International Journal of Food Studies IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211

Effect of Roasting Regime on Phytochemical Properties of occidentalis Seeds

Abiodun Adekunle Olapadea* and Oreofeoluwatomi Adedamola Ajayia

a Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria *Corresponding author [email protected] Tel: +234-70-605-286-93

Received: 30 April 2016; Published online: 18 October 2016

Abstract

Senna occidentalis seeds were roasted at varying temperatures of 190, 210 and 230 °C each for 10, 15 and 20 min. Phytochemicals of the roasted seeds were determined using standard methods. The phytochemicals analysed were tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, oxalate and phenolics. Phytochemicals are compounds hypothesized for much of the disease-protection provided by diets high in fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals and -based beverages. This study has clearly shown that roasting time and temperature have significant effects on the seed parameters analyzed. There was an increase in tannin, alkaloid, saponin and phenolic contents and a decrease in the contents of flavonoids and oxalates. Keywords: Coffee substitute; Time-temperature combination; Significant difference; Phytochemical properties

1 Introduction from similar raw materials. seeds range in colour from The term ‘substitute’ refers to goods that are greenish-brown to dark brown with a smooth sur- more or less interchangeable to a consumer (En- face that may have small bright coloured bands carta, 2009), such that one may be conveniently on the outer surface (Anonymous, 2012; Oshoke used in place of the other. “Coffee senna”, botan- & Akinyemi, 2015). The seed was wrongly iden- ically classified as both Senna occidentalis and tified as C. sieberiana in earlier reports where occidentalis, seeds are chief substitutes of physical and chemical properties of raw seed coffee and are thus sometimes roasted and made (Olapade, Ajayi, & Ajayi, 2014) and also changes into a “coffee-like beverage” (Vashishtha, John, in some physicochemical properties of the seed & Kumar, 2009; Abubakar & Sule, 2010; Sharma during roasting were studied (Olapade, Akinoso, et al., 2013; Shittu et al., 2014; Teles, Fock, & & Oduwaye, 2012). No study has been done to Gomiak, 2015). Roasting is a primary prepara- date to evaluate the effect of roasting on phyto- tion stage for coffee and coffee substitutes (Belitz, chemical properties of the seed. Grosch, & Schieberle, 2009). The effects of roast- ‘Phytochemicals’ are chemical substances, con- ing include microbial inactivation, chemical dam- stitutive metabolites essential for survival, age, enzyme inactivation and physical changes proper functioning, and protection against (Lewis, 2006). Thus it alters sensory properties; predators, amongst others (Molyneux, Lee, improving palatability, extending the variety of Gardner, Panter, & James, 2007). Although tastes, aromas and textures in foods produced their inherent activities can have decidedly ad-

Copyright ©2016 ISEKI-Food Association (IFA) 10.7455/ijfs/5.2.2016.a8 204 Olapade and Ajayi verse effects on other organisms, especially ani- occidentalis as a coffee substitute. mals, they confer good qualities beneficial to hu- mans and are compounds hypothesized for much 2 Materials and Methods of the disease-protection provided by diets high in fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals and plant- based beverages (Tyagi, Singh, Sharma, & Ag- 2.1 Materials garwal, 2010; Teles et al., 2015). Phytochemicals The seeds used for this project were obtained analysed were tannin, saponin, flavonoid, alka- from a settlement; Ajibode in Ibadan, Oyo state. loid, glycoside, oxalate and phenolics. Tannins affect the availability of amino acids and the utilization of protein. They inhibit the activ- 2.2 Sample preparation ities of digestive enzymes and are known for their ability to reduce digestibility of food proteins be- The pods containing the seeds were opened and cause they form insoluble complexes with pro- the seeds within removed. The seeds obtained teins (Morrow, 1991; Griffiths & Moseley, 1980; were carefully sorted to make sure only good Sharma & Sehgal, 1992; Ogunlade, Ilugbiyin, & seeds were used. Seeds obtained were stored in Osasona, 2011). Saponins exhibit anti-fungal, polyethylene (PET) bottles before and after be- anti-inflammatory, fungistatic, haemolytic, mol- ing roasted. Roasting was done using a gas oven luscidal and foaming activities and influence the at the Human Nutrition Department of the Uni- body’s immune system; lowering cholesterol lev- versity and was carried out at 190, 210 and 230 els and protecting against cancers (Shi et al., °C each for 10, 15 and 20 minutes. Each ex- 2004). Of interest in beverages are the aesthetic periment of 100 g seed was done in triplicate. appeal and a desirable mouth-feel. These are The roasted seeds were cooled, coded, packed favoured by the presence of foam in or on the and later milled to powder. The raw seeds of cup of the beverage. Saponins have foam caus- the plant are shown in Plate 1. Samples were ing properties and as such it is expected that thoroughly mixed prior to sampling for analysis. they not only enhance health but stimulate the The milled samples were stored in a low density appeal to consume coffee substitutes. polyethylene bag and polyethylene bottles in a Alkaloids and their derivatives have very impor- cool and dry place to protect it from insect, dust, tant biological functions as analgesics and an- moisture gain and loss of flavour. tispasmodics, and possess bactericidal activities (Hussain et al., 2011). Cyanogenic glycoside on 2.3 Phytochemical Analyses hydrolysis yields toxic hydrocyanide acid (HCN). The cyanide ions inhibit several enzyme systems All the determinations described below were run and depress growth through interference with in triplicates. certain essential amino acids and utilization of associated nutrients (Audu, Aremu, & Lajide, Tannin content determination 2013). Oxalates are known to adversely affect mineral availability in foods. It was reported Tannin content was determined as reported by that a high intake of oxalates could result in Sharma and Sehgal (1992). 0.5 gram of sample gastro-intestinal irritation, blocking of the renal was measured into a 50 ml beaker and 10 ml of tubes, muscular weakness or paralysis (Innocen- water was added. The mixture was shaken, cov- tia, Ojotu, & Emmanuel, 2014). Phenols and ered and left to stand for 1 hour. One ml of phenolics compounds are greatly used in skin in- extract was transferred into a flask. Then, 5 ml fections and other wound treatments, and also distilled water and 2 drops 5% FeCl3 aqueous so- for healing and as antimicrobial agents (Hussain lution were added and the solution was shaken et al., 2011). to mix it properly. Thereafter, 4 drops of potas- The aim of this research was to study the effect sium ferrocyanide was added, and coloration de- of roasting at various time-temperature combina- veloped. Preparations for a standard curve were tions on the phytochemical properties of Cassia made with 0.5 gram of tannic acid in 50 ml of

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211 Roasting of Senna occidentalis seeds 205 water. Aliquots of 0.0 ml, 0.1 ml, 0.2 ml, up to Harborne (1998) with modification. Five gram of 1.0 ml were taken and each was made up to 10 ml the sample was dispersed in 20% acetic acid solu- with distilled water. The absorbance of sample tion in ethanol to form a ratio of 2:8 (20%). The and standard tannic acid solutions were read af- mixture was allowed to stand for 4 hours at 28 °C ter colour development on a spectrophotometer with lid and was later filtered. The filtrate was at a wavelength of 620 nm and calculations were concentrated to one quarter of its original volume made. by evaporation and treated with drop-wise addi- tion of conc. aqueous NH4OH until the alkaloid Saponin content determination was precipitated. The precipitated alkaloid was received in a weighed filter paper, washed with The spectrophotometric method (Hussain et al., 1% ammonia solution and dried in the oven at 2011) was used for saponin analysis. One gram 80 °C. Alkaloid content was calculated and ex- sample was weighed into a beaker and 10 ml pressed as a percentage of the weight of sample petroleum ether was added. The mixture was analyzed (Hussain et al., 2011). shaken to ensure uniform mixing. Thereafter, su- pernatant was decanted and then evaporated to Glycoside content determination dryness. 6 ml of 80 % ethanol was added to dried filtrate and swirled. From this, a 2 ml aliquot was To one gram of sample, 25 ml of 15 % lead acetate transferred into test tube. 2 ml of 5 % FeCl3 aqueous solution was added and the mixture was aqueous solution was added and the prepara- filtered. Two ml of chloroform was added to the tion was left to stand for 30 minutes meanwhile, filtrate and shaken vigorously. Clear fluid, i.e. colour developed. 0 to 10 ppm standard saponin lower layer, was collected and evaporated to dry- solutions were prepared from saponin stock solu- ness. Three ml of glacial acetic acid, 0.1 ml of tion. The standard solutions were treated sim- 5 % FeCl3 aqueous solution and 0.25 ml of conc. ilarly with 2 ml of 5% FeCl3 aqueous solution. H2SO4 were added and the mixture thoroughly The absorbance of the sample as well as standard shaken. It was then allowed to stand in dark for saponin solutions were read after colour develop- 2 hours after which absorbance was read at 530 ment on spectrophotometer at a wavelength of nm. 550 nm. Oxalates content determination Flavonoids content determination A 0.5 gram portion of sample was weighed. 10 Spectrophotometric method in Kathirvel and Su- ml distilled water and 1 ml conc. H2SO4 were jatha (2012) was adopted and adapted as follows. added. The solution was left to stand overnight. 0.50 gram of sample was weighed. To this, 10 ml Thereafter, 39 ml distilled water was added. An of ethanol was added and the mixture was left for aliquot of 5 ml was taken. This was titrated 15 minutes. One ml of solution was transferred against 0.05 M standardized aqueous KMnO4 so- and 9 ml of distilled water added. Upon agita- lution till pink colour, which persists for 30 sec- tion, 1 ml was extracted. 6.1 ml distilled water onds, was obtained. and 0.3 ml of 5% NaNO3 aqueous solution was added and left for 6 minutes. Thereafter, 0.6 ml Phenolics content determination 5% AlCl3 aqueous solution was added in and it was again left for 5 minutes. Finally, 2 ml of 5% The sample (0.5 g) was weighed into a conical NaOH was added and sample absorbance read at flask and 10 ml ethanol was added. One ml of 510 nm. extract was taken and to it was added 9 ml of dis- tilled water. A one ml aliquot was taken and 4.5 Alkaloids content determination ml of Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent was added. Two ml of 7.5 % Na2CO3 aqueous solution was added Determination of the alkaloid content was done and the mixture agitated. Solution absorbance by the alkaline precipitation method described by was read at 610 nm.

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211 206 Olapade and Ajayi

2.4 Phenolics content of Jatropha curcas (Makkar, Francis, & Becker, determination 2008); 0.38 % of Lonchocarpus sericeus (Proll et al., 1998); 0.448 % and 0.234 % of raw and pro- Results of each experiment were analysed to cessed mango seed flour (Arogba, 1997); 0.48 % assess significant differences between raw and of paprika seed and 0.69 % of Pterocarpus osun roasted samples’ parameters at a significance (Proll et al., 1998) but higher than 0.12 % and level of p>0.05. All data was collated on Mi- 0.127 % in Adansonia digitate and 100 % maize crosoft Excel sheet, analyzed using SPSS 20.0 ogi flour respectively (Proll et al., 1998; Enuji- and presented as mean ± standard deviation ugha, 2006). (Arunkumar & Muthuselvam, 2009). The saponin content of raw and roasted samples ranged from 0.012 % to 0.019 % as revealed in Table1. Raw samples had a saponin content 3 Results and Discussion of 0.013 %. The presence of saponin in coffee senna contradicts results of Veerachari and Bopa- 3.1 Phytochemical content iah (2012), Mensah, Okoli, Turay, and Ogie-Odia (2009) and Olapade et al. (2014) who found no The results of the phytochemical content of raw saponin in the seed. Of the roasted samples, seed and seed roasted at 190 °C, 210 °C and 230 only sample 190 °C/20 mins had a percentage °C each at 10, 15 and 20 minutes respectively of saponin content lower than that in the raw are presented in Table1. Tannin content ranged sample; though not significantly lower. Accord- from 0.13 % for roasting condition 190 °C /20 ing to Akinmutimi (2006) about 44.25 % reduc- min to 0.25 % in 230 °C /20 min. Compared tion in saponin content occurred in jack beans to raw sample, tannin content in samples under- cooked for 60 minutes; more than in those cooked going roasting at 190 °C/15 min and 190 °C/20 for 20 and 40 minutes. A similar trend was ob- min was reduced, while it was unchanged for 210 served with the roasted Cassia occidentalis seeds, °C/10 min and 210 °C/15 min, but it increased where the saponin content was observed to re- for 190 °C/10 min, 210 °C/20 min and all roasted duce with an increase in duration of roasting samples at 230 °C. With a roasting time of 15 from 10 to 15 minutes and then to 20 mins at min, the tannin content increased with increase 190 °C and 210 °C. The saponin contents ob- in temperature. Tannin contents of both raw served in raw and roasted coffee senna seeds were and roasted seeds of coffee senna were at least lower than the values reported for raw (7.20 %) 90 % lower than the 2.27 and 2.73 % of raw and and fermented (6.71 %) Cassia tora (Adamu, roasted seeds of coffee-like baobab (Innocentia Ushie, & Elisha, 2013) and for raw (3.26 %) and et al., 2014). The tannin content of the water roasted (7.23 %) coffee-like baobab seed (Inno- extract of the raw sample (0.16 %) was much centia et al., 2014). The values were also lower lower than those of chloroform, methanol and than the ones stated for grain legumes (Khokhar petroleum ether extracts of raw Cassia occiden- & Apenten, 2003), raw S. obtusifolia (Ingweye, talis reported in Kathirvel and Sujatha (2012). Kalio, Ubua, & Umoren, 2010) and all medic- With respect to other , the tannin content inal plants investigated by Edeoga, Okwu, and of samples undergoing roasting at 210 °C/20 min Mbaebie (2005) and by Aliyu, Musa, Oshanimi, was comparable to that of Sesbania pachycarpa Ibrahim, and Oyewale (2008). Flavonoids are (Proll, Petzke, Ezeagu, & Metges, 1998) and wa- beneficial phytochemicals. All the seeds; raw termelon seed kernel flour (El-Adawy & Taha, and roasted were found to contain flavonoids. 2001); at 230 °C/15 min was comparable to that All roasted samples except the ones roasted at of fluted pumpkin leaf extract (Nworgu, Ogung- 190 °C for 10 minutes had lower quantities of benro, & Solesi, 2007) and Enterolobium cyclo- flavonoid when compared to raw seed. Roasting carpium (Proll et al., 1998); and at 230 °C/20 for more than 10 minutes at 190 °C and roasting min was comparable to Prosopis Africana (Proll at temperatures above 190 °C caused a signifi- et al., 1998). All the roasted samples had lower cant reduction in flavonoids’ content by as much tannin content than 0.32 % of protein isolate as 87.1 %. Flavonoids’ content reduced with in-

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211 Roasting of Senna occidentalis seeds 207 c,d,e b d b d a c,d 0.003 0.002 0.02 0.00 2.83 0.03 0.01 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.25 0.014 0.07 6.00 0.023 0.25 0.35 b,c,d a a C c,d a c e ° 0.001 1.41 0.001 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.18 0.015 0.04 13.00 0.031 0.22 0.90 b,c b c d,e b,c b,c e 0.001 0.003 0.01 0.00 1.41 0.01 0.01 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.19 0.016 0.05 9.00 0.023 0.24 0.24 b,c a a c,d c,d a b 0.002 0.002 0.01 0.00 0.71 0.01 0.02 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.24 0.016 0.07 6.50 0.032 0.28 0.75 b b b d e c,d a C 230 ° 0.001 1.41 0.001 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.16 0.017 0.04 10.00 0.022 0.22 0.88 b b d c,d b,c c,d f 0.001 0.002 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.05 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± < 0.16 0.017 0.07 9.00 0.022 0.22 0.20 e c e c d,e e c 0.000 0.001 0.01 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.01 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.13 0.012 0.07 4.50 0.010 0.16 0.38 c,d,e a e b d e d C 210 ° 0.001 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.01 0.01 ± ± 190 ± ± ± ± ± 0.15 0.014 0.04 5.50 0.031 0.17 0.76 a a a e d e b 0.001 0.001 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.04 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 10 min. 15 min. 20 min. 10 min. 15 min. 20 min. 10 min. 15 min. 20 min. Table 1: Effect of roasting time on the phytochemical composition of seeds 0.22 0.019 0.50 2.00 0.028 0.20 0.24 d,e c d b e d e 0.001 0.000 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.02 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.16 0.013 0.31 2.00 0.014 0.21 0.27 Glycoside Oxalate Phenolics Phytochemical (%)Tannin Raw Saponin Flavonoid Alkaloid Values of mean in rows; not followed by the same alphabet(s) are significantly different at p

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211 208 Olapade and Ajayi creasing temperature in samples roasted for 10 sides in seeds is relatively low and is found to minutes but remained constant despite variations be lower than that found in raw seeds of Senna in temperature in samples roasted for 15 min- obtusifolia (Ingweye et al., 2010), leaves’ extract utes. The same consistency was observed for of Teleferia occidentalis (Ekpenyong, Akpan, & samples roasted for 20 minutes. Meanwhile, sam- Udoh, 2012) and Tanzanian locally available leaf ples roasted for 20 minutes had slightly higher and oil seed meals used as poultry feed ingredi- values than those obtained for seeds roasted at ents (Mutayoba, Dierenfeld, Mercedes, Frances, 190, 210 and 230 °C for 15 minutes. It was ob- & Knight, 2011). Results of samples’ oxalate served that flavonoids were best retained in seeds content presented in Table1 clearly show that roasted at 190 °C and 10 minutes and then next cooking, including roasting, has a minute effect in all seeds roasted for the duration of 20 min- on the oxalate’s content of food. The oxalate con- utes. Samples with the highest flavonoids con- tent of the raw sample was 0.21 ± 0.01 % while tent, i.e. 190 °C/10 mins, compared favourably that of the roasted samples ranged between 0.16 with that of Richardia brasilensis (Edeoga et al., ± 0.00 % and 0. 28 ± 0.01 % for roasting condi- 2005) and Anchomanes difformis (Aliyu et al., tions of 190 °C/20 min and 210 °C/20 minutes, 2008). While that of raw samples compared with respectively. Oxalate makes some mineral ele- Cleome rutidosperma (Edeoga et al., 2005) but ments unavailable. Roasting at 190 °C for 10, was lower than that of Cassia occidentalis as re- 15 and 20 minutes resulted in a 4.76 %, 19.52 % ported in Kathirvel and Sujatha (2012). Alka- and 23.80 % reduction in oxalate contents respec- loids’ content of seeds ranged from 2.00 ± 0.00 tively (values of which were not significantly dif- % in raw seeds and in roasted seeds at 190 °C ferent from each other at p < 0.05). Meanwhile, for 10 minutes, to 13.00 ± 1.41 % in roasted the oxalate content in samples roasted at 210 °C seeds at 230 °C for 15 minutes. Alkaloids are and 230 oC were higher than that of raw samples. phyto- constituents that intercalate with body Akinmutimi (2006) recorded a 50 % reduction in deoxyribonucleic acid. No particular trend was oxalate content between raw and processed Jack observed with increasing duration of roasting, at bean seed while Innocentia et al. (2014) recorded each temperature, although most treatments for a 40 - 88 % reduction between raw and roasted 10 minutes were significantly higher than in the baobab. The percentage (%) of oxalate contents raw sample except the treatment at 190 °C. The of raw and roasted coffee senna seed were found alkaloid content increased from 10 to 15 minutes to be lower than that of raw and roasted seeds of treatment and then reduced upon further ex- of coffee-like baobab and other tropical crops posure to roasting (i.e. till 20 minutes). This studied by Proll et al. (1998), but higher than may be a result of decomposition of other com- that in 100 % maize-ogi flour (Enujiugha, 2006) ponents of the seed; thus increasing the percent- and fluted pumpkin leaf extract (Nworgu et al., age content of alkaloids rather than a conversion 2007). Phenolics have a strong antioxidant po- of other components into alkaloids. The highest tential. The effect of roasting time-temperature alkaloid content was found in the sample roasted combinations on sample phenolics ranged from at 230 °C/15 minutes. Results obtained for al- 0.20 % to 0.90 %. Treatment for 10 minutes kaloids’ content are higher than those studied generally resulted in a sample with a phenolics by Edeoga et al. (2005) and in Anchomanes dif- content lower than that in the raw sample by as formis, Anisopus mannii and Pavetta crassipes much as a 6.86 % reduction. Samples roasted (Aliyu et al., 2008) but much lower than those for 15 and 20 minutes had higher phenolics con- in raw (Ingweye et al., 2010). tent than raw samples. Seeds roasted for 15 min All roasted samples had an increased percentage had a phenolics content higher than those roasted of glycoside content except 190 °C/20 min. Raw for 10 min and 20 min, increasing with increased samples presented 0.014 % glycosides and ranged roasting temperature applied as in Figure1. The between 0.010 and 0.032 % in roasted samples, highest phenolics content was found in samples which implies that roasting does not extensively with roasting conditions 230 °C/ 15 min and the destroy the cyanogenic glycosides. It is notable lowest in samples roasted at 210 °C for 10 mins. that the average percentage of content of glyco- The phenolics content of raw and roasted Senna

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211 Roasting of Senna occidentalis seeds 209 occidentalis were higher than those in E. hetero- References phylla, R. bransilensis, S. dulcis, S. acuta, S. an- thelmia, S.cyaenneusis and T. procumbeus all of Abubakar, S. & Sule, M. (2010). Effect of oral which are medicinal plants (Edeoga et al., 2005), administration of aqueous extract of cassia but lower than that in protein isolates of seed occidentalis l. seeds on serum electrolytes cake of Jathropha curcas (Makkar et al., 2008) as concentration in rats. Bayero Journal of well as Anisopus mannii, Stachytarpheta angus- Pure and Applied Sciences, 3 (1), 183–187. tifolia, Veronia blumeoides (Aliyu et al., 2008). Adamu, H. M., Ushie, O. A., & Elisha, B. (2013). The phenolic content of the ethanol extract of Chemical and nutrient analysis of raw and raw coffee senna seeds in this study (0.27%) was fermented seeds of cassia tora. Journal of comparable to that of the methanol extract of Physical Science and Innovation Volume, coffee senna seeds but lower than those of chlo- 5 (1), 125–138. roform and petroleum ether extract as studied El-Adawy, T. A. & Taha, K. M. (2001). Charac- by Kathirvel and Sujatha (2012). teristics and composition of different seed oils and flours. Food Chemistry, 74 (1), 47– 54. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00337-X Akinmutimi, A. H. (2006). Nutritive value of raw and processed jack fruit seeds (artocarpus heterophyllus): chemical analysis. Agricul- tural Journal, 1 (4), 266–271. Aliyu, A. B., Musa, A. M., Oshanimi, J. A., Ibrahim, H. A., & Oyewale, A. O. (2008). Phytochemical analyses and mineral el- ements composition of some medicinal plants of northern nigeria. Nigerian Jour- nal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 7 (1), 119– 125. Figure 1: Seeds of S. occidentalis Anonymous. (2012). Cassia seed (jue ming zi). Retrieved Aug. 23, 2012. Retrieved from http : / / acupuncturetoday . com / herbcentral/cassia seed.php Arogba, S. S. (1997). Physical, chemical and functional properties of nigerian mango 4 Conclusions (mangifera indica) kernel and its processed flour. Journal of the Science of Food and This study has shown that the duration of ex- Agriculture, 73 (3), 321–328. posure and the temperatures of roasting ap- Arunkumar, S. & Muthuselvam, M. (2009). Anal- plied affect the seeds’ phytochemical properties. ysis of phytochemical constituents and an- While roasting did not totally eliminate the un- timicrobial activities of aloe vera l. against desired phytochemicals (oxalate and tannin pri- clinical pathogens. World Journal of Agri- marily), the resultant effect was that saponin and cultural Sciences, 5 (5), 572–576. flavonoids contents reduced but phenolics, glyco- Audu, S. S., Aremu, M. O., & Lajide, L. (2013). sides and alkaloids contents increased. The best Effects of processing on physicochemical phytochemical balance was observed in samples and antinutritional properties of black tur- roasted at 210 °C for 15 min. Other favorable tle bean (phaseolus vulgaris l.) seeds flour. conditions for roasting of coffee senna seeds were Oriental Journal of Chemistry, 29 (3), 979– 210 °C/10 min and 190 °C/20 min. The less fa- 989. doi:10.13005/ojc/290318 vorable conditions were found to be the more se- Belitz, H. D., Grosch, W., & Schieberle, P. vere roasting conditions of 230 °C/20 min and (2009). Food chemistry (4th). Springer, 210 °C/20 min. Verlag Berlin.

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211 210 Olapade and Ajayi

Edeoga, H. O., Okwu, D. E., & Mbaebie, B. O. fects of processing. The role of food, agri- (2005). Phytochemical constituents of some culture, forestry and fisheries in human nu- nigerian medicinal plants. African Journal trition, 4, 82–116. Retrieved from http:// of Biotechnology, 4 (7), 685–688. www.eolss.net/ebooklib/ebookcontents/ Ekpenyong, C. E., Akpan, E. E., & Udoh, N. S. E5-01A-ThemeContents.pdf (2012). Phytochemistry and toxicity stud- Lewis, M. J. (2006). Thermal processing. Food ies of telfairia occidentalis aqueous leaves processing handbook, 2, 33. extract on liver biochemical indices in wis- Makkar, H. P. S., Francis, G., & Becker, K. tar rats. American Journal of Medicine and (2008). Protein concentrate from jatropha Medical Sciences, 2 (5), 103–110. curcas screw-pressed seed cake and toxic Encarta. (2009). Substitute goods. 1993-2008 mi- and antinutritional factors in protein con- crosoft corporation. centrate. Journal of the Science of Food Enujiugha, V. N. (2006). Supplementation of ogi, and Agriculture, 88 (9), 1542–1548. doi:10. a maize-based infant weaning food, with 1002/jsfa.3248 african oil bean (pentaclethra macrophylla Mensah, J. K., Okoli, R. I., Turay, A. A., & Ogie- benth) seed. Journal of Food Agriculture Odia, E. A. (2009). Phytochemical analy- and Environment, 4 (2), 34–38. sis of medicinal plants used for the man- Griffiths, D. W. & Moseley, G. (1980). The effect agement of hypertension by esan people of of diets containing field beans of high or edo state, nigeria. Ethnobotanical leaflets, low polyphenolic content on the activity of 13 (10), 7. Retrieved from http://opensiuc. digestive enzymes in the intestines of rats. lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article= Journal of the Science of Food and Agri- 1637%5C&context=ebl culture, 31 (3), 255–259. doi:10.1002/jsfa. Molyneux, R. J., Lee, S. T., Gardner, D. R., Pan- 2740310307 ter, K. E., & James, L. F. (2007). Phy- Harborne, A. J. (1998). Phytochemical methods a tochemicals: the good, the bad and the guide to modern techniques of plant analy- ugly? Phytochemistry, 68 (22-24), 2973– sis. Springer Science & Business Media. 2985. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.09.004 Hussain, I., Ullah, R., Ullah, R., Khurram, M., Morrow, B. (1991). The rebirth of legumes. Food Ullah, N., Baseer, A., . . . Khan, N. (2011). Technology, 45 (9), 96–121. Phytochemical analysis of selected medici- Mutayoba, S. K., Dierenfeld, E., Mercedes, V. A., nal plants. African Journal of Biotechnol- Frances, Y., & Knight, C. D. (2011). Deter- ogy, 10 (38), 7487–7492. mination of chemical composition and anti- Ingweye, J. N., Kalio, G. A., Ubua, J. A., & nutritive components for tanzanian locally Umoren, E. P. (2010). Nutritional evalua- available poultry feed ingredients. Interna- tion of wild sicklepod (senna obtusifolia) tional Journal of Poultry Science, 10 (5), seeds from obanliku, south-eastern nige- 350–357. ria. American Journal of Food Technology, Nworgu, F. C., Ogungbenro, S. A., & Solesi, 5 (1), 1–12. doi:10.3923/ajft.2010.1.12 K. S. (2007). Performance and some Innocentia, O. N., Ojotu, E. M., & Emmanuel, blood chemistry indices of broiler chicken A. (2014). Quality evaluation of coffee-like served fluted pumpkin (telfaria occiden- beverage from baobab (adansonia diditata) talis) leaves extract supplement. American- seed. Advance Journal of Food Science and Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Envi- Technology, 6 (9), 1050–1055. ronmental Science, 2 (1), 90–98. Kathirvel, A. & Sujatha, V. (2012). Phytochem- Ogunlade, I., Ilugbiyin, A., & Osasona, A. I. ical studies of cassia occidentalis linn. flow- (2011). A comparative study of proximate ers and seeds in various solvent extracts. composition, anti-nutrient composition and International Journal of Pharmacognosy functional properties of pachira glabra and and Phytochemical Research, 3 (4), 95–101. afzelia africana seed flours. African Journal Khokhar, S. & Apenten, R. K. O. (2003). Antin- of Food Science, 5 (1), 32–35. utritional factors in food legumes and ef-

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211 Roasting of Senna occidentalis seeds 211

Olapade, A. A., Ajayi, O. A., & Ajayi, I. A. Tyagi, S., Singh, G., Sharma, A., & Aggarwal, G. (2014). Physical and chemical properties of (2010). Phytochemicals as candidate ther- cassia sieberiana seeds. International Food apeutics: an overview. International Jour- Research Journal, 21 (2), 767–772. nal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Olapade, A. A., Akinoso, R., & Oduwaye, A. O. Research, 3 (1), 53–55. (2012). Changes in some physicochemical Vashishtha, V. M., John, T. J., & Kumar, A. properties of cassia sieberiana seeds during (2009). Clinical & pathological features of roasting. Nigerian Food Journal, 30 (1), 26– acute toxicity due to cassia occidentalis in 34. vertebrates. Indian Journal of Medical Re- Oshoke, J. O. & Akinyemi, A. O. (2015). Nu- search, 130 (1), 23–30. tritional value of cassa occidentalis and its Veerachari, U. & Bopaiah, A. K. (2012). Phy- potential contribution to aquaculture feed. tochemical investigation of the ethanol, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 14 (12), methanol and ethyl acetate leaf extracts 924–930. of six cassia species. International Research Proll, J., Petzke, K. J., Ezeagu, I. E., & Met- Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 3 (1), ges, C. C. (1998). Low nutritional quality of 34–39. unconventional tropical crop seeds in rats. Journal of Nutrition, 128 (11), 2014–2022. Sharma, A. & Sehgal, S. (1992). Effect of do- mestic processing, cooking and germina- tion on the trypsin-inhibitor activity and tannin content of faba bean (vicia-faba). Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 42 (2), 127–133. doi:10.1007/BF02196465 Sharma, B. L., Singh, D., Santosh Sharma, K., Hashmi, A., Singh, A., & Bansal, A. (2013). Studies on some primary metabo- lite’s extraction and quantification in dif- ferent plant parts of selected cassia species. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clin- ical Research, 6 (2), 309–314. Shi, J., Arunasalam, K., Yeung, D., Kakuda, Y., Mittal, G., & Jiang, Y. M. (2004). Saponins from edible legumes: chemistry, processing, and health benefits. Journal of Medicinal Food, 7 (1), 67–78. doi:10.1089/ 109662004322984734 Shittu, O. B., Olabode, O. O., Omemu, A. M., Oluwalana, S., Adeniran, S., & Akpan, I. (2014). Phytochemical and antimicro- bial screening of spondias mombin, senna occidentalis and musa sapientum against vibrio cholerae o1. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sci- ences, 3 (5), 948–961. Teles, A. V. F. F., Fock, R. A., & Gomiak, S. L. (2015). Effects of long-term admin- istration of senna occidentalis seeds on the hematopoietic tissue of rats. Toxicon, 108, 73–79. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.09.042

IJFS October 2016 Volume 5 pages 203–211