Oakland Plantation: a Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

OOAKLAND PPLANTATION A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Cane River Creole National Historical Park Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana

State Site 16NA552 SEAC Accession No. 1304

Christina E. Miller and Susan E. Wood

Southeast Archeological Center, National Park Service, Tallahassee, Florida Z 2000 Southeast Archeological Center

The Southeast Archeological Center (SEAC) is a support operation of the National Park Service’s Southeast Region. In assisting parks with their cultural resource management needs, SEAC facilitates long-term protection of archeological resources and compiles and utilizes the archeological information obtained from these resources. In addition to annually generating numerous archeological reports, as mandated by federal law and park operations, SEAC is the repository for over six million artifacts that make up the Southeast Region’s research collections and contribute to its cultural database. SEAC is staffed by professional NPS archeologists and regularly employs archeology students from Florida State Uni- versity and other anthropology programs throughout the Southeast.

For more information contact: Southeast Archeological Center 2035 East Paul Dirac Drive, Box 7 Johnson Building, Suite 120 Tallahassee, Florida 32310 Telephone: 850-580-3011 Fax: 850-580-2884 http://www.cr.nps.gov/seac/seac.htm Contents

FIGURES ...... 5

TABLES ...... 7

FOREWORD ...... 8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 9

MANAGEMENT SUMMARY...... 10

CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION ...... 11 Authorizing Legislation ...... 11 Objectives ...... 11 Results ...... 14

CHAPTER 2—NATURAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT ...... 15 Natural Context ...... 15 Historical Background ...... 16

CHAPTER 3—SITE DESCRIPTION ...... 21 Registered Structures ...... 21 Miscellaneous Structures...... 30

CHAPTER 4—FIELDWORK ...... 31 Methodology ...... 31 Stratigraphy ...... 37 Features ...... 37

CHAPTER 5—ANALYSIS ...... 43 Structures Group...... 43 Food Group ...... 45 Personal Group ...... 50 Clothing Group ...... 50 Agriculture Group ...... 50 Industrial Group ...... 53 Native American Group ...... 53 Unidentified Group ...... 55 Fauna Group ...... 55 Summary ...... 55

3 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

CHAPTER 6—ARTIFACT PATTERNING ...... 56 Structures Group Distribution ...... 56 Clothing Group Distribution ...... 58 Food Group Distribution ...... 58 Personal Group Distribution ...... 62 Agriculture Group Distribution ...... 62 Industrial Group Distribution ...... 69 Native American Group Distribution ...... 69 Chronological Considerations ...... 69 Summary ...... 69

CHAPTER 7—OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 72 Research Questions ...... 72 Recommendations ...... 74 Conclusions ...... 76

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 77

4 Figures

1. Cane River Creole National Historical Park (CARI) and Cane River National Heritage Area ...... 12 2. Bermuda (Oakland Plantation) shown on a portion of revised 1992 USGS Natchitoches, South Louisiana, 7.5' series topographical quadrangle ...... 13 3. District north of Red River, Louisiana Township 8 North, Range 6 West. Surveyor of the Public, September 17, 1829...... 18 4. Base map identifying structures by LCS numbers ...... 20 5. An 1878 tintype of the plantation store ...... 21 6. Main house ...... 22 7. Main house kitchen ell ...... 23 8. East pigeonnier ...... 24 9. Carpenter’s shop ...... 24 10. Stable/mule barn ...... 25 11. Cook’s house ...... 26 12. Detail of cook’s house construction...... 27 13. Square crib ...... 27 14. Close-up of square crib construction ...... 27 15. Overseer’s house ...... 28 16. South slave/tenant quarters ...... 29 17. Map of Oakland Plantation rendered from a 1947 aerial photograph ...... 32 18. Map of Oakland Plantation rendered from a 1958 aerial photograph ...... 33 19. Map of Oakland Plantation rendered from a 1966 aerial photograph ...... 34 20. Datum points ...... 35 21. Structure and auger test locations ...... 36 22. Establishing the grid ...... 37 23. Stratigraphic profiles ...... 38 24. In situ structural features ...... 39 25. An in situ structural feature (Feature 11)...... 40 26. A construction rubble feature (Feature 7) ...... 40 27. Construction rubble features...... 41 28. Midden features, including Feature 27, a post mold ...... 42

5 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

29. Clock fragment ...... 45 30. Figurine fragments ...... 45 31. Padlock ...... 45 32. Pearlware fragments ...... 48 33. Whiteware fragments ...... 48 34. Slipware fragments ...... 48 35. Stoneware fragments...... 48 36. Bottle recovered from Oakland ...... 50 37. Bottle with markings around the base ...... 51 38. Jew’s harp ...... 51 39. Clay and glass marbles ...... 52 40. Toy gun ...... 52 41. Tobacco pipe fragments ...... 52 42. Swivel ...... 54 43. Singletree center clip ...... 54 44. Pincers ...... 54 45. Distribution of structures group data ...... 57 46. Distribution of cut nails ...... 59 47. Distribution of machine-made wire nails ...... 60 48. Distribution of clothing group data ...... 61 49. Distribution of food group data ...... 63 50. Distribution of creamware data ...... 64 51. Distribution of pearlware data ...... 65 52. Distribution of whiteware data ...... 66 53. Distribution of personal group data ...... 67 54. Distribution of agriculture group data ...... 68 55. Distribution of industrial group data ...... 70 56. Distribution of Native American group data by artifact location ...... 71 57. Inset showing the blacksmith shop location ...... 75

6 Tables

1. Feature numbers by category ...... 38 2. Artifact groups by count and weight, and their percentages of the total count and weight ...... 43 3. Structures group subgroups ...... 44 4. Structure elements subgroup by count and weight ...... 44 5. Electrical/plumbing materials subgroup by count and weight ...... 44 6. Furnishings subgroup by count and weight ...... 44 7. Food group subgroups ...... 46 8. Preparation subgroup by count and weight ...... 46 9. Ceramic types by count and weight and their percentages of total count and weight ...... 47 10. Procurement subgroup by count and weight ...... 49 11. Packaging subgroup by count and weight ...... 50 12. Personal group by count and weight ...... 51 13. Clothing group by count and weight ...... 52 14. Agriculture group by count and weight ...... 52 15. Field paraphernalia subgroup by count and weight ...... 53 16. Machinery, tools, and accessories subgroup by count and weight ...... 53 17. Industrial group by count and weight ...... 54 18. Native American group by count and weight ...... 54 19. Unidentified group by count and weight ...... 55 20. Fauna group by count, weight, and percentage ...... 55

7 Foreword

This report is the second of a planned series of data recovery that might be required as the struc- four volumes describing the Southeast Archeologi- tures are stabilized and repaired. The data derived cal Center’s research at Cane River Creole Na- from this work provides what we know about the tional Historical Park between 1996 and 1999. A distribution and condition of Oakland’s archeolog- Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation at Mag- ical resources and serves as a base for developing nolia Plantation (Keel 1999) reports the results interpretive programs and resource management of close interval (25-foot) auger testing over the schemes. entire park unit. Many although not all of the dis- The Oakland work, like that at Magnolia, was coveries made during this project could be recon- conducted under a formal research design that was ciled with an 1858 plat of the plantation. As a shared with Dr. Thomas Hales Eubanks, Louisi- consequence of acquiring a comprehensive data ana State Archaeologist, whose office is situated set, we have been able to assist the park in plan- in the State Historic Preservation Office. We are ning and siting improvements that avoid the need grateful for the support offered by Dr. Eubanks for additional archeological research and data re- and his staff, who visited the project on several covery and, at the same time, protect valuable his- occasions. Their peer reviews of draft reports and toric resources. the reviews of others have resulted in better final Ms. Miller and Ms. Wood report a similar kind products. of project conducted at the Oakland Plantation unit Of the two remaining reports on the Cane during the summer of 1997. During May, June, River Creole National Historical Park archeologi- and July, the team excavated and recorded a total cal program, the first will cover formal excava- of 1,660 one-foot-diameter auger tests distributed tions at and around several structures at both plan- over the entire park. In addition, formal test pit tations, investigations at the cemetery at Oakland, excavations were conducted at all of the extant and a survey of the cisterns at both plantations. major structures at Oakland. This work determined The second and final report will provide an in- the nature of archeological deposits associated depth archeological study of slaves and tenants at with these buildings and enabled us to plan the Magnolia and Oakland plantations.

Bennie C. Keel Regional Archeologist Southeast Archeological Center

8 Acknowledgments

The success of this project and the attainment of their hard work. Those from the Southeast Archeo- its goals are due to the hard work, interest, sup- logical Center (SEAC) included Susan E. Wood, port, and assistance of many people. Thomas Hodgson, Jeff Jones, Marc Tiemann, Lynn Dr. Bennie C. Keel, the project’s principal in- Shreve, and Jennifer Azzarello. Students from vestigator, deserves special thanks for the guid- Northwestern State University included John ance he gave the crew and myself during the field, Rawls, Jay Gray, Jason Raupp, Alicia Trissler, Jay laboratory, and writing stages of this endeavor. His Fontenot, and Angelica Kraushaar. Mike Meyer confidence in our abilities is greatly appreciated. and Thomas Hodgson were responsible for the Drs. Hiram (Pete) Gregory, Kathleen Byrd, and survey stage of the project. They ran baselines and Ann Patton Malone, from Northwestern State Uni- set temporary grid points across the plantation. versity, are due special thanks for their interest in Several people were involved in the prepara- the project and for sharing their knowledge of the tion of this report. The SEAC crew and staff con- area. Dr. Gregory’s visits to the site meant a great ducted the laboratory work. Mike Meyer gener- deal to many of us on the crew who have had him ated the preliminary survey maps. Barry Moore as a professor. Dr. Malone graciously shared the analyzed the faunal material. Susan E. Wood shot historical information she gathered concerning the artifact photographs in Chapter 4. Both Susan Oakland Plantation. I would also like to express and I were responsible for the data entry. my appreciation to Dr. Robert W. Neuman, Pro- The largest debt of gratitude is extended to fessor Emeritus, Louisiana State University; Dr. the Prud’homme family. Without their support, as- Thomas H. Eubanks, Louisiana State Archaeolo- sistance, and interest, and their trust in the Na- gist; and Jeff Girard, Office of the Louisiana State tional Park Service, this project would never have Archeologist, for their on-site visits and support. been undertaken. A special thanks goes to the en- The crew, who labored in the unmerciful heat tire family for their willingness to share their and humidity of Louisiana, are due recognition for family’s history with the public.

Christina E. Miller Coauthor

9 Management Summary

The inclusion of Oakland Plantation into the Cane excavated to ascertain the boundaries of a historic River Creole National Historical Park inherently cemetery located along Bayou Brevelle’s east embodied certain archeological responsibilities bank. Only the auger-testing results are presented and obligations. In order to meet these obligations, herein. a comprehensive subsurface auger-testing program The auger-testing program has proved to be was implemented by the Southeast Archeological an efficient and comprehensive method for recov- Center (SEAC). During May, June, and July 1997, ering archeological baseline data. The artifacts, Dr. Bennie C. Keel, Regional Archeologist for the their context, and the data derived from this project National Park Service, directed the archeological (see Chapters 5 and 6) provide a mass of informa- survey of the 42-acre plantation complex. tion on which to base future archeological deci- Project objectives (see Chapter 1) and field- sions and meet National Historic Preservation Act work specifications (see Chapter 4) were detailed compliance requirements. In addition, this data in a research design to facilitate project manage- enables the park to make more informed planning ment (Keel and Miller 1997). In conjunction with and cultural resource management decisions re- the auger-testing program, forty-six units were ex- garding structure stabilization, interpretation, and cavated around the complex, not including those maintenance.

10 Chapter 1 Introduction

Natchitoches, located along the Cane River in ganizations, and private landowners, with full northwest Louisiana, was established in 1714 as recognition that programs must fully involve the oldest permanent European settlement in the the local communities and landowners. (Title Louisiana territory. The blend of French, Indian, III, §302b) African American, and Spanish cultures created a unique culture that is reflected in the architecture, The law provided for the purchase of portions landscape, customs, and beliefs of the people in of Oakland (Figure 2) and Magnolia Plantations, Natchitoches and the outlying areas. Unlike other along with additional sites that may contribute to Creole sites in Louisiana, those along the Cane the area’s interpretation. The establishment of an River have maintained their integrity. Original el- interpretive visitor center complex, not to exceed ements of the cultural landscape have survived in ten acres, was also stipulated in the law (Title III, both rural and urban settings. §303). It authorized the National Heritage Area to supplement the park and to “provide for a culturally sensitive approach to the preservation of the AUTHORIZING LEGISLATION heritage of the Cane River region” (Title IV, §401). The heritage area encompasses a one-mile Congress recognized the significance of the area strip of land along both sides of the Cane River; on November 2, 1994, by passing Public Law 103- properties within the Natchitoches National His- 449. Titles III and IV of the law established the toric Landmark District; the Los Adaes State Com- Cane River Creole National Historical Park and memorative Area; the Fort Jesup State Commemo- National Heritage Area (Figure 1). The purposes rative Area; the Fort St. Jean Baptiste State Com- of the law are to accomplish the following: memorative Area; and the Kate Chopin House. To assist in implementing Titles III and IV, the Cane 1. recognize the importance of the Cane River River National Heritage Area Commission was Creole culture as a nationally significant ele- established to instruct and supervise the management of the cultural heritage of the United ment of the heritage area. States;

2. establish a Cane River Creole National His- OBJECTIVES torical Park to serve as the focus of interpretive and educational programs on the history The comprehensive subsurface testing program of the Cane River area and to assist in the implemented at Magnolia Plantation (16NA295) preservation of certain historic sites along the in the summer of 1996 proved to be an excellent river; and model for testing at Oakland Plantation. By correlating high-use areas with a 25-foot testing inter- 3. establish a Cane River National Heritage Area val and low-use areas with a 50-foot testing inter- and Commission to be undertaken in partner- val, we effectively and efficiently identified where ship with the State of Louisiana, the City of archeological resources were present or absent. Natchitoches, local communities and settle- The objectives of the investigation were ini- ments of the Cane River area, preservation or- tially identified in the Oakland Plantation research

11 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation Kate Chopin House (NHL) CARI — Magnolia Plantation Unit CARI — Oakland Plantation Unit Natchitoches Historic District (NHL) Melrose Plantation Melrose (National) Historic Landmark Badin-Roque House Cherokee Plantation Cane River Creole National Creole Cane River Historical Park (CARI) Beau Fort Plantation 3 mi. 1 Cane River National Heritage Area 1½ 2 1 Fort St. Jean Baptiste Fort St. Area Commemorative State Los Adaes State Commemorative (NHL) Area N Fort Jesup State Commemorative (NHL) Area Figure 1 — Cane River Creole National Historical Park (CARI) and Cane River National Heritage Area. National Historical Park (CARI) and Cane River Heritage 1 — Cane River Creole Figure

12 Chapter 1 — Introduction

design (Keel and Miller 1997:1). They were in- mitigate adverse impact on significant archeo- tended to accomplish the following: logical resources that may be related to stabilization efforts associated with the historic insure that no archeologically significant re- structures; sources are adversely impacted by construction and development (e.g., immediately accumulate baseline data characterizing the lo- planned stabilization projects) at the planta- cation, distribution, age, integrity, and signifi- tion prior to the development of the General cance of archeological deposits throughout the Management Plan (GMP); Oakland Plantation unit;

Figure 2 — Bermuda (Oakland Plantation) shown on a portion of revised 1992 USGS Natchitoches, South Louisiana, 7.5 series topographical quadrangle.

13 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

excavate sample units in the immediate vicin- University. A total of 296 auger tests were exca- ity of the standing structures in order to deter- vated at 50-foot intervals, and 1,364 auger tests mine the presence, if any, of archeological were excavated at 25-foot intervals. These tests, deposits in association; and each approximately 1 foot in diameter, were drilled with a tractor-mounted auger to culturally sterile determine the boundaries of a historic cem- soil. Soils removed from the auger tests were sifted etery located along the east bank of Bayou through ¼-inch mesh screen. Brevelle. The crew recorded depths, mapped profiles, and bagged recovered artifacts according to pro- One final objective of the project was to acquire venience. The number of specimens recovered was data to produce an Archeological Overview and 12,642, which does not include the brick, mortar, Assessment for the Oakland Plantation Unit, Cane and slate that was weighed and discarded. Twenty- River Creole National Historical Park and Heri- seven features were discovered during the testing tage Area. program. These consisted of brick and mortar rubble, midden deposits, and in situ brick features. Forty-six units (covering a total surface area of RESULTS 1,187 square feet ) were excavated around all major structures. In addition, excavations were con- Dr. Bennie C. Keel, Regional Archeologist, South- ducted to ascertain the boundaries of a historic east Archeological Center (SEAC), National Park cemetery located along the east bank of Bayou Service, directed the investigations at Oakland Brevelle. The data recovered and the information during May, June, and July 1997. The crew con- produced by the formal excavations and the cem- sisted of archeological technicians from SEAC and etery excavations will be presented in a separate several temporary hires from Northwestern State report.

14 Chapter 2 Natural and Historical Context

This chapter contains a summary of the natural pennsylvanica), and overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) environment and a brief history of Natchitoches trees grow in these areas. Parish, Oakland Plantation, and the Prud’homme The Moreland-Latanier-Armistead soil unit is family. A more complete history will appear in the located in low to intermediate areas along natural forthcoming historical overview of the plantation. levees. The soils range from clayey to loamy surface and subsurface layers. The level to gently undulating area is conducive to crop production NATURAL CONTEXT and pasture and woodland use. American elm (Ulmus americana L.), sweetgum (Liquidambar Cane River’s natural environment was an impor- styraciflua), nuttall oak (Quercus nuttallii), pecan tant factor in the establishment and success of the (Carya illinoinensis), and water oak (Quercus ni- plantation economy. The river’s natural levees are gra) are the predominant trees (Martin et al. favorable to crop and timber production, and the 1989:7–10). wetland areas support a wide range of flora and Other trees growing in the area include cot- fauna. Mild temperatures and adequate rainfall tonwood (Populus deltoides), southern hackberry contribute to a long growing season and high crop (Celtis laevigata), willow (Salix spp.), bald cy- yield. In addition, the river system facilitated trans- press (Taxodium distichum), sycamore (Platanus portation of harvested crops, timber products, and occidentalis), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), other goods to and from commercial centers, such hickory (Carya spp.), mulberry (Morus spp.), black as New Orleans. walnut (Juglans nigra), and bois d’arc (Osage- Soils deposited in the Holocene and late Pleis- orange) (Maclura pomifera). Longleaf pine (Pinus tocene eras created the alluvial floodplains and low palustris) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) are pre- stream terraces. The soils present at Oakland Plan- dominantly present in the uplands. tation are Roxana-Gallion, Moreland-Yorktown, The uplands and lowlands of the parish sup- and Moreland-Latanier-Armistead. The Roxana- port a wide range of wildlife. Fish such as gar Gallion soil unit is located high on the natural levee (Lepisosteus spp.), catfish (Ictalurus spp.), drum of the Cane River. This loamy, well-drained soil (Apolodinotus), and carp (Cyprinus carpio) are is suited for pasture and the cultivation of crops, found in the rivers and streams meandering through- such as corn, cotton, and soybeans. The potential out the parish. Populations of turkey (Meleagris for timber production is unlimited. gallopavo), owl (Otus asio, Bubo virginianus, and Moreland soil, found in low positions on the Strix varia), hawk (Buteo spp.), turkey vulture natural levees, is poorly drained and tends to sup- (Cathartes aura), and American crow (Corvus port such crops as grain sorghum and soybeans. brachyrhynchos) exist within the region. Other The clayey Yorktown soil is found in old channel examples of wildlife include rabbit (Sylvilagus scars and areas of depression, which are subject spp.), raccoon (Procyon lotor), deer (Odocoileus to frequent flooding. Consequently, while not virginianus), and skunk (Mephitis) (Hahn and suited to cultivation, these areas make good wild- Wells 1991:7–8). life habitats. Typically, water hickory (Carya The parish has a mild climate. Rainfall aver- aquatica), bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), ages 50 inches per year, and snowfall is rare. Win- black willow (Salix nigra), green ash (Fraxinus ter temperatures range between 39 and 51 degrees

15 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Fahrenheit, while summer temperatures average governor of Natchitoches, Athanase de Mézières, between 82 and 94 degrees. Humidity ranges from repaired the fort and government buildings, pri- 60 to 90 percent (Martin et al. 1989:2–3). marily at his own expense. He made maps, wrote geographical reports of the area, and helped pro- mote industry. In a 1776 letter to the governor gen- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND eral, Mézières lists 1,021 persons living within the jurisdiction (Bolton 1914:87, 120–121). The colonization and settlement of Louisiana has Twenty years later, Lieutenant Governor Car- been influenced and impacted by several distinct los Luis Boucher de Grande Pré described the con- cultures that have manifested themselves in the ditions at Natchitoches as somewhat bleak. landscape, architecture, and social and political structures. Beginning in 1682, Louisiana changed The population of this oldest settlement of the ownership four times over the following 121 years. province, which has almost the same beginning as that of the capital [New Orleans], is French Louisiana (1682–1762) reduced today to 780 whites of both sexes and Spanish Louisiana (1762–1800) all ages. Two hundred and twenty-two are fit French Louisiana (1800–1803) to bear arms. There are 1,021 individuals of United States Purchase (1803–Present) color, counting both slaves and free. The products consist of some indigo, but the main pro- René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, duction is in tobacco. Lack of industry among claimed Louisiana in the name of France in 1682. the growers during the last ten or more years King Louis XIV engaged Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, has drastically reduced the cultivation of in- Sieur de Bienville, and Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur digo, although the present crop is consider- d’Iberville, to explore and settle the territory. They able. All the tobacco, without exception, is of sailed to Louisiana on October 24, 1698, and superior quality because the inhabitants have reached the Gulf of Mexico on January 31, 1699 taken greater care than formerly in its culti- (Cummins and Jeansonne 1982:27). The expedi- vation. The interior commerce of the post in tion settled near Biloxi, Mississippi, but abandoned agricultural products as well as that of the the site in 1702 and moved to Mobile (Waselkov hunt may be estimated conservatively for the 1997:8–9). Shortly thereafter, Bienville and Louis average year at 50,000 to 55,000 pesos; ex- Juchereau de St. Denis made a trip along the Red penses and consumption of food at 115,000 River to scout possible settlement and fortifica- pesos. (Kinnaird 1967:189–190) tion sites. They visited the area near present-day Natchitoches and made contact with the Caddo The Prud’homme Family tribes. St. Denis returned to the area in 1714 to In 1725, Jean Pierre Philippe Prud’homme mar- construct Fort St. Jean Baptiste and establish what ried Catherine Meslier Picard, a “casket girl.” would be the oldest permanent settlement in the (Mayo Prud’homme, personal communication Louisiana territory. By 1722, sixty-two people 1998). Casket girls were reputable young women were residing in Natchitoches (Bolton 1914:37; who were given free transportation to Louisiana Cummins and Jeansonne 1982:27). along with a casket or trunk of household goods. In 1762, France ceded Louisiana to Spain in The couple settled in Natchitoches on land granted exchange for her support during the Seven Years to them by the King of France, where their two War (Campbell et al. 1978:55). Spain needed the sons Jean Baptiste and François were born. Jean colony to block American incursions into New Baptiste traveled to France to study medicine, but Spain. As a result, more emphasis and support was returned to Natchitoches to open a hospital. He given to Louisiana during this period than during eventually established himself as a wealthy and the earlier French period. The Spanish lieutenant successful planter. Jean Baptiste married twice. His

16 Chapter 2 — Natural and Historical Context

first wife Marie Françoise Chever died soon after under ten years of age, and fifty-three slaves. By their marriage. In 1758, he married Marie Fran- 1820, Emmanuel owned seventy-four slaves; by çoise Joseph Henriette Charlotte Callotin (Thomas 1830, the number had increased to ninety-six; and, 1997:17–18). by 1840, the count had grown to 104 (Prud’homme and Williamson 1978). Jean Pierre Emmanuel Prud’homme Just as the number of his slaves increased over Jean Pierre and Marie Françoise’s son Jean Pierre the years, so too did Prud’homme’s landholdings. Emmanuel (1762–1845) was born the year France According to an 1816 surveyor’s plat, Emmanuel ceded Louisiana to Spain. In fact, during his life- owned Sections 104 and 44 of Township 8 North, time, Emmanuel witnessed both the second French Range 6 West, which incorporated 241.79 acres occupation and the United States purchase of the (Prud’homme and Williamson 1978). An 1829 sur- Louisiana territory (Prud’homme and Williamson vey map (Figure 3) indicated that Prud’homme had 1978). also acquired Section 40. Together, Sections 40, Emmanuel followed in his father’s steps and 44, and 104 totaled 796.14 acres. The Red River established himself as a planter, but on a much (later called Cane River) divided Sections 44 and larger scale. In 1789, Governor Estavan Miro 104, where the main house is located. granted him a land tract 13 miles south of Natchi- toches. This grant is important in that it eventu- Phanor Prud’homme I ally became part of what was later called Oakland Phanor Prud’homme I (1807–1865), the third son Plantation (Prud’homme and Williamson 1978). of Emmanuel, took over plantation management In 1800, France again acquired Louisiana, only around 1835. He is listed in the 1840 census as to sell it shortly thereafter to the United States. the owner of forty slaves in his own right. In 1842, The transition in ownership created problems for Phanor was commissioned as a captain in the state many Louisiana inhabitants. The United States militia. He also served two terms in the state leg- required those who had received large land grants islature. He married Suzanne Lise Metoyer, who from the French or Spanish governments to prove was born nearby on the Metoyer Plantation. The their claims. Many could not and lost their prop- couple had five children: Catharine Adaline, erty as a result. Fortunately, Emmanuel had the Jacques Alphonse, Marie Emma, Thérèse Hen- necessary documentation and kept his land (Tho- rietta, and Pierre Emmanuel. Suzanne Lise died mas 1997:29). in 1852. Three years after her death, Phanor mar- The United States acquisition coincided with ried Marianne Cephalid Archinard née Metoyer, the emergence of cotton cultivation in Louisiana. the sister of his first wife (Southern Publishing Emmanuel Prud’homme was supposedly the first 1890:365–366). to plant cotton in the state. His primary crops had Phanor Prud’homme kept detailed accounts of previously been indigo and tobacco. Because cot- daily life on the plantation. He wrote about such ton agriculture required substantial labor, Louisi- tasks as repairing chimneys and redoing wells. ana citizens believed the American ban on slave Phanor’s notebooks also provide information con- importation could possibly lead to economic ruin. cerning the agricultural and husbandry activities The ban, however, was not effectively enforced, practiced on the plantation. Cotton and corn were and smuggling was widespread (Cummins and almost of equal importance at Oakland. Corn pro- Jeansonne 1982:93). vided a second cash crop, as well as food for people In fact, the ban seemed not to have affected and livestock. Other crops cultivated on the plan- the Prud’hommes. Baptismal records indicated that tation were broad beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, they continued to import labor (Thomas 1997:30), guinea grass, and hay. Feed for livestock was an as did many other Louisiana planters. An 1810 important crop since the Prud’hommes raised a census listed Emmanuel Prud’homme as head of large number of sheep, mules, horses, hogs, and a household consisting of his wife, three children beef and dairy cattle (Thomas 1997:34–36).

17 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Figure 3 — District north of Red River, Louisiana Township 8 North, Range 6 West. Surveyor of the Public, September 17, 1829 (on file, Louisiana State Land Office, Baton Rouge).

Natchitoches’ position along the Red River that quickly collapsed. In the following years, bad made it a major port, which provided a large source harvests added to the planters’ problems (Campbell of income for its inhabitants. The course of the et al. 1978:61). In July 1840, Phanor noted that river began to shift in 1832: by 1835, its course there had been “Storms, storms, for several days, had completely changed. Natchitoches, left with Cotton is much dead.” In September, he wrote that only a small waterway, lost much of its river trade. the slaves “gather[ed] the corn on the side of the The resulting economic depression filtered to the house. There has been quite a dry spell. Not a thou- planters along Cane River. Many of the planta- sand [pounds?] of cotton. The caterpillars have tions were financed on extended credit, a system eaten everything” (in Thomas 1997:35). By 1850,

18 Chapter 2 — Natural and Historical Context

however, the plantation economy had regained its army. Several days later he escaped and returned strength (Campbell et al. 1978:61). home. On September 21, 1862, he was made ad- Upon the death of his father in 1845, Phanor jutant in the Second Louisiana Regiment of Cav- gained complete control over the plantation. By alry. Jacques Alphonse participated in several 1850, he was worth $170,000: he owned 124 slaves battles, among them the Battle of Mansfield, be- and 1,800 acres, of which 800 were improved. In fore being relieved from duty in July 1864. For 1849, the plantation produced 250 bales of cotton the remainder of the war, he served as the enroll- (400-pound bales) and 4,500 bushels of corn. The ing officer for Natchitoches Parish (Southern Pub- plantation’s holdings and production increased lishing 1890:366). dramatically over the next ten years. The planta- Pierre Emmanuel was studying at Georgetown tion yielded 698 bales of cotton and 7,000 bushels College when the war began. He returned to of corn in 1859. An 1860 census listed Phanor as Natchitoches Parish and joined the Prud’homme owning 3,400 acres, of which 1,000 were im- Guards of the Twenty-sixth Louisiana Regiment proved, and 145 slaves living in thirty slave dwell- as a corporal (Southern Publishing 1890:367). A ings (Prud’homme and Williamson 1978). year later, Seneca Pace, Oakland Plantation’s over- Oakland’s overseer during this time was Sen- seer, also joined the Prud’homme Guards (Scar- eca Pace. Although no records were found to indi- borough 1966:144). Pierre Emmanuel was taken cate the exact time period that he worked on the prisoner at the surrender of Vicksburg but was sub- plantation, one record book kept by Pace, dating sequently paroled. He rejoined his regiment and to 1857, still exists. It was during Pace’s manage- was promoted to orderly sergeant (Southern Pub- ment, in 1861, that the overseer’s house was built. lishing 1890:366–367). In The Overseer (1966), William Kauffman Scar- Following the war, both brothers returned borough stated that by the time of the Civil War, home to run the family plantation. In 1867, they Seneca Pace was a “veteran manager of Phanor decided to divide the property. Jacques Alphonse Prud’homme’s ‘Bermuda’ plantation.” Southern retained Section 104, where the plantation house overseers did not see an appreciable rise in salary was located, and Pierre Emmanuel received Sec- during the nineteenth century. From 1838 to 1863, tion 44. Pierre Emmanuel’s plantation, east of the Prud’homme paid his overseer $800 per year (Scar- river, eventually became known as Atahoe. Jacques borough 1966:28). Alphonse subsequently named his portion Oak- In 1865, when Phanor died, his estate inven- land. Jacques Alphonse married Elizabeth Lise tory was valued at $13,101.15. This was $2,252.85 LeComte of Magnolia Plantation on September 6, less than the previous year. 1864 (Prud’homme and Williamson 1978). Pierre Emmanuel married Marie Julie Buard on January Jacques Alphonse and 25, 1866 (Southern Publishing 1890:367). Pierre Emmanuel Prud’homme On his death, Phanor’s estate passed to his sons Prud’homme Descendants Jacques Alphonse and Pierre Emmanuel. Jacques After the death of Jacques Alphonse in 1919, his Alphonse was educated at the University of Vir- son Phanor Prud’homme II (1865–1948) took over ginia and the University of North Carolina, where Oakland’s operation. Phanor II married Marie he graduated. In 1860, he returned to Louisiana to Laure Cloutier. In 1942, their oldest son, James work as a civil engineer for the Mississippi and Alphonse Prud’homme II (born in 1896), bought Pacific Railroad. When Louisiana seceded from the plantation from his father. James Alphonse the Union on January 26, 1861, Jacques Alphonse married Rosalie Lucile Keator of St. Louis. The resigned his position to join Company H, Third couple had four children: James Alphonse III, Ken- Regiment of the Louisiana Infantry. On March 7, neth A., Mayo K., and Rose Vivian (Prud’homme 1862, he was wounded and captured by the Union and Williamson 1978).

19 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

91617 Store/post office 91618 Store cistern 91619 Entrance gate 91620 Main house 91621 Carriage house 91622 East pigeonnier 91623 West pigeonnier 91624 Carpenter’s shop 91625 Stable/mule barn 91626 Setting pen/poultry house (small) 91627 Chicken coop/poultry house (large) 91628 Storage shed/corn crib 91629 Fattening pen 91630 Wash house 91631 Turkey shed 91632 Cook’s house 91633 Square crib/barn 91634 Square crib cistern 91635 Corral shed 91636 Overseer’s house 91637 Overseer’s house cistern 91638 North slave/tenant quarters 91639 South slave/tenant quarters 91640 Wagon shed 91641 Privy 91642 Cattle dip 91706 Seed house 100629 Doctor’s house 100630 Doctor’s house barn 100631 Chicken coop 100632 Outhouse 100633 Grist mill 100634 Doctor’s house cistern 100655 Cabin ruin

1. Cotton gin site (ca. 1860) 2. Doctor’s house garage 3. Doctor’s house well 4. Cotton picker shed 5. Tractor shed 6. Blacksmith shop site 0 100 200 feet

Figure 4 — Base map identifying structures by LCS numbers.

20 Chapter 3 Site Description

On many plantations today, only the main house Historic American Buildings Survey drawings and remains; dependencies, no longer useful, have dis- notations, Prud’homme family personal commu- appeared. Oakland Plantation is significant in that nications, and field observations. The base map in so many of its dependencies are still intact. Figure 4 (opposite) identifies the structures by their The Oakland main house is one of the best LCS (List of Classified Structures) numbers. examples of a French colonial raised cottage. It is the second largest house of its type in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. Of the twenty-seven ancillary REGISTERED STRUCTURES structures on the plantation, over half date to the antebellum period. Unless otherwise noted, the fol- Store/Post Office (LCS No. 91617) lowing descriptions of the structures are adapted There is no exact construction date for the planta- from the National Register of Historic Places, the tion store (Figure 5), but it was probably built be-

Figure 5 — An 1878 tintype of the plantation store, view from east.

21 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

tween 1868 and 1874. Sharecropping began at trance to the oak-lined alley leading to the main Oakland in 1868, and the first reference to the store house. Square brick piers support the Corinthian is recorded in an 1874 ledger. Several additions, capitals and the two 10.4-foot-high, hollow, fluted, dating to circa 1880, 1885, 1890, and 1900, were cast-iron columns. Affixed to the columns is a made to the structure (Yocum 1998:27). The gable- semicircular cast- and wrought-iron sign that reads fronted store is of cypress frame construction and “Oakland 1821.” was originally roofed with cypress shingles, which have since been replaced with corrugated and sheet Main House (LCS No. 91620) metal. Original hardware and architectural details Jean Pierre Emmanuel Prud’homme constructed remain, along with remnants of the merchandise. Oakland’s main house (Figures 6 and 7) between The store/post office operated until 1968. 1818 and 1821. As the land grant was acquired in 1789, this structure may not be the first main house Store Cistern (LCS No. 91618) on the plantation. Nevertheless, the house is an The above-ground portion of the store cistern was excellent example of French colonial raised archi- constructed of concrete, with a metal overflow tecture and the second largest of its type in the grate and a metal pump. Several of the plantation parish. The original configuration of the main cisterns have been pumped, recorded in detail, and house was either four or five rooms surrounded the artifacts they contained recovered (Keel and by galleries on the first floor and at least two rooms Raupp 1998). The store cistern, however, was not on the ground floor. The ground floor was con- among those investigated. structed of brick, and the first floor of bousillage and cypress. Additions and remodeling occurred Entrance Gate (LCS No. 91619) in the 1820s, 1870s, 1880s, from 1925 to 1927, in A cast- and wrought-iron gate stands at the en- 1953, and between the 1940s and 1960s.

Figure 6 — Main house, view from east.

22 Chapter 3 — Site Description

Figure 7 — Main house kitchen ell, view from southwest.

Carriage House (LCS No. 91621) storage and repair work. Their second floors are The carriage house is a frame structure built of egg collection and roosting areas. Construction heavy cypress timbers. Originally it had three bays, dates could be as early as 1821 or as late as the each of which was enclosed by heavy vertical 1850s. The west pigeonnier was moved approxi- board doors. The gabled roof, once covered with mately 20 feet south of its original location be- cypress shingles, is now surfaced with sheet metal. tween 1953 and 1955 (Kenneth Prud’homme, per- The building’s function changed twice during the sonal communication 1998). twentieth century: first the two side bays were converted into garages, then the rear wall was removed Carpenter’s Shop (LCS No. 91624) to turn the building into a farm shop (Kenneth The carpenter’s shop (Figure 9), built around 1850, Prud’homme, personal communication 1998). was made of cypress logs with half-dovetail notch- ing and mud chinking. Batten shutters covered the East Pigeonnier and West Pigeonnier windows, and the single-leaf door was built of di- (LCS Nos. 91622 and 91623 [HS-0-7]) agonal boards and battens. Notches in the sill in- The east (Figure 8) and west pigeonniers are lo- dicate that the structure once featured a side gal- cated south of the main house. The frame struc- lery, but a front porch with a five-foot shed roof tures are filled with bousillage and covered by has since replaced the gallery. Evidence indicates weatherboards. Both are two stories high and pro- that the building may once have been plastered tected by a low pyramidal cypress shingled roof. with red clay. Measuring 13 by 20 by 16.2 feet, Their first floors contain shelves and benches for the structure rests on stone piers.

23 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

wooden shingles have been replaced with metal. The original chicken roosts are still intact.

Chicken Coop/Poultry House (Large) (LCS No. 91627) This structure, which measures 12.2 by 22 by 15.8 feet, was also built sometime between 1820 and 1920. It is similar in construction to the small poultry house just described, but rests on brick and wooden piers. Also, a rear shed has been added.

Storage Shed/Corn Crib (LCS No. 91628) The wooden-frame storage shed, constructed between 1820 and 1920, is located north of the chicken coop. It measures 16.2 by 16.8 by 9.5 feet and rests on brick piers.

Fattening Pen (LCS No. 91629) The poultry fattening pen was constructed between 1820 and 1920. Measuring 4 by 15.2 by 7.5 feet, it lies adjacent to the storage shed. The structure’s brick piers support its wooden frame and the three lattice-covered pens inside.

Figure 8 — East pigeonnier, view from east.

Stable/Mule Barn (LCS No. 91625) This structure dates to between 1820 and 1830 (Figure 10). The building was once the smokehouse but was converted into a barn after the original stable burned around 1927. Some of the wall surfaces consist of horizontally placed flush boards; others have posts that are notched to receive horizontal slats. A gable roof cov- ers the two-story structure that measures 36 by 40 by 10 feet to the eaves.

Setting Pen/Poultry House (Small) (LCS No. 91626) The chicken setting pen was built between 1820 and 1920 but has been altered in the twentieth century. This wood-framed construction measures 8.5 by 7.8 by 11.5 feet high. Weatherboard and lattice cover the frame. The structure rests on brick and concrete block piers. It has a front gable, and the original Figure 9 — Carpenter’s shop, view from east.

24 Chapter 3 — Site Description

Figure 10 — Stable/mule barn, view from north.

Wash House (LCS No. 91630) This cabin represents an excellent example of The wash house was built between 1820 and 1900. bousillage construction. The boards were placed This wood-framed construction measures 13.5 by diagonally from the top corner to the bottom cor- 13 by 11 feet. ner of the upright posts. Barreaux, or wooden bars, have been notched into place in the diagonal boards Turkey Shed (LCS No. 91631) and the upright posts, thus forming a lattice for This shed is located north of the main house and the bousillage (Figure 12). The cook’s house needs southwest of the cook’s house (described next). It immediate stabilization, preservation, and repair. was constructed between 1820 and 1920. The construction measures 12.5 by 11.33 by 10.8 feet and Square Crib/Barn (LCS No. 91633) has wooden sills that rest directly on the ground. This structure was built between 1820 and 1830 (Figure 13). The tall center corncrib is surrounded Cook’s House (LCS No. 91632) on all sides by shed-roof additions. Brick and The cook’s house (cottage) was built sometime be- wooden piers support the crib, while the support tween 1820 and 1870. Originally located behind posts for the shed rest directly on the ground. The the main house, it was moved in the twentieth cen- crib itself was built of hand-hewn cypress logs, tury and used as a fishing cabin (Figure 11). A shed- which were “V” notched at the corners. Roman roof gallery surrounds this cypress and bousillage numerals from I to VII are carved on the first seven house on three sides. Weatherboards cover one logs (Figure 14). According to the structural assess- side; the other three sides are exposed. Parts of ment report, two different types of logs were used the exposed walls are covered with deteriorating to build the crib. This suggests that the crib may whitewash; the remaining portions are simply originally have been shorter and was added to af- bousillage and wood. ter initial construction (Miri 1998a, section 4:1).

25 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Figure 11 — Cook’s house, view from northeast.

Square Crib Cistern (LCS No. 91634) The exterior walls of whitewashed bousillage were The square crib cistern was constructed of brick covered with weatherboard and rolled asphalt at a and mortar and is the second largest cistern on the later date. The original gallery extended along the plantation. It has a depth of 16 feet, with a capac- east, north, and west sides of the house, but the ity to hold 4,804 gallons of water. The top portion north and west sides were later enclosed. Material extends 6 feet above the ground (Keel and Raupp analysis suggests that the two corner rooms or 1998:10–11). “cabinets” on either side of the west porch were part of the original construction. Corral (LCS No. 91635) The following were grouped under the classifica- Overseer’s House Cistern (LCS No. 91637) tion of corral: a 48-by-50-foot fenced area, a 45- The cistern at the overseer’s house has a diameter foot-long livestock chute, and a shed, which has a of 8 feet, a depth of 9.7 feet, and a holding capac- wooden frame covered by cypress boards. The ity of 1,764 gallons (Keel and Raupp 1998:11). corral was constructed between 1820 and 1920. North Slave/Tenant Quarters (LCS No. 91638) Overseer’s House (LCS No. 91636) The north slave/tenant cabin was built circa 1860. This one-story house (Figure 15) was built in 1861 Originally this one-room, dirt-floor structure with for the overseer Seneca Pace, who directed its con- front and rear porches measured 31.7 by 24.4 by struction. Built in the Creole architectural style, 18.2 feet. The rear porch has since been enclosed, the structure is supported by brick piers. The origi- and wooden floors added. According to the struc- nal walls were made of cypress and bousillage. tural assessment, “the wall structure consists of

26 Chapter 3 — Site Description

Figure 12 — Detail of cook’s house construction. Figure 14 — Close-up of square crib construction.

Figure 13 — Square crib, view from southeast.

27 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Figure 15 — Overseer’s house, view from southwest. the two horizontal beams (one in the lower part Wagon Shed (LCS No. 91640) and one in the upper part of the wall) with a verti- This wood-framed, 1½-story shed with front gable cal membrane extending from the corner of the roof is located northwest of the square crib. It was upper beam to the corner of the lower beam. The built between 1820 and 1920. wood lath is located between the vertical membrane with bousillage filling in between” (Miri Privy (LCS No. 91641) 1998b, section 5:1). Weatherboard and asphalt now The privy is located just northwest of the tractor cover the walls. shed (description to follow). According to the List of Classified Structures (LCS), the privy was con- South Slave/Tenant Quarters (LCS No. 91639) structed between 1820 and 1920. The wood- The south slave/tenant cabin (Figure 16) was con- framed structure has one door and three seats. structed in the 1850s or early 1860s. It measures 24.8 by 31.5 by 18.6 feet. Like the north cabin, it Cattle Dip/Dipping Shed (LCS No. 91642) has been modified from its one-room configura- Built between 1900 and 1940, the cattle dip is con- tion by enclosing the back porch to create two structed of poured concrete. A collapsed wooden rooms. Bousillage and wood lath was found in only shed is associated with the trough. two of the walls, suggesting that the other walls have been altered. As with the first tenant house, Seed House (LCS No. 91706) just described, weatherboard and asphalt cover the The seed house is located northeast of where a walls. cotton gin once stood. According to the List of

28 Chapter 3 — Site Description

Classified Structures, the seed house was built be- enclosed to create more rooms, and other addi- tween 1870 and 1940, but references are made to tions were made. The original bousillage walls and a seed house in an 1861 plantation journal. It is roof truss are visible. Cypress shingles have been unclear whether the references are to the existing replaced by asphalt. seed house or another house. The one-story building measures 50 by 50 feet. Weatherboards cover Doctor’s House Dependencies the wooden frame, and the roof is surfaced with (LCS Nos. 100630–100633) corrugated metal. Shed roof lean-tos have been The barn (LCS No. 100630), located on the south- added to the east and west sides. west side of the doctor’s house, was built circa 1870. The wood frame, which was cut with a cir- Doctor’s House (LCS No. 100629) cular saw, is covered with vertical siding. Four The wood-framed and bousillage structure known other structures are associated with the doctor’s as the doctor’s house was built in the 1820s. In house, three of which have also been assigned LCS 1871, Dr. Joseph Leveque received permission numbers. They are a garage (no number), a chicken from the Prud’homme family to renovate and add coop (No. 100631), an outhouse (No. 100632), and on to the existing house. Upon his departure from a gristmill (No. 100633). Little is known about the property, the structure with all its improve- these buildings at present. The chicken coop, out- ments reverted to the Prud’hommes. Originally, house, and gristmill are located on the west side the house consisted of one or two rooms sur- of the doctor’s house; the garage is found on the rounded by a gallery. The gallery was gradually north side.

Figure 16 — South slave/tenant quarters, view from east.

29 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES cated west of the main house and southwest of the tractor shed. It was built in the 1950s. Some of the extant structures at Oakland have not been assigned historic structure or LCS numbers. Tractor Shed The tractor shed (see Figure 4, no. 5), which is Cotton Picker Shed located west of the main house, was also con- The cotton picker shed (see Figure 4, no. 4) is lo- structed in the 1950s.

30 Chapter 4 Fieldwork

METHODOLOGY sistent with the measurement system used historically on the plantation. Thus, even though the stan- Historic Maps dard archeological practice is to use the metric As a first step in the investigations, we procured system, we chose to use the English system of mea- historic maps of Oakland. Unfortunately there are surement to record dimensions. few, and these are limited in scope. At present, we The plantation complex was examined prior have maps constructed from aerial photographs to the commencement of the field season to deter- taken in 1947 (Figure 17), 1958 (Figure 18), 1966 mine the testing intervals. High-use areas were pin (Figure 19), and 1980, but some of the structures flagged at 25-foot intervals around such areas as on the plantation are obscured. We do not have the slave/tenant cabins, the overseer’s house, the the actual aerial photographs. From the Louisiana barns, and the area adjacent to the main house. State Land Office, we obtained survey maps of Low-use areas, such as those historically used as the Cane River area for 1829 (see Figure 3) and pasture, were pin flagged at 50-foot intervals (Fig- 1850. Unfortunately, these do not provide struc- ure 21). The majority of the auger tests conducted ture locations, only property boundaries. Knowlin in the eastern section of the plantation were posi- and Associates, under contract with the National tive, while the preponderance of those tested at Park Service, conducted a survey of the planta- 50-foot intervals were negative. tion during the summer and fall of 1997. Their Auger testing is more likely to reveal horizon- survey map, combined with the map created by tally extensive features than vertical features. How- SEAC technicians, served as the base map for our ever, the objectives of our study made auger test- investigations (see Figure 4). ing a reliable and efficient method for surveying the 42-acre plantation complex. The testing inter- Fieldwork vals employed enabled us to identify areas of arti- On May 12, 1996, part of the crew arrived at Oak- fact and artifact group concentrations (see Chap- land; the rest arrived a week later. On the first day ter 6). of fieldwork, the advance party established a Once the grid was established (Figure 22), a baseline grid using a Sokia Total Station transit. portion of the crew began pin flagging in the corn- The team placed ½-inch-diameter steel rods at in- field. After a section was pin flagged and marked tervals along the baseline and at subsequent points with grid coordinates, crew members began auger around the site. Beginning at 1000N 1000E, we testing. The pin flagging crew continued to work placed points at 1300N 1000E, 1600N 1000E, and ahead of the auger testing crew. The tractor- 1710N 1000E. Because the landscape prevented mounted auger was placed over the flagged point, a straight baseline, the next point was placed at and a 1-foot diameter hole was drilled until sterile 1710N 1050E. We then continued north with soil, subsoil, or in situ structural features were en- points at 2060N 1050E, 2360N 1050E, 2660N countered. A two-person team sifted the dirt 1050E, and 2960N 1050E (Figure 20). Additional through a ¼-inch screen and bagged recovered points were placed around the plantation to facili- artifacts according to provenience. Using forms tate pin flagging. specifically designed for auger testing, the crew Because we were investigating a historic site, recorded all necessary and pertinent information, we decided it would be more efficient to be con- including a profile drawing of each auger hole.

31 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation 1. cabin) house and washerwoman’s 2. Camp houses for fishermen (formerly cook’s and chicken houses Turkey 3.4. Main house 5. Store 6. Carriage house (Leveque) house 7. Doctor’s 8. Pump house Gate” 9. Site of “Quarter’s (steamboat) Warehouse 11. cabin cabin, later Earl “Dilly” Beard’s Ben Helaire’s 10. cabin (cook’s) William’s L. V. 12. house 13. Lawrence Helaire’s cabin 14. Emage Helaire’s house 15. Charlie Helaire’s syrup mill 16. Felix Helaire’s house 17. Gabe Nargot’s 18. house Overseer’s 19. barn Doctor’s 20. Grist mill Shed 21.22. Dipping vat and milking shed shed 23. Wagon 24. Seed house 25. Gin building site 26. Boiler room site tank 27. Water 28. Unidentified 29. Unidentified Unidentified Figure 17 — Map of Oakland Plantation rendered from a 1947 aerial photograph. from 17 — Map of Oakland Plantation rendered Figure

32 Chapter 4 — Fieldwork

21. Old Frank Helaire’s cabin 22. Square crib 23. Seed house 24. Gin building site 25. Boiler room site 26. Dipping vat and milking shed 27. Wagon shed 28. Felix Helaire’s syrup mill 29. Atlas and Lucinda Helaire’s cabin 30. Tractor shed 31. Mule barn 32. Mary Helaire Johnson and Leonard Johnson’s cabin 33. Ike Beasley’s, then Joseph Beasley’s, then Charles Helaire’s cabin 34. Site of Madam Ben Metoyer’s Big House; trees remain but house is gone 35. Clifford Page’s cabin 36. At different times, cabin of Pocus and Egan and Elizabeth “Miss Liz” Metoyer, gone by 1958 37. Reginald Prud’homme’s house 38. At different times, cabin of James Helaire, George Helaire, and Caroline, and then Lee Edgar Connely 39. Little Frank Helaire lived here for awhile 40. At different times, cabin of Ezekial Batise, and F. J. and Lafille Batise 41. Old George Helaire’s cabin 1. Old cook’s house, moved here to 42. Racetrack for the movie “Horse serve as a fishing camp cabin Soldiers” 2. Turkey and chicken houses 43. Unidentified 3. Main house 44. Unidentified 4. Store 45. Unidentified 5. Unidentified 46. Unidentified 6. Doctor’s (Leveque) house 7. Woody Johnson’s cabin (formerly Jessie “Chippy” Williams’s cabin) 8. Archie Jackson’s cabin 9. Luvenson “Bob” Davis’s cabin 10. Cook’s (L. V. Williams’s) cabin 11. Ben Helaire’s cabin 12. Lawrence Helaire’s cabin 13. Emage Helaire’s cabin 14. Charlie Helaire’s cabin 15. Felix Helaire’s cabin 16. Gabe Nargot’s cabin 17. Overseer’s house 18. Doctor’s (Leveque) barn 19. Little Frank Helaire’s cabin 20. Hattie McDaniel’s cabin

Figure 18 — Map of Oakland Plantation rendered from a 1958 aerial photograph.

33 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

General area of antebellum gin barn burned during Civil War

General area of pecan orchard

1. Cook’s house, moved from behind the main house to serve as a fishing camp cottage 2. Turkey and chicken houses 3. Main house 4. Store 5. Carriage house 6. Doctor’s (Leveque) house 7. Pump house 8. Pigeonniers 9. Syrup mill site 10. L. V. William’s cabin 11. Ben Helaire’s cabin 12. Lawrence Helaire’s cabin 13. Emage Helaire’s cabin 14. Charlie Helaire’s cabin 15. Felix Helaire’s cabin 16. Gabe Nargot’s cabin 17. Overseer’s house 18. Doctor’s (Leveque) barn 19. Blacksmith shop site 20. Hog fattening pen 21. Cistern 22. Square crib 23. Seed house 24. Gin house site 25. Boiler room site 26. Cattle dip and milking shed 27. Wagon shed site 28. Old mule barn site (burned ca. 1927) 29. Cotton picker shed 30. Tractor shed 31. Mule barn/smokehouse 32. Washerwoman’s cabin site, also moved from behind main house to serve as a fishing camp cottage 33. Unidentified

Figure 19 — Map of Oakland Plantation rendered from a 1966 aerial photograph.

34 Chapter 4 — Fieldwork

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

0 100 200 feet 1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 20 — Datum points.

35 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

1. Cook’s house 2. Turkey and chicken house 3. Main house 4. Store 5. Turkey shed 6. Privy 7. Tractor shed 8. Wash house 9. Fattening pen 10. Storage shed 11. Fish pond 12. Setting pen 13. Carpenter’s shop 14. Stable/mule barn 15. Cotton picker shed 16. West pigeonnier 17. Carriage house 18. East pigeonnier 19. Square crib 20. Cattle dip 21. Wagon shed 22. Corral shed 23. Doctor’s house 24. Barn 25. Overseer’s house 26. Seed barn 27. Cabin ruin 28. North slave/tenant quarters 29. Cotton gin site 30. South slave/tenant quarters 31. Pond

Datum Fence N

0 100 200 feet

Figure 21 — Structure and auger test locations.

36 Chapter 4 — Fieldwork

Pleistocene eras, when alluvial deposits formed the Red River floodplains. They range from well- drained soils to poorly drained clayey soils. Cul- tural activity, such as plowing, has impacted the physical characteristics of the sediments. Time, fill episodes, erosion, and biological influences have shaped the characteristics of Oakland’s stratigraphy. These activities are represented in the stratigraphy as plowed soil, post molds, brick footings for structures and brick piers, brick and mortar construction rubble, and midden deposits, which were assigned feature numbers. The stratigraphic profiles typical of these features and of the sediments are illustrated in Figure 23. In areas of the park that have undergone cultivation, the stratigraphy consisted of a plowzone ranging from 0.35 to 1.1 feet in depth and, in color, from dark reddish brown (5YR 3/4) to dark brown (7.5YR 3/4). This layer (Zone I) rested on culturally sterile subsoil (Zone II) of the same parent material. The subsoil ranged in color from yellowish red (5YR 4/6) to reddish brown (5YR 4/4). In areas that had not been plowed, the stratigraphy consisted of two layers. The first layer (Zone I) Figure 22 — Establishing the grid. was a silty-loam ranging in color from reddish brown (5YR 4/4) to dark brown (7.5YR 4/4). The second layer (Zone II) was a clayey-silt ranging It is important to mention the conditions un- from yellowish red (5YR 4/6) to dark reddish der which the crew worked. The average daily tem- brown (5YR 3/3). perature was 94 degrees Fahrenheit, while the humidity level averaged 90 percent. The pin flagging crew’s work was especially arduous due to FEATURES the dense growth of mock orange and bois d’arc. Between May 19 and June 27, a total of 1,660 Twenty-seven features were recorded at Oakland auger tests were drilled in addition to the formal Plantation during the auger-testing program. They excavations conducted in the graveyard and else- have been grouped into four categories: in situ where on the plantation. In 466 (28 percent) of the structural remains, construction rubble, midden, auger tests, no cultural material was recovered. and post mold (Table 1). Twenty-seven or 2.3 percent of the positive auger tests contained enough data to warrant the assign- In Situ Structural Remains ment of a feature number. Due to the lack of historically accurate maps, we have encountered problems correlating the location of in situ structural features (Figures 24 and STRATIGRAPHY 25) with the historic location of structures. Fea- tures 1, 8, 11, and 19 were intact brick. Feature 1 Soil levels encountered during the auger-testing was located near the cotton gin ruin in the south- program were formed during the Holocene and late west corner of the plantation. Feature 8 was lo-

37 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

1625N 1425E 1400N 1200E 1550N 1450E 2300N 1675E Feature 11 1700N 1125E Feature 4, Midden Feature 10, Feature 27, Post Mold In Situ Brick Typical Profile Constuction Rubble

Plowzone Post Mold Construction Rubble Midden Subsoil In Situ Brick

Figure 23 — Stratigraphic profiles. cated 10 to 15 feet north of the west pigeonnier. In Table 1 — Feature numbers by category (total = 27). the front yard of the doctor’s house, we uncov- In Situ Rubble Midden Post Mold ered feature 11, while Feature 19 was located in the backyard of the main house. 13 2 27 86 4 Construction Rubble 11 7 5 Most of our features (fourteen) were construction 19 9 14 rubble (Figures 26 and 27) composed of either 26 10 18 brick or mortar and brick. Some of the construc- 12 20 tion rubble features represent fill episodes. Fea- 13 25 ture 13, located next to a filled cistern north of the 15 doctor’s house, likely represents construction ma- 16 terials from the cistern. 17 21 Midden 22 Eight midden features were recorded at Oakland 23 (Figure 28). One of these, Feature 27, was classi- 24 fied as both a midden and a post mold feature. Features 2, 4, and 5 were located in the vicinity of the slave/tenant houses and the overseer’s house. Post Mold Feature 14 was located behind the doctor’s house, Feature 27, shown on Figure 28, was encountered near a former gristmill. The remaining three fea- in the area north of the main house, which is tradi- tures were situated in the proximity of the main tionally the location of the blacksmith shop. The house. The middens contained such artifacts as post mold can also be categorized as a midden fea- metal fragments, plastic, bone, nails, ceramics, and ture. The top layer was composed of a dark brown glass. Several of these features guided the place- to black humic soil and contained metal objects, ment of formal test units. slag, nails, ceramics, and brick.

38 Chapter 4 — Fieldwork

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

0 100 200 feet 1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 24 — In situ structural features.

39 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Figure 25 (left) — An in situ structural feature (Feature 11).

Figure 26 (right) — A construction rubble feature (Feature 7).

40 Chapter 4 — Fieldwork

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N 0 100 200 feet

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 27— Construction rubble features.

41 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N 0 100 200 feet

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 28 — Midden features, including Feature 27, a post mold (see Table 1).

42 Chapter 5 Analysis

Upon the crew’s return to the Southeast Archeo- few as to be negligible (0.19 percent by count and logical Center, the field documentation was ar- 0.03 percent by weight). So too, the unidentified ranged to facilitate its use in a systematic order. group (19.75 percent by count and 4.29 percent All field maps were digitized using AutoCad soft- by weight) does not retain information pertinent ware, and all the photographs were transferred to to the interpretation of the plantation. laser disc format. Artifacts from the auger-testing program were immediately washed, dried, sorted, and rebagged for analysis. SEAC conforms to the STRUCTURES GROUP standards established by the National Park Ser- vice’s publication Automated National Catalog- The structures group composes 22.44 percent of ing System (ANCS) User Manual (NPS 1987) and the collection by count and 70.61 percent by The Revised Nomenclature for Museum Catalog- weight. Brick and mortar were weighed but not ing (Blackaby et al. 1988). counted, which accounts for the low percentage. Once analysis and data entry were completed, For clarity, the group was divided into three sub- the database was checked for errors and data ma- groups: (1) building materials or structure ele- nipulation began. The database lists 12,642 speci- ments, (2) electrical and plumbing materials, and mens, weighing 194,291.02 grams. We placed the (3) furnishings (Table 3). artifacts into nine groups: structures, food, personal, clothing, agriculture, industrial, Native STRUCTURE ELEMENTS American, unidentified, and fauna (Table 2). These Most of the artifacts found in the structures group groups facilitate a straightforward representation were classified as structure elements (Table 4). The of the artifacts as related to cultural behavior, ag- subgroup includes such items as mortar, brick, ricultural activity, and other plantation activities. nails, windowpane glass, roofing slate, and other The artifacts in the Native American group are so roofing materials. The brick, mortar, and slate were

Table 2 — Artifact groups by count and weight, and their percentages of the total count and weight.

Group Count % By Count Weight (g) % By Weight

Structures ...... 2,836 ...... 22.44 ...... 137,195.84 ...... 70.61 Food ...... 4,521 ...... 35.76 ...... 18,862.39 ...... 9.71 Personal ...... 52 ...... 41 ...... 329.79 ...... 17 Clothing ...... 48 ...... 38 ...... 135.01 ...... 07 Agriculture ...... 463 ...... 3.66 ...... 13,328.79 ...... 6.86 Industrial ...... 448 ...... 3.54 ...... 3,808.52 ...... 1.96 Native American...... 24 ...... 19 ...... 62.93 ...... 03 Unidentified ...... 2,497 ...... 19.75 ...... 8,325.17 ...... 4.29 Fauna ...... 1,753 ...... 13.87 ...... 12,242.58 ...... 6.30

Total ...... 12,642 ...... 100.00 ...... 194,291.02 ...... 100.00

43 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Table 3 — Structures group subgroups. Artifacts listed in the electrical/plumbing subgroup number 110 by count and 180.59 grams by weight Subgroup Artifact Count Weight (g) (Table 5). These include two pieces of drain tile, forty-three dry-cell battery fragments, coal, a glass Structure elements 2,689 135,732.62 insulator, a plug receptacle, and a fuse. Electrical/plumbing materials 110 180.59 Furnishings 37 1,282.63 FURNISHINGS Total 2,836 137,195.84 Thirty-seven items associated with structure furnishings are listed in this subgroup (Table 6), which represents 1.30 percent of the structures group by count and 0.93 percent by weight. These include Table 4 — Structure elements subgroup by count and brackets; a brad for hanging picture frames; two weight.

Item Count Weight (g) Table 5 — Electrical/plumbing materials subgroup by count and weight. Brick — 118,541.80 Lock 1 64.03 Item Count Weight (g) Mortar — 5,727.16 Nail, roofing 5 17.67 Battery, dry-cell 43 56.20 Nail 2,397 9,149.29 Bulb, light 14 2.09 Slate — 1,587.30 Coal 48 83.41 Tar fragment 2 21.44 Fuse 1 21.86 Tile 46 48.53 Insulator 1 1.09 Tile, roofing 6 28.18 Plug receptacle 1 2.18 Trowel 1 248.60 Tile, drain 2 13.76 Windowpane glass 231 298.62 Total 110 180.59 Total 2,689 135,732.62

Table 6 — Furnishings subgroup by count and weight. weighed but not counted. Nails were classified as either handwrought, machined, or indeterminate, Item Count Weight (g) and as wire or cut. There were only five roofing nails in this collection: one machine cut, one Bracket 4 363.15 handwrought, and three wire. The remaining nails Brad 1 .58 totaled 2,397 by count. Most of these were ma- Clock fragments 2 25.24 chine-cut nails (55 percent), which postdate 1830 Figurine fragments 13 80.50 and are almost indistinguishable from those made Figurine, bird 1 120.06 Flowerpot fragments 8 538.72 today (Nelson 1968). Of the remaining nails, 15 Foot (from iron stove?) 1 120.90 percent were machine-made wire, 30 percent in- Glass, lamp 1 .10 determinate, and a negligible amount (0.13 per- Grill 1 .38 cent) handwrought. Other items in this group in- Magnet cover 1 .69 clude a lock and a mortar trowel. Ornament fragments 2 2.70 Padlock 1 25.49 ELECTRICAL/PLUMBING MATERIALS Pull, drawer 1 4.12 This subgroup represents 3.88 percent of the structure group by count and 0.13 percent by weight. Total 37 1,282.63

44 Chapter 5 — Analysis

0 1 2 3 cm

0 1in. 0 1 2 3 cm

Figure 29 — Clock fragment. 0 1 in.

Figure 31 — Padlock.

clock fragments (Figure 29); figurine (Figure 30), ornament, and flowerpot fragments; lamp glass; a padlock (Figure 31); a drawer pull; and a magnet cover. The grill appears to be ornamental, but its exact use is unknown. Also included is a foot, which may have been a part of an iron stove.

FOOD GROUP

The food group represents 35.76 percent of the total collection by count and 9.71 percent by weight. Items listed in this group have been sub- divided into (1) preparation, storage, and serving vessels; (2) procurement; and (3) packaging (Table 7). The artifacts comprising the preparation and packaging subgroups, and those identified with the 3 cm 1 in. structures group, highlight areas that might be domestic structure sites or structures in general. The procurement subgroup includes such items as shotgun shells, which would have been used to hunt Figure 30 — Figurine fragments. game.

45 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Table 7 — Food group subgroups. Table 8 — Preparation subgroup by count and weight.

Subgroup Count Weight (g) Item Count Weight (g)

Preparation/storage/serving 4,133 13,665.76 Bowl 20 1,164.32 Procurement 14 55.59 Cup 4 3.36 Packaging 374 5,141.04 Glass, wine 1 26.43 Griddle 1 141.76 Total 4,521 18,862.39 Handle 1 3.30 Plate 7 128.21 Vessel, ceramic 2,325 7,570.02 Vessel, glass 1,773 4,627.85 PREPARATION/STORAGE/SERVING Vessel, plastic 1 .51 The preparation subgroup is the largest component of the food group, making up 91.42 percent Total 4,133 13,665.76 by count and 72.45 percent by weight. Items in this category include bowl, cup, plate, and wine- glass fragments; ceramic, glass, and plastic vessel shell edged, flow blue, and polychrome (Figure fragments; a griddle; and a Bakelite pot or pan 32). handle (Table 8). There were twenty bowl fragments: two yel- Whiteware and Ironstone low ware, sixteen whiteware, and two glass. Seven Whiteware production began in the 1820s and con- plate fragments were also identified: four white- tinues today (South 1978:211). The majority of ware, two porcelain, and one glass. One porcelain ceramic vessel fragments recovered were identi- cup and two pearlware cup fragments were iden- fied as whiteware (58.92 percent). Eight decora- tified. The remaining ceramic vessel fragments tive designs were identified: annular, shell edged, constituted 56 percent of the preparation subgroup. blue shell edged, flow blue, green transfer printed, Table 9 further subdivides the ceramics by type. mocha, polychrome, and sponged (Figure 33). In addition to the whiteware, eighteen ironstone frag- Creamware ments were recovered. Ironstone, which was manu- Creamware, or refined earthenware, began to ap- factured between 1813 and 1900, is often classi- pear on American sites by 1770 (Miller and Stone fied with whitewares. 1970:42–44). There were 144 creamware fragments or 6.28 percent of the total ceramic vessel Redware fragments. Only three decorative types were pres- Redware was developed in the Netherlands and ent: annular (n = 2), blue shell edged (n = 2), and manufactured in England throughout the eigh- sponged (n = 2). teenth century. By the mid to late eighteenth century it was being imported to America (Noël Hume Pearlware 1969:120). There are thirty-five redware fragments In an attempt to imitate Chinese porcelain, the in the collection. manufacturer Wedgwood began adding cobalt blue to the lead glaze of refined earthenwares. “Pearl Yellow Ware White” was produced between 1779 and 1830 England began shipping yellow wares to America (Noël Hume 1969:128; Smith 1990:25). Pearlware in the late 1820s. They were a welcome change remained popular until around 1820. Almost 16 from the more porous and fragile redwares. By percent of the ceramic vessel fragments were typed the 1840s and 1850s, yellow wares were being as pearlware. Five decorative designs were present mass-produced in Pennsylvania, Vermont, New in the collection: annular, blue shell edged, green York, Maryland, and New Jersey. They reached

46 Chapter 5 — Analysis

Table 9 — Ceramic types by count and weight and their percentages of total count and weight.

Category Type Count % Count Weight (g) % Weight

Creamware Plain 138 6.01 236.68 2.63 Annular 2 .09 1.40 .02 Blue shell edged 2 .09 3.56 .04 Sponged 2 .09 .28 .00

Earthenware Untyped 12 .52 19.60 .22

Pearlware Plain 346 15.08 616.18 6.86 Annular 6 .26 13.58 .15 Blue shell edged 4 .17 66.86 .74 Flow blue 4 .17 7.36 .08 Green shell edged 2 .09 2.50 .03 Polychrome 4 .17 6.20 .07

Porcelain 136 5.93 312.84 3.48

Redware 35 1.53 490.92 5.47

Slipware 29 1.26 192.46 2.14

Stoneware Albany slipped 27 1.18 432.91 4.82 Albany slipped, Bristol glazed 5 .22 107.04 1.19 Bristol glazed 4 .17 247.72 2.76 Salt glazed 3 .13 7.18 .08 Slipped dipped refined 4 .17 9.06 .10 Untyped 78 3.40 736.33 8.20

Whiteware Plain 1,323 57.65 4,756.34 52.96 Annular 10 .44 15.86 .18 Blue shell edged 6 .26 15.24 .17 Flow blue 4 .17 5.02 .06 Green transfer printed 2 .09 1.36 .01 Mocha 2 .09 1.48 .02 Polychrome 2 .09 .96 .01 Shell edged 1 .04 1.76 .02 Sponged 2 .09 .80 .01

Ironstone 18 .78 170.94 1.90

Yellow ware Plain 72 3.14 490.92 5.47 Banded 4 .17 5.32 .06

Indeterminate ware 6 .26 4.48 .05

Total 2,295 100.00 8,981.14 100.00

47 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

b. a. a. b.

c. d. d. c.

0 1 2 3 cm 0 1 2 3 cm

0 1 in. 0 1 in.

Figure 32 — Pearlware fragments: a, blue shell edged; b, hand painted; c, green shell edged; d, annular. Figure 33 — Whiteware fragments: a, blue shell edged; b, polychrome; c, flow blue; d, annular.

0 1 2 3 cm 0 1 2 3 cm

0 1 in. 0 1 in. Figure 35 — Stoneware fragments: left, Albany slipped; Figure 34 — Slipware fragments. right, Bristol glazed.

48 Chapter 5 — Analysis

their peak of popularity in the 1860s and 1870s. percent of the glass vessel fragments. Tableware Shortly after the turn of the century, yellow ware only accounts for 0.67 percent of the total. When production stopped (Liebowitz 1985:9). The collec- fragments were identified as vessels but could not tion includes seventy-six yellow ware fragments of be classified as a closure, container, or tableware which seventy-two are plain and four are banded. fragment, they were placed in the insufficient portion category. This typology represents 19 percent Slipware of the glass vessel fragment collection. Slipware was manufactured during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in England and was ex- PROCUREMENT ported to America as late as the 1770s. Its classifi- Although hunting and fishing can be viewed as cation falls somewhere between coarse and refined recreational activities, they were also a means of earthenware. Slipware was decorated in a variety supplementing the plantation population’s diet. of ways with iron oxide or manganese under a pale From this standpoint, all firearm-related items have yellow to clear glaze. Twenty-nine slipware frag- been placed in the food group (Table 10). The pro- ments were identified in the collection (Figure 34). curement subgroup, which accounts for 0.31 percent of the food group artifacts by count, includes Stoneware two bullets, three cartridge cases, three shotgun Before the development of stoneware (Figure 35), shells, and six shot pellets. earthenware was used for the preparation, cook- ing, and storage of beverages and food. Earthen- ware, fired at lower temperatures than stoneware, Table 10 — Procurement subgroup by count and weight. is more porous and tends to leak. In addition, the lead used to glaze earthenware is soluble in weak Item Count Weight (g) acids when used in low-temperature glazes. Leak- Bullet 2 1.79 proof, durable, and acid resistant stoneware be- Case, cartridge 3 13.42 came the preferred vessel for household use (Greer Shell, shotgun 3 18.16 1981:16). Shot 6 22.22

Porcelain Total 14 55.59 Porcelain is fired at a higher temperature than any other ceramic. Its high-gloss glaze, which does not flake, makes it easily distinguishable from other PACKAGING ceramics. In the early seventeenth and eighteenth Items used in food and beverage storage are in- centuries, porcelain was an expensive luxury, but cluded in this subgroup (Table 11). The 374 items the price and quality had declined by the end of account for 8.27 percent of the total food group the eighteenth century. Thereafter, porcelain be- by count and 27.25 percent by weight. Can and came increasingly common (Noël Hume 1969:257). bottle fragments compose 81.80 percent of the sub- There were 136 porcelain fragments identified in group. Bottles (e.g., Figure 36) were divided into the ceramic collection. three categories: liquor, soft drink, and container. There are forty-four liquor bottle fragments and Glass Vessel Fragments thirty-four soft drink bottle fragments in the col- Glass vessel fragments were classified into three lection. The majority (n = 88) of the bottle frag- types: container glass, tableware, and insufficient ments could not be identified, in terms of use, be- portion. The container category includes fragments yond container. that could be identified as a container, but for The Owens Illinois Bottling Company manu- which the actual form (bowl, bottle, jar, etc.) could factured several of the bottles. Only two had suf- not be determined. Container glass represents 80 ficient commercial markings to determine the

49 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Table 11 — Packaging subgroup by count and weight.

Item Count Weight (g)

Bottle 166 2,688.53 Can 105 1,516.76 Cap 14 186.53 Cap, bottle 8 32.20 Cap, snap 1 .80 Jar 21 436.91 Key, can 5 41.16 Lid 26 142.16 Lid, jar 1 34.26 Liner, lid 17 38.39 Pull top 6 8.07 Stopper, bottle 1 13.55 Wrapper 3 1.72

Total 374 5,141.04

manufacture date. One was made in 1950, the other in either 1954 or 1956 (Toulouse 1971:403–406). The markings around the base of one bottle read: Crystal Ice & Bottling Co. Ltd. Natchitoches, Loui- siana 6 1/2 Fluid Oz (Figure 37). The fragments 0 1 in. of another bottle made by the Maryland Glass Cor- poration displayed a trademark used from 1916 to Figure 36 — Bottle recovered from Oakland. the present (Toulouse 1971:339–341). Coca-Cola bottle fragments were also recovered. CLOTHING GROUP

PERSONAL GROUP Personal clothing articles, accessories, and other items directly related to the care of clothing, such This group contains personal items owned indi- as clothespins, compose 0.38 percent of the col- vidually or shared by a single household (Table lection count and 0.07 percent by weight (Table 12). Toys or recreational objects found in this 13). Buttons—made of aluminum, bone, brass, group include a ball fragment and a basketball frag- copper, glass, and plastic—are the most common ment, a jew’s harp (Figure 38), a cold cream jar clothing group artifact. One brass military button fragment, phonograph record fragments, a camera was recovered. lens, marbles (Figure 39), and a toy pistol (Figure 40). The beads were included because they were identified as ornamental. The artifact count (n = AGRICULTURE GROUP 52) is relatively small compared to the other groups. It is only 0.41 percent of the total collec- This artifact group represents 3.66 percent of the tion by count and 0.17 percent by weight. Tobacco collection by count and 6.86 percent by weight. It pipe fragments (Figure 41) are the most prevalent is divided into two subgroups: field paraphernalia items in the group (32.69 percent). and machinery, tools, and accessories (Table 14).

50 Chapter 5 — Analysis

0 1 2 3 cm

0 1 in.

Figure 38 — Jew’s harp.

Table 12 — Personal group by count and weight.

Item Count Weight (g)

Ball 1 121.18 Basketball 1 8.11 Bead, ornamental 2 1.66 Binder, ring 3 2.80 Bottle, medicine 1 9.47 Bottle, toilet 1 8.89 Camera, single lens reflex 1 1.12 Cap 1 5.06 Chain 1 1.24 Jew’s harp 2 21.43 Knife, pocket 2 22.19 Marble 5 27.60 Pencil 1 .22 0 1 2 3 cm Pencil, slate 2 6.57 Phonograph record fragments 8 6.05 0 1 in. Pipe, tobacco 17 20.72 Pistol (toy) 1 18.07 Tube 1 27.07 Vessel fragment (cold cream jar) 1 20.34 Figure 37 — Bottle with markings around the base that read “Crystal Ice & Bottling Co. Ltd. Natchitoches, Total 52 329.79 Louisiana 6 1/2 Fluid Oz.”

51 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Table 13 — Clothing group by count and weight.

Item Count Weight (g)

Buckle, belt 2 1.92 Button 24 17.37 Button, military 1 5.46 3 cm Cloth fragment 1 1.04 1 in. Clothespin 1 3.14 Grommet 9 8.68 Leather fragment 4 1.36 Figure 39 — Clay (far left) and glass marbles. Pin, safety 1 .78 Shoe 4 94.63 Snap, fastener 1 .63

Total 48 135.01

Table 14 — Agriculture group by count and weight.

Item Count Weight (g)

Field paraphernalia 315 1,135.99 3 cm Machinery 109 7,156.26 1 in. Tools/accessories 39 5,036.54

Total 463 13,328.79 Figure 40 — Toy gun.

0 1 2 3 cm

0 1 in.

Figure 41 — Tobacco pipe fragments.

52 Chapter 5 — Analysis

FIELD PARAPHERNALIA Table 16 — Machinery, tools, and accessories subgroup The items in this subgroup—fence staples, wire, by count and weight. and barbed wire—were used to separate fields or keep livestock in penned areas (Table 15). Item Count Weight (g) Band 3 109.01 Barrel 3 756.10 Table 15 — Field paraphernalia subgroup by count and Blade 4 485.99 weight. Bolt 5 222.57 Cable 2 8.44 Item Count Weight (g) Chain 3 128.81 Clamp 1 .91 Staple, fence 43 240.71 Cordage 1 .74 Wire 234 683.27 Fastener 1 .73 Wire, barbed 38 212.01 Ferrule 1 74.12 File 1 296.10 Total 315 1,135.99 Hammer 1 386.30 Handle 7 2,419.53 Hatchet 1 512.90 Hook 7 223.81 MACHINERY, TOOLS, AND A CCESSORIES Linkage, mechanical 1 48.65 This subgroup includes items related to farm ma- Nut 5 99.75 chinery, machine accessories, and tools (Table 16). Pin 1 47.30 Transportation related artifacts, such as automo- Pincer 1 547.20 bile windowpane fragments, are included because Pipe 4 1,030.29 transportation vehicles were used in the planta- Pipette 1 .67 tion’s operation. The fragments of a glass poultry Plow, moldboard 6 482.47 Ring 7 138.52 waterer are included as an accessory to agricul- Rivet 2 15.07 tural endeavors. Other artifact examples include a Screw 8 54.85 swivel (Figure 42), a singletree center clip (Fig- Seal 2 9.48 ure 43), and a pincer fragment (Figure 44). Singletree 1 157.02 Sleeve 2 1,883.20 Spike 22 724.51 INDUSTRIAL GROUP Spring, spiral 2 3.40 Strap 9 447.39 Artifacts in this group relate to manufacturing Swivel 1 353.00 (Table 17). They include slag, charcoal, and bar Tack 3 1.73 Terminal 1 3.58 iron from the blacksmith shop. Tire 11 161.86 Valve 2 36.30 Washer 7 21.24 NATIVE AMERICAN GROUP Waterer, poultry 6 291.46 Windowpane, auto 2 7.80 Items related to Native American cultures compose the smallest artifact group recovered during Total 148 12,192.80 the auger-testing program (Table 18). By count, the artifacts represent 0.19 percent of the total and, by weight, 0.03 percent. Included in this group are Gregory identified seven of the vessel fragments two pieces of debitage, two flakes, one shatter frag- as Choctaw in origin and five as Caddoan. The ment, and nineteen vessel fragments. Dr. Hiram other seven fragments could not be identified.

53 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

3 cm 1 in.

Figure 43 — Singletree center clip.

3 cm 1 in.

Figure 42 — Swivel.

Table 17 — Industrial group by count and weight.

Item Count Weight (g)

Bar iron 6 581.33 Charcoal 73 43.85 Slag 369 3,183.34

Total 448 3,808.52

Table 18 — Native American group by count and weight.

Item Count Weight (g)

Debitage 2 2.42 Flake 2 1.60 Shatter 1 .73 3 cm Vessel fragment 19 58.18 1 in.

Total 24 62.93 Figure 44 — Pincers.

54 Chapter 5 — Analysis

UNIDENTIFIED GROUP Table 20 — Fauna group by count, weight, and percentage. Items that had no culturally pertinent information or could not be identified with a reasonable de- Taxon Count Weight (g) ...... (%) gree of certainty were relegated to the unidenti- Animalia (animals) 14 12.80 .10 fied group (Table 19). These items include: fired Aves (birds) 46 27.60 .23 clay, fiber, foil, glass fragments, metal fragments, Bivalvia (bivalves) — 9,473.65 77.38 paper, tape, plastic fragments, rubber fragments, Mammalia (mammals) 550 2,003.00 16.36 unmodified stone, and wood fragments. They rep- Testudines (tortoises) 438 371.10 3.03 resent 19.75 percent of the total collection by count Vertebrata (vertebrates) 705 354.43 2.90 and 4.29 percent by weight. Total 1,753 12,242.58 100.00

FAUNA GROUP (Table 20). Bivalves were the largest group within The fauna group accounted for 13.87 percent of the assemblage by weight (77.38 percent). Two of the artifact collection by count and 6.30 percent the groups could not be identified beyond Animalia by weight. Six taxonomic groups were identified and Mammalia; their combined weight represents 16.46 percent of the collection. The remainder of the group includes birds (0.23 percent by weight), Table 19 — Unidentified group by count and weight. tortoises (3.03 percent by weight), and vertebrates (2.90 percent by weight). Item Count Weight (g)

Clay, fired 9 9.58 SUMMARY Fiber 2 .09 Foil 7 2.04 This chapter described the collection in terms of Glass fragment 860 634.34 Metal fragment 1,487 7,439.52 its variety and quantity. The auger-testing program Paper 1 1.84 did not provide the necessary control for temporal Plastic fragment 95 72.38 studies of a stratigraphic nature, but it did pro- Rubber fragment 7 21.93 duce information that could be manipulated to pro- Stone, unmodified 3 21.37 vide baseline data concerning the plantation’s ar- Tape 3 .46 cheological nature. The archeological information Unidentified 4 45.57 could then, in turn, be correlated with the locations Wood fragment 19 76.05 of documented structures and cultural activities. Chapter 6 discusses artifact patterning and its re- Total 2,497 8,325.17 lationship to the plantation and its inhabitants.

55 Chapter 6 Artifact Patterning

In order to present a clear picture of artifact pat- ther discarded from the blacksmith shop or the terning across the plantation, distribution maps cook’s house (see Figures 4 and 24). have been generated using the Surfer mapping pro- Oral history indicates that a cotton gin once gram (Figures 45 through 56). Artifact weight was stood north of the main house but was burned be- standardized above and below the mean weight fore or during the Civil War. Area E may indicate for each analytical group. Seven standard devia- the gin’s location. Further archeological investi- tions (-3 to +3) were gridded using a Kriging al- gations are warranted. gorithm to generate contour maps representing In situ structural Feature 8 was uncovered be- analytical group distributions throughout the site. tween the west pigeonnier and the carriage house Group concentrations have been assigned letters (see Figures 4 and 24). A structures group con- to facilitate pattern identifications. centration is present in the area (F) as well. The remains of an undocumented structure may be present. STRUCTURES GROUP DISTRIBUTION Another in situ structural feature (Feature 19) was uncovered between the wash house and the When the in situ structural and construction rubble west end of the main house’s kitchen ell (see Fig- features (see Figures 24 and 27) are compared to ures 4 and 24). This may have been the remains of the structures group distribution map (Figure 45), the cook’s house, which was moved northeast of most of the features correspond with high artifact the main house during the 1920s. There is another concentrations within this group. These concen- theory concerning the presence of the intact brick. trations, combined with feature positions, repre- The present kitchen wing (the kitchen ell) was built sent structures that are no longer standing and/or after the Civil War. According to family tradition, the cultural activities associated with these struc- an earlier wing was removed, and the lumber was tures. The absence of a historically accurate map used to construct the house at Atahoe (Prud’homme predating 1947 makes the task of pinpointing struc- and Williamson 1978). In light of this information, ture locations reliant upon archeological data. it is possible that this intact brick could be the rem- A high artifact concentration (A) and in situ nants of the earlier wing. An intact brick feature structural Feature 1 south of the seed house repre- (see Figure 24) and structures group concentra- sent the cotton gin’s location (see Figures 4 and tion (C) east of the doctor’s house is likely associ- 24). Southeast of area B we uncovered construc- ated with building renovation (see Chapter 3). tion rubble Feature 9 (see Figure 27), which is also The remaining structures group concentrations associated with clothing, food, and agriculture and construction rubble features are either associ- group concentrations (Figures 48, 49, and 54). ated with intact structures, or their presence rep- Another concentration associated with a construc- resents normal loss and discard in the course of tion rubble feature is area C, between the square habitation. crib and the doctor’s house (see Figures 4 and 24). Northeast of the main house there is quite a NAILS large concentration (D) of structures group mate- Three types of nails are generally found on Ameri- rials. The blacksmith shop once stood near this can sites: handwrought, cut, and wire. Variations concentration. The artifacts found here were ei- within each type can be used to date structures

56 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

3000N

2800N

E 2600N

2400N

D 2200N

2000N B

F 1800N

C 1600N

A 1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 45 — Distribution of structures group data.

57 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

more precisely. For the purposes of this study, handwrought nails were not included.) The maps however, nails have been sorted as handwrought, revealed cut- and wire-nail distributions in the cut, or machine-made wire. same areas, and no significant distribution of ei- Handwrought nails were used in building con- ther type showed up exclusive of the other in any struction throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, of the areas. This suggests that the plantation’s built and nineteenth centuries, even after the introduc- environment was fairly stable after the 1830s. tion of cheaper cut nails (Nelson 1968:2–5). Cut- nail production in America began around 1790. Patents were issued to several individuals for the CLOTHING GROUP DISTRIBUTION invention of cut-nail machines. Unfortunately, the United States Patent Office burned in 1836, and The highest clothing group convergence is in the the specific nature of these inventions are largely slave/tenant quarters areas (Figure 48, A; see Fig- unknown (Edwards and Wells 1993:15; Nelson ure 4). To a lesser extent, concentrations are pres- 1968:2–5). Wrought nails were favored over early ent in areas associated with the overseer’s house cut nails, especially when clenching or trim work (B), doctor’s house (C), cotton picker shed (D), was required. wash house (G), and south of the carriage house Prior to 1830 the metal fiber used to make cut- around the east pigeonnier (F). A concentration of nails ran crosswise to the nail’s length, causing clothing group materials is also present southeast them to snap when clinched. After 1830, the metal of the wagon shed (E). As stated in the discussion fibers ran the nail’s length, and cut nails became of structures group materials, this may be the site virtually indistinguishable from those made today of an earlier structure. (Noël Hume 1969:253–254; Nelson 1968:3). Wire-nail production in the United States began during the 1850s. The iron used in the manu- FOOD GROUP DISTRIBUTION facture of early wire-drawn nails contained im- perfections, which made the nails weak and un- The food group distributions are representative of suitable for building construction. These nails were the loss and discard expected around structures initially produced in small sizes for the construc- and work areas (Figure 49; see Figure 4). The dis- tion of such items as cigar boxes (Edwards and tribution map reveals what appears to be a large Wells 1993:2). The technology used to make wire sheet midden around the overseer’s house (A). nails was not perfected until the 1860s or 1870s, Another midden (B) begins around the carpenter’s after which time wire nails began to be produced shop and the stable/mule barn and extends to the for use in construction. By the 1890s, use of the northwest around the tractor shed and beyond. In wire nail had become predominant; builders, how- Figure 49, area C, east of the wagon shed, corre- ever, continued to use cut nails into the twentieth sponds with B on the structures group distribution century (Nelson 1968:7–8). map (see Figure 45) and E on the clothing distri- The 2,397 nails recovered at Oakland were of bution map (see Figure 48). A large concentration three varieties: wrought, cut, and wire; this count (D) is also present east of the carpenter’s shop, does not include those identified as roofing nails south of the main house. The concentration in area or brads. Cut nails represented 54.86 percent of E is associated with either the blacksmith shop site the collection; wire nails, 15.31 percent; hand- or the cook’s house shown on Figure 4. wrought nails, only 0.13 percent. Due to severe oxidation, 29.70 percent of the nails recovered CERAMICS could not be identified. Cut- and wire-nail distri- Emmanuel Prud’homme received his land grant bution maps (Figures 46 and 47) were generated in 1789. Several of the ceramic types recovered at and compared to one another to determine site us- Oakland began appearing on North American sites age chronology. (Due to their negligible numbers, around the same time. However, the Oakland types

58 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 46 — Distribution of cut nails.

59 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 47 — Distribution of machine-made wire nails.

60 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N G D 2000N

F 1800N

C 1600N B

1400N

1200N A

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 48 — Distribution of clothing group data.

61 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

lack sufficient diagnostic attributes to place them loss of items would not be unusual. The concen- within a specific time period. Only thirty-five red- tration around the store (E) is self-evident. The ware fragments were recovered: these began to large pearlware concentration south and west of appear on American sites in the mid to late eigh- the main house (F) shows its highest density west teenth century. The twenty-nine pieces of slipware, of the stable/mule barn and northeast of the which was exported to America as late as the carpenter’s shop. Area G is north of the main house 1770s, were only a small portion of the collection. and west of the blacksmith shop site. Southeast of Porcelain was common on many American sites the cook’s house is another focus of pearlware (H), by the late eighteenth century due to its declining which could be associated with the blacksmith price. One hundred thirty-six porcelain fragments shop site or the cook’s house. were recovered, but they lacked decorative attributes. Creamware, pearlware, and whiteware Whiteware were found in larger amounts on the site, and maps Whiteware at Oakland is concentrated in three ar- were compiled to show their distribution. eas. A large sheet midden (A) lies around the slave/ tenant quarters, overseer’s house, and doctor’s Creamware house (Figure 52; also see Figure 4). Three foci Creamware fragments accounted for only 6.28 are present within this area: behind and southwest percent of the ceramics recovered at Oakland. The of the overseer’s house; northwest of Gabe Nar- highest distribution is west of the main house and got’s cabin (also see Figures 17–19); and around north of the cotton picker shed (Figures 50, A; also the sheds southwest of the doctor’s house. Another see Figure 4). Before the cook’s house was moved, area of concentration, area B, is found around the it stood west of the main house. It would not be wagon shed. Area C includes the concentration to unreasonable to assume that discarded kitchenware the north, south, and west of the main house. The was deposited somewhere behind the cook’s house. mass of whiteware fragments in areas A and C, The second highest creamware dispersion (B) domestic structure sites, is not unusual. is directly south of the main house, in front of the carpenter’s shop. Small concentrations of creamware are also present near the north slave/tenant PERSONAL GROUP DISTRIBUTION quarters (C) and near the doctor’s house. North of the wagon shed—the possible location of a struc- Most of the recovered personal artifacts are con- ture— is another concentration of creamware (D). centrated in areas associated with known structures (Figure 53, A), around which a loss of per- Pearlware sonal items would have been normal. The high ar- Concurrent with the introduction of creamware on tifact concentration labeled B (north of the square American sites is the presence of pearlware, which crib and southwest of the cotton picker shed) is is known to have been present in the Natchitoches likely associated with the original mule barn. Area area by the 1780s. Pearlware distributions (Figure C is associated with the blacksmith shop or the 51) are widely spread across the plantation, with cook’s house (also see Figure 4). very high concentrations present in eight areas. Area A, north of the wagon shed, represents the highest pearlware concentration on the plan- AGRICULTURE GROUP DISTRIBUTION tation. The area around the slave/tenant quarters and the overseer’s house is labeled B; while the Agriculture related artifacts are scattered across concentration around the doctor’s house is C (also the site, but the highest densities are found in four see Figure 4). South of the carriage house and east areas (Figure 54). A concentration northeast of the pigeonnier is a very high pearlware concentration overseer’s house (A) can reasonably be associated (D). This was once a high traffic area, thus the with the barn and sheds nearby (see Figure 4). Area

62 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N E

2200N B

2000N C D

1800N

1600N

A 1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 49 — Distribution of food group data.

63 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N

A 2200N

2000N

D B

1800N

1600N

1400N C

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 50 — Distribution of creamware data.

64 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N

G H 2200N

A 2000N E F

1800N C D

1600N

1400N B

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 51 — Distribution of pearlware data.

65 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N C

2000N

B 1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 52 — Distribution of whiteware data.

66 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

3000N

2800N

2600N

2400N

C 2200N

2000N B

1800N

1600N

1400N A

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 53 — Distribution of personal group data.

67 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

3000N

2800N

2600N

D 2400N

2200N B

2000N C

1800N

A 1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 54 — Distribution of agriculture group data.

68 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

B, west of the cotton picker shed, is on the very CHRONOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS rim of the positive auger tests. The plantation’s eastern half yielded positive tests, while the west- A subsurface auger-testing program does not fa- ern half, which has historically been under culti- cilitate temporal studies. While horizontal control vation, yielded negative tests (see Figure 21). A is possible, vertical control is impossible. Artifacts, high artifact concentration is understandably pres- such as nail and ceramic types, do provide infor- ent between the carriage house, pigeonnier, and mation useful for chronological considerations. store (C). The highest concentration of agricul- However, the distribution maps generated for tural material is around the blacksmith shop site creamware, pearlware, whiteware, and cut and (D). This is to be expected since agricultural tools wire nails do not reveal any marked distribution were made and repaired in the shop. pattern exclusive of the other artifacts that would reveal a site use chronology. We can assume that the plantation’s domestic and manufacturing cen- INDUSTRIAL GROUP DISTRIBUTION ters have remained fairly stable since its establishment. The archeological record corroborates his- The industrial group represents three kinds of ar- torical documentation. tifacts: bar iron, slag, and charcoal. The highest concentration (A) occurs at the blacksmith shop site (Figure 55; see Figure 4). Another high con- SUMMARY centration is to its northeast. The only explana- tion for this is that materials from the blacksmith Nine analytical groups, divided by function and shop were perhaps deposited at this location. use, were created to facilitate data manipulation and fulfill the project’s requirements as outlined in Chapter 1. Within each group, the standardized NATIVE AMERICAN GROUP weight of every artifact was used to generate dis- DISTRIBUTION tribution maps. These maps were created using the Surfer mapping program at an interval of one (-3 The twenty-four Native American artifacts (debi- to +3). The maps were subsequently analyzed, and tage, flakes, shatter, and vessel fragments) recov- interpretations concerning their relevance or, in ered from Oakland are too few in either number some instances, their irrelevance were presented. or location to constitute a site. Out of the total col- Many of the observations did not alter the present lection, these artifacts account for only 0.19 per- interpretation of Oakland Plantation, but others cent by count and 0.03 percent by weight. The lo- have raised questions that will be further discussed cations of the artifacts are plotted in Figure 56. in Chapter 7.

69 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

3000N

2800N

2600N

B 2400N A

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 55 — Distribution of industrial group data.

70 Chapter 6 — Artifact Patterning

2800N

2600N

2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N

Native American Artifact

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 56 — Distribution of Native American group data by artifact location.

71 Chapter 7 Observations and Conclusions

Investigations at Oakland Plantation present both be answered by further archeological testing. These important opportunities and problematic issues include but are not limited to the following: with respect to historic preservation and archeological and historical interpretation. Oakland Plan- Does the archeological record point to the origi- tation has been owned by one family for seven nal mule barn’s location? generations and spans a time period beginning with According to family tradition, the structure known French colonization and settlement to the present as the mule barn once functioned as the smoke- day. The potential for research opportunities at house. It was converted into a mule barn after the Oakland is high. original mule barn burned around 1927. In an in- The comprehensive subsurface testing pro- terview conducted by Dr. Ann Patton Malone, gram has served and will continue to serve as a Mayo Prud’homme stated that “from what I un- planning and research tool for the Cane River Cre- derstand it [the old mule barn] was huge. It took ole National Historical Park and National Heritage up quite a bit of room back behind—just north— Area. Field observations, artifact analysis and data of what is known as the square crib, and south of manipulation have enabled us to produce tables, what is now known as the mule barn. It’s about charts, and maps with which to interpret the plan- where the cotton picker shed is located—the high- tation’s archeological remains. The previous chap- roofed shed—but it covered quite a spread of ters have dealt with the establishment of the park, ground apparently” (Malone 1997:17). planning, field and laboratory methods, results, and On the 1966 aerial photograph/map (see Fig- interpretation. This summary chapter includes sug- ure 19), the old mule barn site is located north of gestions for future archeological investigations, the square crib and southwest of the cotton picker whether instigated by maintenance concerns or shed. Two construction rubble features were also park interpretation. The Surfer generated distribu- uncovered directly north of the square crib (Fig- tion maps exposed several areas of interest that ure 27) on the 1775N line, 300 feet apart. The dis- warrant either further investigation or monitoring. tribution maps in Chapter 6 show several artifact Record books and interviews with persons associ- densities falling directly west of the location pro- ated with the plantation indicate that several struc- posed on the 1966 photograph/map. As early as tures, no longer standing, once existed within the 1862, the plantation journals mention a stable, complex. In the absence of historical maps that which may have been what was called the old mule predate 1947, we must rely on oral history and the barn. If the structure existed as early as 1862 and archeological record to postulate the locations of was located in the area suggested, this would ac- these structures. count for the high distribution of cut nails in the area. There is a small shed in the vicinity of the distribution, but its size does not account for the RESEARCH QUESTIONS presence of such a large amount of cut nails. Two possible conclusions can be drawn from The information generated by the auger-testing pro- the information we possess. The first is that the gram, combined with field observations, histori- barn was located in the position proposed on the cal research, and oral interviews, has resulted in 1966 photograph/map. Following the fire, the questions concerning Oakland Plantation that may barn’s remains were cleared or scattered westward.

72 Chapter 7 — Observations and Conclusions

The contours on the distribution maps represent Are there any surface or subsurface structural not true locations, but statistically manipulated remains of the cotton gin built in 1860 and, if so, data sets. The second possibility is that the barn what is the extent? What does the documenta- was located directly west of the position proposed tion reveal? on the 1966 photograph/map. Further testing in The 1860 plantation journal contains references the area may prove useful. to the cotton gin during construction and use. In March, the overseer Seneca Pace made the fol- Were the bricks used in building construction lowing notations in the journal: “work on gin cis- made on the plantation or purchased elsewhere? tern; finish bricking gin cistern; move boards at If the former, what was the extent of the brick- gin finish cistern” (Phanor Prud’homme Papers, making operation at Oakland? Where was the Box 2, Folder 30, p. 11). In June, the laborers “put brick kiln located? What does the archeological large timbers in place” and “set [the] gin stands to record reveal? their place[s]” (Phanor Prud’homme Papers, Box Many of the bricks used at Oakland were pur- 2, Folder 30, pp. 26, 28). Work continued during chased. Plantation records, however, mention a July, August, and September. Journal entries indi- brick kiln and note that on December 20, 1860, cated that by October the new gin was in use. Prud’homme sold 3,000 bricks to a man in Natchi- The cotton gin remained in use at least until toches for $30.00 (Phanor Prud’homme Papers, 1940. While being interviewed, Mayo Prud’homme Box 1, Folder 13). There are no conclusive indica- stated that “prior to 1941, my dad and grandfather tions of the kiln’s site in the archeological record, had a gin there, and they had a diesel-powered… but Kenneth Prud’homme believes it may have single-cylinder Fairbanks-Morris engine in it…. stood northwest of the seed house and cotton gin. You had the seed house, the gin building, and the boiler room. The boiler was for an old steam en- Are there any indicators in the archeological gine that used to power the engine before they went record of the location of the pre–Civil War cot- diesel” (Malone 1997:22). ton gin? What was the construction date of the Structural remains of the gin exist today. In gin? What does the written record reveal? 1998, Bennie Keel and Jason Raupp mapped and Three gins once operated on the plantation—two photographed the large brick cistern at the site of on the west and one on the east side of Cane River. the cotton gin. Although the building is no longer Two of the gins were on land today owned by the standing, the engine stands are still in place. Lim- National Park Service. One was built prior to 1860. ited formal excavations were conducted at the site While being interviewed, Mayo Prud’homme stated in 1998, but additional testing will be required to that “the pre–Civil War gin was back over here obtain cultural information. north of the Big [main] House” (Malone 1997:21). Although the exact construction date for the “new” What was the original configuration of the slave gin, located southwest of the main house, is un- quarters? Where were they located? How many known, it was under construction and in use by at cabins were in the quarters? How were they con- least 1860, at which time the family was storing structed? What changes in occupation occurred baled “cotton in [the] old gin [unreadable word] on the plantation following the Civil War? Did room” (Phanor Prud’homme Papers, Box 2, Folder tenants relocate and occupy the cabins they in- 30, p. 62). In 1864, the old gin was burned down habited during slavery? Did they build new during the Red River Campaign. There are no ones? How do the material cultures of slaves and structural remains of the old gin on the ground tenants compare and contrast? surface, but the structural distribution map reveals Three slave/tenant cabins are still extant on the an isolated concentration of artifacts in the north property purchased by the National Park Service. area of the plantation complex (see Figure 45), The cook’s cabin was relocated and used as a fish- which supports the oral history. ing camp. The remaining two cabins are south of

73 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

the overseer’s house. According to the structural after emancipation. Building new houses and assessment, these cabins were built sometime be- restructuring or relocating the slave cabins tween the 1850s and the 1860s. may reflect a conscious decision on the part The ruins of a fourth cabin are visible directly of former slaves to separate their slave expe- southeast of the overseer’s house. The cabin has riences from their new lives as freedmen. traditionally been described as a post-in-the-ground house. Archeological testing, however, has re- A comparison of slave and tenant material cul- vealed that it was actually a maison-sur-sill and ture may indicate more affluence in personal goods bousillage structure supported by brick piers (Keel during slavery than during tenancy. Depending on and Miller 1999). According to a 1969 report by the attitude of the master or mistress, African- Craig A. Estes, an architecture student at Louisi- American slave artisans had opportunities to con- ana State University, the cabin ruin was still stand- tract their free time as laborers. Sometimes slaves ing in 1969. He stated that it was “the single re- were provided time and a space to grow gardens maining slave cabin on the plantation” (Estes and raise livestock for their personal use, to sell, 1969:5). If his information is correct, the two or to barter. Following the Civil War and emanci- houses south of the overseer’s house were built pation, black artisans presented competition for after the Civil War. These two houses pose addi- white artisans in the stressed southern economy tional research questions. and were thus tolerated less than they were during slavery. If these houses were built before the Civil War and were not relocated following emancipa- Where was the blacksmith shop located? tion, then the slave quarters were configured This research question was answered and, in so not geometrically but at irregular angles. Did doing, the validity of the auger-testing program the planner deliberately design the quarters to was demonstrated. The industrial group data (char- be irregular, or were slaves given a choice in coal, slag, and bar iron), recovered during the 1997 the placement of their homes (Vlach 1993)? season, were used to generate a distribution map. How much freedom were slaves given in de- This map then served as a guide in locating the fining their personal space at Oakland? blacksmith shop foundation during the 1998 summer field season. As Figure 57 illustrates, the guide If the houses were built prior to the Civil War proved to be an accurate one. Both the interior and were relocated, then the configuration is and exterior extents of the foundation were filled in question. Several former tenants, inter- with charcoal, coal, slag, and wrought agricultural viewed by Dr. Malone, recalled the cabins they and blacksmith tools. The data that was recovered once occupied, which have since been demol- from the blacksmith shop will be presented in a ished. Distribution maps reveal a large scat- future report. tering of structure group and food group artifacts around the existing structures. Given the close proximity of the buildings, it is difficult RECOMMENDATIONS to postulate the location of additional structures. Furthermore, the Prud’homme family The Cook’s House holdings extended across Highway 119 and As stated in Chapter 3, the cook’s house should be across Cane River. Slave/tenant cabins were stabilized and preserved immediately. This excel- once located on property not owned by the Na- lent example of bousillage construction is dete- tional Park Service. Archeological investiga- riorating quickly. Besides destruction caused by tions, interviews, and documentary studies the elements, bees are extensively damaging the may reveal whether former tenants inhabited walls by boring holes into the bousillage. This former slave houses or if new ones were built house could be used as an interpretive tool not only

74 Chapter 7 — Observations and Conclusions

3000N

Blacksmith shop location 2800N

2600N

Cook’s house 2400N

2200N

2000N

1800N

1600N

1400N

1200N

1000N

400E 600E 800E 1000E 1200E 1400E 1600E 1800E

Figure 57 — Inset showing the blacksmith shop location just south of the cook’s house.

75 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

for Oakland Plantation but also for the Cane River CONCLUSIONS area. The building’s features—exposed barreaux, vertical and diagonal beams, bousillage, and notch- The information recovered by investigators during, for example—are excellent illustrations of the ing the auger-testing program and presented in this construction techniques used on the plantation. report indicates the locations of archeological deposits throughout the plantation complex. The in- National Register of Historic Places vestigations should sufficiently meet and exceed The National Register of Historic Places nomina- Section 106 compliance for all of Oakland’s cul- tion should be amended to include the archeologi- tural resource preservation and management issues cal component at Oakland Plantation. arising in the future.

76 Bibliography

Amory, Cleveland (editor) 1969 The 1902 Edition of the Sears Roebuck Catalogue. Reproduction. Crown Publishers, New York.

Blackaby, James R., Patricia Greeno, and the Nomenclature Committee 1988 The Revised Nomenclature for Museum Cataloging. American Association for State and Local History, Nashville.

Bolton, Herbert Eugene 1914 Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier 1768–1780. Arthur H. Clark Company, Cleveland.

Campbell, L. Janice, Barbara E. Holmes, and Prentice M. Thomas Jr. 1978 Prehistoric and Historic Settlement in the Cane River Basin. New World Research Report of Investigations No. 8. New Orleans. On file, Southeast Archeological Center, National Park Ser- vice, Tallahassee.

Cummins, Light Townsend, and Glen Jeansonne (editors) 1982 A Guide to the History of Louisiana. Greenwood Press, Connecticut.

Edwards, Jay D., and Tom Wells 1993 Historic Louisiana Nails: Aids to the Dating of Old Buildings. Geoscience Publications, Baton Rouge.

Estes, Craig A. 1969 Natchitoches. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.

Greer, Georgeanna H. 1981 American Stonewares, the Art and Craft of Utilitarian Potters. Schiffer Publishing, Pennsylvania.

Gregory, Hiram F. 1982 The Archaeology of the Badin-Roque House: A Nineteenth-Century Poteau-En-Terre House, Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. Louisiana Division of Archaeology, Baton Rouge.

Hahn, Thurston H. G., III, and Tom Wells 1991 Archaeological Investigations of the Magnolia Plantation Slave Quarters, Natchitoches, Louisi- ana. Coastal Environments, Baton Rouge.

Howell, Todd L. 1992 Evaluating the Utility of Auger Testing as a Predictor of Subsurface Artifact Density. Journal of Field Archaeology 20:475–484. .

77 Oakland Plantation: A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation

Israel, Fred L. (editor) 1968 1897 Sears Roebuck Catalogue. Reproduction. Chelsea House Publishers, New York.

Keel, Bennie C. 1999 A Comprehensive Subsurface Investigation at Magnolia Plantation, 16NA295, Cane River Cre- ole National Historical Park, Natchitoches, Louisiana. Southeast Archeological Center, National Park Service, Tallahassee.

Keel, Bennie C., and Christina E. Miller 1997 Research Design for Archeological Investigations at Oakland Plantation, Cane River Creole National Historical Park and Heritage Area, Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. Southeast Ar- cheological Center, National Park Service, Tallahassee.

1999 Gabe Nargot’s Cabin: Investigations at a Nineteenth-Century Slave Domicile in Northwest Loui- siana. Paper presented at 1999 Society for Historical Archaeology Conference, Salt Lake City.

Keel, Bennie C., and Jason T. Raupp 1998 A Survey and Examination of Cisterns at Cane River Creole National Historical Park. Southeast Archeological Center, National Park Service, Tallahassee.

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