U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges

June 2018 “The mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System is to administer a national network of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fsh, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats within the United States for the beneft of present and future generations of Americans.”

National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997

Photo credit: Don Brubaker, USFWS, 2011

Joy Albertson, Supervisory Wildlife Biologist, San Francisco Bay NWRC, and Jason Sequeira, Field Supervisor, Marin/ Sonoma Mosquito Control, and Vector District, CA dipping for mosquito larvae at San Pablo Bay National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges

Introduction ...... 1

Purpose and Scope of the Handbook...... 2

Principles of Integrated Pest Management...... 4

Mosquito Management Plan...... 5 Statement of Purpose and Need ...... 6 Refuge Natural Resources (including maps) ...... 6 Mosquito Ecology and Life History ...... 6 Climate Change ...... 7 Health Considerations ...... 7 Mosquito-Borne Disease ...... 8 Mosquito Related Human Health Considerations ...... 8 Animal Health Considerations ...... 8 Mosquito-Vectored Pathogen Surveillance and Mosquito Monitoring ...... 8 Mosquito Management Options ...... 11 Best Management Practices ...... 11 Managing Habitats for Mosquito Source Reduction ...... 11 Mosquito Control ...... 12 Larvicides, Pupacides, Adulticides ...... 16 Modifed Mosquitoes ...... 17 Thresholds for Action - Risk Management ...... 18 Pesticide Treatment Decisions ...... 19 Human Health Emergencies ...... 21 Natural Resource and Compliance Monitoring and Reporting ...... 21 Natural Resources Monitoring ...... 21 Mosquito Management Implementation Compliance Monitoring...... 21 Reporting ...... 22 Adaptive Management ...... 22 Education and Outreach ...... 22 Local Mosquito Situation and Communication ...... 22 Prevention ...... 23 Natural Mosquito Predators ...... 24

Glossary ...... 25

Literature Cited and General References...... 27

Appendices ...... 30 Appendix A Authorities and Policies Relevant to Mosquito Management ...... 30 Appendix B Summaries of Common Mosquito-Borne Diseases in the United States and Other Mosquito-Related Human Health Considerations...... 35 Appendix C Action Threshold - Example ...... 39 Appendix D Animal Health Considerations ...... 44

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges i ii Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Introduction

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) Unless mosquitoes interfere with refuge-specifc considers native mosquitoes a part of the natural management goals and objectives, or cause a ecosystem in the National Wildlife Refuge System public or wildlife health risk, they are allowed to (Refuge System) habitats in which they occur. exist unimpeded on a refuge. Mosquito-vectored The Service allows mosquitoes on refuges to exist pathogens that cause disease are the primary public unimpeded unless they pose a specifc human or health concern associated with mosquitoes on a wildlife health risk. Sometimes Refuge Managers refuge. When faced with mosquito management are called upon to manage mosquitoes on-refuge in decisions affecting Refuge System lands and waters, coordination with local public health or mosquito the Service’s position is to work with public health control organizations. This handbook applies to agencies and/or mosquito control organizations mosquito management activities related to reducing using the most effective method or combination of risks to public health from mosquito-borne disease. methods that pose the lowest risk to fsh, wildlife, and their habitats. Often, the Service’s preferred A Refuge Manager may authorize others to conduct mosquito management option is to use non-pesticide mosquito management activities on a refuge to based tools. protect public health when local, current mosquito monitoring data provided by the public health Under Service policy, integrated pest management agency or an authorized designated representative (IPM) is a sustainable approach to managing indicate that mosquitoes on the refuge are causing, pests by combining physical, biological, cultural, or are expected to cause, a public health threat. and chemical tools in a way that minimizes health, Mosquito management includes the following environmental and economic risk. Effective activities: planning, identifcation and inventory mosquito management on refuges requires planning of mosquito species, surveillance and monitoring, that follows the IPM principles. This handbook for establishing action thresholds, prevention, control mosquito management is a stepdown handbook for (to suppress and/or reduce mosquitoes), restoration, the Service IPM policy (569 FW 1). research, and outreach and education activities used to minimize risks to public health. All Refuge System mosquito management activities, including Service planning documents, must be consistent with all applicable Federal laws, regulations and policies.

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 1 Purpose and Scope of this Handbook

This handbook establishes the Service’s The Service relies on public health authorities interpretation of existing laws, regulations, and mosquito control organizations to determine and policies that allow us to authorize mosquito the risks and threats to public health related to management activities on Refuge System lands mosquito-borne pathogens and to advise us on and waters. The handbook provides consistency in management actions to minimize these risks. Public the decision-making process regarding mosquito health authorities may work with refuge staff to management on national wildlife refuges for implement integrated pest management principles protection of public health. In general, the Service that include the following: does not treat for mosquito-vectored wildlife disease. The handbook guides development of (1) Identifying mosquito species in the area Mosquito Management Plans (MMP) in compliance and understanding their life history and with the National Environmental Policy Act and conditions that support their production; provides information to make informed management (2) Monitoring mosquitoes and mosquito- decisions and minimize the impacts to natural borne pathogen surveillance (as needed) resources from mosquito management activities on to provide relevant information to Refuge System lands and waters. Mosquito control refuge staff; activities may include prevention practices, habitat management actions, biological controls, chemical (3) Establishing action thresholds that help treatments, and, potentially, modifed mosquitoes. the Refuge Managers make informed Mosquito management planning is most effective decisions about actions such as pesticide when conducted in partnership with public health treatments, when needed; authorities or their authorized representatives. (4) Recording decisions and effectiveness Such representatives are often mosquito control of actions implemented; and or mosquito abatement districts (referred to (5) Monitoring for effcacy, compliance, throughout the handbook as “mosquito control and non-target impacts. organizations”). Mosquito management planning for a national Mosquito management planning includes identifying wildlife refuge must consider public health while acceptable control strategies. An MMP serves as an protecting natural resources. Pesticides used to important tool to communicate with the community manage mosquitoes have the potential to adversely and provides common understanding of acceptable impact non-target species either directly or and permitted mosquito management strategies indirectly. Some mosquito control pesticides impact among the health authority, mosquito control the immune, reproductive, or nervous system of organization, and the refuge staff. insects. Some larvicides kill susceptible chironomid (midge) larvae, with research suggesting that Planning is necessary to ensure that mosquito population-level impacts may affect the food web at management activities on a refuge are compatible the community-level. Mosquito adulticide products with the establishing purposes of the refuge. are broad-spectrum insecticides that may impact a Mosquitoes are a part of the ecosystem; they wide variety of invertebrates and vertebrates. serve as a food resource for other organisms. Nevertheless, they are also pathogen vectors. The degree to which mosquito control pesticides Generally, the Service receives no appropriated may impact non-target organisms or non-target funds to conduct mosquito management activities insect communities is often diffcult to predict and implementation of monitoring and treatment on- because of differences in sensitivity among species, refuge is conducted by public health or the mosquito differences in toxicity of various formulated management organizations. Mosquito management products, and basic knowledge gaps in species- activities on refuges are considered a use of a specifc toxicity. There are few studies that examine refuge and require a Special Use Permit (SUP). the non-target impacts of mosquito control

2 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges pesticides at diverse spatial and temporal scales. This handbook guides Service review, planning, The use of mosquito larvicides is considered and authorization processes for use of lawfully preferable to mosquito adulticides for several registered pesticides for mosquito control on- reasons: refuge. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) assesses human health and non-target (1) Larvicides prevent the emergence resource risks of pesticides during the pesticide of adults; registration process. There is increasing attention (2) Larvicides can provide up to a month to mosquito species evolving resistance to mosquito (or longer) of control, rather than the pesticide products currently in use. Uncertainty few hours provided by adulticides; about human health risks of pesticides, non-target resources impacts, and resistance is ever changing; (3) Most larvicides are far less toxic than that is why, in part, that the USEPA conducts adulticides; and pesticide re-registration reviews. These concerns (4) Larvicides are generally applied to support an integrated approach to mosquito smaller spatial areas, thus impacting management. fewer non-target resources. This handbook is applicable to all units of the For these reasons and in view of the mission of Refuge System where the Service has jurisdiction the Refuge System, when mosquito management over mosquito management activities, regardless of actions include pesticide use, they should target whether the Service or a Service-authorized entity the mosquito larval stage. Mosquito larvicides / conducts the mosquito management actions. pupacides pose less risk than adulticide products to non-target species and the environment.

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 3 Principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management is a sustainable environmental risk. These IPM principles are the approach to managing pests by combining foundation for mosquito management planning and physical, biological, cultural, and chemical tools implementation. in a way that minimizes economic, health, and

The Principles of Integrated Pest Management

• Understand the refuge management objectives and establish short- and long-term priorities. Refuge objectives would be found in the • Build partnerships and consensus with Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP) or in the stakeholders, such as communities and decision- Habitat Management Plan, or both. Decide on your makers. Example: Public health agency staff refuge objectives for mosquito management; use and technical experts such as mosquito control specifc, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time- organization staff. Partnership building is an on- based objectives when choosing tools. Example: going effort throughout the process. Due to past history of mosquito-vectored disease in the area, a Refuge Manager may allow a public • Review available tools and BMPs for mosquito health district or a mosquito control organization to management. Tools and strategies can include: 1) treat some mosquito breeding habitat on the refuge no action, 2) physical (manual and mechanical), 3) for larval mosquitoes if the public health district cultural, 4) biological, and 5) chemicals. requests it. • Establish the “action threshold” at which • Prevent mosquitoes from becoming a pest at a management action will be implemented to your site. This is the frst line of defense against any control the pest population. (Action thresholds are pest species. See the Best Management Practices a key Mosquito Management Plan (MMP) element (BMPs ) section of the handbook. and are discussed in detail later in the handbook.) • Identify and monitor the pest species • Obtain approval, defne responsibilities, and (mosquito), and know the life history, and the implement preventive and best management conditions that support the pest(s). Similarly, practices (BMPs) and control treatments, in know the diseases that are vectored by the accordance with applicable laws, regulations, mosquitoes that occur in your area. The Centers policies and the refuge MMP. for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), • Practice adaptive management. Evaluate public health agencies, and mosquito control results of implemented management strategies organizations have relevant information. Access through authorized monitoring; determine information on the CDC website located at https:// if objectives have been achieved, and modify www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/outdoor/mosquito-borne/ strategies, if necessary. • Understand the physical (air, water, food, • Maintain written records. Document decisions shelter, temperature, and light) and biological and report treatments implemented and monitoring factors that affect the number and distribution results. of mosquitoes and any natural enemies. Conserve natural enemies when implementing any strategy. • Outreach and education. Inform refuge staff Integrated marsh management, for example, can of the mosquito management issues in and around restore high marsh pools to serve as native fsh the refuge, and prepare informative materials for reservoirs in areas that had been previously drained. outreach to visitors.

4 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Mosquito Management Plan

If mosquito management activities occur on or the local public health authorities and mosquito impact a refuge, then refuge staff should prepare control organizations. Regardless of refuge-specifc an MMP. An MMP is a step-down management plan circumstances, collaborating with experts who with specifc objectives and strategies that support work for local public health authorities or mosquito the objectives identifed in a CCP. An MMP is control organizations will help refuge staff plan also identifed as an integrated pest management for mosquito management. Planning also provides plan. Mosquito management planning provides transparency of operations and public inclusion the Service with the opportunity to assess the in decision-making. The MMP may include the impacts of mosquito management activities and following sections where appropriate, recognizing helps to ensure the protection of natural resources. the need for refuge-specifc fexibility in planning. Mosquito management planning facilitates the development of the working relationships with

National Wildlife Refuge Mosquito Management Plan

Statement of Purpose and Need Refuge Natural Resources (including maps) Mosquito Ecology, Life History, and Pathogen Transmission Climate Change Infuences Health Considerations - Human and Animal Mosquito-vectored Pathogen Surveillance and Mosquito Monitoring Mosquito Management Options Best Management Practices Managing Habitats for Mosquito Source Reduction Mosquito Control Products Larvicides, Pupacides, Adulticides Modifed Mosquitoes Thresholds for Action - Risk Management Pesticide Treatment Decisions Human Health Emergencies Natural Resource and Compliance Monitoring and Reporting Natural Resources Monitoring Mosquito Management Implementation Compliance Monitoring Reporting Adaptive Management Education and Outreach Local Mosquito Situation and Communication Prevention Natural Mosquito Predators

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 5 I. Statement of Purpose and Need • Structures, components, and functions of the ecosystem(s) of which the refuge is a part;

State the purpose of the refuge MMP • Rare or declining fsh, wildlife, and plants and and clearly articulate the public health their habitats and communities; and ∑ need for mosquito management on the refuge. • Special management areas (e.g., wild, scenic, and recreational river areas; wilderness areas). Relate the need for mosquito management planning to refuge goals and objectives, as appropriate. For III. Mosquito Ecology, Life History, example, if the refuge provides habitat for a federally listed butterfy, then mosquito management planning and Pathogen Transmission might be crucial to minimize impacts to the species and its habitat while conducting mosquito management Summarize the inventory of mosquito control activities. species on refuge and their potential as ∑ pathogen vectors. II. Refuge Natural Resources This handbook focuses on mosquito management Summarize the natural resources and planning and decision-making as required for the ∑ potential impacts from mosquito purposes of protecting public health from diseases management. caused by mosquito-vectored pathogens regardless of whether vectored by a native or non-native mosquito species. Over 80 million years and the evolution A thorough review of the natural resources and the of 3,500 mosquito species, there are now over 175 impacts of the mosquito management actions, such species of native and non-native mosquitoes in the as habitat manipulation or effects of pesticides on contiguous United States. Not all mosquito species the natural resources, is necessary. Natural resource are vectors of disease. Mosquitoes vary in pathogen descriptions are often presented in an Environmental transmission effciency, habitat and host requirements, Assessment as part of National Environmental Policy and, therefore, they may require different control Act (NEPA) compliance; however, if natural resources strategies. Many native mosquito species are prey for have been addressed within another NEPA-compliant other aquatic and terrestrial fauna and because of their planning process, such as in a CCP, then you can role in ecosystems, thorough planning is necessary to incorporate that review by reference. minimize impacts when mosquito management actions are implemented on refuge to protect public health. As a publicly vetted document, appropriate CCP chapter(s) on natural resources can be copied or Inventory and identifcation of the mosquito species cited into the Natural Resources section of the MMP. that reproduce on the refuge is fundamental Potential content may include, but is not limited to: information in mosquito management planning. In the MMP, include an inventory of the mosquito species • Distribution and abundance of fsh, wildlife, known or suspected to occur on and near the refuge and plant populations, including any and brief life histories. Species that may vector disease threatened or endangered species and pathogens are particularly important to include. This related habitats; handbook does not provide life histories because they are readily available online. Sources for determining • Wildlife habitat and species’ relationships species of mosquitoes currently occurring on or near that may be impacted by mosquito a refuge are usually available on websites of the local management; mosquito control organizations, and from the State and local public health authorities. If there is no current • Ability of the refuge to meet the habitat inventory of the mosquitoes species that occur on or needs of fsh, wildlife, and plants; near the refuge, contact the local mosquito control organization or public health agency to conduct an • Context of the refuge in relation to the inventory. This is not a refuge function. A current surrounding ecosystem; mosquito inventory is necessary because the species 6 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges occurrence may change with climate change or other decades, the effects of climate change have become introductions, such as global transport. more measurable in coastal wetlands. Signs of climate change include increased sea levels, marsh In the aquatic environment, mosquitoes are most edge erosion from intense storms, and conversion effectively managed in the larval and pupal life- of vegetated salt marshes to open water. Wherever cycle stages (Figure 1) https://www.cdc.gov/Dengue/ there is increased standing water, mosquitoes are entomologyEcology/m_lifecycle.html. more likely to occur. Managers must continue to adapt strategies to the changing landscape and consider mosquito production in management and also periodically update the mosquito inventory on the refuge.

Some scientists have reported that higher global temperatures will enhance transmission rates of mosquito-borne diseases (Shope 1991). Others suggest that the geographic range of diseases will change (Hales et al. 2002). Gubler et al. (2001) reviewed the response of vector-borne pathogens to climate changes and suggested that climate changes will likely affect transmission patterns - some may increase and some may decrease - and that we need to understand more about how pathogens persist It takes a mosquito between 4 to 30 days to develop and what conditions trigger amplifcation before the from an egg to an adult, depending on species and role of the weather and long-term climate trends water temperature. Mosquito larvae develop through can be determined. Reiter (2001) argued that four instars. Skilled observers can determine the the histories of malaria, yellow fever, and dengue instar of larvae and infer hatching or adult emergence suggest that human activities and their impact on time. Instar information is critical for proper timing local ecology have generally been more signifcant of larvicide or pupacide applications for maximum determinants of disease prevalence than climate. effectiveness to help avert the need to use mosquito Since climate change scenarios differ across the adulticides. Mosquito control organization staff are country and depend highly on local conditions, usually skilled in mosquito life stage identifcation; refuge staff should consult local models as they we do not expect the refuge staff to conduct this develop their mosquito management strategies. identifcation. V. Health Considerations IV. Climate Change Infuences Briefy identify and describe the Provide a summary of how climate ∑ health considerations that drive the ∑ change could infuence mosquito MMP on the refuge. production and habitats on your refuge.

Mosquito-vectored pathogens that cause disease Changing environments, whether naturally are the primary public health concern associated or through actions taken to restore habitats, with mosquitoes. Health considerations related may result in increased or decreased mosquito to mosquitoes vary depending on the species production. Climate change effects may include present, abundance, geographic area, and time increased rainfall that creates ponded water, or of year. For most refuges and the surrounding decreased precipitation and drought conditions communities, public health authorities and their that reduce mosquito habitats (IPCC 2013). Sea authorized, designated representatives, such as level rise may alter a landscape so that areas where a mosquito control organization, are responsible mosquitoes have never been an issue eventually for surveillance of mosquito-vectored disease, and become a concern. For example, salt marsh control treatments, where needed. mosquitoes may come to inhabit areas further inland than they did historically. Over the past few

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 7 healthy individuals within hours of a mosquito bite Examples of Mosquito-Borne and can last for 3 to 10 days. With any break in the Diseases in the United States skin, there is the potential for secondary (indirect) bacterial infection resulting from mosquito bites. • West Nile Virus Anaphylactic reactions (life-threatening, whole-body • Dengue Fever allergic reaction) to mosquito bites are extremely rare. Appendix B provides a non-exhaustive • Chikungunya reference list and more information on mosquito- • La Crosse Encephalitis associated health considerations. • Eastern Equine Encephalitis • St. Louis Encephalitis Animal Health Considerations • Western Equine Encephalitis Animal health can be affected by mosquito-borne • Zika Virus diseases. This handbook guides development of MMPs to reduce the threat to public health from mosquito-vectored pathogens. In general, Mosquito-Borne Disease the Service does not manage mosquitoes for mosquito-vectored animal disease. Mosquito An MMP must identify which mosquito-borne management actions, such as managing non-native diseases may be vectored by mosquitoes that breed mosquitoes that threaten endangered species, on the refuge, either historically or currently. would follow another plan, such as an exotic This information is helpful to identify source-area animal or invasive species management plan or an control. Brief summaries of diseases and mosquito- endangered species recovery plan that includes related health conditions that are potentially of a National Environmental Policy Act analysis, concern to refuges are provided in Appendix B. and an Endangered Species Act consultation, if Consult the Centers for Disease Control and appropriate. Prevention or your State and local mosquito control organization and public health authorities for current local information. The Centers for VI. Mosquito-Vectored Pathogen Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Surveillance and Mosquito website provides links to useful mosquito-vectored Monitoring pathogen and related diseases information, https:// www.cdc.gov/ncezid/. The U.S. Geological Survey also provides current maps of mosquito-borne Describe the pathogen surveillance and disease in the U.S. at: https://diseasemaps.usgs. ∑ mosquito monitoring activities used to gov/mapviewer/ . If there are no current or direct mosquito management. historical occurrences of mosquito-borne diseases in the refuge area, document that fact and the source of the information in the MMP. Refuge staff, public health authorities, and mosquito control organizations must rely on mosquito Other Mosquito-Related Human Health Considerations pathogen surveillance (referred to as “pathogen surveillance” throughout the remainder of the There are other human health considerations handbook) and mosquito monitoring to direct associated with mosquitoes. Most of the human mosquito management activities in order to be population at any given time will have some most effective and minimize non-target impacts. In reactivity to mosquito bites. Outdoor workers, general, Refuge Managers may authorize, but do young children, immuno-defcient people, and not implement, disease surveillance and mosquito visitors to an area with indigenous mosquitoes to monitoring. There must be mosquito monitoring or which they have not been previously exposed are pathogen surveillance data to support treatment at increased risk for severe reactions to mosquito decisions. The refuge staff evaluates the mosquito bites. Though allergic reactions to mosquito bites monitoring data results against Action Thresholds are common, the clinical diagnosis of “mosquito to guide mosquito management decisions. allergy” is reserved for those with atypical or systemic reactions that may occur in otherwise 8 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges The Refuge Manager must: decisions regarding responses to mosquito activity. Public health authorities and mosquito control • Identify the public health agency or organizations conduct mosquito-borne pathogen mosquito control organization who will identifcation and surveillance. Detecting the conduct pathogen surveillance and mosquito-borne pathogens includes testing adult mosquito monitoring on or near the refuge mosquitoes for pathogens or testing reservoir hosts and include the contact information and for pathogens or antibodies. their roles in the MMP. This is not a refuge function. Request copies of the • Identify the on-refuge restrictions and surveillance protocols that the local public health stipulations in a Special Use Permit (SUP) authority and/or mosquito control organization use. for mosquito monitoring and pathogen Surveillance of mosquito-borne pathogens may: surveillance activities (e.g., access, vehicle use, sensitive species and/or habitats, time • Confrm the mosquito species vectoring of day) to protect sensitive resources while a pathogen. still allowing activities needed to make decisions. • Identify locations where mosquitoes vectoring pathogens breed on-refuge. • Document the communication and notifcation procedures between the public • Confrm pathogen incidence/prevalence. health agency (or their authorized representative) and the refuge. • Confrm the seasonality of pathogen prevalence (as appropriate). • Review the monitoring and pathogen surveillance protocols (including objectives, • Identify and confrm locations where methods, frequency, and locations) and pathogens (human or wildlife) occur. include them in the MMP (and reference in the SUP); these protocols are more Mosquito Monitoring appropriate in the MMP than in the Inventory and Monitoring Plan for the refuge. Mosquito monitoring identifes the mosquito species present, relative abundance, and distribution. • Archive mosquito monitoring and Mosquito monitoring is generally not a refuge pathogen surveillance protocols and data function; public health or mosquito control reports in PRIMR and ServCat, organizations usually monitor for mosquitoes. respectively. Refuge staff should review the protocols used to determine that each step is appropriate on the Mosquito-vectored pathogen surveillance data will refuge and that the data will be adequate to make include vector abundance (larval and adult forms) decisions. Mosquito monitoring protocols should and may document mosquito-based pathogen be standardized protocols that are included in infection rates on- and off-refuge. Monitoring the MMP, and referenced in the SUP. Repeated vector-mosquito abundance and pathogen-related monitoring should reveal trends in mosquito data, such as dead bird surveillance and human production over time. Public health and mosquito disease cases, can serve as the basis for decision- control organizations use monitoring data that making and the thresholds for pesticide treatment. they collect with standardized methodologies to Mosquito management is adaptive management, determine if, when, where, and how to treat; to where mosquito activity is identifed and quantifed, assess effectiveness of treatment; and to map perhaps treated, and re-checked periodically, mosquito breeding and harboring areas to focus often every 7 to 14 days, for activity status and, if treatment strategies. Monitoring protocols are necessary, treatment effectiveness. developed by the State or local public health authorities and mosquito control organizations. Mosquito-borne Pathogen Surveillance Objectives for mosquito monitoring are to: The purpose of mosquito-borne pathogen surveillance on or near the refuge is to provide • Determine if areas on the refuge exceed the refuge staff information to make informed established action thresholds as a basis to

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 9 determine if treatment is warranted. species in an area are known, a trained observer can • Establish a baseline of mosquito species often identify the larvae in the feld; however, this is present and relative abundance. not always simple or reliable.

• Identify mosquito source habitats and Identifcation keys for regions of North America determine the relative contribution of are available for fourth instar larvae that have been refuge sources to the regional vector collected and are examined under a microscope. populations. Some mosquito control organizations raise numbers of larvae to adults in rearing chambers to confrm • Detect changes in relative abundance. that the larvae found in the area (which could include a refuge) are the same species as the adults • Determine the seasonality for mosquito that are causing problems. There may be situations monitoring based on mosquito activity and where treatment will depend on the mosquito lifestages. species (as opposed to the genus) present. It is preferable that the public health or mosquito control The timing and frequency of monitoring is based organization staff trained in larval (4th instar) on such factors as life histories of mosquito identifcation conduct this identifcation. Specimens species present, tidal cycles (if applicable), water can also be sent to local experts at State universities temperature, water levels in wetlands, timing, or extension offces to confrm identifcation and and volume of precipitation events, and available establish a reference collection. resources. 2. Adult Mosquito Traps: A variety of adult Following are examples of brief, summary mosquito traps are available for monitoring descriptions of current mosquito monitoring purposes: sticky surfaces; fans that draw protocols typically used by mosquito control mosquitoes into a trap; and some traps that organizations (consult local public health district or use an attractant, such as CO2, that lures mosquito control organization websites for other mosquitoes close enough to be drawn into a standardized protocols): trap chamber. Traps are typically set out from sunset to sunrise to sample during periods 1. Monitoring Larval Mosquitoes: The when most species are actively dispersing primary technique for larval population and feeding. Counts of the species captured counts is the dip count (using a standard dip- each trap night can indicate where adults are cup on the end of a pole). Dips are taken in concentrating and how the adult populations are undisturbed pools identifed as representative changing over time relative to control activities. of the breeding areas. The trained feld person Trap sites at the refuge boundary may identify avoids disturbing the water or casting a that the species being produced on the refuge shadow over the water which will cause larvae are dispersing to populated areas, although to move/dive, thereby lowering counts. For direction of fight can be diffcult to discern. large sites, dipping would likely be conducted Mosquito control organizations sometimes at permanent, identifed (or easily located) dip use the number, frequency, and location of stations; although sampling location is often complaints from citizens regarding mosquitoes random. For small sites, dips may be taken to help identify locations for mosquito at random locations throughout the site. Dips monitoring, such as setting traps. per site will be relative to the area needing sampling. Recommendations for treatment of 3. Landing Rate/Bite Counts: Although an area may be determined with fewer dips if many historical datasets include landing rate numbers of larvae and pupae per dip exceed counts, this is not a scientifcally rigorous action thresholds established in the refuge monitoring method and it is not recommended. MMP (Walton, W. 2005). For mosquito monitoring on national wildlife refuges, request that mosquito control Standards require feld identifcation of larvae at organizations look for and implement other least to the genus level. A trained observer can methods (see above). Landing rates, or bite identify the following genera most of the time: counts, are equal to the number of mosquitoes Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia, Culex, Culiseta, landing on an observer in a pre-determined Psorophora, and Uranetaenia. If the common length of time, e.g., in 1 minute intervals. This

10 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges method, when repeated at multiple locations, Habitat manipulations for mosquito management provides a rough, rapid assessment of the (such as draining or maintaining high water levels) likelihood of being bitten in populated areas. that confict with wildlife management objectives are prohibited except when it is necessary to VII. Mosquito Management temporarily suspend, allow, or initiate mosquito management activity in a refuge to protect the Options health and safety of the public or a fsh or wildlife population, as provided in section 8 Emergency Power of the National Wildlife Refuge System Describe the mosquito management Improvement Act of 1997. options, including BMPs, habitat ∑ management, and products that may be used on the refuge. Managing Habitats for Mosquito Source Reduction

Source reduction is a commonly used term in Mosquito management options can include grounds- mosquito management. Whether a refuge has keeping activities and habitat manipulation to bogs, swamps, salt marsh, or freshwater marsh reduce breeding habitat, and, when necessary, may habitats (collectively referred to as wetlands), include the use of pesticides. When considering water circulation is a natural function that impedes mosquito control measures, the Service authorizes production of mosquitoes. Since European those methods that present the lowest risk to settlement, wetlands have been altered or degraded our natural resources while still accomplishing by various practices such as grazing, farming, the mosquito control goal. Always use BMPs ditching, and construction of roads and bridges. preventively when implementing any treatment Unaltered wetlands are rare, and source reduction option, including pesticide treatments that may techniques are not permitted in these unique be considered. The table below provides BMPs to wetlands. In some cases, restoration of degraded or reduce mosquito breeding habitat in and around previously altered habitat can be an effective and facilities. economically viable option to accomplish mosquito source reduction while also restoring natural hydrological function. In contrast, weirs, dams, or Best Management Practices missing or undersized culverts inhibit natural water fow that may promote a low-fow environment for Establish and implement a periodic review of eggs to hatch and adults to emerge before being facilities at risk for standing water: fushed out of the system. Mosquito population reduction may occur when a tidal marsh habitat is • Minimize standing water to the managed to drain effectively or high marsh ponds maximum extent possible are created or restored to serve as reservoirs • Remove/eliminate discarded tires, road for fsh that then control mosquito larvae. Native ruts, open tanks, or similar debris/ fsh throughout the country continue to provide containers effective mosquito control in natural habitats. In • Clear rain gutters to allow rainwater to coastal salt marshes, species such as Fundulus fow freely heteroclitus, and other cyprinid fsh can exert • Turn over containers that can hold water control over mosquitoes in the egg, larval, and when stored outside pupal stages (Rochlin et al. 2012). • Check for trapped water in tarps used to cover boats/equipment and arrange Flowing water is a poor producer of mosquitoes covers to drain water because egg masses are destroyed and larvae • Pump out boat bilges and pupae drown. Restricting the fow of streams • Replace water in birdbaths and livestock and rivers or channelizing these waterways may troughs twice a week reduce riffes and rapids, which reduces fow so that • Fix outside water faucets that are mosquitoes can breed and reproduce effectively. dripping. Maintaining or restoring the meander and • Use screens on rain barrels and water streambed topography will restore hydrology that cisterns naturally prevents streams and rivers from being sources of mosquitoes. This also diversifes the Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 11 system, providing habitats conducive to mosquito Establishing and maintaining positive working predators both in and out of the water. relationships is important when working with mosquito control organizations, other State Aquatic habitats should be supported by natural and Federal agencies, and private contractors. hydrological processes, where possible. To do so The refuge staff will work with them from the may require researching historic fow conditions, initial contact and planning phases through consulting a hydrologist or restoration ecologist, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation to adopt and coordinating with landowners up- and marsh management techniques that enhance fsh downstream to re-establish natural fows and and wildlife benefts for the public while limiting the conditions. You may need to clear channels creation of mosquito breeding habitats. of accreted sediment, and remove or enlarge structures to increase water fow into and out Mosquito Control of the system. This may require some adaptive management before the natural fows return, where channels scour properly, and water fows are Describe the mosquito control regular and consistent through the system. Wetland techniques and pesticides that may be enhancements may re-create channels to drain or ∑ used on the refuge. The information food a poorly circulating habitat. Engineering a below may help you make better tidal marsh restoration should ensure wetlands informed decisions. have adequate circulation to almost completely drain the marsh and allow food-up at regular daily tide cycles. Similarly, stream restorations should be engineered to keep water moving. Mosquito control can be accomplished with prevention techniques, habitat management practices, pesticides, Marsh alterations, whether for source reduction and biological controls. Each Regional offce’s or marsh enhancement have not been without Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Coordinator unintended consequences. Ditches used to drain reviews proposed uses of pesticides in coordination mosquito breeding habitat on the East Coast also with the National IPM Coordinator. The public drained high marsh pools and salt pannes important health authority or mosquito control organizations for waterfowl and shorebirds (Cottam 1938). and the Refuge Manager must use data from various Projects designed to restore natural hydrology may sources (e.g. scientifc literature) to identify control also fail if, after restoration, they produce excessive products and ensure new products and technologies mosquito populations adjacent to local communities are reviewed as they become available. The MMP where there previously was not a mosquito breeding should include all potential products that may be issue. For this reason, we should continually make used. In most instances, refuge staffs do not apply efforts to develop integrated, ecologically-sound pesticides for the control of mosquitoes. If the Refuge approaches for marsh alteration that not only Manager authorizes mosquito pesticide application restores natural function, but also does not create through a SUP, the pesticide may be applied by mosquito breeding habitats. the public health authority or a mosquito control organization. The Refuge Manager must understand The decision to consider a particular marsh for the treatment options and consequent risks to physical alterations should begin with local, site- non-target resources, and require the use of IPM specifc data and documentation that describes the principles to minimize pesticide use and impacts. need for a management decision. If physical marsh Refuge staff may work with the Regional IPM management is appropriate, the Refuge Manager Coordinator or Service environmental contaminants may invite a technical advisory committee (TAC) of staff to make an appropriate choice of pesticide-based Service staff and external scientists as well as local control products. Use local mosquito monitoring partners, such as mosquito control organizations, to data provided by the public health authority or the help evaluate a suite of potential marsh alterations. mosquito control organization when considering The TAC recommendations may include type, extent, the pesticide products. Pesticide active ingredients intensity of alterations, and physical and biological described below can be used to develop an MMP metrics for post-alteration monitoring. Use BMPs and to prepare for discussions with public health during restoration to avoid heavy equipment ruts, authorities or mosquito control organizations. fll subsidence, or any other action that may result in unintended temporary pools of standing water.

12 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges a month of control, rather than the few Mosquito Control Pesticides hours or days provided by fogging with adulticides Mosquito control pesticides can be categorized into • The commonly used mosquito larvicides three classes: larvicides, pupacides, and adulticides. are less toxic than the adulticides and are There are relatively few products available within applied in such a way that there is much each of these classes, and all differ with regard to less human exposure effcacy and effects on non-target organisms. Active • Mosquito larvicides generally are applied ingredients in these pesticide products may include: to smaller areas than are adulticides chemicals, naturally occurring bacteria, analogs of insect molting hormones, and monomolecular oils as Larvicides. Larvicides are pesticides that well as inert ingredients. The USEPA registration affect the four instars of mosquitoes. The most process for pesticide products considers primarily the common mosquito larvicides are derived from toxicity and environmental persistence of the active natural bacteria or act on insect-specifc pathways ingredient. In many pesticide products, the active not shared by other insect species. Spinosad, ingredient is combined with “inert” ingredients that s-methoprene, and Bacillus-based Bacillus alter the environmental behavior of the chemical. thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) or Lysinibacillus All inert ingredients in USEPA registered pesticide sphaericus (Ls), the main active ingredients, products are pre-approved before being used in a have unique routes of exposure and modes of pesticide product formulation (USEPA 2015). These toxicological action against larval mosquitoes. The inert ingredients are added to increase activity or route of exposure and mode of action infuence modify a physical property such as increase the their non-target toxicity relative to each other bulk of the product, lengthen its persistence in the and to other types of chemical insecticides. They environment, or otherwise improve its ability to reach can be applied through a variety of methods the target species. While these inert ingredients are including hand application via backpack sprayers, not intended to have non-target toxicity, in some cases low-pressure amphibious tracked vehicles, truck- they do. mounted equipment, and aerial sprayers. Spinosad and s-methoprene work via contact rather than If mosquito control measures using pesticides are ingestion. Bacillus-based products have lower necessary, the Refuge Manager’s next goal is to risk to non-target organisms in part because they ensure that the public health authority or mosquito must be ingested by the insect and are activated control organization selects products for on-refuge at a high pH that occurs almost solely in the gut use that minimize natural resource non-target of mosquitoes, midges, and black fies. As with all impacts. Products allowed for use on-refuge should pesticide use in the Service, we review and approve correspond with the information known about: or decline to approve the use of larvicides through the Pesticide Use Proposal System. • Mosquito species and targeted life stage • The breeding habitat Preferred Active Ingredients • Density of larval populations Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) is a natural • Temperature soil bacterium that acts as a larval mosquito • Effcacy of the products stomach poison. Bti must be ingested by the larval • Potential impacts to non-target resources form of the insect in order to be effective. Bti • Resistance management contains crystalline structures that have protein • Costs endotoxins that are activated in the alkaline conditions of an insect’s gut. These toxins attach Following the long-standing IPM principles, the to specifc receptor sites on the gut wall and, Service continually strives to minimize exposure of when activated, destroy the lining of the gut and non-target refuge natural resources to pesticides. eventually kill the insect. The toxicity of Bti to an Therefore, in general mosquito adulticide products insect is directly related to the specifcity of the are not used on refuges. Larvicides are preferred toxin and the receptor sites. Without the proper over mosquito adulticides for several reasons: receptor sites, the Bti will pass through the insect’s gut. Bti is most effective on frst, second, third and • Use of mosquito larvicides prevents the early fourth instar larvae. The earlier instars feed appearance of the blood feeding adults at a faster rate (late fourth instar larvae feed very • Mosquito larvicides can provide up to little) and require ingestion of fewer crystals to

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 13 induce mortality. Bti has been shown to have toxic the mosquito larvae will continue to feed and may activity against mosquitoes, black fies, and certain reach pupal stage, but the S-methoprene interferes species of midge; no direct effects of Bti toxicity with the maturation of the pupa and they will not have been found for aquatic invertebrates and this emerge as adults. The mosquito third and fourth profle is preferred for use on a refuge. Bti has larval instars are the most susceptible stages of limited acute and no chronic toxicity to mammals, development when exposed to S-methoprene. birds, fsh, or vascular plants (USEPA 1998). Bti- Mammals, birds, fsh, reptiles, and amphibians do based products with labels indicating effcacy for not have this juvenile hormone nor do they share 1-2 weeks are preferred for use on refuges, however this biochemical pathway, which is what makes a number of product labels indicate effcacy for up S-methoprene a relatively targeted insecticide. to 40 days, and the activity of Briquet formulations S-methoprene is essentially non-toxic to mammals, can last for months. has some limited toxicity to birds, amphibians, fsh, and certain non-target freshwater invertebrates, Lysinibacillus sphaericus (Ls) is a registered and some marine crustaceans, that share larvicide, and few feld studies have examined similar biochemical pathways to those on which its non-target effects. Data available indicate a S-methoprene acts in target organisms. Hormones high degree of specifcity of Ls for mosquitoes, act on biological systems at exceedingly low levels, with no demonstrated toxicity to midge larvae at thus, a very low concentration of S-methoprene mosquito control application rates (Mulla 1984; Ali is required in the environment to control target 1986; Lacey 1990; and Rodcharoen 1991). Some Ls organisms. This fact, combined with its low toxicity product labels indicate effects lasting for as long as to birds and mammals makes S-methoprene a useful four weeks. mosquito larvicide alternative that can be used in an integrated approach. Products are available Less Preferred Active Ingredients in several formulations: liquid, granular, pellet, Spinosad is derived from two fermentation and briquette. There are several extended-release products of a soil actinomycete bacteria formulations that remain effective for up to 150 (Saccharopolyspora spinosa), the spinosyns A days. Due to the fact that S-methoprene can act and D. Spinosad is a contact neurotoxin that on invertebrates that share the juvenile hormone disrupts the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in and biochemical mode of action as well as the active insects. This mode of action is similar to that of ingredients persistence, it is less preferred for use the neonicotinoid insecticides, and similar to the on refuges (Pinkney et al. 2000). organophosphates which act on a different receptor in the same biochemical system. Due to the mode Not Recommended for Use on Refuges of action on a pathway that is conserved across Organophosphate mosquito larvicides (e.g., taxa, spinosad acts on a broad array of insects. temephos) inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase Products designed to increase the environmental by binding it irreversibly and cause cumulative persistence of spinosad have been found to enable effects in animals repeatedly exposed to these target (mosquito) and non-target toxic effects chemicals. This biochemical pathway is essential that can persist for several weeks (Duchet et al. to nerve function in insects, humans, and other 2015; Lawler and Dritz 2013). Due to spinosad’s animals, and the effects of exposure are cumulative, mode of action that impacts a diversity of aquatic therefore, safer alternatives are preferred. invertebrates and its persistence, this active The USEPA banned most residential uses of ingredient is less preferred for use on-refuge than organophosphates in 2001, but they are still used in the Bacillus-based products. agriculture and for control of larval mosquitoes.

S-methoprene is a synthetic mimic of the naturally Surface Oils and Films. Surface oils and flms are produced insect juvenile hormone (JH); it is applied to aquatic mosquito breeding sites to kill commonly referred to as an insect growth regulator. mosquito larvae and pupae. The products create a Mosquitoes produce JH in the larval stages, barrier to the air-water interface and suffocate the with the highest levels occurring in the early insects, which generally require periodic contact developmental stages. As an insect reaches the with the water surface to obtain oxygen. Surface fnal stages of larval development, the JH level is oils can prevent female mosquitoes from landing low. This low level of JH triggers the development to lay eggs. Due to the broad-spectrum action of of adult characteristics. When S-methoprene is surface oils and flms, they are not appropriate applied directly to larval mosquito breeding habitat, and are rarely authorized for use on refuges. The

14 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges oils are mineral based and are effective for 3-5 in the evening or early morning hours when the days. Surface flms are alcohol-based and produce majority of mosquito species are active. a monomolecular flm over the water surface. Both oils and the flms are potentially lethal to The two classes of adulticides (pyrethroids and any aquatic insect that lives on the water surface organophosphates) work on the nervous system, but or requires periodic contact with the air-water through different modes of action. The pyrethroids interface to obtain oxygen. Surface oil is effective are sodium channel blockers and are less toxic than against all immature stages through suffocation; organophosphates to birds and mammals, however, but studies have demonstrated negative effects on pyrethroids are toxic to fsh, bees, and other water surface-dwelling insects from applications of pollinators. Pyrethrins are naturally occurring oils (Mulla and Darwazeh 1981; Lawler et al. 1998). compounds extracted from chrysanthemum plants Surface oils may also adversely affect wildlife, (McLaughlin 1973, Klassen et al. 1996, Todd et al. such as oiling the feathers of young waterfowl and 2003). Pyrethroids have similar molecular structure other birds. This may be of particular concern at to pyrethrins, but are synthetically derived. low temperatures when the oil and lack of feather Organophosphates act on the neurotransmitter, function could affect thermoregulation (Lawler et cholinesterase, which is shared widely across taxa al. 1998). If these are proposed for use on refuge by including humans. a public health representative or mosquito control organization and mosquito management has not Pyrethoids/Pyrethrins. The most common been achieved through the use of larvicides, the pyrethroids are the synthetics: prallethrin, refuge staff may work with a Service toxicologist etofenprox permethrin, resmethrin, and to evaluate the risk to non-target resources and sumithrin. The pyrethroids and pyrethrins consider the use through the Pesticide Use Proposal are usually combined with the synergist System and NEPA analysis. compound, piperonyl butoxide, which interferes with an insect’s detoxifying Mosquito Adulticides. Adulticides are broad- mechanisms (Tomlin 1994). Non-target spectrum insecticides used to control adult toxicity may occur in either terrestrial or mosquitoes in the short term. Most active aquatic species as a result of deposition, ingredients in these pesticides pose signifcant runoff, inhalation, or ingestion. Pyrethroids, ecological risk to non-target organisms and for although less toxic to birds and mammals, this reason they are not appropriate and are rarely are toxic to fsh and aquatic invertebrates authorized for use on refuges. Adulticides may be (Anderson 1989; Siegfried 1993; Tomlin 1994; used in a declared public health emergency, or in Milam et al. 2000). rare instances when prevention, BMPs, larvicides and pupacides have failed to provide the level Pyrethroid-based products are sometimes of control necessary to protect public health. used as barrier treatments in mosquito It is important to work with mosquito control control. Bifenthrin is one active ingredient organizations to provide input about sensitive used in barrier treatments, but it is refuge resources when these pesticides are persistent, impacts a broad spectrum of proposed for use on or adjacent to the refuge. insects, and generally is not appropriate for use on a refuge. Barrier treatment involves State and local agencies commonly use the spraying pesticides at close range with a organophosphate insecticides malathion and high velocity nozzle, discharging to the naled and the synthetic pyrethroid insecticides vegetation, essentially forming a barrier that prallethrin, etofenprox, pyrethrins, permethrin, is toxic to mosquitoes entering the treated resmethrin, and sumithrin for adult mosquito area. However, not all mosquito species are control. These insecticides are applied as aerial impacted equally by the barrier treatments (helicopter or fxed-wing) sprays or truck-mounted (Doyle et al. 2009; Hurst et al. 2012); exposure ground-based fogs as ultra-low volume (ULV) to rain and sunlight can affect bifenthrin sprays (very fne droplets). Only truck-mounted or barrier sprays (Allan et al. 2009), and it is backpack sprayers can be used to apply adulticides highly toxic to bees. To minimize non-target in tight or confned areas. Aerial drift is a part of effects to bees, barrier applications can application because these sprays are most effective be made late in the day, giving the active on, and are intended to target, fying insects. For ingredient time to break down overnight this reason, these pesticide applications often occur (Qualls et al. 2010). If pyrethroid-based

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 15 barrier treatments are proposed for use target species can have an indispensable adjacent to refuge habitat, it will be important ecological role in the environment and their for the refuge staff to work with the mosquito disappearance or decline may negatively control organization and share information impact ecological processes and/or adversely about sensitive refuge natural resources to affect food webs and other aspects of minimize and avoid adverse impacts. ecological community structure (Bretaud et al. 2000). Naled is a commonly used Organophosphates. Organophosphates, such organophosphate for the control of adult as malathion and naled, affect the nervous mosquitoes, but it is rarely used on-refuge system by disrupting the enzyme that due to its known non-target impacts. regulates the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine. Organophosphate insecticide toxicities vary, Mosquito Control Active Ingredients but some are very poisonous and impact non- target species; however, they are generally The table below shows the active ingredients not persistent in the environment. Non- in mosquito control products and their appropriateness for use on refuges when mosquito control is warranted to protect human health.

1 3 Larvicides Larvicides/Pupacides2 Adulticides Lysinibacillus sphaericus S-methoprene Malathion B. thuringiensis Spinosads (spinosyn A and D) Naled israelensis Temeohos Oils Prallethrin Films Etofenorox Pvrethrins Permethrin Resmethrin Sumithrin

Preferred active ingredients for use on NWRs, these target mosquito larvae. 2Less preferred active ingredients for use on NWRs because methoprene is an insect growth hormone (IGH) regulator. All insects have the IGH and potential adverse effects are also possible to threatened and endangered invertebrates, particularly crustaceans. Spinosads affect a broad spectrum of aquatic larval insects, and oils and films create a barrier to the air-water interface that can suffocate a diversity of insects requiring periodic contact with the water surfaceto obtain oxl'gen. ------"'Not recommended for use on NWRs. Temephos, malathion,--- and------naled are - organophosphates that impact a broad spectrum of insects over a relatively short period of time. Control is, therefore, short-lived. Prallethrin, etofenprox, pyrethrins, permethrin, resmethrin, and sumithrin are pyrethroids that are highly toxic to fish, aquatic invertebrates. and bees.

16 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges MODIFIED MOSQUITOES If a Refuge Manager is approached with a federally registered modifed mosquito control Mosquitoes can be modifed in several ways option and is considering this for the purposes of that can help reduce transmission of mosquito- wildlife conservation, the Refuge Manager should borne diseases. Extensive testing and a rigorous collaborate with the Service IPM Coordinator regulatory process will occur before any and review the proposed use through Appropriate modifed mosquito use is authorized by Federal Use, Compatibility, and Biological Diversity and regulators. When registered for use in the United Environmental Health policies, the Endangered States, emerging technologies, such as modifed Species Act, and NEPA. mosquitoes, that accomplish the mosquito management objective at reduced risk to the environment may be considered by the Service. Modifed Mosquitoes for Avian One method of modifcation, known as the sterile Recovery in the Pacifc Islands insect technique (SIT), relies on the production and release of suffcient numbers of sterile males Currently 28 species of endemic Hawaiian of a target mosquito species into the natural forest birds are listed as vulnerable, population. Sterilization occurs by radiation, genetic threatened, or endangered. The introduction manipulation, or other techniques. The female of the mosquito Culex quiquefasciatus to the mosquito need only mate once in her life to trigger Hawaiian Islands, and then subsequently egg production suffcient to produce several batches Plasmodium relictum (the parasite that causes of eggs. If a female mates with a sterile, or modifed, avian malaria) and avian pox virus have heavily male then it will not produce viable offspring. impacted the native bird populations in Hawaii. Ultimately, if sterile or modifed males are released Increases in the prevalence of these mosquito- in suffcient numbers over time, it may result in the borne diseases, and concurrent decrease in local elimination or suppression of the mosquito forest bird densities, suggests that diseases population and potentially reduce the spread of are contributing to the population declines. disease. Avian malaria is a serious threat to remaining Hawaiian forest birds. Mitigating effects of An alternative strategy focuses on reducing introduced avian disease is an action to recover the ability of the mosquito to transmit disease. Hawaii’s native avian species as stated in the One technique to accomplish this involves the Service’s Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian introduction of a gene (a transgene) from one Forest Birds. species into a living organism causing the recipient organism to exhibit a new property and transmit Some progress has been made in developing that property to its offspring. Another technique modifed mosquitoes for disease control to involves infecting mosquitoes with a bacterium that protect human health and several techniques impairs their ability to be infected with or transmit have achieved proof-of-principle in laboratory a virus or other pathogen. With these techniques, studies. While we anticipate continued advances the goal is to develop mosquito strains that are in techniques to achieve long-term vector unable to support development or transmission control, application of these technologies to the of pathogens that impact human health, and then avian disease problem may also someday be introduce that trait into mosquito populations. feasible.

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 17 VIII. Thresholds for Action make the best decision about managing mosquitoes with public health agencies or mosquito control - Risk Management organizations. The public health authority or a mosquito control organization implements pesticide treatment control actions to minimize Develop and state the thresholds at mosquito-borne pathogens after coordination and if ∑ which actions will be implemented. authorized by the Refuge Manager.

The Service applies a science-based process Departmental and Service policies authorize using quantitative information to make decisions. Refuge Managers to allow native mosquitoes to Understanding stakeholder needs, including exist unimpeded unless they interfere with site their perceptions of risk, is important and useful management goals or jeopardize human health and in effectively communicating the Service’s safety. Refuge Managers may work with others mosquito management strategies. For helpful to minimize public health risks due to mosquitoes guidance on communicating about the MMP on refuges. Surveillance and monitoring data is and strategy, see the section in this handbook a primary tool to inform managers so that they on “Education and Outreach.” The Service’s Table 1. Factors to Identify and Describe in Mosquito Management Plans Factor Factor Description Importance in Management

18 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Integrated Pest Management policy is to manage public health from mosquitoes on the refuge. pests by combining physical, biological, cultural, While studies have indicated that the incidence of and chemical tools in a way that minimizes disease and immune-compromised conditions could environmental, health, and economic risks. The be linked to mosquito numbers, that relationship process described in this handbook is intended has yet to be identifed. Several studies have shown, to minimize risk to natural resources if and when however, that an increase in mosquito activity may the Refuge Manager authorizes others to manage translate to a commensurate increase in disease mosquitoes on refuge to protect public health risk and other immune response reactions (Liu as guided by public health authorities or other et al. 2009; Ruiz et al. 2004; Whelan et al. 2003). designated representatives. While not precise and not a preferred method, mosquito numbers can be used to determine how to Many factors infuence decisions related to carry out pesticide treatments to minimize risk of mosquito management on a refuge. Table 1 outlines disease, if the assumption that increased numbers factors to identify and describe in an MMP. This of mosquitoes pose a commensurate increase in table should be populated with refuge-specifc disease risk is accepted. This approach provides the information when preparing an MMP. Once opportunity to work with public health agencies or complete, refuge staff may review these Table 1 mosquito control organizations toward a quantifable factors in combination with mosquito monitoring method for decision making. A Refuge Manager must and pathogen surveillance information when consider the moderating factors in Table 1 when a deciding the appropriate mosquito management treatment threshold is based on mosquito species actions, including potentially allowing the and life-stage numbers. Table 2 presents proposed application of pesticide. actions to minimize risk from mosquitoes.

Pesticide Treatment Decisions Based on A public health agency or a mosquito control organi- Absence/Presence of Mosquito-Borne Pathogens zation should propose an on-refuge action threshold and Minimizing Health-Related Risks Due to they developed using supporting documentation, Mosquitoes such as the monitoring and surveillance data. Al- though there is more than one approach to deriving Decisions about pesticide treatment on refuges are action threshold values, the values should be based based on the absence/presence of mosquito-borne on historical and current data collected with scientif- pathogens and minimizing risk from mosquitoes cally sound protocols. The goal is an action threshold that vector pathogens that may cause disease in for treatment that will reduce potential disease risk, humans. Work closely with the local public health while using mosquito control treatments that pose agency or mosquito control organization to develop the lowest risk to on-refuge non-target resources. a reasonable approach to determine responsible and Threshold values generated through this approach protective on-refuge control measures. Pathogen should be adjusted whenever more scientifcally rigor- surveillance and mosquito monitoring data from the ous monitoring or surveillance data becomes available surrounding area and on the refuge help us to make to ensure adequate risk reduction. Pesticide treat- the best decisions about the response. These data are ment on-refuge should not occur without an action collected by public health authorities or a mosquito threshold agreed upon by the refuge staff and the control organization. Mosquito vectored pathogens public health agency or their designated representa- may be isolated to certain areas although mosquitoes tive or the mosquito control organization, if need be. are present throughout much of the United States. In the absence of current pathogen surveillance Below are two possible options to derive action data, public health authorities or mosquito control threshold values (see Appendix C for an example). organizations may use historical information about The goal is threshold values that balance response to mosquito-vectored pathogens cycling in an area to public health concerns and protection of on-refuge determine whether there might be a current health natural resources by using the lowest risk treat- risk. If a Refuge Manager is approached about ments and minimizing treatment frequencies. allowing larvicide treatment of mosquitoes on a refuge, he/she must request the data from on-refuge Option 1 – and near-refuge surveillance and monitoring. With Mosquito Counts, deviation from the mean a proposal for use of pesticide treatments other Using historical or current mosquito monitoring than larvicides, the Refuge Manager must request a data (e.g., species and dip counts, trap counts), a determination or confrmation that there is a risk to threshold value could be set at a level that deviates Photo Credit: B. Thompson Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 19 from the mean (e.g., one or two standard deviations water levels may trigger activation of dormant eggs, above the mean), assuming adequate sample size. which will then result in an increased larval count. For assistance in determining adequate sample size, Monitoring would be conducted and treatment and consult a Service environmental contaminants biolo- control actions implemented to ensure large mos- gist or ecotoxicologist, an Inventory and Monitoring quito emergence events do not occur. The assump- Coordinator, or the Regional IPM Coordinator. tion is that by reducing mosquito larvae numbers to the point of avoiding or reducing the likelihood of a Option 2 – mass mosquito emergence/fy-off event, the likeli- Mosquito Counts, mass emergence avoidance hood of disease associated with such an event (mass Another option is to evaluate mosquito species and emergence) is reduced. Once action threshold values life-stage data and counts in terms of mosquito lar- are derived, use a matrix such as Table 2 to guide vae numbers that would trigger a mosquito fy-off mosquito management actions. (i.e., large dense mosquito emergence). Changes in Table 2. Treatment Decisions Based on Mosquito-Borne Pathogen Risk Minimization Consider the moderating factors in Table 1 to evaluate refuge response when presented with mosquito- vectored pathogen surveillance and monitoring data. Note: numeric action thresholds may be different for historic pathogens/disease only and pathogen/disease documented in the current year.

Current Conditions

Refuge Response

20 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Mosquito adulticide use on refuge lands or waters IX. Natural Resource and is not consistent with Service policy (e.g., IPM (569 FW 1), Compatibility (603 FW 2), Biological Integ- Compliance Monitoring rity, Diversity, and Environmental Health (601 FW 3)), should be extremely rare, and only be used if and Reporting larvicides/pupacides: Describe the natural resource and (1) Did not provide effective treatment to ∑ compliance monitoring that will be used control mosquitoes, and and reporting requirements. (2) A public health agency or an authorized representative determines and states in writing there is risk to public health from Natural Resource Monitoring mosquitoes on-refuge. The Refuge Manager must ensure that the effects of mosquito management actions on the refuge’s natural Refuge Managers and public health agencies or resources are monitored. This monitoring provides mosquito control organizations must carefully information to help make future decisions and to take evaluate the use of mosquito adulticides adjacent immediate steps to minimize adverse effects on non- to refuge lands and waters as drift may impact target resources. Baseline monitoring establishes refuge resources. Refuge Managers can pre- resource conditions prior to implementation of mosquito emptively develop a Pesticide Drift Monitoring Plan control activities, such as physical habitat alterations for impacts to sensitive species when a mosquito or persistent pesticides. Refuge staff may work adulticide is authorized on-refuge for public health with Inventory and Monitoring and Environmental protection. Drift monitoring is a task that the Contaminants biologists to determine appropriate mosquito control organization completes. Service baseline monitoring metrics for the refuge species, toxicologists and Environmental Contaminants habitat, and resources. The Refuge Manager should specialists in Ecological Services feld offces have inform the mosquito control organization that issuance expertise to help prepare a plan. Alternatively, of an SUP for control activities may require that they Refuge Mangers may work with mosquito control conduct natural resource monitoring to ensure mosquito organizations to develop a plan. Such practices as management activities are not impacting resources implementing no-spray zones or spray drift buffers on the refuge. If refuge natural resources are not can provide avoidance and minimization of impacts monitored by experts within Service programs, refuge to refuge lands or waters and other sensitive staff should work collaboratively with the mosquito resources. control organization to ensure there is information on impacts of mosquito control activities to biological Human Health Emergencies resources. The refuge may choose to implement or oversee studies on biological impacts to sensitive When there is a declared emergency that resources (perhaps federally listed insects). requires a response action that may have a signifcant environmental impact, emergency Mosquito Management Implementation NEPA regulations must still be followed (see 40 Compliance Monitoring CFR 1506.11 Emergencies). Generally, agencies Mosquito management compliance monitoring is limit actions to those necessary to control the necessary to assess the effcacy of treatment and immediate impacts of the emergency. The Service’s compliance with stipulations. When permitting Compatibility policy (603 FW 2) describes, in mosquito control activities on the refuge include part, the emergency authorization provided in the requirements within the MMP and SUP to assess the Administration Act as follows: “Authority to make effcacy of methods and compliance with the plan. For decisions under this emergency power is delegated example, if the MMP and SUP dictate wind speed to the Refuge Manager. Temporary actions should restrictions on aerial applications of pesticides to not exceed 30 days and will usually be of shorter avoid drift on refuge lands and waters, require the duration. The Refuge Manager will create a written mosquito control organization to conduct compliance record (memorandum to the fle) of the decision, the monitoring on the refuge for the presence and reasons supporting it, and why it was necessary to concentration of the pesticide. Monitoring to detect protect the health and safety of the public or any pesticide drift, to confrm pesticide product application fsh or wildlife population.” rate and concentration effcacy, and to detect impacts

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 21 to resources may be required under the conditions management outcomes (Sexton et al.1999). Mosquito of the SUP. Monitoring will provide data to evaluate management falls within the range of disciplines compliance with wind speed and direction restrictions and partnership responsibilities that would beneft and help determine if the parameters adequately from an adaptive management approach. Refuge protect refuge resources. Monitoring other types of Managers should use the adaptive management control activities may also be required to help refuge approach to refne on-refuge mosquito management staff and mosquito control organizations ensure and control actions within and among seasons and to effectiveness of treatments and provide information address complex natural resource issues that may to minimize pesticide use. This data helps refuge staff be impacted by mosquito management activities. make informed decisions on mosquito management This will be done in cooperation with the mosquito while reducing non-target natural resource and control organization. environmental risk due to intrusive methods and application of pesticides. In addition, Terms and Refuge staff should identify the alternatives to Conditions resulting from ESA consultations for meet the refuge’s mosquito management objectives, mosquito control activities may also require monitoring predict the outcomes of alternatives based on the to ensure that actions taken are in compliance. current state of knowledge, implement one or more of the alternatives, monitor to document and Reporting evaluate impacts of the mosquito management The Refuge Manager should require mosquito control actions, and then use the results to adjust future organizations to prepare an annual summary report of mosquito management actions (Murray and refuge mosquito monitoring and surveillance results Marmorek 2004). This is important because and any control activities that were authorized on the pesticide formulations, toxicity data and information refuge (e.g., pesticide product(s) applied, amount of on natural resource sensitivities are constantly pesticides applied, locations of application, method of being updated. Adaptive management focuses on application). Reporting requirements should be listed learning and adapting, through partnerships of in the SUP. managers, scientists, and other stakeholders who The annual summary report may include maps together create and maintain sustainable resource showing geo-referenced locations where management systems (Bormann et al. 2006). activities occurred; pesticide usage; effcacy; and comparisons of mosquito control activities within and XI. Education and Outreach among years to show trends that may indicate success of habitat management efforts or suggest the need for a new management approach. Some of this information Describe the education and outreach is required as part of the Pesticide Use Proposal and information that will be available to Usage Report (see 569 FW 1). Enter reports into ∑ communicate about mosquito ServCat as a resource for the refuge staff and others in management on the refuge. the Service.

Mosquito management activities on refuges The Service should provide education and outreach require an ongoing commitment to assess, monitor, materials that communicate the Service’s mosquito and revise methods and approaches to ensure management actions to staff, volunteers, visitors, that refuges’ resources are protected over time. and the public. Refuge staff should be prepared Thorough reporting is an important part of the to speak directly with visitors and have printed process. information available on personal safety and mosquitoes on the refuge. X. Adaptive Management Local Mosquito Situation and Communication The public may express concern when mosquito Describe the adaptive management control programs take place on or near a refuge that ∑ approach that will be practiced in has sensitive, threatened, and endangered species. mosquito management on the refuge. There may be concern regarding application of pesticides on natural areas or the use of modifed mosquitoes. Some sectors of the community may Adaptive management is a systematic approach for advocate for mosquito control, while other sectors of improving resource management by learning from the population may advocate for a Refuge Manager

22 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges to do nothing about mosquitoes. For these reasons, Mosquito control organizations may also have the Refuge Manager must prepare clear and simple public affairs specialists on staff. Advice from education and outreach materials to address the such specialists can help the Refuge Manager diverse perspectives encountered and to ensure articulate to the public the reasons for conducting that refuge staff and volunteers understand his/her or not conducting mosquito control actions. decisions. Communicating risk management to the public is important. Understanding stakeholder needs, Refuge staff and volunteers should develop a basic including their perception of risk of disease, is useful understanding about the mosquito species on the in effectively communicating the Service’s mosquito refuge, including life history and the species ability to management decisions. Refuge Managers may vector disease. This information is on the Centers for work with Service External Affairs staff to develop Disease Control and Prevention website and describes talking points prior to implementing management how mosquito-borne diseases are transmitted and actions to respond to questions from the media and includes personal protection recommendations. the public about decisions to control or not control mosquitoes on the refuge. General visitor education and outreach information can consist of fact sheets and kiosk postings PREVENTION informing visitors to use protective garments and to consider bug repellents so they will enjoy visiting the refuge. Consider providing information Personal Protective Measures on the mosquito species present on the refuge • Make sure window and door screens and information on any diseases those mosquitoes are “bug tight.” Repair or replace, if vector. The following information could be provided needed. at a Visitor Services kiosk and some may also be • Stay indoors at dawn and dusk when used as talking points: mosquitoes are the most active. • Wear a long sleeve shirt, long pants, • Tips on mosquito control at home such as socks, and a hat when going into emptying buckets, cleaning bird baths and mosquito-infested areas such as gutters, draining water that collects on wetlands or woods. equipment covers, and securing door and • Use mosquito repellant, when window screens necessary, and carefully follow • Personal precautions to prevent against directions on the label. mosquito bites: wearing long sleeves, • For insect repellent information, refer pants, socks, and sometimes applying to the Centers for Disease Control and repellents Prevention, https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/ travel/yellowbook • Describe actions to reduce mosquito (accessed 6/28/18) production on the refuge • Explain the role of mosquitoes in the Protect Animals of Concern ecosystem, such as their role as food for • To protect horses and domesticated other wildlife, including both aquatic and animals, talk to your veterinarian terrestrial species about vaccines, repellants, and other • Highlight that mosquitoes are nectar measures. Thoroughly clean livestock feeders, they visit plants in bloom and, watering troughs weekly. thus, are pollinators For more information: https://www.cdc.gov/ • Not all mosquito species are vectors of onehealth/basics/zoonotic-diseases.html disease. Know the facts about mosquito (accessed 12/02/2016). species in the area and whether or not they vector pathogens that cause disease • Some mosquito control methods may harm other wildlife, especially other insects, and habitats. Know the facts on non-target effects of control on the refuge

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 23 Natural Mosquito Predators 1972; Vestjens and Hall 1977; Sparks and Valdez 2003; Whitaker and Frank 2012). Nevertheless, Although natural predators may help with refuge staff can use bat houses as an outreach mosquito control, they cannot completely solve the education tool given the ecosystem benefts that problem. Dragonfies, aquatic bugs, aquatic beetles, bats offer, and the fact that many bat species are crustaceans, amphibians, fsh, bats, and birds all declining over much of their ranges. feed on a variety of prey, including mosquito adults and larvae. In some instances, natural predators Dragonfies and Damselfies are effcient at controlling mosquito populations, The aquatic stage of these species is most effective such as in artifcial ponds or containers. For as a mosquito predator; adults of most of these example, crustaceous copepods are tiny, voracious species are not active during the hours that predators of mosquito larvae and have been used mosquitoes are fying (Pritchard 1964, Walton successfully in the targeted control of container- 2003). These species require a habitat similar to breeding mosquitoes (Soumare and Cilek 2011). mosquitoes; the standing water needed to support Habitat that supports native predators can serve them also support mosquitoes. These species work as a visible and complementary mosquito control best under specifc conditions such as in small mechanism. The Biological Integrity, Diversity, and artifcial ponds or other containers of water where Environmental Health policy (601 FW 3) prohibits there are few other insects to eat besides mosquito the introduction of species on refuges outside their larvae, no vegetation for the mosquitoes to hide in, historic range, and this includes consideration of and no competing fsh or other wildlife. Purchased non-native mosquito predators. The public may dragonfies and damselfies may not be local species; express interest in the following natural predators introducing them into the local ecosystem is not in of mosquitoes; and refuge staff can share the compliance with the Service’s biological integrity following information with the public, as regionally policy (601 FW 3). appropriate. Fish Purple Martins and Other Birds Gambusia (mosquitofsh) are native to the Atlantic A literature review on the role of purple martins and Gulf slope drainages and the Mississippi in mosquito control (Kale 1968) concluded that (1) River basin. Gambusia have been stocked (often mosquitoes appear to be a negligible item in the for mosquito control) in 38 states. Outside of their diet of the purple martins; (2) behavior patterns native range, Gambusia are considered invasive. of mosquitoes and martins are such that most They can fourish in many habitats and are known mosquitoes are not fying in purple martin feeding to be opportunistic and voracious predators, areas when martins are active; and (3) no evidence also eating the eggs, larvae, and young of native exists that any avian species can effectively control fsh and amphibians. Combined with their high a species of insect pest upon which it feeds when fecundity rate, Gambusia can out-compete native that pest is at or near peak abundance. However, fsh species, affect local amphibian populations, and bird boxes on refuges near visitor centers can spark overwhelm other local native mosquito predators, conversations about the value of these species in our including dragonfies and native minnows. The ecosystems. Service biological integrity policy (601 FW 3) does not support introduction of non-native species Bats for mosquito control on a refuge, however, see Bats are opportunistic feeders. Bats in the wild 601 FW 3.14 F for exceptions. Minnows, killifsh, consume mostly larger prey such as beetles, wasps, mummichogs, other small fsh species that inhabit and moths, where mosquitoes represent less than 1 marshes eat mosquito larvae and pupae. percent of their total diet (Easterla and Whitaker

24 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Glossary

Action Thresholds. Levels that trigger actions to Health Threat. An indication of an impending manage mosquitoes. adverse impact to public health from mosquito- borne disease, as identifed and documented by Adaptive Management. Adaptive management Federal or State public health authorities, and/or a is a systematic approach for improving resource designated representative. Health threats are based management by learning from management outcomes. on the presence of endemic or enzootic mosquito- borne pathogens that cause disease, including the Adulticide. A pesticide that kills adult mosquitoes. historical incidence of disease, and the presence and abundance of vector mosquitoes as documented by Appropriate Use. A proposed or existing use on a current monitoring and surveillance of mosquito refuge that meets at least one of the four conditions vectors and mosquito-borne pathogens. identifed in the Appropriate Refuge Uses policy (603 FW 1). Integrated Pest Management (IPM). A sustainable approach and principles to manage Biological Diversity. The variety of life and pests with biological, cultural, physical, and its processes, including the variety of living chemical tools, used alone or in combination in a way organisms, the genetic differences among them, and that minimizes risk to health, the environment, and communities and ecosystems in which they occur the economy (see 569 FW 1 for more information). (see 601 FW 3 for more information on biological diversity). Larvicide. A pesticide that kills mosquito larvae.

Biological Integrity. Biotic composition, Mosquito-Borne Disease. An illness produced by a structure, and functioning at genetic, organism, pathogen that mosquitoes transmit to humans and and community levels comparable with historic other vertebrates. conditions, including the natural biological processes that shape genomes, organisms, and Mosquito-Borne Pathogen Surveillance. communities (see 601 FW 3 for more information on Activities that a public health agency, or other biological integrity). authorized organization, conducts to detect pathogens causing mosquito-borne diseases. These Compatibility Determination. A written activities include sample collection, testing adult determination signed and dated by the Refuge mosquitoes for pathogens, or testing reservoir hosts Manager and Regional Refuge Chief signifying for pathogens or antibodies. that a proposed or existing use of a national wildlife refuge is a compatible use or is not a compatible use Mosquito Control. Any activity designed to inhibit (see 603 FW 2 for more information on compatible or reduce populations of mosquitoes. Activities uses). include physical, biological, cultural, and chemical means of control directed against any life stage of Environmental Health. Composition, structure, mosquitoes. and functioning of soil, water, air, and other abiotic features comparable with historic conditions, Mosquito Monitoring. Activities that a public including the natural abiotic processes that health agency, or other authorized organization, shape the environment (see 601 FW 3 for more conducts associated with collecting quantitative information on environmental health). data to determine mosquito species composition, mosquito population changes over time, locations Enzootic. A relatively consistent prevalence of of breeding and harboring habitats, and effcacy disease in animals. The term is comparable to of control efforts (including resistance). It may endemic, but refers to animals. include monitoring non-target natural resources for impacts.

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 25 Non-Target Resources. Species or habitats other Pupacide. A pesticide that interferes with mosquito than those targeted for treatment or control. pupae development and survival.

Pesticide Use Proposal (PUP). A PUP is the Refuge-Based Mosquitoes. Mosquitoes produced Service documentation we use to review and (or occurring) on a refuge. approve or disapprove the use of registered pesticides. The PUP includes a review of goals, Reservoir Host. A species in which a pathogen is objectives, IPM techniques, best management maintained over time. Reservoir hosts are fed upon practices, treatment action thresholds, pesticide, by a vector which can then transfer the pathogen to pesticide application rates, equipment used, another species. methods, application location, non-target species and natural resources in the action area, and a Surveillance: Monitoring on a periodic schedule to screening risk assessment. observe and record certain actions or attributes.

Public Health Authority. A Federal, State, or local Vector. An organism, such as a mosquito, that is agency, or a designated authorized representative, capable of acquiring and transmitting a disease- that has staff with training and expertise in causing agent, or pathogen, from one host to mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases and has another. the offcial responsibility to identify public health threats and determine when there is a risk for human health from mosquito-borne disease.

26 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Literature Cited and General References

Allan, S.D., D.L. Kline, and T. Walker. 2009 Easterla, D. A. and J.O. Whitaker, Jr. 1972. Food Environmental factors affecting effcacy of habits of some bats from Big Bend National bifenthrin-treated vegetation for mosquito Park, Texas. Journal of Mammalogy control. Journal of American Mosquito control 53:887-890. Association. 25(3)338:346. Hales, S., N. deWet, J. Maindonald, A. Woodward. Anderson, R.L. 1989. Toxicity of synthetic 2002. Potential effect of population and climate pyrethroids to freshwater invertebrates. changes on global distribution of dengue Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. fever: an empirical model. The Lancet 8:403-410. 360(9336): 830-834. Bretaud S., J.P. Toutant, and P. Saglio. 2000. Harris, A.F., A.R. McKemey, D. Nimmo, Z. Curtis, Effects of carbofuran, diuron and nicrosulfon I. Black, S.A. Morgan, M.N. Oviedo, R. on acetylcholinesterase activity in goldfsh Lacroix, N. Naish, N.I. Morrison, A. Collado, (Carrasius auratus). Ecotoxicology and J. Stevenson, S. Scaife, T. Dafa’alla, G. Fu, Environmental Safety 47:117-118. C. Phillips, A. Miles, N. Raduan, N. Kelly, Bormann, B.T., D.C. Lee, A.R. Kiester, D.E. Busch, C. Beech, C.A. Donnelly, W.D. Petrie, and J.R. Martin, and R.W. Haynes. 2006. Adaptive L. Alphey. 2012. Successful suppression of a Management and Regional Monitoring. feld mosquito population by sustained release Chapter 10 in: R.W. Haynes, B.T. Bormann, of engineered male mosquitoes. Nature and J.R. Martin (eds.). Northwest Forest Biotechnology 30:828-830. Plan—the First Ten Years (1994-2003): Harris, A.F., D. Nimmo, A.R. McKemey, N. Kelly, Synthesis of Monitoring and Research S. Scaife, C.A. Donnelly, C. Beech, Results. PNW GTR 651, USDA Forest W.D. Petrie, and L. Alphey. 2011. Field Service, Pacifc Northwest Research Station, performance of engineered male mosquitoes. Portland, OR. Nature Biotechnology 29:1034-1037. Cottam, C. 1938. The coordination of mosquito Hershey A, A.R. Lima, Niemi G.J., R.R. Regal. control with wildlife conservation. USDA, 1998. Bureau of Biological Survey, Wildlife Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis Research and Management Leafet BS-119, (Bti) and methoprene on non-target Washington DC. macroinvertebrates in Minnesota wetlands. Doyle, M.A., D. L. Kline, S.A. Allan, and P.E. Ecological Applications 8:41–60. Kaufman. 2009. Effcacly of residual Hurst, T.P., P.A. Ryan and B. H. Kay. 2012. Effcacy bifenthrin applied to landscape vegetation of residual insecticide Bifex AquaMax against Aedes albopictus. Journal of applied as barrier treatments for managing American Mosquito Control Association. mosquito populations in suburban 25(2)179:183. residential properties in southeast Duchet C, E Franquet E, L Lagadic L,and Queensland. Journal of Medical Entomology C Lagneau. 2015. Effects of Bacillus 49(5): 1021:1026. DOI: http://dx.doi. thuringiensis israelensis and spinosad on org/10.1603/ME11278 adult emergence of the non-biting midges Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2013. Polypedilum nubifer (Skuse) and Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Tanytarsus curticornis Kieffer (Diptera: Basis. https://www.climatechange2013.org/ Chironomidae) in coastal wetlands. Website accessed December 2, 2016. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Gubler, D.J., P. Reiter, K.L. Ebi, W. Yap, R.Nasci, 115:272-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.02.029. and J.A. Patz. 2001. Climate variability and Epub 2015 Feb 27 change in the United States: Potential impacts on vector- and rodent-borne diseases. Environmental Health Perspectives 109(2):223-233.

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 27 Kale II, H. W. 1968. The relationship of purple Murray, C. and D.R. Marmorek. 2004. Adaptive martins to mosquito control. The Auk Management: A science-based approach to 85:654-661. managing ecosystems in the face of Lacroix, R., A.R. McKemey, N. Raduan, uncertainty. In: N.W.P. Munro, L. Kwee Wee, W. Hong Ming, T. Guat Ney, T.B. Herman, K. Beazley and P. Dearden A.A.S. Rahidah, S. Salman, S. Subramaniam, (eds.). Making Ecosystem-based Management O. Nordin, A.T.N. Hanum, C. Angamuthu, Work: Proceedings of the Fifth S. Marlina Mansor, R.S. Lees, N. Naish, International Conference on Science and S. Scaife, P. Gray, G. Labbe, C. Beech, Management of Protected Areas, Victoria, D. Nimmo, L. Alphey, S.S. Vasan, L. Han Lim, BC, May, 2003. Science and Management of A.N. Wasi, and S. Murad. 2012. Open feld Protected Areas Association, Wolfville, Nova release of genetically engineered sterile male Scotia. Available online at: http://www.essa. Aedes aegypti in Malaysia. PLoS One. com/downloads/AM_paper_Fifth_ 7:e42771. International_SAMPAA_Conference.pdf LaDeau, S. L., A. M. Kilpatrick, & P. P. Marra, 2007. Niemi G.J., A.E. Hershey, L.Shannon, West Nile virus emergence and large-scale J.M. Hanowski, A. Lima, R.P. Axler, declines of North American bird populations. R.P. Regal. 1999. Ecological effects of Nature 447:710–714. mosquito control on zooplankton, insects Lawler, S. P., K. Miles, D. Dritz, and S. E. Spring. and birds. Environmental Toxicology & 1998. Effects of Golden Bear oil on Chemistry 18:549-559. nontarget aquatic organisms inhabiting salt Pinkney, A.E., P.C. McGowan, D.R. Murphy, marshes. Mosquito Control Research, Annual T.P. Loew, D.W. Sparling, and L.C. Ferrington. Report 66-71. University of California, 2000. Effects of the mosquito larvicides Division of Agriculture and Natural temephos and methoprene on insect Resources, Oakland, CA. populations in experimental ponds. Lawler S.P. and D.A. Dritz. 2013. Effcacy of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry spinosad in control of larval Culex tarsalis 19:678-684. and chironomid midges, and its non-target Poulin, B., G. Lefebvre, L. Paz. 2010. Red fag for effects. Journal of American Mosquito green spray: adverse trophic effects of Bti on Control Association 29(4):352-7. breeding birds. Journal of Applied Ecology Liu, A., V. Lee, D. Galusha, M. D. Slade, 47:884-889. M. Diuk-Wasser, T. Andreadis, M. Scotch, Pritchard, G. 1964. The prey of adult dragonfies in and P. M. Rabinowitz. 2009. Risk factors for northern Alberta. Canadian Entomologist human infection with West Nile Virus in 96:821-825. Connecticut: a multi-year analysis. Qualls, W.A., M.L. Smith, G. C. Muller, International Journal of Health Geographics. Tong-yuan Zhao, and Rui-De Xue. Field 8:67 doi:10.1186/1476-072X-8-67. evaluation of a large-scale barrier application Milam, C.C., J.L. Faris, J.D. Wilhide. 2000. of bifenthrin on a golf course to control f Evaluating mosquito control pesticides for loodwater mosquitoes. Journal of the effects on target and non-target organisms. American Mosquito Control Association. Archives of Environmental Contaminant 28(3):219-224. http://dx.doi.org/10.2987/12- Toxicology. 39:324-328. 6255R.1 Mulla, M. S. and H. A. Darwazeh. 1981. Effcacy of Reiter, P. 2001. Climate change and mosquito- petroleum larvicidal oils and their impact on borne disease. Environmental Health some aquatic nontarget organisms. Perspectives 109:141-161. Proceedings of the California Mosquito Ruiz, M. O., C. Tedesco, C. J. McTighe, C. Austen, Control Association 49:84-87. and U. Kitron. 2004. Environmental and social determinants of human risk during a West Nile virus outbreak in the greater Chicago area, 2002. International Journal of Health Geographics 3:8 doi:10.1186/1476-072X-3-8.

28 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Rochlin, I., M. James-Piiri, S.C. Adamowicz, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. M.E.Dempsey, T. Iwanejko, D.V. Ninivaggi. Reregistration Eligibility Decision. 2012. The effects of integrated marsh Bacillus thuringiensis. Offce of Pesticide management (IMM) on salt marsh vegetation, Programs. Arlington, VA. https://www3.epa. nekton, and birds. Estuaries and Coasts gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/ 35(3):727-742. reregistration/red_PC-006400_30-Mar-98.pdf Service, M.W. 1993. Mosquito ecology - feld accessed 11/20/2016. sampling methods, 2ndedition. Elsevier U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2014. Applied Science, London. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ Sexton, W.T., A. Malk, R.C. Szaro, and N. Johnson fles/2014-02/documents/reduced-risk-op- (editors). 1999. Ecological Stewardship: A decisions.pdf Common Reference for Ecosystem U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Inert Management, Volume 3: Values, Social Ingredient frequently Asked Questions. Dimensions, Economic Dimensions, https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/ Information Tools. Elsevier Science, Oxford, inert-ingredients-frequent-questions UK. (accessed 12/01/2016. Shope, R. 1991. Global climate change and U. S. Geological Survey. 2013. Website accessed infectious diseases. Environmental Health December 2016. https://diseasemaps.usgs.gov/ Perspectives. 96:171-174. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2006. Revised Siegfried, B.D. 1993. Comparative toxicity of Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds. pyrethroid insecticides to terrestrial and Region 1, Portland, OR. 622 pp. aquatic invertebrates. Environmental Walton, W. E. 2003. Managing mosquitoes in Toxicology and Chemistry. 12:1683-1689. surface-fow constructed treatment wetlands. Soumare, M.K., and J.E. Cilek. 2011. The effective- University of California, Division of ness of Mesocyclops longisetus (Copepoda) Agriculture and Natural Resources, for the control of container-inhabiting Publication 8117. mosquitoes in residential environments. Walton, W. 2005. Protocol for mosquito sampling Journal of American Mosquito Control for mosquito best management practices for Association 27(4):376-83. State of California-Managed Wildlife Areas. Sparks, D. W., and E. W. Valdez. 2003. Food habits Developed for the Integrated Pest of Nyctinomops macrotis at a maternity roost Management Committee of the Mosquito and in New Mexico, as indicated by analysis of Vector Control Association of California, guano. The Southwestern Naturalist Sacramento, CA by: William Walton, Ph.D., 48:132-135. University of California, Riverside, CA 92521 Todd. 2003. A toxicological profle for pyrethrins Whelan, P. I., S. P. Jacups, L. Melville, A. Broom, and pyrethroids. Agency for Toxic Substances B. J. Currie, V. L. Krause, B. Brogan, and disease registry, Division of Toxicology F. Smith, and P. Porigneaux. 2003. Rainfall and/ Toxicology information branch, Atlanta and vector mosquito numbers as risk Georgia 30333. indicators for mosquito-borne disease in Tomlin, C. (Ed.). 1994. A World Compendium. The central Australia. Communicable Diseases Pesticide Manual. Incorporating the Intelligence Quarterly Report 27:110-116. Agrochemicals Handbook. (10th ed.). Bungay, Whitaker, J. O., Jr. and P. A. Frank. 2012. Foods of Suffolk, U.K.: Crop Protection Publications. Little Free-tailed Bats, Molossus molossus, Vestjens, W. M. J. and L. S. Hall. 1977. Stomach from Boca Chica Key, Monroe County, contents of forty-two species of bats from the Florida. Florida Scientist 75:249-252. Australasian region. Australian Wildlife Research 4:25-35.

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 29 Appendix A Authorities and Policies Relevant to Mosquito Management on NWRs This section lists the laws, regulations, and policies health, such as opening or closing a refuge, or relevant to mosquito management planning. temporarily allowing a particular use, such as mosquito management. National Wildlife Refuge System Administration 50 CFR 25.31 establishes requirements for Act of 1966, as amended by the National Wildlife notifying the public about changes to refuge Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (Act) uses. (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee) articulates management 50 CFR 25.41-43 establish responsibility and priorities for units of the Refuge System and governs requirements for issuing or revoking refuge refuge uses. Specifcally, the Act prohibits uses permits; they also describe the appeals that are not compatible with the purpose(s) of an procedure. individual refuge, maintenance of biological integrity, 50 CFR 26.41 tells us how to determine and the following mission of the Refuge System. whether a refuge use is a compatible use, “The mission of the System is to administer a meaning it will not materially interfere with national network of lands and waters for the or detract from the fulfllment of the mission conservation, management, and where appropriate, of the Refuge System or the purposes of the restoration of the fsh, wildlife, and plant resources refuge. and their habitats within the United States for 50 CFR 27.51 prohibits, except by special the beneft of present and future generations of permit, disturbing, injuring, spearing, Americans.” The Refuge System is managed for poisoning, destroying, collecting or attempting wildlife conservation and also requires that six to disturb, injure, spear, poison (such as wildlife-dependent public uses be given priority through the intended use of pesticides), destroy consideration in refuge planning and management. or collect any plant or animal on a refuge.

The Service uses regulations and policies to plan Comprehensive Conservation Planning policy and guide mosquito management actions on refuges. (602 FW 3) Title 50 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) The Service’s Comprehensive Conservation Subchapter C, Part 25, Administrative Provisions, Planning (CCP) policy describes the process we is where you fnd the enabling regulations of the use to establish long-range management direction Refuge System. Guiding policies are: to achieve refuge-specifc purposes and fulfll the mission. CCPs may incorporate, but are not limited • Comprehensive Conservation Planning to, refuge-specifc Integrated Pest Management Process (602 FW 3) (IPM) Plans, Invasive Species Management Plans, • Step-Down Management Planning or Mosquito Management Plans. The Step-Down Policy (602 FW 4) Management Planning policy (602 FW 4) allows for • Biological Integrity, Diversity, and Step-Down Management Plans such as Integrated Environmental Health (601 FW3) Pest Management Plans and MMPs that may be • Integrated Pest Management prepared to meet mosquito management goals and (569 FW 1) objectives identifed in a CCP. Step-down plans must • Appropriate Refuge Uses (603 FW 1) comply with NEPA. • Compatibility (603 FW 2) Biological Integrity, Diversity, and National Wildlife Refuge System Regulations Environmental Health policy (BIDEH, 601 FW 3) Title 50 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) The BIDEH policy provides for maintenance Subchapter C, 25-38, Administrative Provisions, are and restoration of healthy, functioning biological Refuge System regulations as authorized by the communities composed of native species and Administration Act. habitats. BIDEH favors refuge management which 50 CFR 25.21 (a), (b), and (c) allow a Refuge restores or mimics natural ecosystem processes or Manager to take actions to protect public functions. The BIDEH policy generally discourages

30 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges controlling native species or using pesticides, • A use that contributes to fulflling yet acknowledges these actions may at times be refuge purpose(s) necessary. Refuge Managers must assess any • A use that involves the take of fsh and proposed mosquito management actions to ensure wildlife under State regulations they meet the BIDEH requirements. • A use that has been evaluated and found to be appropriate Integrated Pest Management (IPM) policy (569 FW 1) The Refuge Manager will address the condition The IPM policy allows the Service to manage pests. criteria and analysis by completing FWS Form It defnes pests as any living organism that may 3-2319 for each proposed use under review (see interfere with site-specifc purposes, operations, section 1.11 of 603 FW 1). The Refuge Manager or management objectives or that jeopardizes retains the authority to reject or modify a use in human health and safety. Under 569 FW 1.3 and accordance with this policy. An appropriate use 1.6, pests are managed when they interfere with evaluation is conducted prior to consideration site management goals and objectives, jeopardize compatibility. human health or safety, or threaten wildlife health. Pests are also managed when their populations Generally, mosquito management planning exceed action thresholds. An action threshold is and actions are implemented on a refuge when the level of damage or number of pests at which necessary to protect public health. a management action is implemented to control the pest population. The use of pesticides are Compatibility policy (603 FW 2) authorized only after the Service evaluates a range The Compatibility policy and associated regulations of alternatives, including physical and cultural (50 CFR 26.41) provide guidelines and direct methods, biological controls, or taking no action Refuge Managers to ensure that a new or existing at all. In doing so, human safety, environmental activity will not interfere with or detract from the integrity, effectiveness of the action, and cost are fulfllment of refuge purpose(s) and the mission of considered. The IPM policy requires a Pesticide Use the Refuge System. It also requires that the Service Proposal (PUP) be approved before a pesticide can periodically review any use considered compatible be applied on a refuge. Depending on the specifc to ensure that it complies with all applicable laws, pesticide proposed for use and the application policies, and regulations. If an action is found frst method(s), approval of a PUP may reside with the to be appropriate and then compatible, the Refuge Refuge Manager, Regional IPM Coordinator, or Manager may issue a Special Use Permit (SUP). National IPM Coordinator. Mosquito inventory, monitoring, and control Appropriate Refuge Uses policy (603 FW 1) activities proposed may qualify as a “refuge The Appropriate Refuge Use policy provides use” in accordance with 603 FW 2. Compatibility evaluation procedures (603 FW 1.11 A (3)) for Determinations (CD) must allow opportunity Refuge Managers to ensure that new or existing for public comment and be fnalized in writing. management actions or methods are appropriate Example CDs for mosquito management on refuges refuge uses. There are fve types of refuge uses, and are available in the Refuge System Compatibility mosquito management to protect public health is Determination database at https://systems.fws.gov/ covered under 603 FW 1.10D, Specialized Uses. A cdrmis/. Refuge Manager must conduct an appropriate use evaluation and a proposed use must meet at least The Compatibility policy also states that a Refuge one of the following conditions to be determined Manager must determine a use is not compatible appropriate: if there is insuffcient information to determine compatibility. Specifcally, if there are insuffcient • A wildlife dependent recreational use management resources (e.g., funds, staff, facilities, as identifed in the Improvement Act and equipment) to ensure that a use would occur in Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 31 (Appendix A, continued)

a compatible manner, or if a use conficts with the are conducted, and no treatment actions will be maintenance of refuge biological integrity, diversity, implemented, these activities may be permitted and environmental health, then the use is not under a Research and Monitoring SUP (FWS Form compatible. 3-1383-R, https://www.fws.gov/forms/3-1383-R. pdf, Memorandum of Understanding or other If a refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan agreement). If a public health agency or mosquito (CCP) included a CD on mosquito management control organization is conducting mosquito activities, Refuge Managers should include that management activities on a refuge in support of documentation in their MMPs. In this situation, the refuge purpose(s) and in the role of a Service there is no need to re-create this documentation authorized agent, then an agreement or contract is unless circumstances have changed signifcantly. an appropriate instrument to guide their activities. Otherwise, conducting mosquito management on When a public health agency or mosquito control a refuge requires an Other General Activity SUP organization proposes to conduct mosquito (FWS Form 3-1383-G, https://www.fws.gov/forms/3- management activities on a refuge in support 1383-G.pdf.) of the refuge purpose(s) and in the role of a Service-authorized agent, then that use qualifes National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of as a “refuge management activity” and the 1969, as amended (42 U.S.C. 4321-4347) Compatibility policy requirements do not apply. NEPA requires Federal agencies to consider This may be applicable when mosquito inventory or the environmental effects of a proposed action monitoring is being conducted at the request of the in conjunction with an environmental review Service. addressing among other things, impacts on social, cultural, economic, and natural resources. Agencies Special Use Permits must consider a range of reasonable alternatives The Refuge Manager issues Special Use Permits and the effects of their implementation. (SUPs) to authorize special uses on a refuge (see https://www.fws.gov/refuges/visitors/permits.html. A primary source of information for NEPA is found Special Use Permits are issued for three categories at https://ceq.doe.gov/ and in the Service’s NEPA of uses: for National Wildlife Refuges, A Handbook (https:// www.fws.gov/policy/NEPARefugesHandbook.pdf). • Commercial Activities You may also contact a regional or the national • Research and Monitoring Service NEPA Coordinator. • Other General Activity The Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP) A Refuge Manager may issue an SUP to allow that is prepared for every refuge is prepared as a appropriate and compatible inventory, surveillance NEPA document: an Environmental Assessment and monitoring of larval, pupal, and adult (EA), or sometimes as an Environmental Impact mosquitoes and, if necessary, mosquito control Statement (EIS). If mosquito management has activities. To avoid harm to wildlife or habitats, been addressed in the CCP, including a discussion access to traps and sampling stations must meet of environmental effects and alternatives, then the the compatibility requirements found in 603 FW MMP can be prepared as a step-down plan of the 2 and the activities are subject to refuge-specifc CCP or of the Integrated Pest Management policy. restrictions, which should be clearly stated in the If it was not addressed in the CCP, or only addressed SUP. superfcially, then the MMP should be prepared as an EA. The instrument used to document approval of the activity depends on why the activity is taking place. Categorical exclusions (CatEx) are categories If only inventory, monitoring and surveillance of Federal actions that do not have a signifcant

32 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges effect on the quality of the human environment https://www.fws.gov/endangered/esa-library/pdf/ (individually or cumulatively). As such, these esa_section7_handbook.pdf actions do not require preparation of an EA or an EIS. Use of a CatEx can be documented The actions proposed in an MMP, including but not in an Environmental Action Statement or limited to surveillance, monitoring, and control a memorandum to the fle. A CatEx is an activities, are subject to a section 7 consultation environmental review that does not require the whenever an activity may affect even a single extent of analysis that occurs in an EA or an EIS. individual of a listed, proposed, or candidate The Service’s CatEx list is in the Departmental species, or an essential feature of its critical habitat. Manual at 516 DM 8. Appendix 2 provides a list This consultation helps the Service to adequately of Extraordinary Circumstances wherein the evaluate risk, assess the effects of the physical categorical exclusions would not apply. Section activities, and evaluate ecotoxicological effects of 2.4 on the extraordinary circumstances list states pesticide products to these species and their critical “Have highly uncertain and potentially signifcant habitats. This level of analysis is necessary for fauna environmental effects or involve unique or unknown and fora, as effects can be unusual and unexpected. environmental risks.” Therefore, mosquito surveillance or monitoring activities may qualify When contemplating actions associated with for consideration as a CatEx; the application of mosquito management, it is important that refuge pesticides would have measurable environmental staff contact their Regional IPM Coordinator and impacts, and therefore, they may be precluded from a Service contaminant specialist or ecotoxicologist CatEx consideration. early in the planning process to request necessary support. Consider starting with an informal If the refuge has completed an MMP that refects consultation and engage Service environmental current activities and is NEPA-compliant, then it contaminants and section 7 experts as you may be necessary to periodically review the MMP prepare an effects analysis to evaluate potential to ensure that it continues to comply with NEPA. ESA concerns. Identify ways in which to avoid or minimize adverse effects. Once avoidance and Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973, as minimization measures are planned, it may be amended (16 U.S.C.1531-1544) appropriate to consider compensatory mitigation The ESA provides for the identifcation, protection, measures for actions which cannot be avoided or and recovery of species approaching extinction. minimized. Protection of federally listed, proposed and candidate species and designated critical habitat When a public health authority declares a public can be achieved, in part, through section 7 of health emergency, the response is still subject the ESA, which requires Federal agencies to to emergency consultation with the appropriate consult with the Service or the National Marine Service for endangered species issues. The ESA Fisheries Service to ensure that any action an Handbook guides the emergency consultation agency authorizes, funds, or carries out is not process. Emergency consultations, by regulation, likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any may occur shortly after response. Completing federally listed species, or result in the destruction section 7 compliance documentation in conjunction or adverse modifcation of designated critical with an MMP may allow the Refuge Manager to habitat. Agencies consult with the National Marine avoid emergency consultation if and when there is Fisheries Service for listed species that inhabit an unforeseen public health emergency. marine environments during part or all of their life cycle (e.g., anadromous fsh, marine mammals, Wilderness Act of 1964 (16 U.S.C.1132) and sea turtles when not nesting); otherwise, they This Act allows Congress to designate wilderness consult with the Fish and Wildlife Service. The areas that Federal agencies must manage to ESA Consultation Handbook can be accessed at preserve their wilderness character and for

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 33 (Appendix A, continued)

the use and enjoyment of the American people. impact historic or archeologic resources. Ground As of 2016, there are 75 designated wilderness disturbing activities, such as those associated with areas totaling 20.7 million acres within 63 marsh habitat and hydrology restoration, and refuges in 26 States. Proposed and designated chemical treatments that might have reactions with wilderness areas are protected and managed to sensitive structure materials should be evaluated. preserve natural conditions. Section 4(c) of the The Refuge Manager may need to coordinate Wilderness Act generally prohibits temporary with the appropriate State or tribal Historic roads, motor vehicles, motorized equipment, Preservation offce to ensure compliance with these motorboats, mechanical transport, landing of Acts. aircraft, structures, and installations. These general prohibitions may impact decisions Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide related to mosquito management planning and Act (FIFRA), as amended. (7 U.S.C. 6) requires proposed actions on or near designated wilderness. the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to Proposed mosquito management treatments regulate activities related to pesticides. Regulated would be reviewed using the wilderness Minimum activities include: development, registration and Requirements Analysis. Consult the multi-agency, classifcation, production, storage and transport, Service-authorized website for information on the and application of pesticides to protect human necessary Minimum Requirements Analysis at health and the environment from unreasonable www.wilderness.net/MRA. adverse effects.

If there is proposed or designated wilderness Executive Orders 11988 (Floodplain on the refuge boundary, there may be special Management) and 11990 (Protection of considerations for proposed mosquito management Wetlands) actions in wilderness. Consult the Service’s policy Executive Orders 11988 and 11990 direct Federal website for the most up-to-date version of the agencies to enhance foodplain and wetlands value, Wilderness Stewardship policy (610 FW 1-5). to avoid development in foodplains and wetlands whenever possible, and to minimize adverse impacts National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of to them if development cannot be avoided. These 1966, as amended (16 U.S.C. 470) may be applicable when considering open marsh Section 106 of NHPA requires Federal agencies water management and other restoration activities to consider how their actions could affect historic as part of an integrated MMP. The Refuge Manager properties. The legislation provides for preservation may need to develop a Statement of Finding to of historic and archaeological sites in the United address the requirements of these Executive States. NHPA created the National Register Orders. of Historic Places, the list of National Historic Landmarks, and the State Historic Preservation Clean Water Act (CWA), as amended. (33 U.S.C. offces. 1251 et seq.) The CWA establishes regulations for discharges Archeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 of pollutants to waters of the United States. The Archeological Resources Protection There may be permitting requirements regarding Act requires that archeological resources be potential discharges of mosquito pesticides to identifed and that proper permits be obtained waters and refuge staff should determine what, if prior to excavating any resources. Consider the any, requirements need to be addressed within the requirements of NHPA and the ARPA if there state and local jurisdiction. is any mosquito management activity that might

34 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Appendix B Summaries of Common Mosquito-Borne Diseases and Related Health Considerations Following are summaries of common mosquito- if unrecognized and not properly treated in a timely borne diseases and associated pathogens that occur manner. Some people infected with the virus or have occurred historically in the United States. have no symptoms. Dengue is not spread directly Information is subject to change, so be sure to look from person to person. Dengue viruses may be for any updates when developing MMPs. introduced into new areas by travelers who become infected while visiting other regions where dengue West Nile Virus (WNV) WNV is an arthropod- commonly exists. (Source: https://www.cdc.gov/ borne virus (arbovirus) in the family Flaviviridae, dengue/fAQFacts/index.html (accessed 6/28/2018). genus Flavivirus which is most commonly transmitted to humans by the bite of infected Chikungunya The chikungunya virus is mosquitoes. WNV has been detected in a wide transmitted to people by Ae. aegypti and Ae. diversity of Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Culiseta, albopictus mosquitoes, the same mosquitoes that and Psorophora species in the United States, as transmit dengue virus. They bite mostly during well as other less commonly encountered species. the daytime.The most common symptoms of Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on chikungunya virus infection are fever and joint pain. infected birds. There are no medications to treat Other symptoms may include headache, muscle or vaccines to prevent WNV infection in humans. pain, joint swelling, or rash. Symptoms usually WNV can cause febrile illness, encephalitis begin 3 to 7 days after being bitten by an infected (infammation of the brain) or meningitis mosquito. Outbreaks have occurred in countries (infammation of the lining of the brain and spinal in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Indian and Pacifc cord). The incubation period is usually 2 to 14 days. Oceans. Chikungunya cases have been found in Although most people infected with WNV will have the Americas and on islands in the Caribbean no symptoms, about 1 in 5 infected people may and in Florida. Travel-associated cases have been develop a fever with other symptoms, and less than documented in 43 states including Hawaii. There 1% of infected people develop a serious illness. is no vaccine to prevent or medicine to treat WNV has been detected in all lower 48 States chikungunya virus infection. (Source: https://www. (not in Hawaii or Alaska) (Source: https://www. cdc.gov/chikungunya/fact/index.html (accessed cdc.gov/westnile/faq/genQuestions.html (accessed 6/28/2018). 6/28/2018). La Crosse Encephalitis Virus (LACV) LACV is Dengue Dengue is a disease caused by any one transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected of four closely related dengue viruses (DENV 1, mosquito. LACV is a California serogroup virus, DENV 2, DENV 3, or DENV 4). The viruses are in the genus Bunyavirus, family Bunyaviridae. transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected Cases of LACV disease occur in the upper mosquito. The mosquito becomes infected with midwestern and mid-Atlantic and southeastern dengue virus after biting a person who has States. Many people infected with LACV have no dengue virus in his or her blood. In the Western apparent symptoms. Among people who become ill, Hemisphere, the Aedes aegypti mosquito is the initial symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, most important transmitter of dengue viruses, with vomiting, and tiredness. Some of those who become Ae. albopictus also capable of transmitting the ill develop more severe disease that affects the virus as well. Each year there are more than 400 nervous system. There is no specifc treatment million cases of dengue identifed across the tropical or vaccine. Most people become infected from the urban areas of the world. The principal symptoms “treehole mosquito” (Ae. triseriatus) which is an of dengue are high fever, severe headache, severe aggressive mosquito that bites during daytime. pain behind the eyes, joint pain, muscle and bone (Source: https://www.cdc.gov/lac/gen/qa.html pain, rash, and mild bleeding (e.g., nose or gums (accessed 6/28/2018). bleed, easy bruising). Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) is a severe form of infection; it can be fatal Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus (EEEV) EEEV is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 35 (Appendix B, continued)

mosquito. EEEV is maintained in a cycle between increase in populations of granivorous birds such Culiseta melanura mosquitoes and avian hosts in as the house sparrow and mosquitoes such as Cx. freshwater hardwood swamps. Cs. melanura is tarsalis, Ae. Dorsalis, and Ae. melanimon. These not considered to be an important vector of EEEV species may play a role in WEE virus transmission to humans because it feeds almost exclusively on in irrigated areas. birds. Transmission to humans requires mosquito species, such as some Aedes, Coquillettidia, and No human vaccines are commercially available Culex, that are capable of creating a “bridge” for this disease. Prevention includes: 1) personal between infected birds and uninfected mammals. protective measures such as reducing time EEEV is a member of the genus Alphavirus, family outdoors, particularly in early evening hours, Togaviridae and is a rare illness in humans; on wearing long pants and long sleeved shirts, and average 6 cases are reported in the United States applying mosquito repellent to exposed skin areas each year, mostly in the Atlantic and Gulf Coast and 2) public health measures that may include use states. Most people infected with EEEV have no of insecticides to reduce disease-vectoring mosquito apparent illness, but severe cases may affect the numbers. See https://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/ nervous system. There is no specifc treatment or idepc/diseases/weencephalitis/wee.html (accessed vaccine for EEE. (Source: https://www.cdc.gov/ 12/2/2016), for more information. EasternEquineEncephalitis/ (accessed 6/28/2018). Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus SLEV is Western Equine Encephalitis Virus The WEE transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected was frst isolated in California in 1930 and remains mosquito specifcally Culex sp. mosquitoes (Cx. an important cause of encephalitis in horses and Pipiens and Cx . quinquefasciatus in the East, humans in North America, mainly in the western Cx. Nigripalpus in Florida, and Cx. Tarsalis and United States and Canada. In the western States, members of the Cx. pipiens complex in western the enzootic cycle of WEE involves passerine birds, States). Most cases of SLEV disease have occurred in which the infection is not apparent, and culicine in eastern and central States. Although most people mosquitoes, principally Cx. tarsalis, a species that infected with SLEV have no apparent illness, is associated with irrigated agriculture and stream symptoms may include fever, headache, nausea, drainages. Other mosquito vector species include vomiting, and fatigue. Symptoms of SLEV take 5 to Aedes melanimon in California, Ae. dorsalis in 15 days to develop after the mosquito bite. Severe Utah and New Mexico, and Ae. campestris in New symptoms may sometimes occur. There is no specifc Mexico (USGS 2013). treatment or vaccine. (Source: https://www.cdc.gov/ sle/ (accessed 6/28/2018). Human WEE cases are usually frst seen in June or July. Most WEE infections are asymptomatic or Zika Virus The primary mosquito species that present as mild, nonspecifc illness. Patients with transmit Zika virus are Ae. aegypti and possibly clinically apparent illness may have symptoms Ae.. albopictus, the same species that spread of fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, dengue and chikungunya viruses. These are and malaise, followed by altered mental status, aggressive daytime biters but they may also bite at weakness and signs of meningeal irritation. night. Mosquitoes become infected when they feed Children, especially those younger than one year on a person already infected with the virus. The old, may be affected more severely and 5-30% may adults feed almost exclusively on humans. Larvae be left with permanent after effects. The overall can occur in man-made water holding containers mortality rate is about 3%. that are often found near buildings. Both species are non-native to the Western Hemisphere and are Expansion of irrigated agriculture in the North dependent upon humans to maintain signifcant Platte River Valley during the past several decades populations. A search of areas for water-holding has created habitats and conditions favorable to the containers (tires, cans, vases, etc.) and the removal

36 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges of standing water should reduce risk associated this effect, it is related to the specifc health of the with these artifcial breeding environments. individual. A systemic reaction may be severe, and Symptoms of Zika virus range from no symptoms localized and occur in otherwise healthy individuals to fever, rash, joint or muscle pain, headache, or within hours of a mosquito bite, and last for 3 – 10 conjunctivitis (red eyes). A pregnant woman can days. People at increased risk for severe reactions pass Zika virus to her fetus during pregnancy. include those with high exposure (outdoor workers), Zika is a cause of microcephaly and other severe those lacking acquired immunity (Peng and Simons fetal brain defects. Consult the Centers for 2007a; Simons and Peng 1999, McCormack et al. Disease Control and Prevention website for more 1995) and those with primary or acquired immune- information. There is no vaccine to prevent or defciencies, such as human immunodefciency virus, medicine to treat Zika virus. Personal protection and Epstein - Barr virus (EBV)-associated diseases from biting mosquitoes is the most effective form (Asada 2007, Asada et al. 2003; Smith et al. 1993; of prevention. (Source: https://www.cdc.gov/zika/ Diven et al. 1988). With any break in the skin, there (accessed 6/28/2018). is the potential for secondary (indirect) bacterial infection resulting from mosquito bites. These Other Mosquito-Related Human Health Considerations issues may be minor and short-term and resolve without medical intervention. Most of the human population at any given time will have some reactivity to mosquito bites. Immediate reactions occur in 70% to 90% and Asada, H. 2007. Hypersensitivity to mosquito bites: delayed reactions in 55% to 65% of people bitten by a unique pathogenic mechanism linking mosquitoes (Peng et al. 1996; Oka and Ohtaki 1989). Epstein-Barr virus infection, allergy and The incidence of self-reported large local reactions oncogenesis. Journal of Dermatological in one study was 2.5% (Arias-Cruz et al. 2006). Science 45:153-160. Individuals at greatest risk are those with greatest Asada, H., S. Miyagawa, and Y. Sumikawa. 2003. potential exposure such as outdoor workers and CD4 T-lymphocyte-induced Epstein- those lacking acquired immunity (Crisp and Barr virus reactivation in a patient with Johnson 2013). Research indicates most people who severe hypersensitivity to mosquito bites and experience immediate and delayed local reactions to Epstein-Barr virus-infected NK cell mosquito bites that are immunologically mediated lymphocytosis. Archives of Dermatology will see a decrease in reaction severity over time 139:1601-1607. (Crisp and Johnson 2013; Peng and Simons 2007). Crisp, H.C., and K.S. Johnson. 2013. Mosquito An immune reaction is largely in response to Allergy. Annals of Allergy, Asthma and proteins that exist within the mosquito saliva. Immunology 110:65-69. Some 30 different proteins are present in the Diven, D.G., R.C. Newton, and K.M. Ramsey. 1988. saliva and they include antiplatelet, anticoagulant, Heightened cutaneous reactions to mosquito and vasodilator to facilitate feeding and sugar bites in patients with acquired digestive and bacteriolytic enzymes (Crisp and immunodefciency syndrome receiving Johnson 2013). Naturally acquired desensitization zidovudine. Archives of Internal Medicine to mosquito saliva may occur during childhood or 148:2296. due to repeated exposure to mosquitoes (Peng and Galindo, P.A., E. Gmez, J. Borjal. 1998. Simons 2007b). Desensitization through repeated Mosquito bite hypersensitivity. Allergologia exposure may take 2 to 20 years because people et Immunopathologia 26:251-254. often attempt to limit their exposure due to the Kulthanan, K., S. Wongkamchai, unwanted effects of the bites (Kulthanan et al. D. Triwongwaranat. 2010. Mosquito allergy: 2010). While mosquito allergies can be small to clinical features and natural course. Journal large and localized, others can be systemic. There is of Dermatology 37:1025-1031. no specifc threshold for number of bites that cause

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 37 (Appendix B, continued)

Protein and Peptide Letters 14:975-981. McCormack, D.R., K.F. Salata, and J.N. Hershey. Peng, Z., and F.E.R. Simons. 2007b. Advances in 1995. Mosquito bite anaphylaxis: mosquito allergy. Current Opinion in Allergy immunotherapy with whole body extracts. and Clinical Immunology7:350–354. Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology Simons, F.E. and Z. Peng. 2003. Mosquito allergy. 74:39–44. In: Levine MI, Lockey RF, eds. American PengZ, and F.E.R. Simons. 2004. Mosquito allergy: Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology immune mechanisms and recombinant Monograph on Insect Allergy Milwaukee, salivary allergens. International Archives of WI: American Academy of Allergy, Asthma Allergy and Immunology 133:198–209. and Immunology 175-203. Peng, Z., A.N. Beckett, and R.J. Engler, et al. Simons, F.E.R. and Z. Peng. 1999. Skeeter 2004. Immune responses to mosquito saliva in syndrome. Journal of Allergy and Clinical 14 individuals with acute systemic allergic Immunology 104:705-707. reactions to mosquito bites. Journal of Smith, K.J., H.G. Skelton, and P. Vogel. 1993. Allergy and Clinical Immunology Exaggerated insect bite reactions in patients 114:1189–1194. positive for HIV. Journal of the American Peng, Z. and F.E.R. Simons. 2007a. Mosquito Academy of Dermatology 29:269-272. allergy and mosquito salivary allergens.

38 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Appendix C Action Thresholds

Example: No Name Key Florida Light trap counts dataset

SYSTAT Rectangular fle C:\Users\lhribar\Documents\mydoc\Everything from old machine\nn12.syz, Created data fle Thu May 16 13:33:51 2013 containing variables

In the example data here: From light trap counts, the Mean is 61 mosquitoes, the Standard Error around that Mean is 20. The Mosquito Control Authority might select “80” (60 + 20) as the Action Threshold; OR, more conservative, the Standard Deviation is 150, the Action Threshold could be set at 150. There are some outliers in the dataset, such as Day 128 with more than 900 mosquitoes, that tends to make the Standard Deviation quite large.

Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 39 (Appendix C, continued)

40 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 41 (Appendix C, continued)

42 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges 43 Appendix D Animal Health Considerations

West Nile Virus (WNV) continues to cause illness There are several mosquito-borne diseases that and death in wild birds since its introduction to impact domestic and other animals. For dogs and North America in 1999. The initial wave of the virus cats, heartworm (Diroflaria immitis) can be a swept from east to west across the country, causing life-threatening disease. The disease is caused by mortality events in corvid species (e.g., crows, jays). a roundworm. Dogs, cats, foxes, and raccoons can Now, WNV is endemic in the United States and has be infected with the worm through the bite of a caused occasional focal outbreaks in white pelicans, mosquito carrying the larvae. Cases of heartworm eared grebes, and bald eagles. Eastern and Western have been reported in all 50 States and in several Equine Encephalitis Viruses (EEEV and WEEV), provinces of Canada. Sixteen species of mosquitoes St. Louis Encephalitis (SLEV), and La Crosse in the genera Aedes, Ochlerotatus, Anopheles, Encephalitis (LaCEV) Viruses also cause low levels Culex, and Psorophora are vectors for heartworm. of illness and death in wild birds (Ladeau et al. (Source: http://www.mosquito.org/mosquito-borne- 2007). diseases, American Mosquito Control Association,

Efforts to control mosquito-borne diseases usually Three of the mosquito-borne diseases listed in the target areas with high human population densities. human health section above (WNV, WEE, EEEV) Many control methods are not particularly effective also pose health risks for horses. These viruses are over large natural areas, and are not appropriate associated with fever, lack of appetite, and lethargy, as a tool for preventing mosquito-borne diseases in progressing to various degrees of excitability, domestic animals or wildlife. Mosquito-associated followed by drowsiness. They ultimately end in wildlife diseases are considered to be a natural part paresis, seizures, and coma in fatal cases. Vaccines of the ecosystem. are available for these diseases. Some domesticated birds (e.g., emus, Peking ducks) are severely Avian malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes to affected by EEEV. endemic bird species in Hawaii and the Pacifc Islands and has contributed to their extinction. No mosquito species are native to the Hawaiian Islands. Mosquito management actions specifcally for the beneft of the native birds may be appropriate when following an exotic animal plan that includes a NEPA analysis.

44 Handbook for Mosquito Management on National Wildlife Refuges

U.S. Fish & Wildlife https://www.fws.gov

June 2018