Journal of 96(7): 40-46

Silviculture History

"Selective Cutting” in Douglas-Fir History Revisited

In the 1930s “selective cutting” was orest management and assoc- areas as operations moved up the practiced in old-growth Douglas-fir; in iated silvicultural practices have valleys. Scattered individuals or groups the 1950s the experiment was Fbeen evolving in the Douglas-fir of defective and trees in pronounced a failure. In fact, the region since about 1900. This evol- inaccessible locations were often left, original concept was not an individual ution continues, and debate among however, and these subsequently selection system; it called for and the public has been provided an unplanned seed source for regeneration in small clearcut patches heated at times. Participants in these regeneration. Though often referred to as and resembled some current proposals. debates often seem to lack an , this practice was really Flexible application might well have appreciation of the long history of simple liquidation and quite distinct from been successful, but as it was practiced, forestry, of the evolution of clearcutting as a planned silvicultural removals were limited to large Douglas- practices, and the fact that there have system. fir, very old stands deteriorated after been a number of radical changes in By the 1880s concerns over future , and small openings did not forestry goals and practices in the timber supplies, watershed protection, allow Douglas-fir regeneration. As a past—some well justified and unplanned forest liquidation, and un- result, partial cutting trials came to an beneficial, others that illustrate the controlled forest fires were heard. The abrupt end, and the consequent lack of dangers of widespread adoption of national were established, and research into alternatives to clearcutting plausible-appearing practices in the forestry research began. Allen (1911) severely handicaps current efforts to absence of supporting research and stated the requirements for establishing meet changing objectives and public small-scale trials. on a permanent basis, concerns. One such radical change was the and Munger (1911) summarized existing selective cutting episode of the 1930s, knowledge on Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga a case that is largely unknown to the menziesii) and its management. general public and not widely known The first priority, emphasized by huge among the current generation of for- fires in the early 1900s, was fire control. esters. It illustrates the dangers of threatened existing invest- By Robert O. Curtis adopting plausible practices in the ments in harvestable timber, and efforts absence of supporting research. to regenerate harvested areas and make Historical Background timber growing a permanent land use were futile without effective control. After beginning in the 1850s, timber Soon there were legal requirements for harvesting and processing quickly grew lash disposal on logged lands and into a large industry in the Douglas-fir increasingly effective fire-control organ- region of the Pacific Northwest. izations. Seemingly unlimited amounts of high- Next in priority was regeneration. This quality timber were available at little need was met primarily by natural seed- stumpage cost, and in the early years ing, although there were also early plant- there was no incentive for forest ing programs to rehabilitate burned areas. management and little for forest Extensive research was done on seed protection. The main concern of dispersal, seed production, and seedling timberland owners was harvesting establishment of Douglas-fir. By the late high-quality timber at minimum cost. 1920s much of the information needed for An elaborate and efficient technology regenerating harvested areas by natural soon developed, based on rail trans- seeding was available (Munger 1927). portation. Because of the limitations of McArdle and Meyer (1930) published railroad logging, there was no al- yield tables demonstrating the enormous ternative to removing virtually all productivity of Douglas-fir forests. merchantable timber over very large

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Long-term management on a perm- trees for value appreciation and future Figure 1. Map from Kirkland and anent basis was now possible. harvest. Brandstrom (1936), showing proposed distribution of cuts within a part of the The knowledge was put to use on It had long been recognized that area used as one of their illustrative the national forests and some other harvesting and processing costs of cases. Their intent to regenerate the ownerships. A common requirement small and low-quality timber often old-growth stands by a series of small on national forest timber sales was exceeded the value of the product, and patch cuts is clearly illustrated, but Depression-era markets and inadequate leaving at least two seed trees per acre, that the prevailing practice of logging technology led to a very often supplemented by some seed harvesting all trees over large areas different result—and the failure to blocks or edges. The industry codes could result in lower profits than would obtain Douglas-fir regeneration. adopted under the National Industrial removal of only those trees or stands Brandstrom (1930) advanced similar Recovery Act of 1933 (invalidated by that would return a net profit on arguments, which became especially the Supreme Court in 1935) required current markets. In 1929 the National compelling in the depressed markets of specific fire-protection measures and Manufacturers’ Association, the 1930s, when only large and high- retention of seed trees or seed blocks meeting in Longview, Washington, rec- quality timber could be handled at a on industrial lands (Dana 1956). ommended study of “The possibility of profit. Note that “selective logging” was Results varied with occurrence of seed operating existing stands of timber on based on economic criteria that could be crops, site conditions, and weather. the basis of selective logging—either applied either tree-by-tree or to whole “Selective Cutting” by size of trees, species, timber types, stands. or areas classified with respect to Munger (1933) discussed those con- The introduction of the tractor and accessibility and logging costs—with a siderations and some further associated motor truck in the late 1920s brought a view to harvesting such timber in the potential silvicultural advantages. He new flexibility in harvest operations. order of its actual economic value, and (like others at the time) used “selective On moderate terrain it was now reserving for future utilization the cutting” loosely, as a contrast to the possible to remove individual trees or portions of such stands whose present prevailing practice of clearcuting large small groups or patches of valuable or cutting actually yields an unprofitably areas; he specifically included various high-risk trees while retaining other low return or loss” (in Mason 1929). forms of patch cutting

Journal of Forestry 41

Photos reproduced from Isaac (1956)

Left: Growing under the widely scattered old-growth Douglas-fir in the 1930s were hemlock and silver fir just under commercial size. Large trees could not be removed without serious injury to reserve trees, which could not be salvaged under the market conditions of the time. Above: Partial cutting in this type of forest left behind decrepit, poorly formed hemlock and decadent old- growth hemlock and Douglas-fir. involving light cutting systems system. In fact, they emphasized the which will retain a large need for flexibility in application and percentage of the forest and thereby preserve the forest specifically recognized that satis- growing conditions, will pre- factory regeneration would require as well as individual tree selection: “... serve the fertility and will obviate the clearcutting 2- to 10-acre patches the term selective cutting is used... burning of large areas with slash (Kirkland and Brandstrom 1936, p. 45) loosely, merely in contrast to clear fires....The immediate future policy therefore will be to develop, test, and after the initial light cuts. They further cutting over large areas. Selective put into effect selective logging with stated (p. 46, 89), cutting or partial cutting ... may be tree individual tree and small group selec- tion in western Oregon and Washing- From an economic point of view selection as in uneven-aged stands ... or this is essentially the same principle area selection where the stand inclines to ton. Under this system clear cut areas of as much as 5 or 10 acres should be that has been applied for centuries to be evenaged in groups and composed of infrequent. Light cuttings involving 10 many European managed forests. intolerant species, and the cutting must to 20 percent of the volume will either Clear cutting in their case is the final create slight additional (fire) hazard or cut following a series of be patchwise accordingly.” In addition (cuttings consisting of individually se- to the advantages in harvesting and permit its reduction at reasonable expense... lected trees). Clear cutting of this sort processing costs and returns discussed on limited areas as needed for effective by Mason (1929) and Brandstrom In 1936 Kirkland and Brandstrom regeneration...is part and parcel of se- published Selective Timber Manage- lective timber management as defined (1930), Munger foresaw long-term in this report.... in the practical work- gains from salvage of dead and dying ment in the Douglas-Fir Region. ing out of selective timber manage- timber; release of remaining trees for Envisioning a rapid transition to ment, cutting will be of two distinct future growth; ease of regeneration; and sustained-yield management, exem- kinds, namely (a) very light individual plified by case studies of plans for a tree selection, (b) clear cutting by maintenance of aesthetic, water-shed, small groups. and recreational values. number of properties, they proposed In 1934 Regional C.J. Buck initial light cuts to remove declining Figure 1, from Kirkland and wrote to forest supervisors about the trees and the most financially Brandstrom (1936), shows clearly that disadvantages of the prevailing clear- overmature timber, plus a rapid patch cuts in the oldest stands were an cutting practice: expansion of the road system for future integral part of their proposal. Their management. Contrary to some later caption read, “When this area was It is believed that these conditions can be rectified very largely by the interpretations, their proposal did not cruised, trees more than 40 inches in adoption of intensive forestry practices represent an individual tree selection

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diameter were located as shown on the Early Assessments negligible net growth, with a contin- map (see legend). It is possible, there- A preliminary discussion of results uing decline in the Douglas-fir fore, to locate on the map the was given by Munger (1950) and a component and increase in tolerant boundaries of heavy groups which will more complete report by Isaac (1956). species.) yield 75,000 to 200,000 board feet per Unfortunately, the records of stand 7. More than one third of the acre. These should constitute about measurements and plot locations residual trees received some sort of half the cut. The remainder should disappeared after 1956, and I found no logging injury. This was particularly come from tree selection in inter- information on developments after the severe in the understory of more vening areas...” first decade of observation. tolerant species. Kirkland and Brandstrom’s discuss- The main points in Isaac’s (1956) 8. Sufficient time had not elapsed ions went beyond the goal of sustained report of results can be summarized as to determine whether an all-aged forest yield—they emphasized producing follows: could be developed, but the records in- large high-quality timber and main- 1. A single-tree, partial cutting sys- dicated that the percentage of Douglas- taining other forest values: “It is per- tem was tried under a wide range of fir in the stand was reduced, and since fectly clear... that a management pro- stand conditions in the Douglas-fir no Douglas-fir regeneration was cedure that preserves a heavy growing region. becoming established, the species stock and generally excludes extensive 2. In most stands the Douglas-fir would eventually be eliminated. Toler- clear-cutting will promote also the component was made up of the oldest ant species increased. If an all-aged aesthetic, protective, and other func- trees and was essentially even-aged. forest could be developed, it would tions of the forest which make it of The associated tolerant species (west- contain little if any Douglas-fir. multiple utility” (p. 121). Their words ern hemlock, western redcedar, silver Isaac discussed further those in- sound surprisingly current. fir, grand fir) were generally younger stances where results seemed reasonably The publication (with a preface by and often in an understory position. satisfactory and suggested that Douglas- USDA Forest Service Chief F.A. 3. Cuts removed merchantable fir probably could be managed under a Silcox) generated wide interest, and trees from the oldest and largest size selection system on dry sites in south- “selective cutting” was widely applied class; these trees were usually west Oregon, in the gravel of the on the national forests of Region 6 from Douglas-fir and the best trees in the Puget Sound region, and on severe the mid-1930s to the late 1940s. It was stand. southerly exposures elsewhere where also used by the O&C Administration 4. Surviving Douglas-fir trees in moisture and shade are critical factors (now the Bureau of Land Manage- most cases did not increase growth in (and competition from more tolerant ment). response to cutting. There was a sub- tree and brush species is not severe). Beginning in 1935, the Pacific stantial growth response of survivors of Northwest Forest and Range Exper- In Retrospect the associated tolerant species. Isaac and Munger were both strong iment Station began installing and 5. On most but not all areas, gross measuring a series of monitoring plots personalities with long records of growth of reserve trees was more than achievement and great prestige in the on national forest sale areas. Seventeen offset by increased mortality (primarily areas were sampled; all were re- forestry community, and their conclu- windfall). There was a net loss in sion that selective cutting was a failure measured at year five, and 10 were re- volume in the first five years on two measured at year 10. The stands in put an abrupt end to partial cutting thirds of the areas, and in the second trials. Without question, their eval- question varied in age from 150 to 600 five years on half the areas with a years. They were often highly de- uations of the results of these cuts—as second remeasurement. A few stands they were actually carried out—were fective, and many contained well- virtually disintegrated. A few young or developed of tolerant spe- correct. Their conclusion that the very lightly cut stands suffered little Forest Service should abandon sel- cies, primarily western hemlock (Tsuga mortality. heterophylla), western redcedar (Thuja ective cutting in favor of moderate- 6. The study areas contained no sized, dispersed clearcut blocks was plicata), and true firs (Abies sp.), which uncut control plots allowing direct were not considered merchantable at fully justified in the context of silvi- comparison of mortality and growth cultural knowledge and economic the time. Removals in the selective cut with cut areas. Regional temporary ranged from about 20 percent to more feasibility at the time. And this became plot forest survey data, not fully com- standard Forest Service and Bureau of than 50 percent and averaged 36 per- parable, did suggest a substantial net cent in gross board foot volume— Land Management practice for the growth in uncut stands. (A later 36- next 30 years. Nevertheless, their substantially higher than those speci- year record of permanent plot mea- fied in Buck’s 1934 letter and implied interpretations, and the subsequent surements distributed over an 1,180- interpretations by others, have been less in Kirkland and Brandstrom’s discuss- acre tract of 350-year-old old-growth ion. than fair to Kirkland and Brandstrom’s (DeBell and Franklin 1987) showed ideas, which differed considerably

Journal of Forestry 43

from the way “selective cutting” was individual-tree selection system and primarily with old-growth stands, and actually carried out. development of all-aged stands. "geriatric ” is not currently Much confusion arises even today Munger (1938) drew some clear a major management concern (though from the superficial similarity of the distinctions: it may become so as the remaining old- terms selective cutting and selection cut- growth stands decline). ting (or selection system). And this Selective timber management is a The failure to obtain Douglas-fir re- policy or program of forest man- semantic confusion is evident in agement, dictated by economic generation would have been no sur- foresters’ discussions of the selective considerations; it may imply any kind prise to Kirkland and Brandstrom; they cutting episode. Selective timber man- of silviculture—area, group, or tree explicitly recognized the need for agement and the selection system are not selection; it is a principle that should group or patch cuts to obtain it. With be considered in all forest man- the same thing. agement plans. Selective timber knowledge then or shortly available Selective cutting is a vague term, now management, however, is not syn- (Isaac 1943; Worthington 1953; in disrepute among silviculturists. It onymous with the selection system of Franklin 1963), there is no question has at one time or another been used silviculture or with all selective logging, that such cuts—with appropriate site as the term is now used.... Group for almost any cutting that leaves some selection, area selection, and strip preparation and planting where re- trees standing, from beneficial thin- cutting are really clear cutting in quired—would have provided ample nings and improvement cuts, to miniature and should have a large regeneration. But trials never destructive highgrading that leads to place in Douglas-fir silviculture. progressed to this point before the shift wholesale degradation of the forest. In to large-scale block clearcutting. the early days of North American for- Isaac’s (1956) results certainly Subsequent comment (Foster 1952; estry it was used loosely by foresters showed that an individual-tree selec- Isaac et al. 1952; Smith 1970, 1972) seeking to convince landowners that tion system would not work in the very has focused on this episode as a mis- there were viable alternatives to liquid- old and more or less even-aged stands. guided attempt to apply the selection dation, and by landowners seeking to But the primary reason for failure was system to a species and stand condition convince the public of their own re- that these stands proved sensitive to to which it was unsuited. As applied, it sponsible management. disturbance, particularly when the cut certainly was that. It is likely that many , or the selection sys- was mainly from the largest sound of the practitioners involved saw a tem, on the other hand, is a specific and Douglas-fir, with unavoidable damage transition to the selection system and long-established silvicultural practice to smaller trees, and the lower crown creation of an all-aged forest as object- that aims to develop uneven-aged classes and cull trees were generally left. tives. This view provided a convenient stands with a wide range of tree ages Silviculture was here driven by short- rationalization for a practice that was term economics, not by biology. within the individual stand. In a single- really little more than highgrading, and tree selection system, different age classes A further handicap was the blanket which differed considerably from are developed in a stemwise mixture application of a particular practice Kirkland and Brandstrom’s proposals. through removal of individual mature across a wide range of sites, stand The unfavorable results have some- or low-vigor trees in relatively frequent conditions, and geography. Both times been cited as proof that staffing limitations and the economic light cuts distributed over the area. In clearcutting is the only system suitable conditions of the Depression made group selection, a mosaic of small for Douglas-fir (Doig 1976). even-aged groups or patches of dif- difficult or impossible the detailed An unfortunate result of this episode fering ages is created within the stand. stand examinations and the flexibility was the abandonment of efforts to

Close reading of Kirkland and and judgment in application that develop alternative silvicultural sys- Brandstrom’s proposal shows clearly Kirkland and Brandstrom’s ideas tems (other than some limited trials of that they were not proposing an indi- required. One can speculate on what uniform shelterwood), only recently vidual-tree selection system as defined might have happened under modern revived. If one ignores the difference above and in standard texts. Rather, conditions of good markets and in ages of the stands involved, they proposed preliminary light salvage improved logging technology, which Kirkland and Brandstrom’s ideas have cuts intended to lead into a system of would allow defective trees, sup- a strong resemblance to some recent regeneration on small clearcuts of 2 to pressed trees, some younger trees, and proposals for management of second-

10 or more acres, combined with secondary species to be removed with growth stands through a combination in younger stands. Many of less damage to the reserve stand and of continued thinning on extended their contemporaries and most could take advantage of the within- rotations, and regeneration in small subsequent commentators seem to stand variation in age and stocking even-aged patches placed to take ad- have lost sight of this. Some of those common in old-growth (Tappeiner et vantage of the variations in within- who made the actual cuts may not have al. 1997). The question is perhaps stand conditions that develop as thought beyond the initial entry. Some moot, since we in the US portion of the stands age (Curtis and Carey 1996). Douglas-fir region are no longer dealing probably were thinking in terms of an The experience and knowledge that

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might have been gained from contin- It seems appropriate to end this ex- DOIG, I. 1976. The murky annals of uing small-scale exploratory trials of cursion into the past with comments clearcutting: A 40-year-old dispute. this and other alternative systems from two prominent American silvi- Pacific Search December January 1975- would have been very useful in meet- culturists: 76:12-14. FOSTER, E. 1952. Approved (?) logging ing today’s problems of minimizing This chapter of silvicultural history technique. Journal of Forestry conflict between timber, aesthetic, has a moral for the profession, espe- 50(2):136. cially since it is only one of three in- and values. FRANKLIN, J.F. 1963. Natural regeneration management and land- stances I might cite when foresters in the region plunged headlong into some of Douglas-fir and associated species scape management must utilize a range new practice, impelled by the claims of using modified clear-cutting systems in of possible regimes, tailored to local its promoters, before making scientific the Oregon Cascades. Research Paper conditions and objectives. The history appraisal of all aspects of the new PNW-3. Portland, OR: USDA Forest of the selective cutting episode is a proposal. Silviculture is an art that Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and should base its practices on the proven striking example of the fact that ad- Range Experiment Station. findings of many sciences. It must be ISAAC, L.A. 1943. Reproductive habits of ministrative or regulatory attempts to practiced consistently over a long term Douglas-fir. Washington, DC: Charles of years. It should not be swayed by specify a particular form of silviculture Lathrop Pack Forestry Foundation. or specific silvicultural measures— considerations of passing expediency or popular appeal...let us keep re- . 1956. Place of partial cutting in often based on generalizations from search ahead of practice, so that old-growth stands of the Douglas-fir very limited or incomplete informa- untested innovations will not get ahead region. Research Paper No. 16. tion—can have unexpected and some- and get off the trail of nature's silvical Portland, OR. USDA Forest Service, times very undesirable results. laws. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range —Thornton T Munger (1950) The hiatus in research on systems Experiment Station. other than clearcutting, which ex- ...no silvicultural procedure is so ISAAC, L.A., R.S. WALTERS, D.M. SMITH, and R.A. BRANDES. 1952. Forest tended from about 1950 to 1990, universally applicable that it deserves to be viewed as anything approaching practice based on facts, not fancy. severely handicaps current efforts to standard operating procedure. The Journal of Forestry 50(6):562–65. meet changing objectives and public history of silviculture in this country is KIRKLAND, BP., and A.J.F. BRANDSTROM. concerns. There is a great and contin- long enough to reveal that there has 1936. Selective timber management in been too much tendency for methods uing need for systematic long-term the Douglas fir region. Washington, of cutting to vacillate between ex- trials of alternative silvicultural tremes that are partly fads and partly DC: USDA Forest Service. regimes over a range of sites and reactions to problems of a temporary MASON, D.T. 1929. Selective logging and geography, designed so that they can nature. its application in the Douglas-fir region. provide statistically reliable compar- —David M. Smith (1972) The Timberman 30(12):38-42. MCARDLE, R.E., and W.H. MEYER. 1930. isons of economic and environmental Those cautions are still relevant today. The yield of Douglas-fir in the Pacific gains and costs. These would also Northwest. Technical Bulletin 201. have great value as on-the-ground ex- Literature Cited Washington, DC: US Department of amples for public education. In the ALLEN, E.T. 1911. Practical forestry in the Agriculture. last several years a number of such Pacific Northwest: Protecting existing MUNGER, T.T. 1911. Growth and studies have been begun in the forests and growing new ones, from the management of Douglas-fir in the Douglas-fir region of the United standpoint of the public and that of the Pacific Northwest. Circular 175. Wash- lumberman, with an outline of technical ington, DC: USDA Forest Service. States and Canada, but they are methods. Portland, OR: Western For- limited in scope, and meaningful .1927. Timber growing and estry and Conservation Association. logging practice in the Douglas fir results will not soon be available. BRANDSTROM, A.J.F. 1930. The application region. Bulletin 1493. Washington, DC: of selective logging in the Douglas fir US Department of Agriculture. In Conclusion region. West Coast Lumberman Forest management and silvicul- .1933. Practical application of 57(12):27–28. silviculture to overmature stands now tural practices are basically determined CURTIS, R.O., and A.B. CAREY. 1996. existing on the Pacific. In Fifth Pacific by (1) forest biology, (2) economic Timber supply in the Pacific Northwest: Science Congress. Proceedings, 4,023– forces, and (3) social attitudes and Managing for economic and ecological 4,030. goals. Past and present changes in eco- values in Douglas-fir forests. Journal of . 1938. The silviculture of tree nomic conditions and in social atti- Forestry 94(9):4-7, 35–37. selection cutting in the Douglas fir tudes and objectives produce changes DANA, S.T. 1956. Forest and range policy: region. Seattle: University of in silviculture. Conflicts often arise Its development in the United States. Washington, Forest Club Quarterly New York: McGraw-Hill. between political and social pressures, XII(2):5–13. DEBELL, D.S., and J.F. FRANKLIN. 1987. economics, and inherent biological .1950. A look at selective cutting Old-growth Douglas-fir and hemlock: A in Douglas-fir. Journal of Forestry limitations, and compromise is often 36-year record of growth and mortality. 48(1):97–99. needed, within the bounds of biologi- Western Journal of Applied Forestry SMITH, D.M. 1970. Applied ecology and cal feasibility. 2(4):111–14. the new forest. In Western

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Coordination Committee Proceedings, 3–7. Portland, OR: Western Forestry and Conservation Association. .1972. The continuing evolution of silvicultural practice. Journal of Forestry 70(2):89–92. TAPPEINER, J.C., D. HUFFMAN, D. MARSHALL, T.A. SPIES, and J.D. BAILEY. 1997. Density, ages, and growth rates of old-growth and young- growth forests in coastal Oregon. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27:638-48. WORTHINGTON, N.P. 1953. Reproduction following small group cuttings in virgin Douglas-fir. Research Note No. 84. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. Robert O. Curtis (e-mail: rcurtis/ [email protected]) is emeritus scientist, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3625 93rd Avenue SW, Olympia, WA 98512-9193.

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