelihoods and food availability of the most vulnerable sectors of Nicaragua is one of the countries in the region the population. Adaptation strategies must incor- with the lowest Human Development Index, porate the adoption of crops which, in addition to

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being resistant to climate variability, must also of a breastfeeding program, powdered milk is provide high concentrations of micronutrients imported. Food patterns are not determined by useful for combating malnutrition due to the lack the Food and Nutrition Security Act but by the free of these micronutrients or hidden hunger. market. Moreover, the World Health Organization Nicaragua has a broad legal framework that is (WHO) reports a prevalence of 40.7% of often contradictory. In order to implement the food overweight men in Nicaragua. The prevalence of security law, the government should mainstream overweight reported in women is considerably the principal goals of food and nutrition security, higher: 51.3%. Likewise, a greater prevalence so that the population’s right to food is taken into of obesity is reported in women, with 21.1%, account in all socioeconomic policies. whereas obesity rates of 9.7% have been Given the lack of access to the up-to-date, reported for men (WHO, 2016). The overweight official information essential to steering efforts index rose by 58% over a period of 18 years. The in the right direction, international agencies obesity index increased, but to a lower extent, lack reliable information to help guide support totaling 28% according to a study undertaken in for Nicaragua in these fundamental issues and 1998 (FAO, 2010). permission has not been forthcoming to conduct The lack of official information prevents their own studies. the clear identification of the strengths and limitations of the implementation of policies, laws and strategies in the fight against food insecurity. This lack of information is clearly Food-security problems related to seen in the implementation of the Regulations public policies in the academic sector and Manual of Procedures for the Surveillance of Foodborne Diseases, published in 2015. The weakness of the agri-food sector is its very This legislation states that the Nicaraguan poor production. A great deal can be done in the Ministry of Health (MINSA) is responsible for academic sector through research that helps raise the Surveillance of FoodBorne Diseases (FBD) agricultural and forestry production. through the Directorate of Health Regulation and The universities can reorient research from the the Public Health Surveillance Department in research system, research centers and institutes, coordination with the Local Integral Health Care and technological skills toward appropriate Systems (SILAIS). Since SILAIS and health service production systems in rural territories and all establishments are responsible for dealing with productive environments. cases and outbreaks, these are the main sources Universities should also focus their teaching of information for the follow-up of FBD. and work on the family farming-productive These factors reveal that very little system-territory triad. This orientation is based on coordination exists between policies at the aligning teaching, research and outreach functions micro and macro levels. Unlike flagship to locate proposals that involve conducting an programs, macroeconomic decisions focus on analysis of the adaptive capacity and resilience of competitiveness and the free market and do not family agriculture. This dimension demands from specifically seek to ensure food and nutrition academia a systemic analytical application and security. According to experts, the complexity a holistic intervention approach. The implication of implementing the law creates virtually is that studies should be conducted on territorial insurmountable obstacles in the absence of innovation systems and ways to innovate in the coordination among various macroeconomic face of climate change. sectors. Within the same context, other experts Universities must identify and leverage the consider that many of the decisions taken at the diversity of approaches, interdisciplinary and macroeconomic level do not correspond to the transdisciplinary work in order to suggest lines of established legal framework. An example of this work to achieve food and nutrition security with type of decision is that despite the existence the various stakeholders. This dimension requires

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better communication and interaction between result of climate change affecting the country’s the country’s scientific work and economic and dry belt or areas with productive potential, the productive policies. Progress will only be made university must coordinate skills and approach in this respect if a co-production of a knowledge agricultural sectors and family agriculture through approach is established between academic the following: inclusive communication and and non-academic actors. The recognition of outreach methodologies, respecting indigenous this process of coproduction makes it possible, knowledge; an adequate, adaptive provision of among other things, to create appropriate inputs and resources for production systems products and services for addressing the in the territories, such as genetic material and phenomenon the country faces. This will also work on the efficient use of water resources and make it possible for the strategy of care and water-harvesting alternatives; Creole varieties, response with solutions to the phenomenon to crops and species, and encouraging universities be appropriate, thus reducing restrictions and to work in a coordinated way with agencies that obstacles to its assimilation, appropriation and produce meteorological data, in order to obtain adaptation by rural families and family farming a new record of pertinent, appropriate and real as a whole. data in view of the incidence and recurrence of the This reconceptualization places the phenomena of temperature increase and climatic proposals to deal with agricultural systems variability. within an agroecology approach that will gain Universities together with the public system of momentum, and permeate and reduce the technology provision must coordinate to improve culture of conventional agriculture systems. This studies of the determinants of the country’s food change will make it possible to appreciate the and nutrition security. Universities should change spatial dimension (zoning) and take the cultural their focus and research the following issues: dimension into account. Universities should a) human consumption of water resources; b) offer the sociology of climate-change culture in current sources of water supply in the territories; families, territories and their response (resilience c) research on water uses in non-agricultural parts and adaptability to variability and climate in the territories; d) in academia, begin working change) as an area-of-study. on the dimension of the water economy and the Work in the territories should be focused assessment of water resources, and e) investigate in such a way as to reduce, reuse, recycle and the interconnections of the forest resource for the harness the output of productive systems. This preservation of the country’s water cycle. dimension implies the use of biotic and abiotic The Nicaraguan Academy of Sciences resources in their different use options. The (ACN), an important scientific organization that integral approach of the dimension adds value to has become a key intermediary for scientific the rural agribusiness process and work for the development, could encourage national scientific bioeconomy to reveal the country’s biologically work to be linked to actual food and nutrition based economy. security problems. The ACN could facilitate The initiative of research, interaction and the establishment of agendas agreed on by coproduction of knowledge in the face of rural universities to identify what is scientifically change to address climate change in agriculture possible, which is technologically feasible with the and food and nutrition security in the territories current science and technology system, in order involves adopting a user perspective that will to achieve an incremental, radical improvement of contribute to the improvement of products the nature of universities as knowledge providers. by means of the co-production of knowledge The ACN, together with universities belonging to in order to avoid linear technological models the National Council of Universities (CNU), and and thereby develop response technologies the Nicaraguan Council of Science and Technology from local knowledge, so that the intervention (CONICYT), and the business productive sector is not merely a patchwork of solutions. For and the expressions in rural territory of the family example, in response to drought or floods as a economy must demand science-and-technology

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training policies that make achieving food and Conclusion nutrition security a strategic priority of the National Human Development Plan. Nicaragua will face complex challenges in the However, we must be aware that in Nicara- coming decade to ensure its food security. gua, the institutionalization of science is a very Adjustments will have to be made considering the recent process and, although it is growing, its population dynamics of Nicaragua and Central flowering will require sustained financial invest- America, projected to increase dramatically over ment and its consolidation will take time. the next five decades. In short, regarding food and nutrition security, universities must orient their research Population challenges and outreach functions to enable the country to Fifty percent of the Central-American population address the following problems: has been urban since 2012. This reflects the • Nicaragua’s traditional agricultural research growing importance of consumers, their capacity system has been deficient regarding for choice and the fact that attention must be agricultural yields, labor productivity and paid to a proper food culture. In view of the fact sustainable intensification of the economy that migration among age groups under 25 is per unit area. mainly male, coupled with women’s restrictions • The knowledge management model has on access to resources, services and information, been divorced from biodiversity manage- attention must be paid to equity in women’s ment and the dialogue of knowledge. Conse- rights by eliminating barriers. Productivity must quently, agricultural technology has focused be increased and the economic rights of the most on a handful of products and monocropping. vulnerable populations strengthened. • Research capacities for the agro-food Since the average age of producers is approx- system have focused on artificial fertility imately 50, it is necessary to develop an agri-food management, biota simplification and sector as an opportunity for youth. This condition mechanization. requires accelerating development strategies and • Impact assessment remains a central making them more efficient and effective. problem in knowledge management. Little emphasis is placed on economic areas, Challenges in the territorial leaving out fundamental elements of SSH development model determinants. Special attention must be paid to biodiversity • The knowledge management system must management and its seasonality as an opportuni- be thoroughly overhauled by: improving and ty, taking advantage of the variety of biodiversity strengthening inter- and intra-university resources, especially those used for food. Consid- collaboration and financing system to ering the topographical difficulties (sloping land, encourage synergies and integrate education Caribbean plains with predominantly calcareous subsystems for the development of the soils), an environmental economy based on for- country’s human capital and talents. est cover is required, which is a sine qua non for • An integrated effort is required from sustainability. It is essential to take into account the education system to influence its the diversity of agroecological niches by height, current state through the generation and soils, topographies and orientations to macrocli- accumulation of knowledge. mates (Pacific and Caribbean), which means that • Knowledge management is a central axis a strategy to increase productivity based on ho- that positions the academic sector as a key mogenized seeds is out of the question. This de- player in achieving an inclusive, integrated mands specific agrienvironmental conditions and and sustainable territorial development soil, which delays competitiveness in the inter- model as a response to the challenges of national market. This requires adequate manage- territorial processes and dynamics over the ment of the genetic stock in native seeds, which next 50 years. is strategic for increasing productivity in the range

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of agroecological niches. In Nicaragua, the food markets; a food culture that manages biodiversity production system is positioned mainly on slopes and its seasonality; management of germplasm and agricultural frontiers. It also lacks appropriate biodiversity for climate adaptations, a necessary knowledge management and coordination of tech- condition for sustainability (geo-referenced seed nologies and markets, which results in low pro- banks); value chains that promote biodiversity ductivity and high postharvest losses. A compre- and values that are adaptive to climate change. hensive, inclusive vision of territorial development Policies for agro-food production, agroecological for a sustainable food system is essential. and organic production (elimination of production Clean, environmentally friendly development costs) and agri-food system organized in rings, is required, in which agroecological and organic by territorial capacities and needs, should be production are an essential part of the solution. considered. Mechanisms must be developed that will The current structure of the production and permit access to land that is owned. The lack of consumption of countries in the Central-American long-term secure access to land has resulted in the Integration System (SICA) makes them highly impossibility of conservation and environmental vulnerable to negative impacts on international protection technologies and economies, leading to food prices. The increase of food autonomy gradual, unsustainable environmental degradation. of SICA countries is a strategic necessity. This It is essential to optimize the production of should occur as a result of increased productivity useful food biomass per unit area, since arable and optimization as well as the development of a area for per-capita agriculture is precarious. It food culture that optimizes the management of is also necessary to strengthen agri-food trade the available food biota and its seasonality. and ensure the sustainability of the waters in the region. Central Messages • Nicaragua’s economy and its food and Challenges regarding Free Trade Agreements nutrition security rely heavily on the impetus There is a need for basic policies to strengthen given to the agricultural sector family farming, given that in Nicaragua, 90% of • The main factors affecting agricultural the rural economy is linked to basic grains. An productivity in Nicaragua are emerging pests appropriate economic model should optimize and diseases, low soil fertility, poor seed available surface-area income by diversifying risks, quality and climate change. protecting the production of basic and meat grains • One of the biggest challenges to be addressed and taking into account extra-regional trade in is the possible impact of climate change, these products. especially in rural areas with the greatest Integrating Central-American agri-food trade poverty´, known as the “Dry Corridor”. as community trade could help solve the problems • Response to the most pressing needs in of neglected territories. In terms of animal agriculture involves adopting a new model production to provide access to animal protein, of agriculture that seeks competitiveness, policies should be promoted to ensure adequate productivity and rural poverty. production on the slopes (sheep and goat • Family agriculture is perceived as a central production) or reintroduce local species of iguanas, instrument for reducing poverty and ensuring alligators and boas into the diet and sustainable food and nutrition security, taking into food and nutrition system. account their diversity regarding size, types of technologies used and their integration Challenges of the Food System into markets. Public policies should seek regarding global processes to increase productive capacities and Adaptation to climate change requires endless agricultural yield, and take into account adjustments: an environmental economy built the socioeconomic and agroecological on biodiversity and forest cover; regulation and configurations for environmental territorial and social adaptation of bioenergy sustainability.

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• Efforts must be made to mobilize and • A frank inclusive dialogue must be promoted maximize the allocation and utilization among decision-makers, scientists and of financial and technological resources, society in general in order to achieve the including the use of appropriate agricultural medium and long-term public policies by the biotechnology to resist droughts, floods, challenges of food and nutrition security. new pests and diseases, and other • The role of the Nicaraguan Academy of problems arising from climate change. Sciences, which enjoys enormous credibility • Since public universities have certain and respect in the society, will be decisive research and innovation strengths, boosting in the formulation of policies to address their capacities by focusing on agricultural economic and social problems, in order to innovations could result in the transition strengthen the necessary human resources from conventional production systems and in the allocation and optimal use of public to the emerging system of sustainable investments for the sustainable agro-food agroecology. systems of the next 50 years.

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Acknowledgments

We are grateful for the great support of Suyen Espinoza Miranda, Catalina Solano Uribe, the Center for Molecular Biology and the Academy of Sciences of Nicaragua, and all of the authors who shared their publications and reflections with the editorial team. We would also like to thank Adolfo Hurtado Díaz, Francisco Salmerón and Oswalt Jiménez who provided some of the texts as well as valuable insights in the analysis of the issues discussed.

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