Soils of the Campine a Historical Perspective

SOILS OF THE CAMPINE A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

ANNUAL EXCURSION OF THE SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY OF BELGIUM, 2013 INTRODUCTION

The Belgian Soil Science Society’s 2013 excursion is titled: “Soils of the Campine, an historical perspective”. During this field visit, an overview will be provided of the soilscapes of the lower Campine area, ranging from Histosols in depressions to dry Podzols and Arenosols on land dunes. In these soilscapes, history of man and soil are closely intertwined. From as early as the Iron Age until the 20th century, man started elaborate works to make these sandy and often poor soils more suitable for agriculture. The most famous example is the collection of sods in communal areas (outfields) that were mixed with manure and used to fertilize fields close to the home- stead (infields) where Plaggic Anthrosols slowly developed. Often called the ‘Terra Preta of Europe’, these Anthrosols still harbor an exceptionally stable soil-C stock. Finally, large changes in agricultural practices and large land reclama- tion and reallotments projects dramatically changed the landscape and soils of the lower Campine. To document the complex soil history of the area, the SSSB invites you to two of the oldest protected areas in Belgium.

i 1

DE ZEGGE

Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp -1952 112 ha Conservator: Marcel Verbruggen

Context: remnant of lowland peat in highly modi- ﬁed surroundings: land realotment, drainage, peat subsidence

Main soils: Histosols, Gleysols, Arenosols, Fluvi- sols, Cambisols, Umbrisols AREA De Zegge is a unique lowland peat area of 112ha in the valley of the Kleine Nete. De Zegge and De Mosselgoren are the only rem- DESCRIPTION nants of the former “Geels Gebroekt”, which covered over 500ha of wetlands. Large-scale land reallotments and drainage activities in the 1950‘s caused peat subsidence and landscape inver- sions of about 1m. By meticulously maintaining water levels, water quality and historical managing activities, De Zegge maintained the typical lowland bog soils and habitats. Soilscapes include a variety of Histosols, Gleysols, quaking bogs and traditional peat excavations with bog iron and vivianite. These now rare conditions make the area a biodiversity hotspot, harboring a variety of highly endangered plants and wetland vegetations, such as extensive heathlands, hay lands, swamp forests and reed ﬁelds. Twenty-four species on the Belgian Red List occur here. Nesting birds include bittern, western marsch harrier, king- ﬁsher, blue herron, cormorant, little grebe and water rail. The area also harbors the only population of grass snakes in Flan- ders.

Management activities are mainly aimed at maintaining high water levels compared to the intensively drained surrounding landscape, by large dykes, a circular channel, weirs and pumps. Wa- ter quality is monitored and incoming water is send through a system of reed ﬁelds for puriﬁcation. As the high biodiversity found here is linked to historical landscapes with extensive agriculture,

3 old agricultural techniques are maintained, such as mowing and removal of biomass in hay lands, heathlands and reed fields. This further prevents eutrophication of the system. In the oldest part of the conservation area, de ‘Oude Zegge’, no management activities are carried out and nature is allowed free development. Here climax vegetation of swamp forests with mainly alder and birch is found. These species are cut back regularly outside this core area to maintain open landscapes. Sphagnum species and marsh vegetation slowly form floating islands and quacking bogs slowly closing fens and ponds. Removal of sphagnum sods, tradi- tionally used as fuel and for bog ore mining, and cutting of the reeds and woody biomass growing on the floating islands is performed to maintain open water and wetlands.

Due to the fragility of the waterlogged soils and uneven terrain, most of these traditional agricultural practices need to be performed manually with the help of volunteers. Grazing by koniks - capable of dealing with the poor grass quality and difﬁcult terrain - further prevents eutrophication and establishment of trees.

4 FERRARIS MAP OF THE AREA, FERRARIS MAP OF THE AREA, SHOWING THE EXTENSIVE SHOWING THE EXTENSIVE WASTELANDS OF ‘GEELS WASTELANDS OF ‘GEELS GEBROEKT’ AND SMALL GEBROEKT’ FIELDS, DRY HEATHLAND AND LANDDUNES TO THE NORTH

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP OF 1984, AFTER THE LAND REALOTMENTS OF THE 1950’S

5 6 7 2 LANDSCHAP DE LIEREMAN

Natuurpunt vzw - 1940 ca. 1000 ha Conservator: Bas Van Der Veken

Context: set of typical Campine landscapes inﬂu- enced by natural and anthropogenic gradients

Main soils: Podzols, Arenosols, Anthrosols, Gley- sols, Histosols Conservation area ‘Landschap De Liereman’ harbors an excep- AREA tionally well preserved set of typical open Campine landscapes, DESCRIPTION sculpted by both natural and anthropogenic gradients. Antropo- genic gradients include lateral displacements of nutrients by grazing or sod collection, changes in (micro-) topography, irrigation with nutrient rich water, peat collection, plantation forestry and sunken roads. Natural gradients include topo- and hydrose- quences of sandy soils, each with their own typical semi-natural biotopes: wet and dry heathlands, myrtle vegetation, swamp forests with alder and willow, oak and birch forest, pine forest, poorer and richer grasslands and shifting sands. This large range of now rare biotopes provide a habitat to many endangered ﬂora and fauna, such as marsh gentian, asphodel, alcon blue, sun- dew, woodlark, curlew, nightjar, moor frog and natterjack.

Heritage values further include a wide range of interesting soil proﬁles and hunter-gatherer settlements with stone artefacts (ca. 12 ka BP). Leech farms, war trenches and old buildings further illustrate the area’s rich history. Management efforts include safe- guarding surface- and groundwater quality, mowing, sod collection, extensive agriculture and grazing with shetlandpony’s, koniks, cattle and a local breed of sheep. A EU-LIFE project funded the restoration of heathlands, fens, grasslands, forests and hyrdology.

9 On 19 September 2011 an agreement between Flemisch Ecological Network or are recognised different stakeholders (Flemish government, ad- as Nature reserve. Additionally, parts of the area ministrations (VLM, ANB, DLV, OE, …), province, (552 ha) are a protected landscape since 1940 communities (Oud-Turnhout, Arendonk en Rav- (extended in 2006). They include historical heath- els), agricultural sector (Boerenbond, Algemeen land and depressions (peat extraction), cultural Boerensyndicaat), nature conservation sector landscapes with ﬁelds, hay land and small scale (Natuurpunt vzw) and 2 ministers was signed for landscape features ((drinking) pools, hedges, an area of about 1630 ha. VLM coordinates the hedgerows …) and19th C allotment structures. implementation.

Finally, the Korhaan site (stop 6) is considered a The aim is a compromise between the agricul- protected archaeological zone (11/6/2012). tural and natural values. The agreement led to a number of preparatory studies : Geomorphologically, Landschap De Liereman forms part of the basin of the Kleine Nete. The 1) analysis (inventory) of the study area northern part drains towards the Aa, the south- 2) feasability study for nature development ern part towards the Wamp. The most important 3) study of ecohydrology and soil chemistry watercourses within the Liereman are the 4) agricultural inventory studies, purchase Brakeleersloop and Lieremansloop. 2 main units and exchange of land can be recognised: The ultimate goals were (i) to develop an inte- (1) part of low altitude : central part of the study grated plan with actions for agriculture, nature, area forms a low lying area (23-25 m TAW), de- recreation, heritage; and (ii) to realize on the ﬁeld pression has a W-E orientation, can be inter- the land development plan in cooperation with preted as an alluvial valley formed during Tardi- the different stakeholders, nature conservators, glacial. The valley of the Aa has a general N-S farmers and private owners orientation and is the second low-lying area within the study area. Large parts of the area are legally protected by (2) higher parts : complex of landdunes in the the birds directive (1979 - BE2101538), the Habi- Hoge Mierdse Heide – Korhaan and Brouwer- tats directive (1982 - BE2100024), are part of the

10 sheide (human impact : leveling, sand extrac- The research area is part of the coversands of tion…) Belgium. A sandy texture (Z) is therefore ex- pected to be the dominant texture class. Loamy sands (S) and light sand loams (P) are found as inclusions, mostly in the central depression and at the bottom of the drier valleys. Peat and clayey soils are concentrated in the wetter valley bottoms, as substratum buried by ﬂuviatile sediments. The central depression is dominated by peat to the present day surface.

In general, podzols (g) dominate the soilscape, except in the central part of the valleys where the mineral soils have been mapped as alluvium (p). To the west, around the villages Schuurhoven- The geology is typified by 3 important geological berg, Schuurhoven en Heieinde, the soilscape is formations: Mol Sands (Pliocene), Campine clay dominated by plaggen soils (..m). and sand (“Groep van de Kempen” : marine and continental deposits) and deposits of the Meuse The drainage class reflects the topography and terrace sloping rather than differences in lithology and substratum. The central depression can be di- The thickness of Quaternary deposits in the vided in an eastern part, where the water stays study area is 35 – 45 m. They consist of the For- to allow peat growth and a western part that is mation of Merksplas: (2 – 15 m thick, tidal depos- drained towards the Aa, a tributary of the Nete its) and a group of Early-Pleistocene deposits: a) “Formatie van Weelde” including river. Where peat dominates and on the lowest “Lid van Rijkevorsel” : clayey/sandy mica bearing complex, parts of the river valleys the soils are extremely estuarine environment dominated by tidal channels wet (.g.) to very wet (.f.). The gentle slopes and “Lid van Beerse : alluvial and eolian deposits, fine to medium the northern plateau composes of very wet to fine sand, characterized by soil horizons and periglacial features wet (.e.) soils. Locally drier soils are found were “Lid van Turnhout”: clayey/sandy complex, estuarine depos- the soilsape is dominated by fossil dunes. The its southeastern dune complex, known as the b) “Formation of Ravels” : Early-Pleistocene : N part of the “Hoge Mierdse Heide” is characterised by a com- study area, fluviatile origin (2 faciës, both mainly sandy) c) “Formation of Gent “ : Late-Pleistocene/Weichsel : sandy plex drainage pattern ranging from moderately eolian deposits : coversands wet to very dry over short distances (figure 2). Within the plaggen areas the drier zones are Tardiglacial and Holocene deposits include the mapped as dry (.b.). “Formation of Hechtel” (well sorted eolian sand) and the “Formation of Arenberg” (clastic deposits of alluvium, peat formation since beginning of Atlanticum (present in the depression of the Liere- man)).

11 FERRARIS MAP OF THE AREA

AREAL PHOTOGRAPH WITH INDICATION OF CONSERVATION AREA BORDER

12 VEGETATION MAP

ECOHYDROLOGICAL MAP: LIGHT COLORED AREAS INDICATE INFILTRATION ZONES, THE WATER RESURFACES IN THE DARK COLORED AREAS

Excursion points:

1 Visitor’s Centre, inﬁeld-outﬁeld border

2 Schuurhovenberg - Plaggic Anthrosol

3 Sand quarry: the soilscape through a fossil dune and along an old quarry wall

4A Original microrelief

4B Aquaduckt

5 Hoge Mierdse Heide - Podzol

6 Korhaan archaeological site - Podzol with Usselo soil

7 Korhaan depression - Myrtle vegetation

16 1. INFIELDS AND Human occupation in the area dates back to ca. 12 ka BP, when hunter-gatherers settled on dune ridges. Human impact funda- OUTFIELDS mentally increased with the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry from the Neolithicum onwards. Heathlands start devel- oping on sandy soils with a prominent presence of Erica or Cal- luna and a regression of forest species. This evolution is induced by efforts to concentrate the little nutrients available near the houses (infields) while over-exploiting communal area’s further from the homesteads (outfields). Grazing and arable cultivation of former forests rapidly exhausted the sandy soils, creating open landscapes with favorable conditions for heathland species and accelerating Podzol formation. In Medieval times, heathlands were probably quite rich in grasses and herbs, with many gradients, tickets and small forests. Large-scale scale sheep herding - due to the increasing importance of Flemish wool trade - and sod collection for the potstal-system made the outfields more and more oligotrophic, shifting the landscape to a very open habitat of purple moorland, as typically depicted on images from the 19th and 20th century. Locally, sands started shifting. Forests expanded again in periods of political instability, famine and population decrease, and due to large-scale pine planta- tions e.g. for supporting beams in coal mines.

Contrary, on the inﬁelds, the potstal system concentrated nutrients and inﬂuenced soil formation. Sods, litter and fodder col-

17 !'&&(

lected in the outfields were brought to the stable zol profile is buried underneath, with an inversed were they were enriched with manure and ashes profile on top. The difference in topography be- and composted. Combined to a.o. changes in tween the raised plaggensoils near this wall and the micro-topography led to the development of the original surface outside can clearly be seen. Anthrosols with thick Plaggic horizons rich in or- Currently, many Plaggic Anthrosols are de- ganic carbon. Some of these Plaggic Anthrosols stroyed by expansion of residential areas. Some still contain a buried Podzol profile and traces of are still under fields or meadows, while others agricultural beds. Occasionally, cemented B hori- are forested over. This may induce changes in zon in these Podzols were manually fragmented. the profile as illustrated in the next section. The plaggen system for enhancing soil fertility in Dominance of purple moor grass, a.o. due to dry sandy areas dates back as early as the Bronze deposition of nitrogen, is managed by re- Age, and many local variations existed. E.g. in introduction of the plaggen technique, done by coastal area’s, sea weed was used as a carbon crane when possible, taking care to meticulously source while forest litter was collected in loamier following micro-topography and only removing areas. Generally, plaggen management is said to the very top of the profile. To preserve soil heri- have ended ca. 300 years ago, but in the tage, certain zones are ‘set aside’ so the profiles Campine area pictures of farms with large heaps remain undisturbed. KU Leuven and Thomas of plaggen document that the practice was com- More Kempen are currently working on possible mon at least until the second world war, with the new uses of the plaggen material for agriculture, introduction of chemical fertilizer and radical hereby again closing the ancient carbon cycle of change in farming techniques. the Campine. In Landschap De Liereman, the border between the former infields and outfields is marked by a earthen wall planted with oak threes. A dry Pod-

18 19 2. PLAGGIC The plaggen soil forming the second excursion stop is located just outside the small village Schuurhovenberg. This village is lo- ANTHROSOLS cated on the eastern edge of the plaggen area and is bordered to the north by the Liereman depression and to the east by relatively extended heathlands. To the west and northwest the village is separated from the other “plaggen” villages by the Aa valley. Due to the location of this village with respect to the Hoge Mierdse Heathland, the latter most likely functioned as the out- ﬁelds for the plaggen manuring system executed on the village inﬁelds.

Figure below: Google map of the area surrounding the Schuurhovenberg village

20 On top of the “mountain”, where the soils are mapped as Zbm, a soil proﬁle will be presented during the excursion. Here, like for most of the regional plaggen soils, the humus rich top soil can be divided into 2-3 plough layers. Occasion- ally remains of the original A horizon are preserved as well. Below the A horizons either a colored B- or a mottled B horizon is found. This is relatively fast grading into a C horizon. Undoubt- edly the plaggen soils were originally dominated by Podzol (like) soils, but due to intensive agricultural practices throughout several centuries, no

Podzol traces can be found today. Figure above: moving massive amounts of earth, to raise or level fields, is still carried out today. Figure below: Tree augerings executed nearby the excursion point. T2B1 is an example of a typical plaggen soil It should be emphasized that not all soils with 3 Ap horizons recognized. T2B2 is rather an exam- mapped with the soil development “m” are sensu ple of a an attempt to improve the drainage conditions of stricto plaggen soils. In a number of cases thick the agricultural field by leveling and raising the soil. Both anthropogenic soils were encountered. These soils are man made soils but for different purposes. are solely the results of a massive dumping of T19B1 was augered in the field where the plaggen has earth over a short time, or levelling of the original been exploited and sold as garden soil. topography by machines. On the field parcel about 100m to the north of the visited plaggen profile, the plaggen soil material has been exploited and sold. The result is a field lying 40- 50cm lower than the surrounding fields. More fields like that can be observed in the neighbor- hood.

The diagnostic criteria for a plaggen horizon are: (i) texture of sand, loamy sand, sandy loam or loam, and (ii) artefacts (<20%), or spademarks below 30cm depth, and (iii) Munsell colour with a value of 4 or less (moist), 5 or less (dry), and a chroma of 2 or less (moist), and (iv) has an O.C. content of 0.6% or more, and (v) occurs in locally raised land surface, and (vi) has a thickness of 20cm or more.

The texture requirement is fulﬁlled. Through augering it was not possible to check for spade marks or estimate the quantity of artefacts. In the

21 soil pit this should be possible (CHECK!). The Figure below: Analyses of three Plaggic Anthrosol color requirement have yet to be checked profiles near Landschap De Liereman, illustrating (CHECK!). Based on the dark color the content the effect of the current land-use on soil properties. of organic matter is sufficiently high to fulfill the Left: “Anthrosol Weide”: plaggen soil now under pas- fourth requirement and the soil is definitely ture. Middle: “Anthrosol Naaldbos”: plaggensoil now raised. The plaggen as one or more genetic hori- under coniferous forest, traces of former agricultural beds are still visible in the profile (cfr. photo p.9). zons have a thickness of about 60-65cm. The di- Right: “Anthrosol Recent bebost”: plaggen soil for- agnostic thickness should be evaluated in the mally under grassland, now under coniferous forest field. Assuming the soil does have a plaggic diagnostic horizon of at least 50 cm thickness, the soil will key out in Anthrosols. At least the plaggic prefix qualifier and possible the regic are present (CHECK!), of suffix qualifiers dystric should fit and also arenic (CHECK!).

This excursion stop shows the soilscape through a fossil dune 3. SANDQUARRY and the soilscape along an old quarry wall. At the beginning of the Kievitvenweg the remains of a land dune have been cut through by a ﬁeld road. Hereby a ±25m long transect of the Pod- zol dune landscape has been revealed. The footslope of the dune has been excavated. The earth was dumped on top of the ﬁeld, whereby any micro-topography was erased. On the soil map both the forest and the grassland have been mapped as soils with a deep antropogenic A horizon. The remains of the dune illustrate how probably extended parts of the region was characterized by gently rolling land dune topography with micro highs and micro lows. This was before man transformed the landscape.

Figure above: A) View on the grassland (plaggen) with the forest stroke hosting the original dune morphology. B: view on the edge of het forested dune towards the sheep grassland. In the front is the field road cut through the dune. C: The southern edge of het forest dune with view from east to west along the Kievitvenweg. This roads border the limit of the Liereman depression and the drier sandy soils. D: de field road with on the right side the studied soil profile (next page). Figure left: location of profiles P1-P5

23 Along the field road a profile was cleaned and studied in the spring of 2013 (‘De schappen- bos’). The soil composes of a litter layer (H1), a horizon that resamples a plough layer but that could also have been formed through eolian deposition from the nearby field. H3 is disturbed and contains fragments of deeper horizons. H4 is the remains of the original E horizon, H5 is de Bh- and H6 the Bhs horizon. H7 is a transition horizon (BC). H8-11 are horizons formed in late glacial sediments. Possibly a fragment of an inter- stadial soil (H10) has been preserved. In this horizon we can observe clear evidences of freeze- thaw alternation. H9 is a rather clayey horizon, that is in strong contrast with the sandy H8, H10 en H11. Unfortunately the soil profile was too small to conclude if H8 could be an ice wedge, the result of cryoturbation or simply part of the original stratification. Especially for the Belgian Soil Science Society excursion, a more extended profile sequence will been cleaned by VLM.

About 500 m further eastward, an old sand quarry is located, which was exploited to construct the ring road around Turnhout during the Second World War. The quarry walls are still rather well preserved allowing quality soil observations over long continuous sequences. These quarry walls are representative for the soil development outside the traditional plaggen areas as no recent agriculture has been executed here. In february 2013, 4 soil proﬁles (P1 to. P4) were cleaned, described and enhanced with two deeper augerings (ﬁgure 9-12).

Figure top: Proﬁle studied on the eastern road cut of the ﬁeld road. The 11 soil horizons recognized are indicated. Figure bottom: View on the location of the P1 and P2 (sand quarry) with respect to each other.

24 The first profile (P1) is an example of a, for this region, rather well preserved Podzol. On top we find the litter- and a mor layer. Both have developed below the present day mixed forest. The A horizon (H3) has a rather light grey color, which could indicate that the soil has experienced a short period under agriculture. Hereby the A and part of the E horizon have been mixed. This agricultural phase obviously dates from prior the quarry and the afforestation. H5 is the humus ac- cumulation horizon (Bh), which has developed rather well here. H6 is been enriched with iron and probably by humus (Bs). H7 forms the transition horizon (BC) to the parent material (H8).

At a distance of about 20 m the second profile (P2) was studied. This profile differs completely from P1, as there are no traces of a Podzol or podzolisation. The soil composes of a litter- and a thin mor layer, an A horizon with an irregular lower boundary, a weak developed B horizon lacking horizontal bands and finally a horizon with prominent light and dark colored bands. The dark bands have been enriched, the light colored ones depleted for clay. This kind of E-Bt bands were also found below the Podzol soil in the deep augering made close to P1.

P1 and P2 are examples of two terrestrial soil types present in the region. On the one hand the Podzol and on the other the eroded Podzol. Most probably the original surface of P2 had a topographical position similar to P1. Through local erosion the upper 80-100cm of P2 has been re- moved. Today P2 appears in a local depression proﬁle, with to the south the highest point of het Figure top: view on P1, located on top of the dune. land dune and to the north a more gentle slope. Figure bottom: view on P2, located in de local depression

25 What is the relation between the soilscape and tivities (mostly related to agricultural production) the catena position? One possibility is that P1 is we can conclude that the same horizon se- located at the sheltered side of the dune and that quence and development can be followed over P2 was studied in the dune pan, or at least on larger distances. the erosion side of the dune. Considering that Field classification of P1 (podzol on top of the the land dunes were formed during the late glacial to early Holocene period, the lack of soil de- dune): The diagnostic criteria for a spodic horizon are: velopment in P2 counter arguments this explana- (1) has a pH of less than 5.9, unless cultivated; and tion. It seems more likely that P2 has experi- (2) has an O.C. content of at least 0.5%; and enced strong local erosion. One possibility is that (3) has one or both of the following: of a hollow road leading to the quarry, another is a. an albic horizon directly overlying the spodic horizon and that the Podzol soil has been exploited locally. has, directly under the albic horizon, one of the following Mun- sell colours, when moist (crushed and smoothed sample): i. a hue of 5 YR or redder; or ii. a hue of 7.5 YR with a value of 5 or less and a chroma of 4 or less; or iii. a hue of 10 YR or neu- tral and a value and a chroma of 2 or less; or iv. a colour of 10 YR 3/1; or b. with or without an albic horizon, one of the colours listed above, or a hue of 7.5 YR, a value of 5 or less and chroma of 5 or 6, both when moist (crushed and smoothed sample), and one or more of the following: i. cementation by organic matter and Al with or without Fe, in 50% or more of the vol- ume and a very firm or firmer consistency in the cemented part; or ii. 10% or more of the sand grains showing cracked coatings on sand grains covering 10% or more of the surface of the horizon; or iii. 0.50% or more Alox + ½Feox and an overlying mineral horizon which has a value less than one- half that amount in an overlying mineral horizon; or iv. an ODOE value of 0.25 or more, and a value less than one-half Figure above: view on P3 with the horizons indicated. that amount in an overlying mineral horizon; or v. 10%vol. or more Fe lamellae in a layer 25 cm or more thick; and The two additional soil profiles (P3 en P4) were 4) …; and studied along the northern quarry wall. P3 is an 5) …; and 6) has a thickness of 2.5 cm or more. example of a ploughed Podzol. The plough layer composes of A and E horizon material. Some re- Essential is if an Albic horizon is present or not. mains of the original E horizon still appears in the The diagnostic criteria for this horizon is: soil. The Bh is comparable with the one of P1, 1) a Munsell colour (dry) with either: but the underlying horizon is rather a Bhs than a. value of 7 or 8 and a chroma of 3 or less; or an Bs horizon (so relatively less iron and more hu- b. a value of 5 or 6 and a chroma of 2 or less; and mus). P4 is very similar to P3, except for the 2) a Munsell colour (moist) with either: a. a value of 6, 7 or 8 and a chroma of 4 or less; or plough layer, which has been eroded on the left b. a value of 5 and a chroma of 3 or less; or side. This erosion post-dates the quarry. On het c. a value of 4 and a chroma of 2 or less 2; and locations where the Podzols have been pro- 3) a thickness of 1 cm or more. tected sufficiently from intensive antropogenic ac-

26 4. MICRORELIEF This excursion stop shows a preserved podzol dune landscape, an irrigation channel system, and the impact of agriculture on the AND AQUADUCT soilscape. Figure above: View on the area of the excursion stop. Indi- cated are the 12 auger observations (red dots) and the irrigation channel system (blue line).

Along a longitudinal sand dune, located on the Laksheide to the north west of the Lieremansstaartje, a sequence of augerings was executed. The initial research questions concerned the age of the dune, the degree of soil erosion, the presence of buried soils and the archeological potential. According to the Soil Map of Belgium all soils are sandy Podzols. The agricultural ﬁelds have a wetter drainage class than the forested soils.

The 12 augerings were located along 3 agricultural ﬁelds, an anthropogenic earth structure related to an irrigation channel system, that never came into function and a forest parcel that still has its original dune topography preserved.

The augerings B1-4 were located on agricultural ﬁelds that probably were exploited to construct the irrigation channels. The soils observed here are disturbed and have little pedological and archeological interest.

27 B5 composes of a young soil developed in the the thicker topsoil can be the result of drift sand earth construction. This soil is very young and deposition from the nearby ﬁelds. The archeologi- has no archeological value. Below, is a buried cal potential for this forest parcel is considered soil that possible is a pre-podzol (acid brown high due to the well preserved original soil devel- soil?). This paleosoil has a higher archeological opment and the preservation of the original to- potential and shows no signs of agricultural ac- pography. tivities. The soils of the agricultural ﬁeld (B6-7) Figure above: View on the 12 augerings of the described located between the irrigation channel and the transect forest are completely eroded, leaving a soil com- posed of an Ap horizon resting op de parent material (C). This is symptomatic for modern agricultural soils of the research area.

In the forest where augerings B8-12 were made, the original dune topography is still preserved. It concerns a WSW-NNE oriented longitudinal dune that has been stabilized and afforested. The fact that little difference can be detected between the podzol development at the dune ridge and at the dune pan, is an argument that the dune stabilized before the podsolization process occurred. At the northwestern edge of the forest 28 5. HOGE The dune ridge of the Hoge Mierdse Heide has a high soil varia- tion, summarized as ZAg. Blow-outs, a low zone with micropod- MIERDSE HEIDE zols on stratiﬁed cover sands and local small sand accumula- tions, a ‘plateau’ with stongly developed proﬁles and steep ridges to the depression. Old sunken road traces with podzols on the shoulders cross the dune ridge.

Near the top of this ridge, a beautiful, very well developed and undisturbed dry Podzol profile can be seen. It is used as a ‘textbook example’ of the soils in the outfields for edu- cational purposes and to illustrate typical soil genesis in the area in relation to heathland development and the history of the Campine area in general. The profile is part of an area where heathland restoration activities were performed (LIFE project), i.e. plaggen to reduce dominance of grass species and removal of pine trees). This site is a nice example of the 10% set-aside rule, described in the soil and heritage protection strategy of Landscape the Liereman (vide infra). Zones with exceptional profiles are set-aside from the plaggen management, to maintain their undisturbed upper horizons. In an era where soils are af- fected by anthropological disturbances at an alarming rate, this should be considered an essential aspect of conservation (for more information please visit: www.echosoil.khk.be).

29 -/'5-,1 '#.1# !+ & 4 /1 5 ," *-0 ',"'#, "/--% %#+ ))#*'() -.#,4/'($ / ',"'#, 3-!&1'% ,'#1 )*#3#/'% #, ,'#1 .* 01'0!& 54 ) -,14'))#*"# )-//#*'%# 01/2!122/ ,-/+ * ,1 * $'(,# 12 2* '/# .-/'6,3##*4-/1#*03 , **#"')1#00,#**##,/#%#*+ 1'%#-3#/% ,% /2','% %/'(0 ',"'#, , 1 5 ," *-0 5-4#* ',"'#, "/--% *0 3-!&1'% ,'#1 )*#3#/'% #, ,'#1 .* 01'0!& *-0)-//#*'% 01/2!122/*--0.-/'6, +.#/5'!&1 /"2,,#"-,)#/# ,"(#0+#1 -/% ,'0!& + 1#/' * ,4#5'% +#1 -,/#%#*+ 1'% . 1/--, %##, 4-/1#*00,#**##,/#%#*+ 1'%#-3#/% ,% & 4 /15 ,"& /"',"'#,3-!&1'%,'#1)*#3#/'% #, ,'#1 .* 01'0!& 54 ) -,14'))#*"# 01/2!122/ %##, .-/'6, 5'!&1 / !-,1',2# "-,)#/# &2+20!- 1',%0 %##, 4-/1#*0 0,#**# -,/#%#*+ 1'%#-3#/% ,% &0 /2','%54 /1 5 ,"& /"',"'#,3-!&1'%,'#1)*#3#/'% #, ,'#1 .* 01'0!& 54 ) -,14'))#*"# 01/2!122/ %##, .-/'6, 5'!&1 / !-,1',2# '(5#/!- 1',%0 %##, 4-/1#*0 0,#**# %# /-)#, -3#/% ,% /2', 5 ," *-0 ',"'#, "/--% %#+ ))#*'() -.#,4/'($ / ',"'#, 3-!&1'% ,'#1 )*#3#/'% #, ,'#1 .* 01'0!& *-0)-//#*'% 01/2!122/*--0 %##, 5'!&1 /# .-/'6, %##, 4-/1#*0 /2.1#%-*3#,"#-3#/% ,% 1%#*'%-/ ,(# 5 ,"*-0',"'#,"/--%%#+ ))#*'() -.#,4/'($ / ',"'#, 3-!&1'% ,'#1 )*#3#/'% #, ,'#1 .* 01'0!& *-0)-//#*'% 01/2!122/*--0 %##, 5'!&1 /# .-/'6, -. "# -3#/% ,% 1200#, #, #3',"1 5'!& ##, "-,)#/# * % +#1 -/% ,'0!& + 1#/' *3 ,-,%#3##/ !+"')%##,4-/1#*0 6. KORHAAN The dune ridge that harbors “Hoge Mierdse Heide” and “Kor- haan” contains prehistoric artifacts of Final Palaeolithic, Meso- lithic, Late Glacial and Early Holocene age. Research is conducted by agentschap Onroerend Erfgoed and KU Leuven. This excursion stop shows the most remarkable and most intensively studied archaeological locus.

Highest densities of artifacts are typically found on the southern edges of the dune ridge. Here and on many places in the Campine area, it has been shown that small groups of nomadic people visited preferential zones along dune ridges over and over again. Their camp sites are typically found on the leeward slope, which probably provided the best conditions concerning acces to water, shelter and look-out. This typical landscape context (from the Tardiglacial onward) has remained exceptionally well preserved here : a dune ridge near a wet zone. Final Palaeo- lithic and the Mesolitic artefacts occur usually in a single plain. At the Korhaan site however, they occur in stratigraphically separated layers: the former in the Usselo-soil, the latter in the ploughed Podzol. Moreover, the Final Palaeolithic artifacts are exceptionally well preserved. The show little vertical distribution and are found in clearly separated clusters. This is probably due to burial by shifting sands during the Jonger Dryas, shortly after deposition of the artifacts, forming the present-day ridge.

31 Figure below: The provisionally protected “archaeologi- ties to the paleo-ecologisch archive (pollen, cal zone of the “finaalpaleolithic and mesolithic sitecom- seeds, beetle remnants, ...) in the peat. plex of the Landschap De Liereman” (11/6/2012) covers an area of over 300 ha. Vanmonfort et al. (2010) describe the archaeology of the Arendonk Korhaan site in detail: ‘Large-scale archaeological and palaeoenviron- mental research in the Liereman Landscape (Landschap De Liereman) in the northern Campine (Belgium) revealed a very extensive and well-preserved prehistoric site complex at Arendonk Korhaan. Remains include Final Pa- laeolithic scatters associated with the Usselo horizon buried below aeolian sand overlain by podzol soil containing Mesolithic assemblages. The Korhaan site complex is a rare example in this coversand area where Final Palaeolithic and Two profiles of the Korhaan-site are shown on the Meso- lithic are separated stratigraphically. Com- following page. These polygenetic profiles con- bined with an intact toposequence (the Usselo tain following soils (top to bottom): horizon grading into peat deposits), this site of- 1) Ap horizon and remnants of the B horizons of fers unique potential for ongoing archaeological, a ploughed Podzol. This soil formed in sands geomorphological and palaeoecological re- of Jonger Dryas age (this cold period at the search on Late Glacial and Early Holocene settle- end of the Tardiglacial, with little vegetation in- ment systems. This paper outlines the discovery duced reactivation of shifting sands on of the complex, presents some primary research dunes). This soil contains Mesolithic artifacts results and discusses land use patterns of in the Ap horizon. hunter-gatherers recurrently returning to persis- tent places across the Pleistocene-Holocene 2) The Usselo soil, formed during the warmer Tar- transition’. diglacial Allerød period. This soil harbors Final Palaeolithic artifacts.

3) Stratiﬁed coversands are found at the bottom of the proﬁles

Both dry and wet variations of the Usselo-soil are found. The dry morphology is typiﬁed by a shal- low, whitish band. The lowest proﬁles contain peat layers from the Allerød period. This allows for detailed reconstructions of the late-glacial environment by combining artifacts and soil proper-

32 KORHAAN PROFILE OF ARTIFACT CLUSTER, WITH DRY VARIANT OF USSELO SOIL

PROFILE IN THE FOOTSLOPES OF THE KORHAAN SITE, CONTAINING ALLERØD-PEAT DEPOSITS Fig.  Pit A, southern section: drawing and photograph, with coring below pit bottom.  Lithic artefacts.  Deflation level, characterized by coarse sands.  Disturbed podzol horizons in aeolian sands.  In situ compact humic and iron B horizon of the podzol soil in aeolian sands.  BC and C horizon of the podzol soil in aeolian sands.  Whitish silty sand upper part of the Usselo horizon.  Whitish sand lower part of the Usselo horizon.  Horizontally stratified aeolian sands.  Unidirectional cross-laminated aeolian sands.  Sands with no visible layering.  Organic layer with macroscopic plant remains.  Sands with organic layers.  Reddish brown humic sands.

STRATIGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN KORHAAN PROFILE (DRY VARIANT) BY VANMONFORT ET AL. (2010) 7. MYRTLE Bog myrtle (Myrica gale) is probably the most iconic plant found in Landschap De Liereman. It is found on gleysols and histosols DEPRESSION in the depressions of the area.

The Myrtle bogs are an essential aspect of the history of the area. The vibrant orange colors of the male catkins (march to april) formed a source of inspiration for many local painters. Most importantly though, the leaves contain glands that produce fra- grant oils and give the plant it’s typical smell. The many uses of these essential oils were widely known and therefore the bogs formed an important natural resource.

Myrtle was one of the main ingredients of gruut or gruyt, a herb mixture used to ﬂavor and conserve beers from the Middle Ages to the 16th century. Later is became in disuse in favor of hops or was banished for it’s supposed hallucinogenic effects. Today, it is once again used to brew “Gageleer”, a biological beer brewed and sold to beneﬁt Natuurpunt vzw. (Have a taste in the visitor’s centre!). Medicinally, the plant was used to treat anything from a sore tooth to fevers and lung problems, and to induce abortion. It’s many other uses include insect repellents (‘vlooienkruid’), dyes and leather tanning.

35 A SOIL AND Both De Zegge and Landschap De Liereman carefully manage the quality of their soils as the base of biodiversity. In De Zegge, HERITAGE the focus is on preventing drainage and euthrophication of the MANAGEMENT Histosols. Landschap De Liereman is one of the only conserva- PLAN tion areas in Belgium with a clear vision on soil management and protection, rather than only considering botanical and faunal as- pects. One example of the importance of such a soil vision is the protection of groundwater recharge areas (also see ecohydrological map in the introduction section): the groundwater in the most vunerable parts of Landschap De Liereman originates from an area that used to have intensive agriculture and little botanical value. The water has a residence time of several decades. Hence, these recharge areas need to be set-aside from intensive agriculture and included in the protection zone to prevent surfac- ing of nutrient-rich water in the long term.

Soil and geo-heritage values included in the management plan are the overall geomorphology, the microrelief, maas-terrace gravel, blow-outs, the Usselo-soil and its associated artefacts, Podzol profiles, Anthrosols, deserted agricultural fields, peat, quaking bogs, peat excavation sites, stinzenflora, World War II

36 heritage, sunken lanes, earthen walls and dykes. - 10% of the surface area is set aside and will not The soils associated with or buried under these be subjected to actions that interfere with the soil structures are likewise considered. - Focus should be on slow processes rather than fast results Management of heritage is based on three main - An holistic approach, integrating the story of principles: (i) Landschap De Liereman portrays the entire area and an integrated, multidisciplin- itself as a landscape, with high natural and heri- ary knowledge is aimed for tage values; (ii) in case of conflict of interest be- - The visitor’s centre, excursions and other educa- tween these, a choice will be made based on tional efforts are core activities in the manage- how rare, representative, intact, vulnerable or irre- ment placeable a certain feature is. Social interest or - Study and cooperation with partners, including value as part of a larger context are likewise scientific organizations is essential for good man- condiered; (iii) natural and heritage values are agement (soil chemistry, hydrogeology, nutrient managed in a holistic approach. minding, archaeology, carbon cycles,...) In practice, these principles are incorporated in - Innovative ways of presenting heritage to a a chain-like approach: Inventory - research - wider audience are to be explored valuation - management options and choices - management implementation. This chain is trans- lated in management plans: - conservation efforts benefit biodiversity and geodiversity and are specifically adapted to each site - borders between infields and outfields are re- spected and management is adapted accord- ingly - All actions that move soil, like plaggen, have to leave the original micro-topography intact

37 SOIL RESEARCH To further improve the management of biodiversity, soil diverstity and geodiversity, several studies are conducted in cooperation with scientiﬁc and academic organizations. They include:

1) Detailed soil map of the study area (scale 1/2000) by the VLM according to the legend of the Belgian soil map 10 – 15 augerings/ha (depending on the soilscape) + description mostly up to 2 m deep. Aim : soil suitability maps (eventually for exchange of parcels of land), estimating abiotic potential for nature development, arche- ology, identifying intact geogenetic soils (heritage soils), map- ping of current land use …

2) Nir Liereman: Archeologische Studie/Archaeological study, carried out by GATE (Ghent Archaeological Team) funded by VLM and ANB (2012-2013). This study forms part of the principle agreement for “Landschap de Liereman en omgeving”. Aim : to make an policy advisory map for archaeological purposes. All available archaeological, geomorphological en pedological data are collected desktop; ﬁeld work completes the data- base.

3) DEMETER : Aiming for a sustainable and integrated soil management to reduce environmental effects in cooperation with University of Ghent (Life+project).

38 The project has 4 specific objectives: (i) To increased sustainably without increasing nitrogen crease awareness amongst all agricultural stake- leaching? Conservation efforts generate large holders about the benefits of a sustainable soil quantities of plaggen, which are expensive to dis- and nutrient management, and the risks of a de- pose of. Can a modern-day version of the plag- creased soil organic matter content; (ii) To in- gen technique solve both problems? The experi- crease the knowledge of the agricultural sector mental setup consisted of a reconnaissance concerning the principles of a sustainable nutri- study on farmer’s fields (follow-up of 9 recently ent and soil organic matter management in daily plaggen-treated agricultural fields and 4 refer- farm practices; (iii) To provide a practical tool ence fields) and 21 experimental plots were in- which support farmers in a sustainable soil and stalled on-station with different quantities of plag- nutrient management; (iv)To enhance the effec- gen, lime and nitrogen fertilizer. tive implementation of sustainable soil and nutrient. For more information, please consult: http://www.demeterlife.eu/DEMETER/English_Proj ect/Paginas/default.aspx

4) Project “Vegetative Mining” – doctoral research of Ir. S. Schelfhout (UGent, Department of Forest and water management): Vegetative mining is the removal of phosphorus from the soil by the removal of crop biomass from a site. Preliminary results of the on-farm trials indicate When the P status of a soil is high this can lead an increase in carbon stocks and CEC in fields to large losses of P to surface or ground water. without deep-ploughing after application of plag- Lowering the P status by removal of biomass will gen, but without ample liming pH may drop as lead to a decrease of the P pools in soil that are low as 4.2 (H2O) or 3.8 (KCl) up to 2 years after most vulnerable to leaching, and decreases the treatment. Soil nutrients and bases are corre- risk of losses. The measure will be most effective lated to fertility management by the farmer rather when biomass production is high, so other nutri- than application of plaggen material. Maize plant ents like e.g. N and K should be ample available. density and plant height increased but thousand grain mass and dry yield were lower, correlated 5) Project: “Re-inventing Anthrosols: An an- to low pH. The station trials confirmation of the cient answer for modern-day problems con- increase in carbon stocks and CEC and the ad- cerning climate change, soil degradation, na- verse effects on soil pH, even with application of ture conservation and yield decline?” - Project typical quantities of lime. Although an increase in led by Dr. Karen Vancampenhout (KU Leuven/ total N was observed by application of plaggen, Thomas More Kempen) and Dr. Bas Van Der Ve- nitrate-N only shows a significant increase when ken (Regionaal Landschap Kleine en Grote N fertilizer was added. Ongoing research in- Nete): A decline in soil carbon stocks in agricul- cludes controlled laboratory mineralization ex- tural fields in the Campine area negatively af- periments to characterize N and C dynamics fects soil quality. How can carbon stocks be in-

39 Allemeersch, L., M. Bats, F. Cruz, R. De Brant, P. Laloo, L. Lombaert, J. H. Mikkel- BIBLIOGRAPHY sen, G. Noens (red.), D. Taelman, 2013. Project NIR Liereman: Archeologische studie: eindrapport. Een paleolandschappelijke en archeologische inventarisatie, prospectie en waardering gericht op de opmaak van een archeologische beleid- sadvieskaart voor het studiegebied Landschap de liereman en omgeving. Studie in opdracht van VLM en ANB.

Backx, H., Vansteenkiste, S., Staes, J., Van Ballaer, B., Meire, P., 2007. Grondwa- ter in de Zegge; een drijvende kracht voor de aanwezige natuurwaarden. Con- gres Watersysteemkennis 2006-2007, Bodem, Grondwater en Ecosysteem.

Bastiaens, J., Plaggenbodems in de Antwerpse Kempen. MSc. thesis, KU Leu- ven.

Bastiaens, J., Deforce, K., 2005. Geschiedenis van de heide: eerst natuur en dan cultuur of andersom? Natuur.focus 4(2): 40-44.

Bogemans, F., 2005. Toelichting bij de Quartairgeologische kaart. 2-8 Meerle – Turnhout. Vlaamse overheid, Dienst natuurlijke rijkdommen, VUB.

Integraal beheerplan Landschap De Liereman : http://www.vlm.be/SiteCollectionDocuments/Nieuwsberichten/raamakkoord%20de %20liereman/110919-Bijlage%201_RA_Integraal%20beheerplan.pdf

Meirsman, E., Van Gils, M., Vanmonfort, B., Paulissen, E., Bastiaens, J. and Van Peer, P., 2008. Landschap De Liereman herbezocht: De waardering van een ges- tratiﬁeerd ﬁnaalpaleolithisch en mesolithisch sitecomples in de Noorderkempen (gem. Oud-Turnhout en Arendonk). Notae Praehistoricae 28, 33-41.

Natuurpunt (red. Frederik Naedts), 2010. LIFE Liereman: win-win voor mens en natuur. Layman’s report. Published by Natuurpunt vzw.

Vancampenhout K., Coussement, T., Van Lommel, H., Smits, K., Van Der Veken, B., Bastiaens, J., Deckers, J., 2012. Re-inventing Anthrosols: an ancient answer for modern-day problems concerning climate change, soil degradation, nature conservation and agricultural yield decline. EUROSOIL 2012, Bari, July 2012.

Vancampenhout K., Dondeyne, S., Tuts, V., Deckers, S., 2012. The soil monolith collection of the Belgian soil map: history, challenges, new developments and edu- cation potential. EUROSOIL 2012, Bari, July 2012.

Vanmonfort, B., Van Gils, M., Paulissen, E., Bastiaens, J., De Bie, M., and Meirs- man, E., 2010. Human occupation of the Late and Early Post-Glacial environments in the Lierman Landscape (Campine, Belgium). Journal of Archaeology in the Low Countries 2-2, 31-50.

xl FIELD CLASSIFICATION OF PROFILES

PROFILE ID:

xli FIELD CLASSIFICATION OF PROFILES

PROFILE ID:

xlii CONTRIBUTORS

Eds. Karen Vancampenhout, Carole Ampe & Jari Mikkelsen

Contributions: Carole Ampe, Jan Bastiaens, Jozef Deckers, Ste- faan Dondeyne, Jari Mikkelsen, Karen Vancampenhout, Bas Van der Veken, Marijn Van Gils

Images: Carole Ampe, Jan Bastiaens, Brouwers (LNE), Jozef Deck- ers, Stefaan Dondeyne, Roger Langohr, Jari Mikkelsen, Karen Van- campenhout, Bas Van Der Veken, Andy Van De Water, Marijn Van Gils, Bart Vanmonfort, KMDA Centre for Research and conservation xliii