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2008 Cradle to Third Life: An Autobiography of an African American Science Educator Sarah C. (Sarah Caruthers) Jackson

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DEPARTMENT OF MIDDLE AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

CRADLE TO THIRD LIFE: AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN AFRICAN- AMERICAN SCIENCE EDUCATOR

By

SARAH CARUTHERS-JACKSON

A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Middle and Secondary Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2008 The members of the Committee to approve the Dissertation of Sarah Caruthers-Jackson defended on May 22, 2008.

______Nancy T. Davis Professor Directing Dissertation

______Jeffery Milligan Outside Committee Member

______Alejandro J. Gallard Committee Member

______Penny J. Gilmer Committee Member

Approved:

______Walter Wager, Assistant Dean and Director of School of Teachers Education

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude and thanks to my key participants: 1) African-American teachers who have so willingly shared their segregated classroom practices and voiced their beliefs of teaching in Fitzgerald, Georgia’s segregated, all-black, public school 2) African- American tutoring students who are members of my organization Kollege Kampus who voiced their beliefs concerning my practice to allow my story to emerge. For enhancing my thinking on the meaning of my story, I am indebted to Dr. Nancy T. Davis of Florida State University who provided consultation in the form of tutoring and provided groups for peer feedback.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS...... iv LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii ABSTRACT...... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Introductory Story...... 1 Segregated Education...... 3 Purpose of the Study ...... 7 History of the Study...... 8 Significance of the Study...... 8 Research Questions...... 9 Organization of the Study ...... 10 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...... 12 Introduction...... 12 Integral Theory...... 12 Afrocentricity theory...... 14 Black feminists theory ...... 14 Critical Race Theory...... 15 Tutoring...... 16 Locating the issues within a broader context...... 16 Segregated schools...... 20 Monitor’s African-American Teacher’s Beliefs/Values...... 22 Perception of Culture ...... 24 Spiral Dynamics, and vMemes ...... 26 New Science Teaching Direction...... 29 Conclusion ...... 31 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ...... 32 Introduction...... 32 Action research ...... 34 Autoethnography...... 35 Phenomenology...... 40 Ethnomethodology...... 42 Constructivism ...... 43 Interpretive Research ...... 43 Postmodernism...... 45 Hermeneutic Research ...... 46 Methods...... 46 Action Research...... 46 African-American Teachers’ Interview ...... 49 Narrative Research...... 53 Audiotaping/Videotaping...... 54 Journals and Observations ...... 54 Analysis of Research Data...... 55 Ensuring Quality in Research—Methodological Criteria...... 57

iv Authenticity...... 58 Confidentiality ...... 60 Limitation...... 60 Conclusion ...... 61 CHAPTER 4 DATA COLLECTIONS AND FINDINGS ...... 62 Introduction...... 62 Action Research...... 64 Journal Assignment...... 65 Research Questions...... 65 Data Sources ...... 65 Themes of Action Research Study...... 67 Jarvis ...... 68 Discussion...... 85 LaToya ...... 88 Discussion...... 107 What I learned from Action Research ...... 118 Choosing theory as a lens to inform practice...... 120 Deciding How to Change My Tutoring Practice ...... 121 CHAPTER 5 ETHNOGRAPHY RESEARCH AND FINDINGS ...... 122 Introduction...... 122 Ethnographic Methods...... 123 Human Subject Research ...... 124 Stepping Back in Oral History: African-American Teachers of Monitor School 1942-1954 125 CHAPTER 6 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN AFRICAN-AMERICAN SCIENCE TEACHER. 169 Introduction...... 169 Introductory Story...... 170 Exploring my research ...... 172 Spiral Dynamic Analysis ...... 173 Monitor’s African-American Teachers...... 174 My Public Education: Introductory Story...... 176 CHAPTER 7 BELIEFS/VALUES OF AN AFRICAN-AMERICAN SCIENCE TEACHER .. 201 Introduction...... 201 Lived Experiences and Action Research ...... 201 Cross-Culture Communication ...... 204 Origin of Values...... 204 Implications...... 212 Conclusion ...... 213 APPENDIX A HUMAN SUBJECT FORMS ...... 214 APPENDIX B RESEARCH QUESTIONS...... 220 Action Research...... 220 Student Tutoring ...... 220 Students’ Journal Assignment...... 220 Ethnography...... 220 Teacher Questionnaire ...... 220 APPENDIX C ACTION RESEARCH ...... 221 JARVIS’ TRANSCRIPTION OF TAPES...... 221

v Tutoring Session 1 ...... 221 Tutoring Sessions 2...... 225 Tutoring Session 3 ...... 233 Tutoring Session 4 ...... 236 Tutoring Session 5 ...... 241 LATOYA’S TRANSCRIPTION OF TAPES...... 245 Tutoring Sessions 1...... 245 Tutoring Session 2 ...... 251 Tutoring Session 3 ...... 258 Tutoring Session 4 ...... 267 Tutoring Session 5 ...... 271 ETHNOGRAPHY RESEARCH...... 281 Conversation with Mrs. Mable Goseer ...... 281 Conversation with Mrs. Oltha Pettigrew ...... 286 Conversation with Mr. Charles Hall ...... 288 APPENDIX D ARTIFACTS ...... 296 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 312 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 324

vi LIST OF FIGURES

1 Wilber’s Model 13 2 Graves/Beck & Cowan (1996) Spiral Dynamic Colors/Codes of Thinking 28 3 Autoethnographers Research Process 37 4 Inquiry within Four Quadrants 38 5 Integral Theory Model 38 6 Crystallization of Action Research Methodologies and Methods 48 7 Crystallization of Ethnographic Methodologies and Methods 51 8 Quality Criteria 59 9 Action Research Participants 66 10 Johann Friedrich Herbart’s Curriculum Pedagogy 115 11 Theoretical Model: Comparing and contrasting themes and concepts 116 12 Ethnographic Participants 123 13 Mrs. Goseer 126 14 Mrs. Pettigrew 128 15 Mr. Hall 129 16 Factors Emerge as Contributing to Successful Teaching 131 17 Monitor’s African-American Teachers’ Color Values 132 18 Barriers Most Commonly Emerged 134 19 Outcomes of Involvement 134 20 Mrs. Goseer vMeme 143 21 Mrs. Pettigrew vMeme 147 22 Mr. Hall vMeme 160 23 Monitor School, built 1927. Photography taken from “Born Colored: Life 171 Before Bloody Sunday” (Mitchell, 2005) 24 Map/Path I walked to Monitor school 171 25 Integral Theory Model 172 26 Value Theory Model 174 27 Monitor’s 1932 African-American Teachers 177 28 Monitor’s 1954 Graduates 181 29 Researcher’s Values 199

vii 30 Action Research Results 202 31 Monitor’s teachers Value Chart 205 32 Researcher’s Value Chart 206 33 Comparison of African -American and Researcher’s Values 207 34 Public School Records 296 35 11th Grade (1953) Banquet 297 36 Monitor’s Segregated School 298 37 Eve’s Educational Finalist 299 38 Leadership Jacksonville 300 39 Teaching Certificate 301 40 Teaching Certificate 302 41 Faculty Certificate 302 42 Florida State Board of Health Clinical Licenses 303 43 Florida State Board of Health Clinical Licenses 304 44 Hazardous Program at FJC/FCCJ 305 45 President’s Letter of Recommendation 306 46 Dr. Dustman’s Computer Program 307 47 Human Anatomy and Physiology Society Conference 308 48 Distinguished Teacher Award Letter 309 49 Teacher of the Year Awards 1975-1976 310 50 Passing the Teacher of the Year Award 1976 310 51 Thirty-five Years of College Service 311

viii ABSTRACT

This inquiry used reflective autobiographical research to reveal my beliefs, values, and practices of science teaching by using participatory action research with two students of my science tutoring organization. Also, I conducted an ethnographic inquiry using African- American teachers to understand how my early schooling experiences influenced my beliefs, values, and science practices. I collected data for this inquiry from three African-American teachers through interview- conversation that were videotaped and audiotaped. In addition, I audiotaped two African- American students’ tutoring practices along with students’ and researcher’s journals. The findings indicate that African-American teachers during the school years 1942-1954 used families, churches, and communities to secure teaching resources to provide equal education for their African-American students who received limited resources from the board of education. Also indicated was how African-American teachers instilled in their African- American students a level of motivation that remained with some African-American students for their future endeavors. This researcher’s beliefs/values similar to those of her segregated teachers emerged from this action research. Researcher’s additional beliefs/values arose out of emerging technologies in teaching science. However, I, as the researcher, believe that the origin of my beliefs/values occurred during those segregated, public school experiences at Monitor Schools during the school years 1942-1954.

ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Introductory Story The United States had a “separate but equal” policy for public schools long before my mother was born. In Fitzgerald, Georgia, this policy created all-white, public schools for white students with white teachers and all-black, segregated, public schools for African-American students with African-American teachers. This policy also created “separate and unequal” treatment among the schools, allowing the all-white schools to receive new buildings, books and supplies. Although the all-black school building was new and warm; the “unequal” treatment came through outdated books, used furniture, and limited supplies from the used stock pile of the all-white schools, as items filtered down when no longer needed by the all-white schools. This national phenomenon influenced my public education. I began my public education in Monitor School’s primer class. Monitor was located in east Fitzgerald, where most of the African-Americans families lived. I lived in West Fitzgerald, with my grandparents, Julius, Anna, and three of their five children. My grandparents’ home was located just one block from one of the all-white schools. However, in order for me to get to my school; I walked 13 blocks past two all-white schools to East Fitzgerald and my school. Monitor had two large brick buildings; one building for the elementary classes and one building for the junior and high schools. A third smaller building housed the homemaking classes for girls and vocational programs for boys. I completed my public education requirements graduating from 12th grade in 1954. Throughout the history of those twelve years (1942-1954) I received support from my grandmother, aunts, and uncles. My oldest aunt was a teacher at the school and monitored my educational advancement at all times. She tutored me when I needed help. In an extreme case, my aunt moved me into her home when my grades did not meet her approval. My grandmother and uncles helped in the tutoring process. My family expected me to do well, and I did. After graduation in 1954 from high school I moved to Jacksonville, Florida and continued my education in an all-black college: Edward Waters College; in Jacksonville, before transferring to Florida A & M University in Tallahassee, Florida. There I received my B.S. degree in Biology/Chemistry in 1967. In 1970, I was granted a M.S. degree in science education

1 from Florida A & M. My first experience in integrated schools came in 1974 when I began an Educational Leadership degree at Florida State University, graduating with a Specialist degree in 1976. Finally, in 2003, following my retirement from Florida Community College at Jacksonville, I returned to pursue my doctorate in science education at Florida State University. My career began as a full-time technician in a State of Florida Heart Research Laboratory (1967-1968), while teaching one biology class at Florida Junior College. After one year, I resigned from the Research Laboratory due to unequal treatment. I then accepted a full time job at the college, working as a college professor, teaching biology, human anatomy and physiology and later, serving as Chairperson of Natural Sciences (1968- 2003). Over the next 35 years I received many awards for my work as a science professor. Now retired and tutoring science, I came back to Florida State University campus to pursue a doctorate in science education to improve and expand my science tutoring practices so that I could realize my vision of an organization I call Kollege Kampus. My vision for Kollege Kampus is to construct an intergenerational campus that not only allows retired science teachers to come to the campus to tutor science students but also allows other retirees from other disciplines to come and share their different experiences with the younger students. One thing that helped me as a single parent while raising my five children (one biological son and four adopted children, two girls and two boys) was an organization of retired officers from the local military base who had created a program that allowed my boys, along with other young boys, to spend two week-ends per month on the base living in the barracks while learning values that gave them positive direction in their life. What impressed my boys most were the uniforms the boys wore while on the base. This mentoring motivated two of my boys to enter the Navy and Marines after their high school graduation. My belief is that retirees of all disciplines have special experiences that need to be shared with the younger generations. By placing the intergenerational communities together on the same campus, everyone benefits. Receiving my Ph.D. can help me achieve my vision and gain the prestige that comes with the degree. I plan to achieve my degree by developing a more thorough theoretical basis for my vision. My vision includes understanding both the teaching and learning by 1) understanding my values and the experiences from my teachers at Monitor school, and 2) by connecting these to

2 the literature on learning among African-Americans. By using the practice of reflective autobiographical research, my research interest is to understand my values of science teaching by using Participatory Action Research with the participation of two tutees in my practice. Also, by conducting an ethnographic inquiry using African-American teachers, my intention is to blend ethnographic inquiry and my autobiography as a means for understanding African-American experiences and to tell about a culture during my school years (1942-1954).

Segregated Education I would be the last person to claim that our nation is perfect. But we have a kind of perfection in us because our founding principle is universal that we all are created equal regardless of race, religion, or national ancestry. When the Declaration of Independence was written, when the Constitution was adopted, when the Bill of Rights was added to it, they all applied almost exclusively to white men of Anglo-Saxon descent who owned property on the East Coast. They did not apply to me. I am female. I am black. But these self-evident principles apply to me now as they apply to everyone in this room. (Barbara Jordan, 1996) Under the “separate but equal” interpretation of the United States Constitution, separate and unequal public education was codified into law for African-American students. National and individual attempts at integration help fill the history of the African-American struggle in the quest for equal educational opportunities. In order to create equal opportunities for African- American students in the United States one must consider the socio-cultural experiences that shaped the life of African-Americans. As indicated in the history of public school education, racial injustice against African-American students was the norm as compared with the education of white students (Du Bois, 1935; Washington, 1936; Bethune, 1964). Mary McLeod Bethune decided to build a school for African-American girls because of the influence of the ideas of two African-American leaders and educators: Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois. Booker T. Washington, a former slave, had founded the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Alabama to educate African-American farmers. He urged them to acquire land and learn how to cultivate it. Washington believed that African-Americans needed to learn practical trades like farming and carpentry. Bethune, with just $1.50 journeyed with her young son to Daytona Beach, Florida where she found laborers and their families living in severe poverty. She was warned that the Ku Klux Klan committed violent acts against anyone who

3 tried to improve the status of African-Americans. Determined, she located a two-story cottage that she rented for $11.00 per month. Her plans were to live on one floor and use the other floor for her school. With no school furnishings, a large barrel became her desk and discarded crates served as chairs for the students; charred pencils were used for writing. On October 3, 1904, Bethune’s dream came true for the Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro Girls. Her first students were five little girls: Ruth, Lucille, Lena, Ana, and Celeste. Her son, Albert, also attended until he transferred to the Haines Institute. The school’s tuition was fifty cents per week per student, which did not cover the expense of the school. She drew other funding from African-American churches and found resources in the wider community. Less than two years later, her enrollment was 250 students. She later received donations from James Gamble of Procter & Gamble Company and Thomas H. White of Cleveland, Ohio, who owned the company that manufactured White sewing machines. Bethune added more classes to her curriculum, including classes for the production of a skilled labor force, in order to receive monies specifically for that purpose from the Slater Funds. At the same time, she maintained a segregated educational system. Throughout her life she did whatever worked best for her African-American students. One black leader rejected this philosophy. W. E. B. Du Bois, an African-American educator and a graduate of Harvard University, believed African-American students should also study academic subjects such as literature and languages if they desired to do so. He believed that these students should use their head as well as their hands to get ahead in life. Those who agreed with Du Bois were critical of Bethune and her emphasis on teaching vocational skills rather than intellectual pursuits. In response, soon Bethune added academic courses as her school grew. This was just the beginning of much more to come for the Daytona Beach community. At the same time in Virginia, one of the many examples of dissatisfaction of the conditions of public school occurred when a principal and teacher in a Virginia all-black school launched a strike that lasted the remainder of the school year. It began one morning when the principal and the teacher (Davis, 1952) called all African-American students together to march downtown to the courthouse in an attempt to make officials aware of the grave inequities in the public education that existed between African-American students and white students. The principal stated that over 450 students were crammed in an 8-room schoolhouse intended for only 180 students, creating an overflow of students into three tar paper-covered buildings on the

4 lawn of the school. These conditions were barely tenable, while the white students were in a modern facility with plenty of room. The ensuing protest caused parents of the African- American students to lose their jobs. In spite of the fact that many African-Americans who were working in various county school departments, along with African-American teachers, lost their jobs, the people felt the protest was worth the sacrifice. The students, with their parents’ support, protested the lack of equal education to which they were entitled under the Supreme Court’s decision Plessey v. Ferguson that called for “separate but equal” facilities. After the principal, along with teachers and students, re-evaluated their situation, they decided that “separate and unequal” should not exist and total integration should be their goal. After many lawsuits at the local and state levels, cases such as Davis et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et al. joined four other cases in the Supreme Court of the United States and became the civil rights landmark case of Brown vs. Board of Education. The Supreme Court of the United States overturned the Plessey v. Ferguson provision and insisted on integration of all public schools in the United States. Many of the counties decided that rather than integrate the public schools, they would close the schools, and for four long years African-American students did not have access to public education. The more affluent white students attended private academies for their K-12 education until integration came in 1954 to all the public schools in Virginia. Among the many court cases for public school equality, Brown vs. Board of Education was one of the most important decisions that affected educational equality in the United States. The Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown vs. Board of Education that segregation in public school was unconstitutional was the first successful case to exert great force on public school education and the American society. The ruling that “segregation of white and colored children in public schools had a detrimental effect upon the colored children” additionally gave protection to African-American students in the Fourteenth Amendment; a guarantee of the enforcement of inalienable rights. However, 50 years later in 2004, segregation persists in the classrooms in some public schools such as those described in the Harvard report. Professor Gary Orfield, a Harvard education professor sees schools as still profoundly unequal and stated that no one has plans to fix them. The Harvard report showed in Florida that 70% (CNN-Gallup Poll, 1994) of African- American students still attend schools with mostly minority students. The Brown decision

5 removed the “Separate-but-equal” clause from the law books, but it did not address how education was handled between races in the day-to-day communities. The basic difference between 1950’s forced segregation and today’s segregated-by-choice (Eaton, 1994) is that today’s focus is mainly on ensuring that African-American students receive separate but equal education. Today the struggle is more focused on trying to close the educational gap in education. For example, science-policy makers, through the National Science Education Standards (Standards, 1996) are mandating actions of teachers and students. These standards serve to place “equal” back into the educational provision of the constitution for teaching science. The Standards describe a vision of science teaching and learning for all students, however, problems still exist, due to the educational knowledge gap that has developed over the years between minority students and white students. The Standards are designed to close that gap by standardizing science for all students. Where that gap is concerned, the science literature states that the influences of the Standards in teaching and student achievement are inconclusive (Biddle, 1997). Biddle argues that we already know the most important problems facing black schools and those problems have nothing to do with the Standards. He states that many schools in America are poorly funded and must contend with high levels of poverty that drastically deplete badly needed resources. For the schools to meet the needs of equal education some schools must receive more resources for their students. In the early 1950’s, it was not just schools that were legally segregated. Racial separation was an ingrained way of American life. This is clearly depicted in Braithwaite’s “To Sir with Love” (1960), which is based on the experiences of an African-American teacher with impressive United States engineering credentials who had no choice but to take a job in England teaching rough, immature, British teenagers in middle school. In an attempt to succeed in teaching the students, the African-American teacher transcended racial stereotypes in the British classroom; never lowering himself to the students’ gang-like behavior. The classroom conflicts eased as the students slowly came to accept the African-American teacher who taught with a combination of firmness, respect, and compassion. Another issue of segregation occurred in the story when the African-American teacher fell in love with a white teacher, leading to an invitation of the African-American teacher and his

6 African-American parents to visit the white-family home with the intention of announcing their marriage plans. This visit created tense moments as the couple announced their engagement to both families. To see the negative reactions demonstrated by the white father and the African- American father and then the opposite reactions demonstrated by the white mother and the African-American mother, again clearly illustrates that segregation exists not only in public education but is historically embedded in our culture. In yet another situation, Maya Angelou’s poem, “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” (1969) describes a case of African-Americans’ resistance to racism. Staged in Arkansas, Angelou struggled with insecurity and displacement throughout her childhood to maintain her dignity and self-respect; never capitulating to racist indignities.

Purpose of the Study I spent more than 35 years teaching science and tutoring science in a community college in Florida. Since my retirement in 2003, I returned to college to learn how to write. In order to write, my first quest was to learn about myself through research so I could learn more about how and why I valued some teaching techniques over others, and to better prepare to reach others through tutoring. So, the major purpose of my study is to explore, articulate, and understand my personal beliefs/values about science teaching to African-American students. To do this I must better understand from what experiences they stem. As I look back, one of the advantages of attending my segregated, all-black, public school allowed me to focus on learning, not on any activity dealing with the unfairness of the situation. In 1942, when I began school, I was too young to know what was happening in reference to public schooling. However, as I got older I realized that I was passing by two white schools to get to my all-black, segregated school. I think the fact that our African-American teachers never spoke to the students concerning segregation issues kept my focus on doing well in school, graduating, and going to college. “You finish school after you complete four years of college,” was heard often from my aunt who taught elementary school. I think this was one of the contributing factors for my success and desire to reach the highest educational level possible. I especially believe you do not complete school until you graduate from a four-year college or university. As I grew older, majoring in science, my belief was that I should continue my education to keep current with science discoveries and changes. The challenge remains to

7 look at my own beliefs and practices and to better understand them so that the end results of other’s success in education and specifically science, can be duplicated.

History of the Study For the past 35 years (1968-2003), I (the researcher), have taught science at Florida Community College at Jacksonville (FCCJ) in Jacksonville, Florida. I came into the educational environment from a medical-chemical research profession of molecular separation (electrophoresis) in a State of Florida Medical Research Laboratory—a very different experience. The fact that I transferred some of the laboratory experiences into the classroom in the year 1967 proved to be a new venture in the biology classroom laboratory. I worked in the state laboratory setting as a medical laboratory technician, and I became one of the first three persons to receive State of Florida certification as a technician. In 1968, my employment at the college became full-time, and I taught there until 2003. During my tenure at the college, I tutored my children at home, along with selected African- American students at the college. During the teaching of Human Anatomy and Physiology, tutoring became a regular feature on the campus and I invited students from other campuses who were enrolled in the same class to join the group. During the past 12 years, with the second generation of students at the college, and my efforts to help my grandchildren with their educational endeavors, the tutoring organization became known as “Kollege Kampus.” Tutoring occurred not only in the classrooms until my retirement in June 2003, but also in the homes of students and in my home. Since returning to the campus of Florida State University (FSU) with the expectation of learning to do research and report it, I have wanted to examine my beliefs/values of science teaching in the tutoring organization. In order to accomplish this task, I have decided to write about my self in the form of a reflective autobiography.

Significance of the Study Nothing is as useful as good theory informed by years of great teaching and a commitment to empower education for all students (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2000). This statement could have been written to describe my schooling experiences I received during my segregated, all-black, public school education and the 35 years of dedicated science teaching experiences at the local community college in Jacksonville, Florida. I also conducted sessions of

8 science tutoring for the students who needed the additional help to ensure their understanding of the concepts. As I compare the educational opportunities of the African-American students of the 1942-1954 school years to the opportunities of the students today, 2006, many changes are visible and opportunities are greater for the students of today. My schooling, as an African- American student, occurred in an all-black, public school with African-American teachers who received used books and supplies from the all-white public schools and a lower salary than their white counterparts. In spite of their inferior situation, those successful African-American teachers were able to motivate their students to become successful. I am one of their successful students, and this is my study. This study focuses on the study of my own life history and experiences. This study will explore my teachers voicing their beliefs/values concerning their teaching experiences in their all-black, public schools and how they contributed to the formation of my values. This study also uses supportive practitioner research in which the researcher engages in understanding self and practice in classroom-based research for the purpose of enabling the researcher to reflect critically on the impact of her beliefs/values as they inform in her teacher role. The knowledge of teaching and learning that emerges from this personalized form of research is of practical nature (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988) and can yield unique insights into the wisdom and methodology of experienced science teachers. The contribution of this research adds to the body of literature concerning African-American science teachers’ beliefs/values, and practices in the science classrooms.

Research Questions My research interest as an African-American educator is in examining my educational beliefs/values and practices concerning teaching science to African-American students, in order to understand them better and use that knowledge to improve my science teaching practice. In order for me to accomplish the goals of this study, the following questions will guide my inquiry: 1. What are my personal values about teaching science? 2. Using my experiences as a tutor what values do they reveal? 3. Using these values as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these values?

9 As I answer these general questions, the study will produce deeper understandings of myself and my beliefs/values and practices in the teaching of science to African-American students.

Organization of the Study To see the whole picture, I must first set the stage. United States history is rich with discussions on segregated issues in public education. Therefore, to put this study in context, I examine the history of the most important Supreme Court ruling on segregation in the United States public schools and the effects of those rulings on African-American teachers in this chapter 1, Introduction. Also in chapter 1, the researcher presents the purpose of the study, history of the study, significance of the study, and research questions. In chapter 2, reviewing the literature presents various studies and research on African- American science educators’ experiences that reveal their beliefs/values system for teaching. Using the black feminist theory (Collins, 1990) Afrocentricity (Asante, 2003), and tutoring (Koskinen & Tossavainer, 2003), I will gather data and attempt to understand my beliefs/values and practices of science teaching. In chapter 3, Methodology, using research processes autoethnography (Roth, 2000) ethnomethodology (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), phenomenology (Husserl, 1970), interpretive research (Schwandt, 1989), autobiography (Roth, 2000), and action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000; Kemmis, 1991), allows me the opportunities to gather information to understand my practice for self-improvement. In chapter 4, Data Collection and Findings using Participatory Action Research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000), ethical considerations (informed consent, right to privacy, and protection from harm), visual recordings (Harper, 1994), tutoring (Jenkins & Jenkins, 1987), audiotaping (Sack, 1992b), analysis (Crabtree & Miller, 1999a), and interpretation (Neumann, 1996), hermeneutic (Gadamer, 1996) will allow tutoring students to help me understand my practices and values of science teaching. In chapter 5, Data Collection and Findings using Ethnographic Research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), ethical considerations (informed consent, right to privacy, and protection from harm), visual recordings (Harper, 1994), conversation (Sacks, 1998), oral history (Starr, 1984), interpreting interviews (Van Maanen, 1988), artifact (Miller, 1985), Analysis (Crabtree & Miller,

10 1999a), crystallization (Richardson, 1994b), hermeneutic (Gadamer, 1996), value level (Graves), and narratives (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). The themes emerging from this research include providing equal education for the African-American students, creating new classroom environments, attending basic needs, and creating school, family, and community bonds. In chapter 6, Autobiography of an African-American Science teacher practice (Roth, 2000), is the researcher’s story of her own science classroom practice with her students. In chapter 7, Beliefs and Values of an African-American Teachers, compares the emerged values (Beck & Cowan, 1996) of the researcher to the values of Monitor’s African- American teachers.

11 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Teachers’ life stories attempts to change the teachers themselves and the educational system of which they are parts of, in their quest in seeking a voice. Charlie Chaplin, 1952

Introduction Using the theories of Afrocentricity (Asante, 2003), Critical Race Theory (Ladson- Billings, 1995), black feminist theory (Collins, 1990; Ladson-Billings, 1995) tutoring (Jenkin & Jenkin, 1987), ethnographic inquiry (Roth, 2000), the integral theory (Wilber, 2000), and Spiral Dynamics (Graves; Beck & Cowan, 1996), I seek to understand my own practices in tutoring African-American youth. To develop more depth of understanding the origin of my beliefs/values, I explored my experiences through the eyes of my African-American teachers. As this understanding developed I can see why I focused on the practices I used. Through this more critical understanding I can analyze what practices I need to keep and those I need to change in order to assist my students in being more successful.

Integral Theory Integral theory (Wilber, 1998) describes the attempts to balance our experiences at various stages of development. Wilber traces the course of evolution from matter to life to mind and describes the common patterns that evolve in all domains. From the consciousness of the mind he traces evolution of human consciousness through stages of growth and development. Each of the four quadrants expresses different types of consciousness and its development (intentional, behavioral, cultural, and social), and each unfolds in a sequence of stages or levels. The “1P” (Upper Left) quadrant (Fig.1) represents the interior of the individual holons; but always, every individual holon allowed me the opportunity to understand self through bending back into consciousness to recall and understand my experiences during my 1942-1954 segregated, public schooling for writing my autobiography. In the “I” quadrant we viewed the Afrocentricity theory (Asante, 1987), Critical race theory, (Ladson-Billings, 1995), and Black feminist theory, (Collins, 1990).

12 The “3P” (Upper Right) quadrant views my tutoring beliefs/values from tutoring my African-American students, and to accept any changes to improve my practice recommended by the tutoring students. The Upper Right quadrant transcends, but includes its predecessor in a nonreciprocal fashion. For example, a cell contains molecules, but not vice versa, a molecule contains atoms, but not vice versa. Each of these individual units, molecule and cell is called a holon. The “2P” (Lower Left) quadrant views Monitor African-American teachers’ beliefs/values, locating the issues within a broader culture, my understanding through stories of African-American teachers supporting triangulation of school, community, and church concerning their practice experiences in my segregated school Monitor. My practice, understood through tutoring two African-American students exist in a community, which is located in the collective form of individual consciousness. Our understanding communally shared values were actively voiced in the Lower-Left quadrant.

1P UL 3P UR Integral theory Action Research Self beliefs/values Tutoring Afrocentricity theory African-American tutoring students Black Feminist theory Critical Race theory Spiral dynamics Autobiography

2P LL 4P LR Autoethnographic inquiry New Science teaching direction Locating issues within a broader culture Educational policy Segregated schools Educational Standards Monitor’s African-American teachers Maslow’s theory Spiral dynamics Fig. 1. Wilber’s Model Application

13 The “4P” (Lower Right) quadrant brings understanding of new directions in science teaching. Individual holons always exists in communities of similar holons. These communities, collectives, or societies situate themselves in the Lower Right quadrant.

Afrocentricity theory Asante (1988), after viewing the work of Woodson and Dubois, developed his new world research process to serve as a platform for the African-American scholar. The development of Afrocentricity is due to leading researchers who argued against the observations and insights of outside scholars claiming to have insider monopoly on the production of knowledge regarding life worlds differing from those of outsiders. This resulted in the negative treatment of Afrocentric scholarship in mainstream sociology and other social sciences (Asante, 1991). Afrocentricity seeks to enshrine the idea that blackness itself is a model of ethics, thus to be black is to be against all forms of oppression, racism, classism, homophobia, child abuse, and white racial domination. Afrocentricity is therefore the centerpiece of human regeneration for African-Americans. An Afrocentric perspective will help define my beliefs/values as an African-American educator concerning teaching science to African-American students. My intensions are not only to find out about the connections of my life history to my beliefs from my teachers and their experiences in the all-black segregated, public schools but also to offer the readers opportunities of identification and dialogue.

Black feminists theory Feminist theory (Collins, 1990) is a lens to inform the practice of science. Black feminists have argued that they are not represented on any platform and thus have no opportunities to voice their views. Liberation and black feminist thoughts are re-centered in the new world discourse of Afrocentricity (Asante, 2003). This new world methodology asks the questions, where and what are the places of women/persons of color, their communities and families? These concerned scholars created this platform especially to allow African-Americans’ opportunities to be the “star” in their inquiries. The criteria of the Afrocentric lived experiences include dialogue, caring, race, class, gender, reflexivity, emotion, and praxis of African- American unfolding in narratives. Patricia Hill Collins (1990) uses Afrocentricity to develop an Afrocentric standpoint focusing on primacy of lived experiences of African-Americans. She uses dialogs in assessing

14 knowledge claims, the ethics of caring, and the ethics of personal accountability. She contrasts black-female wisdom to knowledge without wisdom: “A heap sees, but a few know” (Collins, 1990, p. 208). Wisdom is experiential, cultural, and shared in the African-American community. Dialogue, bell hooks (1990) argues, is humanizing speech. Black feminists assess knowledge through storytelling, connecting dialogue in a group context, which they translate into feminist text. Black feminists (Collins, 1990; hooks, 1990) remind us that women of color experience a triple subjugation based on class, race, and gender. Collins (1990) recognizing black feminists who begin to dissolve the whiteness in feminist research, relates to the writings of Angela Davis (1981), Bonnie Thornton Dill (1979), Effie Chow (1987), bell hooks (1990), and Gloria Anzaldua (1987). Feminist research then moved from criticism of academic disciplines (Stacey & Thorne, 1985) to women’s lives and experiences. Feminist literature begins presenting black female understandings concerning class, race, gender, violence, sexuality, marriage, men, and intimacy (Collins, 1990). In various accounts, African-American females see themselves as “outsiders” excluded from recognition, important positions, and significant rewards, in predominantly white settings. This discrimination is most common in the workplace where they cite discriminatory training and promotions, racial threats and epithets, racist jokes, subtle slights, and lack of social support. The focus of the black feminist on black students’ culture enhances the social support of black students allowing social support to come down many different avenues. Along an educational road, social support in the form of tutoring that enhances students’ knowledge and self-confidence in their educational goals is rewarding on many different levels.

Critical Race Theory Critical race theory introduced to education by Ladson-Billings (1995) is considered a school of thought that emphasizes the socially constructed nature of race, considers judicial conclusions to be the result of the working of power, and opposes the continuation of racial subordination. Since those of the dominant culture are the primary beneficiaries of the court legislation, critical race theory thought is applied where oppression of minorities is litigated by the courts (Tate, 1997).

15 Critical race theory sometimes uses telling, compelling stories (Ladson-Billings, 1993) into which legal issues were embedded, because African-American communities find stories more powerful. Storytellers integrate their experiential knowledge from shared history along their struggles to transform their world from negative racial hegemony to positive changes

Tutoring I was tutoring many years before I formed my organization (Kollege Kampus) to organize educational help for my grandchildren. Jenkins and Jenkins describe different tutoring methods and types. The process utilized mostly over the years by me, teacher-mediated tutoring, allowed me the opportunity to teach students according to their best learning style. It is important for teachers to recognize students’ preferred learning style for best results. Research refers to many tutoring approaches. Two approaches I use are techniques in which a teacher tutors a student, called cross-age tutoring, and peer tutoring, allowing students to become teachers themselves for other students (Hedin, 1987). Among the benefits of cross-age and peer tutoring not only includes the student’s ability to develop and learn science concepts, but also improves self-esteem (Greenwood, et.al. 1988). Hedin (1987), argues that tutoring creates more cooperative, pleasant classroom atmospheres during the tutoring sessions. Another potential tutoring benefit is the development of student transferable skills, when students themselves become adults (Stray, et. al., 1993). Researchers state significant beneficial effects on the language achievement if tutors (Rekrut, 1992) and especially tutees (Barbara et.al., 1991) are ethnically and culturally matched. African-American teachers’ advantage in tutoring African-American students is that they, themselves, grew up in the same type of culture and had similar experiences as their students. I experienced tutoring in my segregated schooling, terminating in my educational improvement. From my experiences of tutoring collectively and individually in college, I am convinced that tutoring science is a successful means for improving the success of understanding science and improving the success of the students. Now that I am retired, I am still tutoring, but now with greater understanding of understanding my beliefs/values of teaching science.

Locating the issues within a broader context Teachers live and work within multiple, embedded contexts, both personal and professional that affect the creation of their beliefs system. In Ball and Goodson’s (1995)

16 Teacher’s Lives and Careers, accenting teachers in the daily give and take of teaching in classrooms and schools in a domain that endures fads of curriculum reform and school innovation (under the control of centralized administrators) describes the lives of my own African-American teachers when I was a school girl. The fact that they accepted their teaching materials from used “products” of the all-white schools and had to constrain their efforts to speak for themselves or their students, is an indication of the oppression in which they had to function. African-American teachers, with few resources to draw from, provided the best possible educational foundation for the African-American students whom they taught (Siddle-Walker, 1996). They improvised and created an environment that allowed their students to learn in the poorest of conditions (Mark, in Foster, 1999). Many of the African-American teachers were very young as they began their teaching careers and some grew up with their students. African- American teachers believed access to books was essential to getting an adequate education, but access diverged along racial lines (Ball & Goodson, 1995). The all-black, segregated school received outdated books, while in some states such as North Carolina, textbooks for all-black, segregated, public schools were rented by parents and were always second hand books from white schools (Littlefield, p. 37, 1994). Teachers remembered, “We got the greasy, torn, dog- eared books; “white student got the new ones” (Littlefield, p.7). Many of the teachers collected old newspapers to develop students’ reading skills and to help them learn mathematics concepts (Lightfield, 1994). Libraries and library holdings in schools for African-Americans were inferior to those of white schools (Morris, in Foster, 1999). Such conditions motivated African- American teachers to adopt survival strategies for their students’ success. Teaching under these conditions, African-American female teachers were at a disadvantage and most historical studies of African-Americans deal with aspects of double and triple oppression (Collins, 1993). African-American students became high achievers and successful scholars due to African-American female teachers’ willingness to labor long hours to provide their education (Ladson-Billings, 1994). Students were high achievers in spite of their lack of supplies (Collins, 1993) and developed a tremendous sense of responsibility at a very early age (Grace, in Foster, 1999). As African-American teachers were preparing their students for bigger life roles, economic circumstances of African-Americans made it unrealistic to assume that because one was a female, one would be taken care by marriage. Therefore, teachers

17 prepared African-American female students for additional income producing jobs (Grace, in Foster, 1999). James Baldwin (Foster, 1997), a New York junior high school teacher who taught in the early sixties, believed teaching African-American children to be a revolutionary act. Throughout history, black teachers in the United States’ southern states taught African-American students because African-Americans lived principally in the South (Baldwin, in Foster, 1997). A policy of “separate but equal” schooling existed, and the southern laws mandated that African- American teachers could teach only in segregated schools (Baldwin, in Foster, 1997). Of the 63,697 African-American teachers hired in the United States in 1940, the majority; 46, 381 were employed in the South (USA Today/CNN/Gallup poll, 1994). Somewhat of an improvement in Northern cities, African-American teachers did enjoy more unrestricted job opportunities, but still within the segregated system (USA Today/CNN/Gallup poll, 1994). However, in 26 all- black schools in Chicago in 1930, only 34 percent of the faculty was African-American (USA Today/CNN/Gallup poll, 1994). In Philadelphia in the 1940’s, only 30 schools with student populations of at least 75 percent African-American had predominantly white faculties and 140 schools had no African-American teachers at all (USA Today/CNN/Gallup poll, 1994). The pattern of hiring African-American teachers was restricted to segregated, all-black schools. African-American teachers rarely taught white students, but white teachers taught African- American students. As the relationship between employing African-American teachers and creating segregated schools tightened, W.E.B. Dubois, in his “The Tragedy of Jim Crow” in Crisis (1920), described the dilemma of attacking segregated, public schools while at the same time trying to honor and appreciate their African-American teachers. Twenty years later, he revisited the same problem in his article “Wind of Change” (Dubois, 1963) in the Chicago Defender. Although Dubois was committed to a desegregated society throughout his lifetime, he summarized the plight of African-Americans in the American education system this way: And I know that race prejudice in the United States today is such that most Negroes cannot receive proper education in white situations...If the public schools of Atlanta, Nashville, New Orleans, and Jacksonville were thrown together today, the education that colored children would get in them would be worse than pitiable. And in the same way, there are many public school systems in the North where Negroes are admitted and

18 tolerated, but they are not educated: they are crucified. To sum up this: theoretically, the Negro needs neither separated nor mixed schools. What he needs is education. What he must remember is that there is no magic either in mixed schools or segregated schools. A mixed school with poor unsympathetic teachers, with hostile public opinion and no teaching of the truth concerning black folk is bad. A segregated school with ignorant placeholders, inadequate equipment, and poor salaries are equally bad. Other things being equal, the mixed school is the broader, more natural basis for the education of all youth. It gives wider contrasts; it inspires greater self-confidence; and suppresses the inferiority complex. But other things seldom are equal, and in that case, Sympathy, Knowledge, and the Truth outweigh all that the mixed school can offer (Dubois, 1963). The restriction of segregation forced the African-American teachers to work together in a community that was much like the home environment. African-American teachers adopted survival strategies for African-American students’ success (Mays 1999 in Foster). These teachers were African-American and had great power in their classrooms (Dawson, in Foster, 1999). Most of the teachers’ classrooms were places of order, hard work, and nearly perfect attendance in the elementary and junior high school years, despite the fact that the students had used supplies (Dawson, in Foster1999). These issues were characteristic of black segregated schools (Siddle-Walker, 2000). In Haskin’s (1969) Diary of a Harlem Schoolteacher, a high school teacher of chemistry described his classroom as “reflecting two Americas, one black and the other white.” He argues that every American educational institution had a dual set of standards: one for the black students and one for the white students: one for the poor students and one for rich students. This duality of standards deeply affected African-American students. One only had to look at how white Americans have structured the schools, courts, industry, businesses, housing, and most devastating, the ghettos that have been designed and built for African-Americans and other minorities. Haskin’s chemistry class in up-state New York had no sink, no running water and no supplies for chemistry experiments, an environment similar to Monitor’s school in Fitzgerald, Georgia. Therefore, African-American teachers in all areas of the United States experienced challenges in their segregated schools’ practices. The challenges of the African-American teachers to create optimal learning environments for African-American students to better ensure their success was worth the energies of the

19 African-American teachers. Kozol’s (1995) Amazing Grace is a book explaining public school troubles and its devastating effects that focused on the everyday lives of a group of African- American students who lived in the poorest congressional district of the United States, the South Bronx in New York. Their lives may seem extraordinary to us, but to them, they are normal. To the students of the South Bronx, living with pollution, sickness, drugs, and violence is the only way of life many of them have ever known. Kozol (1985) speaks of the horrible things presented to the African-American students in Boston’s public schools. Racism and inequality were just two of the many unjust conditions the African-American students experienced in the 1960’s while attending public schools in Boston. He reveals the numerous failings of a poor segregated Boston public school, such as an overcrowded facility, full of bigotry and blatant insensitivity that destroyed the learning and emotional environment for the young. Kozol (2005), states that the nation needs to be confronted with the crimes that are being committed and the betrayal of our young students.

Segregated schools The literature reveals the inequality that exists from the beginning of many African- American students’ educational journey. Many of the segregated schools where African- American teachers taught were dilapidated; supplies were limited and books discarded from white schools (Littlefield, 1994). Morris (Morris in Foster, 1999) describes one such school in Hampton, Virginia: In one of the all-black schools where I taught, whenever the temperature dropped down below thirty degrees, we were cold. There were times when the principal had to move us from one side of the building and double up classes because it was so cold. How can you teach in a double-up situation? (p.xxxii) Marks (Marks in Foster, 1999) of Lindale, Texas recalls the conditions she endured in her all-black school environment: In 1961 when our school burned down, we didn’t have textbooks of any kind. We held classes in the church. The white schools sent us their used textbooks just before they were ready to be put in the trash. Pages were torn out; they were old, worn, and so marked up that there wasn’t any space to write our names. (p. 83)

20 Dawson (Dawson in Foster, 1999) has experienced segregation both as a student and as a teacher: When people talk about separate but equal, I know what they are talking about. I know why they say the schools were inherently unequal, because I experienced it as a student and a teacher. In the black schools we only got the books the white kids had already used. They did not get the books that we used. In other words, we got the hand-me- downs. To this day it bothers me that those conditions existed anywhere in this country. (p. 3) How then, in such environments, do African-American students explain their academic successes? Many of the African-American students were very successful mainly due to teacher encouragement and extra efforts of African-American teachers promoting a positive mind frame. Among such teachers was Professor Benjamin E. Mays (Foster, 1999) from Georgia State University, who spoke about his own education in the segregated South at a conference. His positive experiences with the African-American teachers and the all-black schools he attended were indeed what he needed for his success. (Mays, 1999, p.45) ...that we need to look at the past through new eyes in order to determine what we might learn to help address the apparently difficult educational issue of providing an excellent education for all African-American children. The question might arise as to why African-Americans fought so hard for desegregation if segregation was so positive for African-American students? This question, often repeated in many forms is embedded within the struggle for civil rights, a myth that continues to haunt African-Americans. An important reason why African-Americans fought so hard for desegregation could be embedded in the worldviews of culture. Deep down African-Americans agreed with the larger cultural view that without access to white culture, white teachers, white schools, and white leadership, African-Americans could never adequately educate their children to succeed in the dominant of white culture or hope to create a decent future for their children embedded within it. Therefore, one purpose of the civil rights struggle was for equality for African-American teachers and students. (Eaton, 1994) The desegregation struggle was to gain the economic benefits and resources for African- American children that were commonly provided for white children (Foster, p.ix). The truth is

21 that integration was responsible for the closing of black schools and the massive layoffs of African-American teachers during the integration process (Foster, 1997), and it is integration that fostered attitude of some administrators to designate some teachers as “deserving” and others as “undeserving” (Foster, 1997); while nurturing the belief that white teachers can make education “so much better” for the poor black children stuck in the poor black schools (Foster, 1997). This is a tragically misguided myth of destructive power however in spite of their school environment many African-American teachers, motivated African-American students to their successes. Among others voicing their classroom experiences were Amanda Grace and Vanessa Siddle- Walker. Grace (Grace in Foster, 1999) started her career in a one-room school in rural Louisiana, taught enough content and created a loving-of-learning that by the end of the students third grade, her students could pass the entrance tests for civic service jobs as adults. Siddle-Walker (1996) in her book, The Highest Potential, describes a school and its teachers in segregated North Carolina that provided an excellent education for its poor clientele. Walker especially focused on the importance of dedicated teachers and the principals who believed their jobs extended beyond the classroom. Walker praises the parents who worked hard to support the African-American school.

Monitor’s African-American Teacher’s Beliefs/Values My public schooling was similar to some of the good experiences I read in the literature. Other experiences in some cases were quite different from those I experienced in my segregated, all-black, public schooling. My belief is that my African-American teachers who taught in Monitor’s segregated environment were held in high esteem and received the greatest respect from their African-American students. My experience was sheltered from the larger culture. The African-American teachers in the 1940’s and 1950’s seemed to be more dedicated to student needs, high levels of respect and morals, and quality in science learning. They were able to instill in their students a level of motivation for success that remained with their African- American students for the rest of their lives. I am a product of this “instillness”. To understand science teaching from the teachers’ perspective, we have to understand the beliefs by which they define their work (Nespor, 1987). Underhill (1988) supports this view by stressing the importance of assessing teacher beliefs/values and knowing how these

22 values/beliefs affects teacher practice. Pajares (1992) points out those teachers’ beliefs influence their perception and judgments, which affects them and their classroom behavior. In other words, beliefs have roles in shaping patterns of teachers’ instructional behaviors. Beliefs are personal constructs that can provide understanding of a teachers’ practice (Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1992; Richardson, 1997). Teachers’ beliefs about the nature of science are manifested in their teaching practice (Southerland, Gess-Newsome, Johnston, 2003). Ball and Goodson (1995), and Britzman (1991), assert that teachers base their choices on teachers’ values and beliefs, which are the product of their experiences. The literature reveals several studies of interest related to my inquiry. Jacqueline Jordan Irvine (2002), an African-American educator, looking at the beliefs of other African-American teachers, describes how race, class, and culture influence classroom pedagogy through the views of other African-American educators. In her “In search of wholeness: African-American teachers and their culturally specific classroom practices,” Irvine assumes that teachers cannot become fully functional persons and competent professionals if their cultural selves remain denied, hidden, and unexplored. Irvine states that teaching requires caring, concern, and connecting with students. Irvine also describes the importance of using culturally responsive pedagogies that focus on teaching styles and taking into account African-American teachers’ and African-American students’ unique cultural background. Other African-American teachers expressing their views on African-Americans’ classroom beliefs and practices include Vanessa Siddle Walker’s (1996) research on African- American teachers. Her inquiry reveals that African-American teachers are really “other mothering”, (p. 144) because there is this belief about their students’ ability to achieve. Mothering teachers not only want to help their students, but the entire ethnic group. In other words, teaching is demanding the best and in order for students to receive and demonstrate their best, their basic needs should be met (Maslow, 1954) Irvine (Foster, 1999) states teaching is a calling: “Historically, African-American teachers were held in high esteem, and saw teaching as a moral act, godly anointing or sacred calling.” (p. 144) Ware (2003) describes black teachers’ perceptions of their professional roles and practices, while focusing on how teachers instruct and nurture black students by using an ethic of caring about students, a strong belief in them as proficient and of their capabilities to learn.

23 Ware stresses also the importance of building upon students’ interests and prior knowledge, accepting the student’s use of black dialect to show respect and value for their home language while educating African-American students regarding Standard English. Cockerham (2003), a 50-year old African-American educator with 24 years of experience as a teacher in the New York public school system, explains how teachers with high efficacy gain confidence in their own abilities and work to create successful learning experiences for their students. Cockerham believes teachers with high efficacy influence students’ achievement, attitudes, growth, motivation, positive attitudes, optimism, and improve student self-direction.

Perception of Culture Cooper (2003) discusses the notion of cultural synchronization, which refers to the quality of fit between the teachers’ and students’ cultures as related to Afrocentricity and the culture of black life. She believes the closer the connections are between the teacher and the student’s cultural synchronization, the greater the chances for academic success. Her main belief is to work within the norms of the black culture while also helping these children be successful in traditional venues. In our segregated school, Monitor culture was not a problem. Ladson-Billings (1994) chronicles the stories of successes that are reversing the myths of African-American teachers. These teachers have long been committed to African-American students, believing in their unlimited potential, working hard to provide a quality education for them, despite difficult circumstances, struggling against all forms of racial oppression and building a sense of connection between African-American teachers, African-American students, and their African-American communities. Therefore, the African-American teachers-families- communities connection has been a part of the history of educating African-American students by African-American teachers. Monitor’s African-American teachers’ earlier knowledge of this practice helped create the success of their African-American students. African-American Southern teacher, Bernadine Morris (Foster, 1997), who lived in the black community, participated in the daily lives of the community, and helped to cement the relationship between parents and teachers. Morris stated: In Warrenton, [Virginia], teachers were respected by children and their families. I remember several Christmases, when even though the families didn’t have money to go out and buy the teacher a gift, the children would come to school with gifts, sometimes

24 that their families had raised. If you’d go to the home, the parents would often invite you back to dinner. They would notify you if their children were involved in various church activities and invite you to come see. The supportive relationships between black teachers and parents aren’t like it used to be and as a result children, black children, are suffering. (Foster, 1995, p.55). Changes have occurred in the community and the family over the years. Lerone Swift (Foster, 1995), a Washington, D.C. high school teacher, blames middle class Blacks for the disintegration of the community. He blames wealthier African-Americans for turning their backs on poorer African-Americans, stating that “middle class parents have abandoned the school system that benefited them, that provided opportunities to advance and become successful in society” (p. 55). The major problem appears to be that educators and policy makers are neglecting to recognize the integrity of the African-American culture, as well as that of other people of color in the United States (Willis, 1972). African-American parents have become very involved in the education of the African-American students, as described by Breener et.al. (1999), and they have worked hard at building the strength of families. Argueu et.al. (2003), shows the effects of parents’ involvement in high school completion, motivation, care giving, and overall culture. Kozol’s (1995) inquiry allowed students the opportunity to speak openly and honestly about feeling abandoned, hidden or forgotten by our nation, a nation that is blind to their problems. Studying the people themselves allowed Kozol to get to know and understand what the community is really like and why the students have the feeling they have. Kozol cites some of the problems including high numbers of drug users, gang related violence, and HIV/AIDS virus infections in the community. There are many differences between this community and others in the United States; one major difference is that the government has grouped people together and made a ghetto of the lowest income families. This has ostracized those families from the rest of the nation. He believes that the situation gave the community abandonment issues to deal with, while also telling the community they are not worthy of living among the wealthier population. This environment produced a negative effect on the African-American students’ schooling and culture. However, concerning the influence of culture on learning and behavior among African- American students in the United States, John Ogbu (2003) concludes that the African-American

25 students own cultural attitudes hinder academic achievement and that these attitudes are too often neglected. Schools obviously have both educational and cultural responsibilities. Jane Roland Martin (1996) argues that schools should return to their earlier position with shared responsibilities with other educational agencies, particularly the home. This creates a “whole range of cultural custodians” (p. 10) and suggests that schools have much to gain from treating other educational agencies as partners. Doing so creates the need for all educational agents to understand and be accountable for needed cultural recognition.

Spiral Dynamics, and vMemes Spiral dynamics (Beck and Cowan, 1996), refers to an unfolding spiraling process characterized by subordination of older, lower order behavior systems by newer higher order behavior system as life conditions change. This allows a bridge between the individual’s world and life conditions at that present time. This originates in the present of formed internal values and beliefs appropriate to our present situation. When life conditions change, the people’s values and beliefs may change. This change creates unfolding levels as we ascend in consciousness and understanding, allowing one to move through developmental stages. One moves up when they have sufficient competency at their existing level to adjust to changing life conditions. Beck and Cowan (1996) adapted Graves model and present this unfolding structure as a spiral develop- mental model of worldviews called patterns of thinking (vMemes). VMemes can be thought of as schema through which we interpret the world. Another view to this belief is that we chose whether to develop or not. The life condition can change, and the individual maintains previous adaptive strategies. However, as life conditions improve, we are able to develop more sophisticated adaptive strategies, if one chooses to do so. Life conditions are necessary for further development, but they are not guaranteed development. vMemes are differences among humans such as culture, beliefs, and actions. vMemes represents differences, such as belief systems and different ways of thinking. Each vMeme has a set of core needs and is represented by a color or code. These vMemes fall into a series of eight levels, with the potential for higher ones emerging. Each level has entering, peak, and declining phases. Situational factors encourage different vMemes to emerge. One individual might rely upon one vMeme in the work domain and another in the recreation relationships. However in times of intensive stress, previously submerged vMemes often come to the surface.

26 The healthy expression of each vMeme is essential to the health of the entire spiral development (Beck and Cowan, 1996). vMemes allow for the kind of analysis that is useful from stage models without the rigid process of just assigning individuals to roles. One can be encouraged to utilize more complex and evolved paradigms, but the goal of what they call “spiral wizard” is to meet one’s situations, and cultures where they are, and create models that are one- half step ahead of the individuals involved. The spiral wizard recognizes that the health of the overall spiral is paramount and change can occur in small increments. Beck & Cowan (1996) are more interested in lubricating change effectively than rejecting and overturning old structures. This spiral wizard thinks in terms of open, evolving systems rather than closed final stages. Since they are attuned to the health of the whole spiral, they do not threaten or jeopardize the old. They mesh right and left-brain resources and draw from whatever tools are available. Each vMeme represents certain beliefs, social groupings, motivation patterns, organizational physical forces, and goals. If one tries to improve structures that are too far ahead of the level that engage inappropriate vMemes, the result is rebellion and alienation rather than transformation. Therefore, the Graves/Beck and Cowan (1996) model represents a way of being in the world that is eminently practical, sensitive, and oriented toward transformation. Too often one intuits a better or higher level of being without respecting the stages of change and development that must happen before large number of people in society can enact such a mode. I can equate the vMemes development with that of human’s embryo and fetus’s developments. In human physical development, after fertilization, implantation occurs, and a precise development like no other occurs. Human developmental stages begin with the formation of a fertilized oocyte to form into an embryo, which, like clockwork, further develops into the fetus. During those developing stages or levels, no process can be missed for normal development. The physical developmental process is so exact in the formation of man as is the developmental stages of the spiral, but differ in that man does not chose when development can and does occur in embryo/ fetal development as in spiral development. However in both developments there are many factors in the processes. With human physical development the work of the different hormones causing different activities to occur over stages, while in the spiral world, different world conditions set the stage for the developments along the spiral. Deprivation of necessary factors inhibits natural growth and evolving both, in the spiral and human development.

27 Beck and Cowan used the term “more complex vMemes” to describe a higher level involved in the spiral. Graves/ Beck and Cowan (1996) created eight dominant levels, which are listed in the chart below with ranges of factors that reflect worldviews. vMemes How they view the world. Life Conditions Adaptive strategies used Colors Value Systems needed to be to deal with world Codes addressed. Beige Based on biological Survival sense As natural instincts direct urges/drives Staying alive. one to satisfy physiological AN needs (food, water). Purple Willing to sacrifice self so Find ways to placate the Feed those that did not have that sacred objects can be spirit by doing what food. BO passed to future kin. they expect one should . do. Safety/security; Red Power oriented Tough and Power/action; asserting Asserting self for strong prevail; weak serves. self to dominate others. dominance, explosive. CP Blue Controlled by a higher Stability/order; To bring order and stability power. obedience to earn later to the world through ideas, DQ rewards. people and events. Orange Full of resources to develop Opportunity/success; To create a better life to and opportunities to make competing to achieve achieve results and get ER things better. results through large ahead. number of people within the culture. Green Humanity can find love and To erase from the earth Responds to human needs; purposes through affiliation poverty, racism, affiliate; relativistic; FS and sharing. divisiveness, and situational. alienation through enhancing mankind. Yellow Concern over the To begin to explore Begin to deal as an dehumanizing of humans into what is needed to individual with the GT fixed categories. restore viability to multiplicity of human earth, as it has been needs, ambitions, and disorder and desires in a world of endangered by man. delicate and diminishing resources. Turquoise Contains a delicately balance Global community/life Experiential to join with system of interlocking forces force; survival of earth; others like thinkers; HU in jeopardy in human hands. consciousness. holistic; transpersonal. Fig. 2. Graves/ Beck and Cowan (1996) Spiral Dynamic Colors/Codes of Thinking

28 From the framework illustrated by this chart my values as the researcher and values of Monitor’s teachers emerged to help me to understand the origin of my values.

New Science Teaching Direction George W. Bush, in 2001, devised the “No Child Left Behind” (NCLB) Act which is designed to change the culture of the United States public schools and aid in the closing of the achievement gap by offering more educational flexibility, through options for parents’ choice of schools for students and an attempt to establish universal standards to teach all students the same basic skills. NCLB, represented as a reform, is an effort to shift public school funding to private schools. The current educational leaders’ NCLB focus on the elementary curriculum creating a minimum educational basic that affects mostly African-American students. The effect on learning (eliminating silent reading) and physiology (eliminating recess) has caused great changes in black culture and classroom practices that seem unhealthy and damaging to the students (Kozol, 2005). One approach the educational leaders prescribed for this so-called illness was vouchers. Vouchers allow students and funds to leave the public education sector, effectively reducing the number of public school teachers’ jobs and their membership in the teachers union. By shrinking the public education multimillion-dollar market and reducing the number of teacher’s jobs and union memberships, the undermining of the teachers’ union and its power is possible (Bush, 2002) In the schools, it is important for teachers to recognize that each student prefers different learning styles and techniques. Teachers can recognize a mix of learning styles, with a dominant style of learning that is used more than the others. Some may find that a different learning style is used under different learning circumstances. Using multiple learning styles and multiple intelligences for learning is a relatively new approach. Teachers have only recently started to recognize this approach and as a result, often label the students who use this method as “bright”. This approach involves teachers’ learning and teaching to the learning styles of the students. Today’s multicultural curriculum focuses on science teaching developed under the leadership of Atwater (1994) allowing defined standards preparing science teachers to relate science to the community and use human and institutional resources in the community to

29 advance science education for students (social context teaching). These social contexts of science teaching present three issues: first, support the social and community network, which occurs within science teaching and learning; second, enhance the relationship of science teaching and learning to the needs and values of the community; and third, involve the people and institutions from the community in the teaching of science. “Science for all” as a worldview necessitates consideration is given as to how students move between their everyday life-world and the school-science world, how students deal with cognitive conflicts between those two worlds, and how this social context teaching affects effective teaching of science. How students cope with worldviews mediated by transcending cultural borders between their everyday culture and the culture of science is cognitive, identified in the collateral learning theory of Aikenhead and Jegede (1999). This theory argues that the assistance most students receive when they negotiate these cultural borders influences their success in science. A new pedagogy allows teachers to assume the role of culture broker in the classroom to achieve culturally sensitive curriculum and assessment. The United States is currently rethinking its need for science success in terms of Project 2061 (AAAS, 1989) as a direction in science education. The literature in recognizing the critical nature of understanding social context of learning and the learners’ social-cultural background in the teaching and learning of science is a strong foundation to be established for successful student’s achievement and outcome (Cobern, 1996; Jegede, 1995; Solomon, 1987). Project 2061 sets out to identify what is most important for the next generation to know and be able to do in science, mathematics, and technology. In other words, what makes students literate? Science for All Americans presents a picture of science literacy that a variety of students with different cultural backgrounds can learn science. Rodriguez (1997), in contrast, argues that the National Science Education Standards uses a discourse of invisibility to lay out their massive science education reforms that compromise the intended goals of this reform effort. Rodriguez’s belief of this invisibility discourse compromises the well-intended goals of the National Research Council by not directly addressing the ethic, socioeconomic, gender, and theoretical issues having an influence on teaching science in today’s schools. The belief that a strong argument be provided in support of the reason why equity should be a guiding principal in science education reform providing guidance necessary to encourage teachers, administrators, family and politicians to take actions for transforming schools. It seems that policy makers’ interest focuses

30 on culturally sensitive science education that views what really happens in the minds of students when they are taught science (Solomon, 1987). Developing science-for-all programs and understanding conceptual learning seems to be the road that science education is traveling. The ideas in the context of teaching science to achieve success are: first, give attention to the cross- cultural experiences of most students when they attempt to construct scientific knowledge, and second, focus on a cognitive explanation of that experience in terms of the collateral learning theory. During my tenure as professor human anatomy and physiology, State and federal guidelines were required guidelines for teaching at the college. In my tutoring sessions I recognize that students learn differently, as I try and recognize student’s best learning style for successful achievements.

Conclusion My purpose in this inquiry was to understand my science beliefs/values and their origin using the theories of integral theory (Wilber, 2000), Afrocentrism (Asante, 2003), black feminist theory (Collins, 1990; Ladson-Billings, 1994), critical race theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995), tutoring (Jenkin & Jenkin, 1987), and Spiral Dynamics (Graves; Beck & Cowan, 1996), as framework for my argument and referents for my inquiry. Creating a frame for me to understand self can assist in creating a frame to look at education of African-American children with integrity where action and beliefs align. From my public segregated schooling experiences in Monitor schools, whose African-American segregated teachers labored within, while attempting to dismantle, the injustices inherent in Monitor’s segregated schools, due to Ben Hill County School Board unconstitutional actions, was the origin of my belief/values system. Although the Ben Hill County School Board violated the Plessey v Ferguson” Supreme Court decision, “separate but equal” clause of the United State Constitution, causing negative impacts on Monitor’s African-American teaching, those African- American teachers formed agencies that combined their forces to support equal education for African-American students. My autoethnography experiences told me about a culture I grew up in, at the same time allowing my teachers to tell about their individual experiences in the all- black segregated school to aid in my understanding of my school culture.

31 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

Dialogue is a moment where humans meet to reflect on their reality as they make and remake it...Through dialogue reflecting together on what we know and don’t know, we can then act critically to transform reality. Shor and Freire

Introduction I used autobiography to understand my beliefs and values of tutoring science making this a reflective inquiry bridged with historicized lived experiences. Autobiography, a narrative representing self, is a tool to achieve understanding of one positioned experience and the significance of those experiences (Barton & Roth, 1999). I enacted a hermeneutic phenomenology seeking to recover meaning by developing understanding through an explanation. Therefore, my understanding emerged from lived experiences of my African- American teachers, along with the assistance of my African-American tutoring students. For the purpose of framing this inquiry I used the hierarchy of reflection defined by van Manen (1977), who utilized three levels described by Habermas (1993). The first level of reflection is technical reflection. This form of reflection is concerned with the effectiveness of practice. This reflection appears to be an important aspect of teachers’ development and a precursor to other kinds of reflections (Hatton and Smith, 1995). The second level of reflection is practical reflection. This form of reflection is concerned with the recognition that meanings are not absolute, that there are multiple meanings that are often negotiated through language. At this level there is discourse with self and others to explore judgments and alternatives. The third level of reflection is critical reflection, which may contain fragments of technical and practical reflection showing that actions and events were influenced by historical and soci-political contexts. It involves making judgments about whether actions are equitable, respectful and just (Noffke & Brennan, 1988). The design of this inquiry, grounded in transformative curriculum and critical dialogue (Shor, 1992) and the constructivist perspectives that utilize the idea that knowing is created

32 rather than transferred and that teachers must understand how students both construct and use their understanding (Glaserfeld, 1989). The approach is drawn from the works of Piaget and Dewey, who believed that people construct knowledge when they are offered opportunities to explore phenomena then reflect and revise their thinking. Dialogue is the bridge that binds people together and prepares them for reflective actions. In my quest to learn and understand more deeply who I am, I looked to those forces in my life that shaped me in a largely segregated world using the black feminist lens of Patricia Hill Collins (1990), and the standpoint of Asante’s Afrocentricity (2003). Working from a critical race theory, the nature of reality is shaped over time and history by a series of social, political, cultural, economic, ethic, and gender factors and then crystallized into a series of structures that are now inappropriately taken as real (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). As an African-American female science educator and the organizer of a tutoring organization with tutoring experience dating back over 30 years, my research is to examine my educational beliefs/values and practices of tutoring African-American students through the analysis of my actions with two students using action research. What I learned about my beliefs/values was explored in more depth through reflection on my own experiences, looking for patterns or structures of meaning. I interviewed two African-American teachers who taught me in the segregated, all-black school along with the wife/teacher of the principal, about their teaching experiences to compare and contrast my experiences with these teachers and those found in the literature, to try and understand where the origin of my beliefs/values of teaching science. In order for me to accomplish the goals of this study the following questions guided this inquiry: 1. What are the values and beliefs about teaching revealed through analysis of my practices as a tutor of science? 2. Using these values and beliefs as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these beliefs? To explore these questions, I have selected interpretive autobiography (Roth, 2002; Denzin & Lincoln, 1989) as a method to conduct reflexive research on the segregated culture of that long ago era. To do so, I have chosen to structure my argument using the research paradigm of constructivism as the epistemological referent for inquiry (Guba & Lincoln, 1998), using the

33 following methodologies & methods: 1) constructivism (Guba & Lincoln, 1998; Crotty, 1998) views that “all knowledge and meaningful reality is contingent upon human practices being constructed in and out of interaction between human beings and their world, developed and transmitted within an essentially social context”(Crotty, 1998, p.42); 2) action research (McTaggart, 1991b) shares research ownership for improvement of practice; 3) phenomenology (Husserl, 1970) addresses how human consciousness actively constitutes objects of experience; 4) ethnomethodology (Health, 1983) examines the flow of social discourse, understanding it in useable terms; 5) autoethnography (Roth, 2000; David Hayano, 1979) addresses multiple layers of consciousness, connecting the personal to the cultural, 6) autobiography (Roth, 2002) as a research strategy in science education seeking to understand one’s life through search of inner experiences; and 7) narrative (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990) reveals stories of human experiences in the world. During my research, I used two methodologies that are divided into further methods; Action Research and Autoethnography. In conducting an ethnographic inquiry my intention is to blend ethnography and my autobiography as a means for understanding an African-American experience to tell about a culture during the 1942-1954 school years and simultaneously about African-American teachers’ individual experiences in the segregated, all-black, public school of Monitor Elementary, Monitor Junior, and Monitor High schools (1942-1954). This research will provide images of the schooling experiences that I had as an African-American female attending segregated schools. This inquiry provided an understanding of the basis of my own beliefs about science education.

Action research According to Kemmis and McTaggart (2000), classroom participatory action research approach shares ownership in the research inquiry, as well as values of community-based analysis of social problems. Researchers using this inquiry method have a more humanistic, holistic, and relevant view of the lives of humans. In this worldview, humans co-create their reality through participation, experience, and action. For action researchers, social inquiry aims to generate knowledge and action in support of liberating social change (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). The classroom action research provides effective support for my action in my tutoring organization and the communities in the process of creating self-determining social changes

34 (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). My intention is to learn about my own beliefs and practices and examine them from both an exterior and interior view of my interior. Wilber (Wilber, 2005) allows me an opportunity of making sense to understand my beliefs about science teaching. The practice of classroom action-research has swung in and out of favor principally because the theoretical work that justified it lagged behind the progressive educational movements that breathed life into it at various historical moments (McTaggart, 1991a; Noffke, 1990, 1997a, 1997b). Primacy is given to teachers’ self-understandings and judgments. The emphasis is “practical”- that is, on the interpretation teachers and students make and act on in the science classroom. Classroom action research makes sense in light of Aristotle’s idea of practical reasoning about how to act rightly and properly in a situation. University researchers are often advocates for teachers’ knowledge and may seek to diminish the relevance of more theoretical discourses (Dadds, 1995; Elliott, 1988; Sagor, 1992; Stenhouse, 1975; Weiner, 1989). In securing answers to my research questions, I used multiple methods for gathering my research data. I kept in mind, while using multiple methods of data collection, that every method of data collection has limitations; however using data collected through different methods help to compensate for the different limitations. Using multiple methods of data collection is called crystallization. In crystallization, (Richardson, 1994b) my story is told from data of different research methods, allowing the story to grow, change, or alter. My employment of various data sources results in a richer, fuller data set with greater validity. This inquiry incorporated data from videotapes, audiotapes, and my journal writings, a vigorous documentary tool, along with students’ journal writings as co-researchers to serve as a tool for describing my role as a tutor.

Autoethnography Autoethnography is a subset of the field of ethnomethodologies. Ethnomethodologies are empirical studies that individuals use to give sense to daily actions; communicating, making decisions, and reasoning. They allow a researcher to study the activities of group members to see how they make sense of their surroundings. An ethnomethodologist will see or hear things in a group that participants are not consciously aware of; for instance, Heath (1983) notices that in the black community of Trackton, children learn to become fast thinkers when playfully interacting with adults and other children. The participants may not be aware of this teaching and learning process but Heath asserts that learned wittiness of the children pays off when they

35 have to defend themselves (1983). Ethnographic accounts attempt to get a detailed understanding of the circumstances of the subjects being studied. Ethnographic accounts are descriptive and interpretive, descriptive because they examine the course of social discourse and understand it in usable terms, and interpretive is marked by interpretation. Descriptive details are both critical and interpretive because the ethnographer must determine the significance of what is observed or reported without gathering broad information. In my inquiry, I am attempting to understand the origin of my beliefs and the influences of which I was not previously aware. To do this I will use autoethnography as a research methodology. Autoethnography is an autobiographical genre of writing and research that displays multiple layers of consciousness connecting the personal to the cultural (Roth, 2000; Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). Hayano (1979) limited the term autoethnography to the cultural level studies in which the researcher acquires membership in the group being studied (p.100). Personal experiences reflect the flow of thoughts and meanings that persons have that occurred in the life of that person. Autoethnography looks first through an ethnographic wide-angle lens, focusing outward on the cultural aspects of one’s personal experiences. Then it looks inward, exposing a vulnerable self that moves through interpretation (Neumann, 1996). As it zooms backward and forward, inward and outward, distinctions between the personal and cultural become cloudy. Usually written in the first-person voice, autoethnographic writing is affected by history, social structure, and culture, which are dialectically revealed through action, feeling, thought, and language (Roth, 2000; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Autoethnographers vary in their emphasis on research process, culture, and self (Roth, 2000; Reed-Danahay, 1997). Different categories (reflective ethnographies, complete-member researchers, and literary autoethnography) of autoethnography fall at a different place along the continuum, Fig. 3). The reflective ethnographies, the researcher’s personal experience becomes important in how it lights up the culture under study. Reflective ethnographies start research from one’s own experience in that the researcher’s experiences are actually studied along with other participants; the researcher’s experiences of doing the study eventually becoming the focus of the inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Van Maanen, 1988). In contrast the complete-member research places the emphasis on the research process and the group studied; researchers view themselves as the phenomenon and write personal narratives focusing on their academic and personal lives. The primary goal is to write meaningfully and evocatively about topics that make

36 a difference, to include sensory and emotional experiences (Shelton, 2000), and form an ethic of care and concern (Denzin, 1989; Noddings, 1984). This inquiry will use the reflexive research.

Autoethnography Research Processes Participants Methodology Autoethnographies Self (Researcher) Autobiography Autobiography Phenomenology Cultural Reflexively African-American Reflective Teachers Ethnographies Complete Members African-American Action research Co-generative Dialog Tutoring Students Fig. 3. Autoethnographers various research processes (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

Autoethnography explores the interplay of the personal self with cultural descriptions through language, history, and ethnographic explanation (Deck, 1990). Autoethnography minimizes history, specific dates and events, and maximizes the lived experiences and humanity of the researcher and outside audiences. Roth (2000) argues Autoethnography is a research strategy in science education that provides the argument in which Autobiography is paired with radical doubt through co- generative dialoguing, as a strategy to arrive at inter-subjectivity, thereby avoiding false claims to objectivity and failure-prone inner-subjectivity. This argument contextualizes the contributions to the issue of Autobiography and science education. Roth’s research strategy weaves together the data from both my inquiries in an attempt for me to understand my beliefs and practices of science teaching. In order to understand my beliefs/values of science teaching using Wilber’s Quadrant methodologies I will consider the following path. Wilber (1995) argues for the integration of his Quadrants resulting in the following: “I”, or first person dimension (Fig. 4), Upper Left Quadrant, “We”, or second person dimension, the Lower Left Quadrant. Wilber’s Right Quadrants, the “It or Its”, third person dimension, involve the Right Upper and Lower Quadrants. My inquiry used the Left Upper Quadrant to inform me through phenomethodology concerning my beliefs/values of science teaching and the Lower Left Quadrant to inform me of my values of teaching science through action research (Wilber, 1995). Dr. Nancy Davis further interprets this Integral model (Fig. 4) during a conference (Davis, 2005).

37

Interior Exterior What meaning is being made? What is happening here? Interpretive Descriptive

Subjective Objective (Measurable, observable) Intentions or beliefs Actions or behaviors Goal of Inquiry: Truthfulness Goal of inquiry: Inquiry Aim: understanding Propositional Truth

Individual Quality criteria: Trustworthiness, Inquiry Aim: Explanation, prediction, control Sincerity Quality Criteria: Validity, reliability Intersubjective Inter-objective (systems) Cultural norms and expectations Interactions within systems Goal of inquiry: Justness Goal of inquiry: Functional Fit Inquiry Aim: shared understanding, Inquiry Aim: Explanation, prediction, control consensus Quality criteria: Significance, probability Quality criteria: Fairness, Collective Authenticity

Fig. 4. Inquiry within the four quadrants (Davis, 2005), taken from a paper presented at the annual conference of the Southeastern Association of Science Educators, Athens, Georgia. October 15, 2005.

My research will be situated on the left side of the model, the “1P” and “2P” quadrants. I am that (“1P”) person seeking to understand herself through collaborative inquiry (“2P”) action research and ethnographic inquiry.

“I” 1P IT 3P Subjective Interior-Individual Phenomenology Personal Transformation Structuralism Intentions and consciousness Beliefs/values “WE” ITS 4P 2P Interior-Collaborative Shared Experiences Students Two African-American Students Fig. 5. Integral Theory Model

38 Fig. 5 Continued Teachers Three African-American Teachers Hermeneutics Postmodernism Organizational Culture

I used Wilber’s model of integral theory for the location of my research according to his Integral Theory. I located myself in the “I” quadrant. From the “I” perspective, I researched the educational culture that was responsible for my beliefs and values of teaching science. I was also engaged in lived experiences based on Roth (2000). My ethnographic research with my African-American teachers of Monitor Schools in Fitzgerald, Georgia involved seeking the origin of my beliefs/values of science teaching. This inquiry was situated in the “WE” quadrant. The ethnographic research process of data collection was based on video and audio- taping African-Americans’ conversations concerning their segregated classrooms experiences, their comments on the research, translation, and interpretation of tapes, observation, and interpretation of journals. I was also engaged in lived experiences based on Roth (2000). In my ethnographic research from the “WE” perspectives, I answered the following questions: 1. What are my values and beliefs about teaching revealed through analysis of my practices as a tutor of science? 2. Using these values and beliefs as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to my belief/values of science teaching. From Spiral Dynamics (Graves: Beck & Cowan, 1996) model, the “2P” perspective moves a culture through stages called vMemes. vMemes are shared living and being positions in the world according to what you are doing. Individuals are in a position at a particular level that is identified according to a particular color. I will use the spiral dynamic color of thinking to understand my values and beliefs and compare the results with that of my public high school science teacher.

39 Phenomenology Phenomenology greatly overlaps with ethnography in that both study symbolic meanings, an act or object representing something in the unconscious mind that has been repressed, as they constitute themselves in human consciousness. Phenomenon inquiry requires that I adhere to the series of steps that eliminate my own assumptions and biases, examine the phenomenon without suppositions, and describe the deep structures of the phenomenon based on internal themes that are discovered (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). Phenomenology begins with an appearance we experienced and stays with us without prejudice; thus, I must ask the experience to tell me what it is by taking up a phenomenological attitude. The attitude could impact my own immediate experiences. Other experiences I must seek to understand through their speaking, writing, behaviors, and other products, such as technology, legal documents, artifacts, and literature. The collection of my data will be a combination of past and present orientations. In this approach, the researcher is responsible for developing theories that emerge from observing groups. The theories are grounded in the groups’ observable experiences and produce insight into why those experiences exist. Grounded theory attempts to reach a theory through an inductive process. The approach of phenomenology views human life from within rather than trying to understand human life from the outside. Edmund Husserl (1970) argues that the relation between perception and its object is human consciousness actively constituting objects of experiences. He stated that consciousness is always aware of something by constructing objects of experiences. Consciousness is always aware of something by constructing the world even as it perceives the world. Phenomenology seeks to reveal the perceived phenomenon in its fullness, looking at it from many perspectives, using all of the “senses”, thoughts, and feelings. The phenomenon should be allowed to speak for itself; it enables me to recall my memories of early experiences from the teachers’ interviews. In phenomenology, the conscious experience is understood in association with the concept of intentionality, meaning, and existence. Therefore, the conscious experience is considered in conjunction with its cognitive, affective, and connotative apparatus, which will allow the transfer of information from an epistemological consciousness to a psychological consciousness through the voices of my African-American teachers. I remember my schoolteachers being very strict and positive; I could not alter any rules governing my behavior or studies. When this occurred, I remember negative consequences for those who attempted to alter the rules.

40 An analysis of this interpretive practice ranges from the development of social phenomenology to the related concerns embodied in ethnomethodological processes of research, which develops in talk and interaction to historical discourse (Foucault, 1982). While phenomenology provides the point of departure, this could create a concern with the experiential underpinnings of knowledge. Consciousness is always conscious of something, it does not stand alone over and above experience, perceiving and conceiving objects and actions, always existing as a constitutive part for which it is conscious. Consciousness constructs as much as it perceives the world (Husserl, 1970). Intentionality in phenomenology involves consciousness experience. “Every experience has its reference or direction toward what is experienced and every experienced phenomenon refers to or reflects a mode of experiencing to which it is present” (Ihde, 1986, pp.42-43). In laymen’s language, this means that all experiences have both an objective and a subjective component, and I must understand both. The subjective component of a phenomenon includes seeing, hearing, thinking, and judging while the intended objects include the sights seen, the words heard, the feeling felt, the thoughts thought, and the ideas judged. More practically, intentionally means openness to all aspects of the phenomenon along the practice of bracketing. Bracketing, sometimes called phenomenological reduction means that I should set aside all my usual natural assumptions about the phenomena. Edmund Husserl (1970) investigated a logical method of discovering the experiences of the consciousness, believing that all matter is reduced to mental states. Husserl’s knowledge was actualized by reducing (bracketing), believing in our consciousness to ascertain the essences of the phenomena in question. Bracketing assumes humans can separate their knowledge from their lived experiences. Thomas (1990) described three concepts of Husserlian phenomenology subscribed by other researchers as following: analysis of subject and object-as-the-object-appears-through- consciousness, an emphasis on bracketing as a method for suspending realist awareness, and an emphasis on describing the full appearance of the object of inquiry (Husserl, 1970, p. 233). Many of Husserl’s perspectives were reconceived by Heidegger (1971), who emphasized the ontology of “being” as opposed to the epistemological question of knowing, offered an alternated world view stating our meaning is co-developed through being born humans and through life experiences and backgrounds. Humans are born in a particular gender, culture, and history. A person, a being in the world, cannot be separated from the world while different backgrounds

41 prohibit an objective viewpoint; it enables persons to have shared practices and common meanings by virtue of the fact that they share a similar kind of “being”. All participants in this inquiry are African-Americans. Practically speaking I must attempt to set aside all biases, theories, philosophies, even common sense, and accept the phenomenon for what it is. There should be a suspension of belief concerning the existence or non-existence of the phenomenon.

Ethnomethodology Ethnomethodology addresses the problem of order by combining a phenomenological sensibility (Maynard & Clayman, 1991) with a paramount concern for everyday social practice. From an ethnomethodological standpoint, the social facts will be revealed by my African- American teachers, showing how they actually participated in social life, aiming to document how they constructed and sustained social entities while teaching in the all-black, segregated, public school environment. From the voices of my African-American teachers I hear their beliefs, values, and experiences of teaching in the all-black segregated school of Monitor. I especially await the responses of their beliefs and experiences concerning me, to help me to understand my public school’s role in shaping my beliefs regarding science teaching and science tutoring. Much of the value of ethnomethodology lies in the telling of stories that are based in cultural representations. The stories of the African-American teachers of the literature of all- black segregated schools that taught racial minorities and the African-American students reveal the cultural cult. The lack of success of desegregation attempts along with the resistance to policy by teachers and other school personnel created opportunities within the context of inequities for the African-Americans. Through all of the chaos, African-American teachers maintained their dignity and motivation for their African-American students. Most might think that when a teacher has worked for 35 years in the science classroom that teacher would be ready for retirement. I am ready to retire, except my vision for retirement is not sedentary, but rather to continue in a different direction. I know of no other teacher who has returned to college as a science student after retirement. As I look at my practices, they are similar to the culture I experienced as a young student. So what is behind this motivational drive I have and where did it come from? To answer these questions, inquiry into my autobiographical research will reveal the answers.

42 Constructivism In the constructivist view meaning was constructed and the actual meaning emerges when consciousness engages with the social world it was attempting to reconstruct. Constructivism claims if human beings construct meaning as they engage with the world, they are reconstructing and interpreting experiences. According to Denzin and Lincoln (2000), constructivism develops relativist ontology, a transactional epistemology, and a hermeneutic, dialectical methodology. Users of this paradigm are oriented to the production of reconstructed understandings of the social world. Constructivists value transactional knowledge. Their work overlaps several different participatory-action approaches (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000). Constructivism connects action to praxis and builds on anti-foundational arguments while encouraging experimental and multi- voiced texts. The constructivist tradition is rich, deep, and complex (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). This complexity is evidenced in the ethical and political implications in perspectives.

Interpretive Research Thomas Schwandt (1989) offers a carefully nuanced, complex, and subtle analysis of the interpretive perspective by identifying major strands of thought within his approach. Schwandt’s (1989) description of interpretive perspective focuses on those life experiences that radically alter and shape the meanings persons give to themselves and their experiences by capturing and representing voices, emotions, and actions and making them accessible to readers. Schwandt indicates that opposition to positivism and commitment to study the world from interacting individuals’ points of view unifies this approach. He further argues that perspectives are distinguished more by commitment to questions of knowing and being than by their specific methodologies. Understanding is mostly centered to interpretive research that seeks to comprehend phenomena, not on the basis of researchers’ perspectives and categories, but from those of participants in the situations studied. Interpretive accounts were grounded in the language of the person studied and relied as much as possible on their own words and concepts. One issue is not the appropriateness of these concepts for the account but for their accuracy as applied to the perspective of the individuals included in the account.

43 Interpretive research was grounded in a social constructivist perspective on social life. This reminds social scientists of the constructed nature of social facts that are studied and analyzed for of the construction of meaning and identities through which individuals make sense of their everyday lives and interactions, their social, and their political environment (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). Interpretive research represents an important tool for constructing theories or workable approaches for solving problems, allowing the revolutionizing of practice. It is through this process I will be informed about my tutoring practices and the paths I should travel while developing a historical self-understanding. As I interpret my teaching, values should become evident as I explore the interviews with my African-American teachers. To conceive the notion of interpretive understanding Denzin & Lincoln (2000) share four features that: 1) human actions are meaningful; 2) actions form an ethical commitment to respect for life-world; 3) understanding shares the desire to contribute subjective elements in experiences to human knowledge; and 4) interpretive understanding houses a method that allows one to step outside their historical frame of reference. What distinguishes human social actions from the movement of physical objects is that humans are inherently meaningful. In other words, in understanding a particular action a reader must understand the meanings that constitute that action (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Saying that human action is meaning is to claim that it has an intentional context indicating the kind of action it is or that what an action means can be understood only in terms of the system of meaning to which it belongs (Fay, 1996). To find meaning of understanding differentially represented as it lies between interpretivism and hermeneutics. Dilthey (1976) argues that understanding the meaning of human action requires grasping the subjective consciousness or intent of the researcher from the inside. It is a psychological re- enactment to get inside the head of the researcher to understand his or her motives and beliefs. This interpretive stance (Collingwood, 1961) constitutes historical knowledge and it lies at the center of hermeneutics (Hirsh, et.al., 1995). Interpretivism is capable of transcending a historical circumstance in order to reproduce the meaning of the action. The second point concerning interpretive understanding involves the phenomenological analysis (Schutz, 1967) that is concerned with understanding how everyday inter-subjective life- world is constructed. In order to understand how to interpret their own and others actions in a

44 meaningful way, one has to reconstruct the beginning of the objective meaning of action in the inter-subjective voices of the social life-world (Ouhwaite, 1975). The third point concerning interpretive understanding is the analysis of language. Extending this idea of language constituted in different cultures with each group having their own rules that make language meaningful to the participants (Wittgenstein, 1958). He uses the term “language game” to give meaningful virtue of the system of meanings to which it belongs. The fourth point concerning interpretive understanding is the notion of hermeneutics. Gadamer (1970) argues that understanding is a condition of humans. He further argues that understanding is a basic structure of our experiences of life. From a socio-historical view, bias/prejudice must be managed to receive clear understanding. This is possible when one assumes the prejudgment that shapes the effort to understand can be put aside. However, Gallagher (1992) argues that hermeneutics is a living force that enters into all understanding and bias/prejudices are there ahead of us conditioning our interpretations.

Postmodernism This inquiry uses qualitative research, a situated activity that locates the observer in the world (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). It consists of interpretive practices that make the world visible through conversations, interviews, field notes, photographs, tape recordings, and memos to self. This approach represents the natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpreting phenomena, in terms of the meaning people bring to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). In the post-modern moment, the qualitative research process involves the use of collections through life stories, personal experiences, interviewing, artifacts, and cultural texts. Postmodern describes meanings in individual lives for better understanding of the inquiry through each practice, making the world visible in different ways. Postmodernism is marked by discerned shifts in style, genre, epistemology, politics, and aesthetics. Postmodernism is a contemporary sensibility that privileges no single authority or paradigm. The literature shows narrative and storytelling in defining the postmodern moment (Ellis & Bochner, 1996) as a different way of locating oneself in their text. At the same time postmodernism introduces a number of interpretive qualitative perspectives, among which are hermeneutics.

45 Hermeneutic Research Hermeneutic dialectic circle is the way for me to understand the beliefs and values of my African American teachers and my science teaching practices in tutoring. Hermeneutics, identified by Husserl (1970) as an interpretive investigation of the phenomena of everyday lives, is a method of textual analysis. Others state that “hermeneutics is a way to interpret the shared meaning and practice that we have for our experiences within a context” (Maloney, 1993, p. 40), and hermeneutics as an interpretive inquiry of the phenomena of everyday lives, is a mean to interpretation and understanding, as it contains a process of exposing hidden meanings (Husserl, 1970). In my inquiry, in order to include additional data and verify truthfulness, I used the process of member-checking with all participants. There is a close link between hermeneutics and phenomenology. Hermeneutics focuses on interpretation of language; phenomenology focuses on lived experiences of persons eliciting commonalities and shared meanings. This inquiry hears stories of lived experiences of African- American teachers’ segregated teaching by listening to their voices, language, and meaning emerging from their tapes. This, while I attempt to understand the teachers’ influences that affected me as a child and of which I may not have been aware.

Methods The methods of data collection illuminated the thinking and reflections of the African- American tutoring students. Data sources included informal interviews, participant’s observations, and artifacts; such as students’ journals, researcher’s journal, and other documents that provided understanding in this inquiry. This inquiry was initiated October 11, 2006.

Action Research To understand my experiences as a tutor and the values revealed in my tutoring practice, I have chosen classroom participatory action research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) to examine my practice of tutoring. Participatory action research was used in the classroom to understand and improve practice. Participatory research allows participants to share ownership in the research. I have chosen participatory action research to both understand and answer the following questions: 1. What values and beliefs of teaching are revealed through an analysis of my practice as a tutor of science?

46 2. Using these values and beliefs as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these values and beliefs? As a retired science teacher who taught science at a two-year college for a period of 35 years and tutored science to selected African-American students for over 30 years, I will examine my actions as I tutor students to develop a better understanding of the values, beliefs, and intentions I hold for teaching of science to African-American students. In order to gather data to discern the impact of tutoring values this inquiry will rely on two students participating in tutoring sessions. The first student is an African-American male in the 10th grade. He has been a member of my tutoring organization for ten years and during the 2003-2004 school years made a perfect score on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). I selected this student both to help maintain his high level of learning (advanced chemistry) and promote reinforcement learning. The second student is an African-American female, age 21, who attends college and has been a member of my tutoring organization for 13 years. I selected this student to both enhance her scholastic achievement in her problem-based course (human anatomy and physiology I) and to prevent failure. The participating students allowed audiotaping of their tutoring sessions. I taught each participant for five, non-consecutive, 30-minute sessions of science tutoring while audiotaping each session. All tapes were labeled with the physical setting, date, and time. The tape analysis began by my carefully listening to the audiotapes and transcribing the data in written form. Analysis continued by carefully reviewing the transcripts and coding by underlining key phrases. These I recorded in a chart to determine themes. Themes are abstract constructs that I identified from the data (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). I read the transcript looking for repetition of words and shifts in context (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) to identify my themes. I used codes as markers for specific themes and sub-themes in my text. I used correlations in data, overlapping data and trend changes to identify codes. By underlining various correlations, overlapping data, processes, actions, and shifts in content, I then formed categories. The categories are formed through the repletion of key words and phrases and my ability to connect them with explanations by comparing and contrasting themes and concepts (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). I merged this data with other data in the process of crystallization (see Fig. 6).

47 Both the student participants and I kept journals. I kept a running commentary of research activities and the journals of the student participants that reflected on my practice. Through their journals, the students shared their thoughts and ideas, which empowered them while sharing ownership in the research process. This inquiry allowed free flow and open negotiations between the researcher and the participants. The audiotapes, transcribed, coded, were developed into categories to compare and merge with data from other research sources. After collecting, transcribing, and interpreting data from different sources; audiotapes, videotapes, and the researcher and students’ journals, I shared the transcripts with the participants and allowed the participants to voice their thoughts and suggestions through negotiation to confirm the authenticity of the transcripts. I drew my conclusions, supported by the data, and shared the information with student participants and peers through reflection, allowing questions to be asked and accepting comments. I then determined if the inquiries matched other published articles in publication. The result of my action research allowed me to better understand my values and beliefs of science teaching in my tutoring organization.

Research Question Research Methodologies Research Methods 1. What are the values and Action Research Audiotapes beliefs about teaching revealed Students’ Journals through analysis of my Researcher’s Journal practices as a tutor of science? 2. Using these values and My experiences Researcher’s Journal beliefs as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these beliefs? Fig. 6. Crystallization of Action Research Methodologies and Methods

Richardson (1994) recognizes the approach to the social world as a fact of life by explaining an image of crystals as moving from “plane geometry to the new physics” (p. 522), combining symmetry and substance with an infinite variety of shapes, substances, transmutations, multi-dimensionalities, and angle of approach. She states, “What we see as we

48 view a crystal depends on how it is viewed” (p. 522). The same can be stated for data interpretation in crystallization; the researcher’s beliefs influence data interpretation. Crystallization (Fig. 7) provides deeper, complex, and more thoroughly understood results (p. 522).

African-American Teachers’ Interview Postmodernist ethnographers are concerned with how members view social life and have led to increased attention to the voices of the participants (Marcus & Fisher, 1986) and the importance of race, social status, and age (Seidman, 1991). I chose to interview my African-American teachers using open-ended questions to solicit their accounts of their experiences while teaching at my all-black, segregated, public school. The first teacher, an African-American male, was my Senior High (Secondary) school science teacher, who told his story of his experiences teaching science in the all-black school. My story to insert at this point concerns the taking of the science class as a female. I believe I would not have had the opportunity to take additional science classes if we had graduated out of the 11th grade, as did all other classes ahead of mine. However, due to changes in the law we were told we had to attend another school year and pass the 12th grade before graduating high school. This allowed my class, and the girls especially, an opportunity to enroll in the biology class. African- American girls in 1953 and before primarily enrolled in home-making classes such as sewing and cooking; far different from the classes offered to the African-American boys. The second teacher, an African-American female, was my Junior High (Middle) school teacher, who shared stories of her experiences in my segregated, all-black school. I remembered her being my aunt’s best friend, living right across the street from my aunt, all the while keeping a close eye on both my progress and me, in her class. When my grades worsened, I was moved from my grandmother’s to my aunt’s home for help with my schooling. My reason for choosing these two teachers is not only because they were my teachers during my 1942-1954 public schooling experience but because I want to show my appreciation for their efforts to instill in me the desire to succeed in my life. To share the lived history of their beliefs of their teaching experiences; their interviews were video and audiotaped to encompass their voices, revealing their emotions along with the description of their teaching experiences, and creating a rich

49 context for interpretation (Kvale, 1996). Video and audiotaping the teachers’ interviews served best for my African-American teachers who taught me over 54 years ago. The teachers responded to the following open-ended questions to gather in-depth accounts of their teaching experiences while teaching in all-black segregated schools. However, this was only the beginning of the interview. After I analyzed the video and audiotapes I had further questions for my teachers. The teachers’ research questions that I researched were: 1. What are your beliefs /values of teaching in an all-black segregated school? a. What were the cultural influences that shaped what you could and could not do? b. What were the cultural influences that determined what you could or could not teach? 2. What are your beliefs of teaching science in the all-black school? a. What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both the advantages and the disadvantages in your segregated, all-black school? 3. What are your thoughts concerning the limitations and benefits for Sarah as your student? I used conversation (Sacks, 1992; ten Have, 1998) as the basis mode for my qualitative inquiry interview. Conversations and narratives are today regarded as essential for obtaining knowledge of the social world (Kvale, 1996). Through conversations, we got to share the teachers’ experiences, feelings, and expectations as we obtained descriptions of their everyday lived world. The use of open-ended questions allowed the teachers to introduce other dimensions of their segregated experiences. The African-American teachers’ audio and videotaped responses were preserved in this history-making inquiry; voicing information concerning their teaching experiences and further guarding against the mistake of misinterpretation of the teachers’ responses by allowing me repeated listening. Audio and videotaping told verbal narrative (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Tapes provides a natural method for my participating African-American teachers to share their experiences concerning their teaching in the all-black Southern schools during the years 1942-1954 and their beliefs/values of teaching in those all-black segregated schools.

50 Research Questions Research Methodologies Research Methods Open-ended questions for my Ethnographic Research Conversation teachers: Videotaping 1. What are your beliefs/values Audiotaping of teaching in an all-black Journals segregated school? a. What were the cultural influences that shaped what you could and could not do? b. What were the cultural influences that determined what you could or could not teach? 2. What are your beliefs of teaching science in the all-black school? a. What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources: both the advantages and the disadvantages in your segregated, all-black school? 3. What are your thoughts concerning the limitations and benefits for Sarah as your student? Fig. 7. Crystallization of Ethnographic Methodologies and Methods of my African-American Teachers

The African-American teachers’ teaching experiences were culturally produced artifacts in one light and an interpretive document in another. This history was defined by way of

51 methods (interviews, audiotapes, and journals), theoretical vantage point (hermeneutics), and discipline (sociology). These histories of my African-American teachers’ teaching experiences were retrospective accounts that involved narrative statements. Transcribing the interviews from living conversations (Kvale, 1996), involved transforming living conversations from one narrative mode; oral discourse, into another narrative mode; written discourse. Kvale (1996) states, “the original lived face-to-face conversations disappear in endless scripts, only to reappear butchered into fragmented quotes” (p. 182). This creates an alternate approach to transcripts that involves entering into a text dialogue through an imagined conversation about the meanings. Emerging were themes of the text that developed, were clarified, and expanded as meaning in the text (Kvale, 1996). These meanings created an approach using “deep hermeneutics”, the uncovering of meanings hidden in the text (p. 183). The analyses of the transcribed interviews were a continuation of the interview conversations that revealed meanings that in turn led to renewed conversations with the teachers. “There are trends today toward giving the knowledge obtained through the original interview back to the teachers in the social situation in which that knowledge was developed” (p. 293). The renewed conversations, if needed, will share and develop zones of possible meanings in the original interview (Kvale, 1996) for analysis. Analysis organized the meaning of the interviews by bringing the teachers’ understanding into focus and provided new perspectives on the phenomena. By the fact that I am classified as a successful, African-American, female, science educator, I have this self-need to access the origins of my compelling desire to succeed. As I look in the mirror, I am beginning to understand who I am, what my beliefs and values are, and to realize how this experience changed the way I think, my philosophies, and my practices. Making sense of the experience, I used the application of my inquiry to Wilber’s quadrant methodology to increase my understanding of my beliefs and values as a successful, African-American, science professor who had tutored successful, African-American students over the years. Assessing my beliefs and values from Wilber’s (2005) interior perspective allows me the opportunity to see my experiences from within the boundaries of a Holon in the Upper-Left quadrant (I) using phenomenology for the assessment of my information. The approach of phenomenology views human life from within rather than trying to understand human life from the outside. From this path I understood self.

52 The conversational basis of the transcription became my fundamental written data for analysis by condensation, categorization, narrative structuring, interpretation, and ad hoc methods, sharing their stories through narratives, as suggested by Kvale, (1996).

Narrative Research In narrative writing, sometimes you have a feeling without a thought to explain it, and sometimes you have a thought, which in return changes how you feel about a person or event. At other times, feelings and thoughts are inseparable, one and the same. Oliver Sacks The teachers’ stories are written in narratives. Their conversations were audio and videotaped as first-person accounts of cultural stories that unfolded between the school year 1942-1954 in the segregated, all-black schools in which they taught. Making sense of one’s story included analysis through narratives (Clandinin & Connelly; 2000; Ellis & Bochner, 2000; Delpit, 1995). Telling or sharing stories from the past-presented standpoints, moving back and forth from the personal to the cultural, situated these stories in a revealing context (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Narrative research looked for culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the social life-world (Crotty, 1998). Narrative inquiry is the process of gathering information for the purpose of research storytelling. Connelly and Clandinin (1990) note that humans are storytelling creatures who individually and collectively lead storied lives. The study of narrative is the study of the ways humans experiences the world. In other words, people’s lives consist of stories. One of the major reservations expressed by critics in reference to narratives addresses the question of truth. Narrative truth seeks to keep the past alive in the present. Narratives show that the meaning and significance of the past are incomplete and revisable according to present life circumstances. It is true that stories could have been re-arranged, re-described, invented, omitted, and revised. They could be wrong in many ways. However, in this inquiry, the literature supports the activities of the segregated, all-black, public schools. Also, since more than one teacher’s voice was heard, one narrative interpretation was compared against another, though there are no standards by which to measure any pre-narrative experiences that are embedded in its narrative expression. Life and narratives are both about living and a part of it.

53 Crotty (1998, p.67) argues that narrative research allows one to construct a different relationship between researcher and participant. Such research is more personal, collaborative, and it allows one to learn from the experiences of another person. Crotty refers to this process as connecting historical to cultural. We must keep the perspective that people are experts on their own lives. The person, in the context of a particular line of inquiry, is of prime interest (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000) as that person shares the aspects of his/her life. That subject’s focus filled the narrative-inquiry space and followed its direction as this framework allowed inquiries to travel inward, outward, backward, forward, and within a given place. Telling or sharing stories offers alternatives for connecting the lives and stories of individuals to the understanding of larger human and social phenomena (Hatch & Wisniewski, 1995).

Audiotaping/Videotaping After receiving three signatures on the consent forms, the two students and a parent of the 10th grade participant, the students agreed to allow audio and videotaping of five non- consecutive 30-minute tutoring sessions. After they signed the consent forms, the conversations with the African-American teachers concerning their experiences in the all-black, segregated, public schools was video and audiotaped. Depending on one’s memory, we can usually summarize what people say. However, to capture such subtleties as pauses, overlaps, and in- breaths, was impossible. By studying the video and audiotapes of teachers’ conversations over and over, I was able to focus on the actual details of their school life. As Sack (1992a) states “Having available for any given utterance other utterances around it, is extremely important for determining what was said. If you have available only snatches of talk that you’re now transcribing, you’re in tough shape for determining what it is” (p. 729). There may remain the potential charge that data based mainly on audio recordings is incomplete in that facial expressions were left out from the analysis (p. 26), however, the videotaping brought all the gestures to life.

Journals and Observations I kept a journal throughout the entire inquiry especially as I began preparing these documents, allowing my frustrations, insights, and ponderings to be recorded. Students, along with me, kept journals throughout this action research inquiry. My journal covered the open- ended interview of the three African-American teachers and the tutoring sessions of my two

54 African-American students, along with my own reactions to all situations I encountered. My own written notes taken during the tutoring sessions were rechecked immediately to ensure accuracy. I wrote my observation notes as clearly and detailed as I could, of what I saw, heard, and felt. I focused on methodological, theoretical, and personal issues. The methodological notes focused on who was talking, where, and what was said. Theoretical notes focused on what I was doing, thinking, and seeing. This opened my field texts to alternate interpretations and a critical epistemological stance and prevented me from having only one view of reality. Personal notes allowed me to put my feelings on paper because they affected what and how I lay claim to know. My writing of personal notes was a way of using writing as method of inquiry into self. Journals are rigorous documentary tools (Janesick, 1998b), and contain a running commentary of field notes to oneself concerning important means of accomplishing inquiry (van Maanen, 1988). van Maanen described field notes as an ongoing stream-of-consciousness commentary about what is happening in the research, involving both observation and analysis. The students kept journals, as did the researcher, in their roles as co-researchers in the action research inquiry. Students’ journals provided ways to view recorded description of my role as tutor, along with keeping the student’s focus on the inquiry at hand (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Students recorded both their feelings of confusions and feelings of understanding.

Analysis of Research Data Once I gathered, read, and re-read the data, I identified patterns that occurred within various sources of the research information. These involved combining the codes related to the African-American teachers’ conversation data concerning their teaching experiences and the participatory action research of the students’ tutoring sessions, using both sets of data to re-code and index the data, and then identify patterns in the data. I used two analysis techniques: conversation analysis (Sacks, 1992a) and discourse analysis (Foucault, 1982) as I wrote my interpretations. Conversation analysis (Sacks, 1992a) works with what it sees and hears. It is a way of explaining what was spoken in a scene by appealing to things that are hidden from the participants. Conversation analysis presumed that meanings were embedded in layers of contexts: negotiated interpretations and life world knowledge. It is grounded on the assumption of philosophical hermeneutics that meanings are understood through repetitive readings and

55 interpretations of a text. Meanings are built through interactive, continuing conversations in which actors had built up layers of shared interpretations. Conservation analysis method studies conversation, talk makes things happen, and conversation analysis says how. Sacks (1992a) states that what conversation analysis has accumulated as insights and findings can be applied to any data where language is used in interaction. Its cross-lights showed up subtleties in the terrain that were invisible from a more common, straight-down perspective (Sacks, 1992a). In the event one wanted to recover the meanings communicated through the many layers of interaction, the process was reviewed by the immersion of the researcher in the language of the participants through member-check. Discourse analysis builds on the elementary ideas of both content and conversation analysis. In discourse analysis the patterns of meanings may be traceable, can be assigned to an open set of content variables, and serve in further analysis different from my tutoring settings. Discourse analysis helps the researcher to define an emergent set of variables by allowing multiple readings and analysis to create cross-checking of interpretations through hermeneutic circle. Discourse analysis improves analytic rigor and reliability. Foucault’s (1988) interest was in linking lived experiences to practices. He considers how historically and culturally located systems of power/knowledge construct subjects and their worlds. Foucault views discourse as socially reflexive, both constitutive and meaningfully descriptive of the world and its subjects. As Foucault (1988) explains: If I am interested in the way in which the subject constitutes himself in an active fashion, by the practices of the self, these practices are nevertheless not something that the individual invents by himself. They are patterns he finds in his culture and which are proposed, suggested and imposed on him by his culture, his society and his social group. (Foucault, 1988, p.11) In other words, Foucault (1988) concerns himself with social locations that specify the operation of discourses, linking the discourse of particular subjectivities with the construction of lived experiences. For my study, discourse focused on performances and effects that constitute practice as viewed from the “objective,” external perspective of an outside observer.

56 Ensuring Quality in Research—Methodological Criteria Methodological criteria concern the process of action research and how well it is done to ensure that results are trustworthy. Trustworthiness resulted from getting at the interior of a person through dialogue and interpretation (Wilber, 1998). The interior is the underlying assumptions and beliefs that teachers hold, which emerged through dialogue. Fourth generation evaluation supports trustworthiness through the interpretation of text and talk. Guba and Lincoln (1989) report on the value of determining the inner status, inner thoughts, and feelings of the researcher’s data in reference to credibility. In this study, credibility criteria, deals with how closely my construction of practice matches that of my own beliefs of teaching of science. In order to meet such criteria, Guba and Lincoln (1989) have proposed several techniques: prolonged engagement, persistent observation, peer debriefing, and member-check. I achieved prolong engagement criteria over a period of three years (Guba & Lincoln, 1989) by spending more time reviewing the collective ten sessions of tutoring engagements through the audiotapes of each session and the required journal writings of the sessions. “Persistent observation added depth to the scope which prolonged engagement affords” (Guba & Lincoln, p. 237). Member-checking was the technique I used for sharing with the students the data, my thoughts, analysis, and interpretations during the research process. Students had opportunities to voice their opinions. Transferability criteria ensured that the research has met the possibilities for replication and experimentation by other researchers to document the effect of tutoring and tutoring practices by experienced and respected African-American science teachers. Dependability criteria referred to the stability of the data over time (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). The researcher expected changes and shifts in understanding of what was studied, therefore, by participants maintaining journals, I (and others) were able to document and interpret the process of change. Confirmability ensured that “data, interpretations, and outcomes of the inquiry were rooted in contexts and persons, apart from the evaluator and not simply fragment” (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). The data in my inquiry is tracked back to the participants who shared the experiences.

57 Authenticity Guba & Lincoln (1989) describe authenticity as the outcome and product of the research. Authenticity criteria resulted from fairness, ontological authenticity, educative authenticity, catalytic authenticity, and tactical authenticity. Fairness deals with how different constructions are clarified, and checked. Guba and Lincoln suggest a “deliberate attempt to prevent marginalization, to act affirmatively with respect to inclusion, and to act with energy to ensure that all voices in the inquiry effort have a chance to be represented in any texts” (Lincoln & Guba, 1989, p.180). Since all participants are subjects (Asante, 1997) rather than objects, all voices are represented with fairness and balance (Lincoln & Guba, 2000, p. 180). Ontological authenticity, educative authenticity, tactical authenticity, and catalytic authenticity served to disengage bias, to raise the level of awareness, and to prompt action and involvement (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). Thus, I shared data with the teachers and students. Educative authenticity was my ability to understand other African-Americans’ narratives. What did I learn from this inquiry? My detailed researcher journal throughout this process provided evidence for my learning. Catalytic authenticity provoked action from the students through inquiry tutoring that moved the students toward self- empowerment (tactical authenticity). Through dialogue, open discussions and study of the research, as well as encouragement of students to voice their views, I further ensured trustworthiness and authenticity.

58

Trustworthiness Shared between members, peers, and participants Credibility Prolonged Observations and field notes Engagement Persistent Observations and field notes Observation Peer Committee members, peers, and participants Debriefing Progressive Maintaining a reflective journal of developing constructions Subjectivity Member Sharing my thoughts, analysis, and interpretations during the Checks process with participant. Authenticity Fairness Open negotiation of research and participant direction of study; perspectives, claims, concerns, and voices in the research Ontological Sharing literature and poststructural themes with the teachers Authenticity Educative Sharing literature and poststructural themes with participants Authenticity Researcher’s journal Tactical Empowering people to act Authenticity Equal voice with people Catalytic Conversation from teachers. Authenticity Provokes actions from the students Confidentiality Anonymity A guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity of information sources insofar as can be legally accomplished Fig. 8. Quality Criteria (Lincoln & Guba, 1989)

59 Confidentiality I granted, in writing, all participants a guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity. I accepted any conceivable outcome in light of the limitation of my research. I granted, in writing, all participants a guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity of information sources insofar as can be legally accomplished. This statement ensured research credibility since the research was based on in-depth observation and response of the participants. The students accepted responsibility and accountability for their actions.

Limitation I accepted any conceivable outcome in light of the limitation of my research. My inquiry reflected a theoretical implication of Black Feminist Postmodernism as a guiding theoretical framework for my study. Using historical narratives of African-American teachers voicing their experiences of teaching in the segregated, all-black, public schools retained a commitment to the importance of deep cultural memory and of keeping the past alive to construct a better future. My mediation between the postmodernism aspect and the African-American teachers’ cultural aspect enabled me to draw the best of both through my attempt to affect the world of the real through the voices of those teachers in my past. The actions and the interactions of the African- American teachers of the segregated, all-black schools voicing their stories on tapes were important aspects of my research, along with the actions and interactions of my African- American science student tutoring group The issues of power as a shifting construct emerged, especially when considering the cultural aspect of this inquiry. The system of power, what Dorothy Smith (1993) calls the ruling apparatuses, and relations of ruling in the society are applied in restrictions and forced on the African-American teachers’ practices. The design of this reflexive research opens the doors for understanding my teachers’ stories, as it allows me to introduce my views into the interpretation. However, I am aware of the caution I have to employ in reporting the investigation’s results. I had to explain why I have made the kind of judgments in my reporting the experiences of the teachers and students’ tutoring. Following elements of quality criteria, those explicit and implicit meanings became more evident.

60 Conclusion African-American teachers across the United States experienced similar struggles in educating their African-American students. Traveling the same path while seeking their own education, African-American teachers sheltered, protected, and motivated their students to success. The result of this research helped me to understand what my teachers did to promote my success and shape my values that I translate into actions with my own students.

61 CHAPTER 4 DATA COLLECTIONS AND FINDINGS

Life can only be understood backward; But it must be lived forward. Soren Kierkegaard

Introduction Writing my autobiography was a way to reflect on my life and professional practices. I read many autobiographies (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Rodriguez, 2000; Gilmer, 2004, Schaller, 1994; Denzin, 1989; Roth, 2000; Bethune, 1996; Washington, 1901; Dubois, 1968) that encouraged me to write my autobiography. Reading Roth’s (2005) book entitled, Auto/Biography and Auto/Ethnography: Praxis of Research Method allowed me to understand how empirical evidence has to be constructed and how scientific data collected. Autobiography and autoethnography were interesting prototypes offering an epistemological perspective for understanding self and research objects in the context of questions pursued. As stated by Roth (2005) “the materiality of the body as condition of consciousness implies a holistic participation of researchers engaged in the endeavor of understanding their research object” (p.100). In my action research, I compared two themes, face-to-face science teaching and on-line science teaching from within my tutoring organization where I have taught for the past 30 years. My choice to do this study helped me to understand why tutoring is so important to me in this research and what to know concerning my tutoring students. The purposes of this interpretive inquiry were to (1) understand my beliefs, values, and practices of science teaching; (2) to inform me of new practices I will use with science students; and (3) to understand how my early schooling experiences influenced my beliefs, values, and science practices. Data was collected for this inquiry from African-American teachers and African- American students, using conversation interviews and tutoring practices, recorded by audio and videotapes. Additional data collections came from journals, observations, artifacts, maps, and photographs.

62 In this inquiry, the focus was on understanding my beliefs/values concerning teaching science and the influences behind those beliefs. This inquiry was situated in Jacksonville, Florida and Fitzgerald, Georgia. I have lived in Jacksonville, Florida since 1954 and worked as a science professor at Florida Junior College (FJC), now Florida Community College at Jacksonville (FCCJ), beginning in 1967 part-time, and continuing from 1968 to 2003 fulltime, for 35 years of fulltime teaching employment. I taught biology and human anatomy and physiology while tutoring students in science at the college, at my home, and in the community. I organized my tutoring practices into an organization called Kollege Kampus and over the years have had success with the students whom I tutored. Fitzgerald, Georgia, the city of my birth, was where I attended K-12 segregated, public schooling in Monitor Schools. I was excited to go back to Fitzgerald, Georgia to see many of Monitor’s African-American teachers so active, in excellent health, driving modern cars, and working in their community and churches. These retired teachers became excited when I told them about my experiences as a science professor over the past 35 years, especially the part about my returning to Florida State University as a doctoral student. After explaining to them what I wanted to do, they were more than willing to help me achieve this goal. I selected three of Monitor’s African-American teachers, an elementary school, a middle school, and a high school teacher. The middle and high school teachers taught me at Monitor Schools during my school years, 1942-1954. Although she did not actually teach me, the elementary teacher was the wife of the principal; I thought that she could share the culture of administration in the segregated era at Monitor Schools. These teachers agreed to be audio and videotaped while sharing their teaching experiences during their segregated years of teaching employment. The teachers’ interview data I collected by audio and videotaping, journals, and observations. In Jacksonville, Florida my experiences as a college science professor/science tutor/ and chairperson of Natural Sciences, before retirement, kept me quite busy. During the time I taught human anatomy and physiology, as many as 30 students would meet at an announced time for tutoring in a room at the college that we were allowed to use. The tutoring consisted of teacher led reviews while allowing the students to ask questions or give comments. However, about 12 years before I retired I organized my science tutoring of 35 years into Kollege Kampus. The

63 inspiration for this was my grandchildren and the educational help I was giving them. Since my retirement, I have returned to Florida State University campus for the Ph.D. degree. I continued my science tutoring with only seven full-time students and, occasionally, some community students when time permits. Although retired and a student myself, I still find time to come to Jacksonville every weekend to meet with my students who need help. I use case-based pedagogy as a context for collaborative inquiry into my science tutoring practices of my personal organization, Kollege Kampus. Two of my tutoring students are co-researcher in my inquiry. The first student, a 15 year old, African-American male, attends the 10th grade at Paxon School in Jacksonville. The second student, a 21 year old, African-American female, attends Florida Community College in Jacksonville for pre-nursing. The students were audiotaped and kept a journal during their tutoring sessions. The attempts to videotape the students were not successful; however, the audiotapes were excellent, as were the students’ and researcher’s journals and photographs. Inexperience or limited experience with the operation of the video camera forced me to admit that the videotaping failure was entirely my fault.

Action Research The purpose of this inquiry is to examine my beliefs and values of science tutoring and to transform my practices by conducting action research on my science tutoring practices in light of the forces that have influenced me. I can modify and improve those practices to improve the quality of tutoring instruction I provide students to increase their science knowledge and achievements. Action research highlights the power of students’ descriptions of their own learning as revealed to me in dialogue. It revealed reflective conversations between teacher and students, allowing students to describe their experiences as learners, with the goal of improving my practice. In doing this inquiry, not only did I collect data from the students’ perspectives on their learning, but the students were also researchers by their engagement in this inquiry. This inquiry subjectively examined the research data as well as possible, meaning, I am aware of my beliefs and values in the teaching of science and will take them into account and give them weight as an alternate to the objective aspect of my tutoring practices. I used as a lens the eyes of two African-American tutoring students and to a further degree, the journals that we all kept.

64 Tutoring students’ reflections were a source of understanding my tutoring practices. I told them that their comments might improve the tutoring instruction for them and future students, and emphasized to them the importance of genuine commentary. Upon analysis and reflections, I will use their comments to improve my tutoring practices. In addition to the students’ journals, audiotapes, and photographs of the tutoring sessions, my own research journal was a source of analysis to indicate what elements of my tutoring practice need to be modified and improved.

Journal Assignment 1. Write about the tutoring practices you would like to see continued. a. Give reasons. 2. Write about the tutoring practices you would like to see discontinued. a. Give reasons. 3. How has this reflective practice helped you? In my efforts to accomplish this inquiry the following research questions will guide this study.

Research Questions 1. What are my personal beliefs/values of science teaching? 2. From what experiences do they stem? 3. Using my experiences as a tutor, what values do they reveal? The teacher-researcher role in this inquiry was to provide science concepts and science information to tutoring students while allowing tutoring students opportunities to engage in discussions concerning their topics of study. This study is occurring during the Spring/Summer school terms of 2006 at the researcher’s home in Jacksonville, Florida. The curriculum for this study consisted of advanced chemistry for the 10th grade participant and human anatomy and physiology for the college student participant.

Data Sources Participants: P1 LaToya (college) P2 Jarvis (10th grade) R1 Teacher Researcher (tutor) 0 Failed efforts

65

Techniques Research Research Research Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Participant R1 R1 R1, P1, P2 Observations Tutoring Sessions R1 R1, P1, P2 R1, P1, P2 Audiotaping R1, P1, P2 R1, P1, P2 Videotaping 0 0 0 Photographs R1, P1, P2 Journals R1 R1 R1, P1, P2 Artifacts R1 P2 Analysis R1 R1 R1 Interpretation of Data R1 R1 R1 Fig. 9. Action Research Participants

The science tutoring, occurring primarily on Friday, Saturday or Sunday at the researcher’s home in Jacksonville, Florida at times set according to the schedules of the tutoring students. The tutoring area has a computer connected to the Internet, where the tutoring students were able to visit my personal tutoring websites (http://web.fccj.edu/~sjackson) to review basic concepts of human anatomy and physiology, as well as other science sites providing science- information that the students needed. All tutoring sessions occurred at a round table, which has been a feature for many years of this tutoring organization, to ensure that all students can see each other and the tutor at all times, for science concept delivery and concept discussions as well as concept explanations. Another advantage of the round table is to encourage collaboration and interaction between students in group sessions. A portable whiteboard was located on the side of the table supported by the wall for the tutor to write visual learning reinforcements. Most importantly, there were labs available to demonstrate the concepts that allowed students the opportunity to actually see science structures or activities on which the textbook authors focused. My tutoring site is equipped with a video/DVD player, audio-player, microscopes, microscope slides (clear and prepared) and slide covers, science models, science charts, Petri dishes, distilled water, and other scientific supplies, along with some chemicals for experiments.

66 Many of my past college students working in the medical profession have donated much of the items I have for my tutoring practice. Microscopes for viewing organisms and some physical science reactions such as osmosis/diffusion were donated from the military surplus and the Florida Community College at Jacksonville. My tutoring organization, Kollege Kampus, received two high-powered working microscopes as well as one broken microscope of the same model, to be used for repair parts as needed. These were also a donation from the military surplus. Kollege Kampus received eight lower-powered microscopes, as a donation from the Florida Community College at Jacksonville when the college upgraded its microscopes. Additionally, the researcher (tutor) regularly receives new textbooks from publishers for participating in book reviews and conferences. Receiving the accompanying transparencies along with the text provides a great opportunity to show students what they are learning in their texts. They also reduce the amount of writing on the whiteboard and the time it takes to write the information by the tutor. The organization’s video/DVD player makes it possible to watch many tapes containing terminology and science lesson while witnessing concepts actually come to life. This useful technology helps tutoring students achieve their goals of understanding science concepts more thoroughly. I have realized from 35 years of teaching experience that students have different ways of perceiving and processing information; therefore I incorporate into my tutoring a variety of instructional strategies to meet the needs of different learning styles.

Themes of Action Research Study Through the audiotapes and journals of students and tutor, several themes were generated for this inquiry. 1. A determination of best science teaching method: Face-to-face science teaching or blended science teaching (on-line lecture and face-to-face laboratory portion). 2. Teachers’ roles in the construction of students’ knowledge. For my inquiry, I tutored science topics and texts that the students were presently studying. These students received additional help in their present science classes along with participating in the inquiry. The first student, Jarvis, is a student who was enrolled in an advanced chemistry class in his public education schedule. The second student, LaToya, is a

67 student who was enrolled in human anatomy and physiology in her college education program of study.

Jarvis In reviewing the advanced chemistry tutoring transcripts and Jarvis’ and my journal reflections, it appears that chemistry concepts to be taught to students should be deconstructed (broken down into fragments) to allow teachers to rebuild chunks of science information into complicated science concepts. This rebuilding allows students to learn and understand concepts more readily. With this in mind, the goal of the first tutoring session with Jarvis was to help him acquire understanding of different types of chemical equations. In his face-to-face tutoring sessions, I used the simplest practice (I call the ABC level) before moving to higher levels of knowledge construction and acquisition. I determined Jarvis’ level of understanding and began his tutoring at that point to establish a sure foundation before considering more sophisticated concepts of chemistry. For illustration, from one of the chemistry books, I selected the different reactions. I used the whiteboard to show and explain the different chemical types using the four principal chemical equations. The four chemical equations were the ones required by his public- school curriculum. In the public school setting, Jarvis experienced problems understanding the lesson on chemical equations; therefore, tutoring him in this area became vital to his success in understanding this important chemical concept. Since science is a complicated subject, I attempted to present to the student a vivid picture of what was said by illustrating it on the board as I spoke. By doing so, the student moved from learning dependency to learning independence. Some students are visual learners; others are auditory, while others are tactile learners, which may include learning with the entire body. My knowledge of how the mind works allows me the opportunity of designing my teaching environment to support science learning. Understanding this, I can approach any science subject in the students’ preferred learning style, while making use of the students’ secondary learning style as well. For this tutoring session, I chose to do the following: I wrote the four equations on the whiteboard to create a visual accompaniment to the explanation presented in the textbook, thereby increasing Jarvis’ understanding of each type. One at a time, I wrote on the whiteboard and explained the selected equations using a deconstructed explanation

68 as I engaged Jarvis at the lowest level of this problem-solving activity. Because I believed he understood the basic concept (a test later revealed this assumption to be correct), I then moved on to complex equations. Beginning with synthesis: I told Jarvis: T Synthesis is just when you put one atom with another atom to form a different substance. I did not tell Jarvis there are twice the numbers of Na atoms bonded to S atom such as

Na2S. I was keeping my tutoring as simple as possible because of his level of learning and to measure his facial or verbal expression for his understanding of chemistry. After identifying the function of synthesis I wrote and explained synthesis reaction on the board as A + BÆ AB. After seeing the example, I asked Jarvis if he understood. He indicated his understanding by “uh, huh,” his version of yes. I then asked if he understood what I did. He again answered “uh, huh,” so I then explained synthesis as a chemical reaction that bonds atoms with each other to form a new molecule. The first example I chose was too complex for him, so I chose another and applied the atoms of various elements in reactions. Beginning with synthesis, I used Fe + SÆ FeS, bonding iron plus sulfur to create iron sulfide, a new substance. I asked Jarvis if he understood what I did. He replied “uh, huh.” I felt comfortable that he understood the basic rules governing synthesis of elements. The fact that Jarvis was very familiar with the chemical symbols made synthesis of the two elements in the reaction much easier to demonstrate. Another synthesis reaction was explained: T Let’s go to a simpler one. What about sodium? This is simple Na +SÆ what?

J Na2S right?

T Na2S, uh, okay, in order, in order to determine how many to put, remember the equations that we did, the atom, the structure of the atom? J Uh, huh. T Synthesis again is just when you put one atom with another atom for forming a substance. After this first step, I then explained decomposition reaction as the reverse reaction of synthesis, which is taking apart molecules. The example I wrote on the whiteboard to illustrate decomposition was AB Æ A+ B. I asked Jarvis again if he understood what I did. He answered by “uh, huh.” Since I used the element Na and S in the first illustration, I simply reversed the reaction using the same two elements to make learning easier for the student. Again, this is not balanced but an illustration of the process. Since I always repeat the function of each equation to

69 ensure that it is understood, I said again that decomposition is the taking apart of molecules. Using the same atoms of elements to explain decomposition reaction, I wrote FeSÆFe + S. From his reaction, I believe he immediately understood that this was a decomposition reaction. I have known and tutored Jarvis over the years and I am able to judge through his facial expressions when he understands concepts. Believing that he understood those chemical concepts, I continued with the exchange or replacement reaction. I described exchange or replacement reaction as atoms replacing other atoms. I wrote the following example on the board: AB + CDÆ AD + BC, explaining the reaction. T This went with this and this went with this. In the example I was showing the exchange of atoms in the reaction. It’s when one atom replaces or exchanges their positions in the equation. The session: T Replacement is when one atom is replaced by another atom. That’s all it is. You have a—ah, I am trying not to do double replacement—AB+CDÆ AD+BC, but that also can be double replacement. Do you see what I did? J Uh, huh. T O.K, this went with this and this went with this, but it still can be double replacement. AB+CDÆ AD+BC Its just replacement. It’s when one atom replaces another. In showing Jarvis different texts we note the terminology is different between the texts, but their meaning the same. We are using terms from his high school text and his high school teacher in this inquiry. We continued by looking at examples from as many texts (high school and college) for viewing the different supporting illustrations. While looking in one of the text… T Ah...and you have examples that are given. This right here. Ah... let me show you how they got this. You have three, this count everything that’s written in here, the parenthesis. Okay. You have three nitrogen, but three times four is what? J Twelve T Twelve hydrogen times two, so we have six nitrogen plus twenty-four hydrogen, right? You see that, or you can say, two times four equals eight times three equals twenty-four. J Okay.

70 T Okay, what do you have over there? You have twenty-four hydrogen, right, what do you have on your paper? J Twenty-four hydrogen, six nitrogen. T Okay, hold it. You have one carbon times three, right? J Uh, huh. T So you have three carbons total and you have three times three equals nine oxygen. J Uh, huh. T Okay, for this you have three magnesium, you have six chlorines, one sodium and one bromide. Is that right? What about this? J I have two hydrogen, two chlorides. T Okay, but it yields two hydrogen, chlorine-two, that’s what it yield. Okay, you know this, right? J Uh, huh. T Okay. Replacement is when one atom is replaced by another atom. That’s all it is. You have a—ah, I am trying not to do double replacement… AB+CDÆAD+BC …but that also can be double replacement. Do you see what I did? J Uh, huh. I believe students’ understanding should be based on their prior experiences stored in long-term memory and this new knowledge imposed on past experiences helps students build new neural connections for learning. The knowledge and past experiences in chemistry that Jarvis possessed allowed him to build neural connections and enhance those connections across existing neural pathways. The next chemical reaction was the reversible reaction, which I defined as a reaction that reverts to its original states. The example I wrote on the white board was AB + CD Æ AD + BC that reverts to the original state AD + BC Æ AB + CD. This reverse reaction is usually indicated by double-yield signs pointing in opposite directions, with one sign being shorter that the other. To reinforce this definition, I showed Jarvis examples in his textbook.

I wrote for the combination or synthesis reaction; CO2 + H2O Æ H2CO3, carbon dioxide plus water yields carbonic acid. I explained the replacements that occurred in the reaction,

71 which was not as difficult for Jarvis as I had anticipated. Asking him if he understood what I did, he replied with his now familiar “uh, huh.” My practice is to bring these reactions together as often as I can to form bridges among science concepts, which allow the student to construct his/her strongest degree of learning. For example, I taught some chemistry concepts by bridging them to the human body’s everyday life processes. In an effort to identify the reactants’ sources we began with the foods we eat and

broke those down to their basic elements, C6H12O6 + 6O2 +36 ADP+36P to get the results of

6CO2 + 6H2O+36ATP. I continued tutoring by stating... T We need to first clarify the term metabolism. Metabolism has to do with how food is broken down in the body, in your body, and used by your body. The food group that is normally present in food that we eat is proteins, right? J Uh, right. T Then we have lipids, you know what lipids are, fats. J Yes. T These are fats, and then you have carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose. But you also have minerals, vitamins, and others too. However, these three are the main ones for metabolism. Proteins are broken down to amino acids. Are you familiar with that word? J Yes. T Okay, they are digested down to peptides, p-e-p-t-i-d-e-s-. Lipids are acted upon and broken down too, mostly to fatty acids. Carbohydrates are broken down to the end product, I will put glucose. Okay, are you familiar with this? J Yes.

I began with glucose (C6H12O6) molecule (how the body breaks down the complex carbohydrates to the basic units of glucose) relating the chemical processes of energy production to the human body. I chose this because Jarvis’ goal is to become a doctor. I would also be able to relate it to the chemistry of cellular respiration (to be more fully discussed in later pages), which had been a problem for Jarvis. The chemical equation of cellular respiration deals with energy production (ATP) in the human body leaving a waste product of CO2 + H2O.

The example I wrote on the board for the combination or synthesis reactions was CO2 +

H2OÆ H2CO3, carbon dioxide plus water yields bicarbonate. I explained the reaction that

72 occurred in the reaction, which was not difficult for Jarvis. I asked him if he understood what I did, he replied, “uh, huh.” I went on to explain the reversible reactions as those chemical reactions that can revert to its original chemical states. The example that I used involves CO2 +

H2OÆ H2CO3, or carbon dioxide plus water yields carbonic acid, which reverts to its original

state as H2CO3ÆCO2 + H2O, or carbonic acid yields carbon dioxide and water. Jarvis’ textbook shows the illustrated version with reversed yield signs. I asked Jarvis if he understood what I did. He said “Uh, huh.” I promote the development of students’ ability to visualize the nature of the chemicals. I believe my use of visual enforcement, such as writing on the board, examining the text together, and analyzing transparencies at a slower pace, allowed Jarvis the opportunity to see and understand the structure or activities valued in chemistry by the textbook author. Students construct their own knowledge by looking for meaning and order. They interpret what they hear, read, and see, based on their previous experiences. To allow Jarvis the opportunity to demonstrate his understanding, I gave him all four- reaction type equations to identify and problem solve. Jarvis solved all the problems correctly, demonstrating his understanding of the chemistry concepts. Jarvis was given the following equations on April 11, 2006: Write the synthesis reaction of sodium chloride (Na) (Cl) Write the decomposition reaction of sodium chloride. Write the exchange or replacement reactions of Zn + 2HCl

Write the reverse reaction for N2 + 3H2 Jarvis’ answers were; Na + ClÆ NaCl NaCl Æ Na + Cl

Zn + 2HClÆZnCl2 + H2

N2 + 3H2Æ2NH3 2NH3ÆN2 + 3H2

Learning is successful for students when they can demonstrate understanding. Jarvis’ answers were all correct. This is my way of measuring Jarvis’ performance: it lets both Jarvis and I know that he understands and is able to identify the types of different chemical-reaction equations. I think helping Jarvis to better understand the concepts of chemical reactions was just

73 a matter of beginning at the level of his understanding and allowing him to construct his knowledge from that point, before attempting to move to higher concept levels. Jarvis stated that he did not understand how to get the coefficients for balancing the equations. This seemed to be the root of his lack of understanding or his inability to understand/comprehend. Using the whiteboard to refer to illustrations of the various equations, as well as the explanation in the textbook, along with the author’s transparencies; I showed Jarvis how to determine the coefficients for a balanced equation. This led to the discussion for the next tutoring session. In our chemical equation balancing identification session, Jarvis gained significant understanding and was able to identify the different types of equations as a result of my use of one-on-one demonstration and explanation. His understanding showed in his performance with the given equations. Jarvis reported in his journal that his public-school teacher did not answer questions that he asked her. By contrast, when he asked the same questions of me in tutoring, he received answers. In his journal, Jarvis stated: 4-11-06 Today we reviewed molecular equations and synthesis reactions decomposition reactions and charges of an atom. When my teacher was asked how to find the charges she did not respond back correctly, but when explained in tutoring it made a lot more sense to me. I also learned that decomposition is the breakdown of the bonds while synthesis is the opposite, creating or forming of the bonds.

Jarvis further stated in his journal: 4-11-06 I would like to see your writing on the board continued because it helps me have a better visual of what I am learning. This tutoring practice has helped me because it makes it a lot easier to connect to the topic because of the visuals.

Through our tutoring Jarvis gained better understanding. He also said that he would like to see continued writing on the whiteboard because it gave him a better picture of what he was learning and helped him connect to the topic. One of the methods I have consistently used with Jarvis was to discuss what I am putting on the board, which, I think, is different from simply

74 writing on the board and explaining it afterward. I believe I make a greater impact when the students can hear and see what I am saying as I am writing the information or demonstration on the board. It focuses the student’s attention on the concept as I both write and discuss it; it prevents a student from reading ahead and missing what I am saying and thus confusing the student. I believe at first, judging from his facial expressions, Jarvis was very confused. This was the reason I decided to use the authoritarian method in this tutoring session with Jarvis. I was able to begin at the level of his understanding as he began to construct knowledge, taking it to a more complicated level as the tutoring proceeded. With the use of the whiteboard, texts, audiotape, and a second attempt to use the videotape recorder; we set out to understand equation balancing. The rule that I cited to him was to always make sure that the number of atoms on one side of the equation equals the number of atoms on the other side of the equation. There is a law stating that matter is never created or destroyed. When asked if he was familiar with this law, his reply was, “yes.” Furthermore, Jarvis’ non-verbal responses indicated that he was following and understanding my instructions even before he verified this verbally with, “now I understand.” In the researcher’s journal I wrote: April 11, 2006 In the first tutoring session on molecular chemical equations/reactions, Jarvis was very confused. He stated that his teacher would not explain even everything she placed on the board. During the session he said “that makes sense”, replying to the Na + Cl Æ NaCl equation. We began with the ABC level of the different equations; synthesis, decomposition, exchange, and reversible. I was able to elevate his knowledge as he gained understanding of the processes. Jarvis responded with a non-verbal facial expression before he said; “now I understand.”

The session on June 6, 2006, on balancing equations was much easier than the first session on identifying equations. Jarvis reported in his journal that he was somewhat familiar with equation balancing, but he still needed to learn quite a bit in tutoring. He was most familiar with chemical symbols; he could identify the solids, liquids and gases; he also had the ability to identify the reactants and the products. Again, I began the session with the ABC’s of equation

75 balancing that led to the harder task of balancing complex equations. I was trying to identify Jarvis’ level of understanding so that he would be able to construct his knowledge. We begin by looking at the reactants on the left side of the equation, NaCl, and counted the number of different atoms in the reactant to determine the proper coefficient to place in the product on the right side of the equation. I reminded Jarvis that matter is never created nor destroyed; therefore, the number of atoms in the reactants had to equal the number of atoms in the products. Tutoring, June 5, 2006: T Okay. Say if we have, say for example, hydrogen plus oxygen, in order to create water,

O2 is oxygen, and then of course, this simply means that a chemical reaction has occurred on this side. This will give two waters. I am sorry you did not bring your book, your chemistry book, but I do have books out there where we can look and get more complex reactions. Were there any reactions you had any problems with? And in the meantime, while you are picking, I will go get additional chemistry books. Is there any reaction in particular? J ...like for this equation that means it has four hydrogen, right? That’s what I don’t understand.

T Okay. I need to put this right here. Oh...hydrogen, okay, take gases, H2 is a gas plus O2 is a gas to form water. Yields hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, but always two, see. Hydrogen two indicates that there are two hydrogen atoms needed for one oxygen in order to form water. So you have two atoms here, then you need four atoms here. J Okay. T To form water. Is that clear? J Uh, huh. T This should not be here. This should not be here. Hydrogen gas plus oxygen will yield water. J Okay. T This one, two hydrogen; hydrogen two, one oxygen; four hydrogen, two oxygen; and, four hydrogen, two oxygen. Okay. Here you have four hydrogen, but you also have... J Two oxygen. I started with the simple equation of water, explaining first that water’s reactants are gases, hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; however when they bond together; the product is water, a

76 liquid. Since we began with only one atom of each of the gases, we had to determine what coefficient was needed since there are two atoms of hydrogen in water. I wrote on the board the

H2 + O2 Æ H2O, hydrogen gas plus oxygen gas yields water, which was an unbalanced equation. Viewing the equation, we continued with tutoring… T This one, two hydrogen; hydrogen two, one oxygen; four hydrogen, two oxygen; and, four hydrogen, two oxygen. Okay. Here you have four hydrogen, but you also have... J Two oxygen. T Yes, but it’s still wrong. You see you have two oxygen here, that’s right, okay, you have two waters. So in:

H2 + O2Æ2H2O H=2 H=2 O=2 O=1 One method to determine the coefficients of the reactants and the products are to add up the atoms on each side of the equation. We see that the number of atoms of the reactants differs from the number of atoms of the product. Therefore, balancing the equation involves changing the amount of reactant or product so that the numbers of the same atoms in the reactant equal the number of atoms in the product. The number of oxygen atoms has to be adjusted for a balanced equation. So the balanced equation should read

2H2 + O2Æ2H2O H=4 H=4 O=2 O=2 The same number of atoms exists on both sides of the equation. I wrote this information on the whiteboard, explaining, in addition, a number of different equations balancing. Assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own process. I gave Jarvis several equations that he successfully balanced, thus indicating that he understood the equation-balancing process. In his journal, he wrote: 6-6-06 Today I was tutored in balancing equations, which I knew a little about, but I didn’t know the purpose. Now I know that atoms cannot be destroyed, so you have to make both sides have the same number for each element. I think that the transparencies should be continued because they are another form of a visual, which is good, because I am a visual

77 learner. I learn better by visuals not by auditory. This has helped me because I know that when it comes to balancing equations I must write it out for me to understand them. Researcher’s journal of the June 6, 2006 tutoring session: This second tutoring session on balancing equations was much easier that the first session on molecular equation. Jarvis knew the symbols of the elements and knew most of the solids, liquids and gases. Knowing the symbols helped us with the balancing construction. Again, I used the board for illustration making it easier for Jarvis to understand and ask questions. His reactions were positive. He was able to balance equations. Of course, tutoring, like any teaching-learning situation, does not exist without conflict. The conflict I have encountered is that some of the terms in the modern texts are new and different, such as the Lewis-Dot Formula. I really had to study Jarvis’ notes to identify that process as the Electron-Dot Configuration that I know, since it was clear that process was the same. Jarvis stated in his journal that the researcher’s written examples on the whiteboard and explanation of the reactions allowed him to understand the concepts that were placed on the board; this had not been explained in his public-school chemistry classroom. He mentioned that the use of transparencies was very helpful and should be continued. It is likely that the personal attention Jarvis received during tutoring also helped him develop the confidence that he needed for understanding the chemical-balancing process. The tutoring session on the Lewis-Dot Formula, which was called the Electron-Dot Configuration when I was teaching, proved problematic for Jarvis. Explaining the concepts of the Lewis-Dot diagram, I explained that one must first know the atomic structure of the atom and the number of electrons that occupy the outer most shell of that atom. This number of electrons is then placed in one of four positions around the symbol of that atom. This determines if an element can go into chemical reaction with another atom. I noted that there are some atoms that do not go into chemical reaction with other atoms. We looked at the atoms and look at where to put the dots (bonds) in reference to the diagram. I repeated to Jarvis, “First, you must know the structure of the atom.” Then I suggested that we take one of the easier ones. I chose hydrogen, a very easy one. Hydrogen has an atomic number of one and the atomic mass of one In the nucleus you have one proton; on the energy levels you only have one electron, so a dot diagram of hydrogen would be as such:

78 H. T Which illustrates one electron on the outermost shell. This is what you did? In drawing the configuration, only one proton in the nucleus and one electron appears on the outer-most shell; sometimes called the electron shell. I explained to Jarvis that the number of electrons on the outer-most shell or energy level is the number of electrons one places around the symbol of that element. An example of the Lewis-Dot Formula of hydrogen is: H. This also means that there is only one position that other atoms can bond to hydrogen. This configuration was simple and understandable. I wrote many configurations on the whiteboard and examined transparencies, but the one that was very problematic for Jarvis was calcium (Ca :). We continued our tutoring... T Okay, let’s take a more complex one. Ah...Say calcium, Ca. what’s the atomic number? J Twenty. T That’s big, okay, we will go with it, what’s the atomic mass? J Forty. T Forty, okay. Protons, twenty, neutrons, and twenty, on the “K” shell, you have two electrons, on the “L” shell, eight electrons, and we can just put the number eight. Okay. That’s ten. On the “M” shell we have up to how many? J Eighteen. T Eighteen, we will go on and put eight, therefore on this one we can put two. J You don’t need eighteen, it’s only twenty, right? T ...the number of protons, so it’s two, ten, so we need eight. J No, we need ten more. T So you got eight and then you have two, right? J It will be ten on the third. T No, we will put eight for stability and then two. So with calcium...okay, we will find... we will look for that one right here, but it should be two. Calcium can accept (cough) two atoms. Again, eight for stability, for stability therefore you have two more left over, two on the outermost shell J Uh, huh. T So Ca... J But look, that one is one, how come this one is two?

79 T Because it’s two in the outermost shell. J Uh. T It’s two in the outermost shell. J But I though you weren’t there. T It’s only six here, so it’s two left. J Okay. T It’s seven here so it’s one left. J What I am trying to figure out is why it’s only two left? T Calcium has more than one configuration. In this instance, we are talking about the electron-dot diagram; we are talking about what we can join in order to form a given compound. J Well, I went past twenty like... T Ten, eight... J Eighteen on the third one. See that what confuses me. T Eight, okay, on the third. J Can it go up to eighteen? T Look up calcium, see if calcium is in there. J What you mean? T See if calcium is described in there. Because in this instance we are trying to uh, that’s why you should have brought your book. J I turned them in. T Oh, you turned them in? In these books the Lewis-Dot diagram will not be shown. I will look for Electron-Dot Diagram. . From the concepts in one of my chemistry books, calcium (Ca) has an atomic number of 20 with an atomic mass of 40.08. We do not use the decimals in this case. Jarvis knew that on the first shell (K) there is up to two electrons, on the second shell (L), there are up to eight electrons, and on the third shell (M) there are up to 18 electrons. This number is true in most cases, but calcium is an exception. As he had learned, the (K) shell holds up to 2 electrons, the L shell holds up to 8 electrons, and the (M) shell holds up to 18 electrons. Interestingly, calcium needs only 10 more electrons. This does not work for the Lewis-Dot diagram. I explained to Jarvis that placing 2 electrons on the (K) shell and 8 electrons on the (L) shell, 8 electrons on the

80 (M) shell creates stability for calcium, allowing 2 electrons to occupy the outermost shell, which is characteristic of calcium. The Lewis-Dot diagram will look like this: Ca: This had not been explained to him before, and it was very confusing to him. I do not believe that Jarvis, even after tutoring, ever came to fully understand the concept. He wrote in his journal that he still doesn’t know how to do it completely on his own, but he gets the concept. Jarvis also indicted that working out of the textbook is a tutoring practice he would like to see continued, admitting the book does not break down the concept like the teacher or mentor does; however, the textbook does give the facts of the concepts. I think Jarvis learned the concepts but got confused when exceptions to the rules occurred, and Ca: is one such exception. I am not sure Jarvis believes me concerning the number of electrons on the shells; therefore, I encouraged him to talk to his teacher and tell her that he had different information and ask her to explain it. I think that Jarvis needs to go back over this concept. We are scheduling a further examination of exceptions like calcium during the summer vacation time if his teacher does not answer the questions he might have on calcium during the regular school term. I was not satisfied with Jarvis’ outcome of calcium, maybe I misunderstood him; therefore I chose another element to structure to make sure Jarvis understood the Lewis-Dot- Formula. We continued... T We will look at this one, okay. Let’s take chlorine; no we did chlorine, what about carbon? What is carbon? J Twelve, right. T Six and twelve. J Yes, uh, huh. T Protons six, neutrons six, one, two, three, four, so carbon, this means it has four electrons, dots. J So whatever is on the outer, that’s what you put? T Yes, but this also means that that it can take on four atoms. Okay, let me show you how. We can do hydrogen that has only one, right? We can add hydrogen here, hydrogen here, a hydrogen here, and a hydrogen here, four hydrogen for the compound of methane. J Okay. T Let’s do chlorine. Okay, this was what? Seventeen, the atomic number?

81 J Uh, huh. T Seventeen, so protons, seventeen, neutrons, eighteen, okay, two electrons here, here, right? J Eighteen. T Seventeen, protons seventeen, check me. J Uh. T Protons seventeen and the atomic number... J and the electrons, what’s the electrons, seventeen? T Yes, should be the same as protons. J Oh, all right. T See you have two here, you have eight here, so you have seven here, and you have a deficiency of one here. After the completion of the tutoring, Jarvis wrote in his journal: 6-6-06 When we did the Lewis-Dot-structure, I learned that whatever number of electrons is in the outer most shell is the number that determines the dots that go around the symbol. I still don’t know how to do it completely on my own, but I get the concept. Working out of the book is a tutoring practice that I would like to see continued because although the book does not fully break down the concepts like a teacher or mentor would do, it still gives some very good insight as to the facts of the topic being taught or tutored on. This has helped me because I now know that when I don’t have someone there to help me with my tutoring, I can refer back to the books for the facts. From the June 6, 2006, researcher’s journal: In the public school text, what I called the Electron-Dot-Configuration is called the Lewis-Dot-Structure, otherwise it is the same. In this tutoring session we first structured the electron configuration of the atoms. I explained that the outer level of the atom contains the number of electrons to be placed around the symbol of that element. Tutoring helped but I think Jarvis needs to go over this session again. We both agreed Jarvis needed to repeat this session again. I think he understood most of the concepts but there were a number of the elements he needed to review. Remembering Jarvis’ struggle with understanding cellular respiration and knowing that he is enrolled in advanced

82 classes, required me to consider how I could help him understand this complicated chemical process. It was clear to me that he would need more than one tutoring session on the chemistry involved in the process of cellular respiration. I knew that for his 11th grade year, Jarvis would enroll in the advanced biology class and he would be covering the cellular-respiration process. I believed that by blending chemistry and biological discourse and interpretations, Jarvis would be able to understand the process better. I started out by introducing the systems that transfer the reactants to the body cells since this is the site of cellular respiration. I kept the emphasis on the advanced chemistry class Jarvis was taking. I began by identifying this as a biodegradation reaction; the reactants: glucose and oxygen. Glucose is an end product of the carbohydrates that have been metabolized after digestion and is transported by the blood of the cardiovascular system to the cells of the body. Another reactant is oxygen, which is isolated by the respiratory system and also transported by the blood to the body’s cells where cellular respiration occurs. Earlier I had tutored Jarvis on cell anatomy and physiology and cell transport in the laboratory. He knew the components of the body’s cells and immediately knew the three sites in the cell where cellular respiration takes place. Thus the tutoring would mostly involve the chemistry of cellular respiration. I explained to Jarvis that the reactant glucose molecule contains six atoms of carbon bonded to twelve atoms of hydrogen and six atoms of oxygen that will chemically combine with six atoms of oxygen and inorganic phosphates and overall produce six molecules of carbon dioxide, six molecules of water and from 34 to 36 molecules of ATP, the energy for our body

(C6H12O6 + 6O2+36ADP+36PÆ6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP+ Heat). I asked Jarvis if he had heard of ATP. He replied correctly that ATP was the energy for the body. I then told him the body’s ability to keep making the energy came through the process of cellular respiration. I did not mention the sources of the ATP in my effort to focus on the different chemical reactions he was learning and relating those reactions to his life. To set the stage of this blending of chemistry with Jarvis’ own anatomy awareness, we first started with the respiratory system, identifying the route of the oxygen molecules to the cells. This process involved gas laws, which Jarvis had been introduced to, that allow the gaseous oxygen to pass across membranes to enter the blood. These attach to the hemoglobin molecule. Though it was a new term for him, Jarvis understood how it then taxies to the cells of the body. Using the textbook and transparencies, I traced the path of oxygen from the lungs to

83 the cells. I believe that applying the elements to a real life function gives students a connecting definition for that element and the process. I tried to create a real-world environment that employs the context in which learning is relevant. I mentioned a system that Jarvis was most familiar with, the digestive system, to remind him of the source of the glucose. I shared the pictures of the cardiovascular system, pointing out the direction of the blood flow for the glucose and the oxygen to the cells, as well as the by-products of carbon dioxide and water, and then back to the lungs. I had a chance to demonstrate the different types of chemical reactions including synthesis, decomposition, displacement and the reversible reactions in the formation of ATP and the transfer of carbon dioxide back to the lungs. Authoritarian teaching was the chosen method of tutoring because there were many new concepts for Jarvis to learn. The cellular-respiration chemical process was very challenging for Jarvis. I explained glycolysis, which involved ten steps in the textbook that we were using, that catabolized (splitting of the bonds in glucose to release the energy) glucose molecule into two pyruvic acid molecules. I also explained that glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. Different textbooks have different names for the cycle. I shared the chemistry textbook that Jarvis is using. The chemistry textbook that Jarvis borrowed was college level, which I thought might be too difficult for him at the time, but which gave an overview to the process and so would prepare him for the next tutoring session. In the Kreb’s cycle we viewed nine chemical reactions that release hydrogen ions and electrons that are collected and transported by carrier molecules to the electron transport site for the synthesis of ATP. ATP is converted from ADP (used energy that needs replenishment) back to ATP. This set the stage for understanding cellular respiration’s relationship to the human body. In this tutoring session I introduced new terms with which Jarvis was unfamiliar. Although I did not request him to learn the complex chemistry, Jarvis stated in his journal that “I understand the concepts and that the visual way of learning is useful when it comes to knowing the body and the path of oxygen to the organs of the body”. Jarvis forgot to mention the path of glucose in his journal as one of the reactants in the cellular respiratory reaction. This goal of the instruction I provided Jarvis was to make realistic connections between body chemistry and the physical equation. Cellular respiration has to be repeated for Jarvis. Jarvis knew that he didn’t completely understand the reactions and thus requested, “a couple more sessions.” Jarvis admitted he did not understand how ADP is converted to ATP. One of the advantages of

84 tutoring is that the tutor can repeat concepts as often as it takes for students to develop understanding Jarvis wrote in his journal: The cellular respiration was a little challenging for me and with a couple more sessions I will probably be ready for the AP class with no problems. I understand the basic concept of the whole system, but I just don’t understand how ATP is converted to ADP and back.

Discussion Cognitive levels of learning based on how students receive and process knowledge determines students learning styles. Jarvis’ knowledge acquisition requires a recall of previously learned concepts as the foundation on which he successfully based new learned concepts. One of the greatest challenges of teaching science is discovering the learning styles of students and to nurture an intrinsic motivation adapted to that learning style. Planning education for student needs is a challenge for teachers who are concerned with teaching for success. It is a popular assumption that students have different educational learning patterns and needs. This inquiry reflects the researcher understands how Kollege Kampus tutoring links teaching methods to conceptual understanding. As illustrated in the previous sessions, I hold a common view of science content and practice that was visible throughout Jarvis’ tutoring sessions: treatment of concepts, pedagogical choices, and means of assessment. The finding confirms that there is a major link between the way I view science and my practice. My tutoring sessions are guided primarily by views of concepts, pedagogy, and assessment. I believe there are invisible forces guiding my beliefs, such as strict accountability and rigorous state assessment. Revealing the invisible unrecognized conflicts can advise me in designing my science tutoring environments to support students’ highest degree of science learning. My organization, Kollege Kampus, is not under the mandate of “how to teach science” as is the public school system; therefore, I use unconventional approaches to the problem of knowledge and knowing based on the assumption that a level of science knowledge is in the long term memory of the students and that the new concepts have no alternative but to construct on the basis of students’ experiences.

85 I believe science students’ understanding is based on their prior experiences, which feeds into Bruer’s (1999) perspective of what students know is stored in long term memory and this knowledge imposed on new experiences. This in turn helps students build new neural connections. With this in mind, a constructivist theorist (von Glasersfeld, 2000) actively allows students’ ability to construct and reconstruct knowledge out of their own experiences. Constructivist learning actively allows Jarvis’ ability to construct and reconstruct knowledge out of his own experiences. Constructivist learning also recognizes that students learn differently; therefore, constructivist-learning environments encourage multiple learning styles and multiple representations of knowledge (Commission on Research on Black Education [CORBIE, 2005]). I believe that Jarvis is a constructivist, a visual learner, and he tries to see the concepts as concretely as possible through a series of steps that help him build his knowledge. Under the theory of constructivism, students focus on making connections between facts and foster new understanding based on their experiences. If Jarvis did not understand the concepts or he missed a step in that process, he asked questions to get answers to help him to see and promote his understanding. Jonassen (1991) suggests creating real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant. While working with Jarvis, I learned the best method for tutoring complicated concepts to him is to use the humanist approach to learning. One of the things I have been trying to do with him is to get him to see chemistry in action in the area of his interest; the human body. Along with this, I tried to get him to respond more in the tutoring sessions so I will have a clearer picture of his progress of learning science. Up to this point, I mostly taught concepts, employed visuals for demonstrations (texts, transparencies, and white-board), and have allowed him to work problems to test his understanding. Unfortunately, I did not get enough collaboration from him. One reason for this came from Jarvis himself. In his journal, Jarvis admits, “he learns best through visual means, not by auditory means.” This may have influenced the amount of auditory feedback I received. The National Science Education Standards (NSES, 1996) emphasizes students learning is greatly influenced by how they are taught. I selected the method I thought would best suit Jarvis’ learning according to what he knows (his experiences). Tobin (2000), states that teaching methodologies and epistemological beliefs of practicing science teachers have a strong influence on the effectiveness and quality of student

86 learning. Since I am familiar with Jarvis’ level of knowledge and his long-term goals, I tie concepts he is learning towards a career in medicine, something in which he is interested. Jarvis seems to grasp concepts much faster through this method. Hsin-Kai (2003), states that chemistry learning involves establishing conceptual relationship among macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representation. Teachers have to encourage students to employ the notion of intertextuality to conceptualize these relationships in order to construct meaning of chemical representations. By linking the concepts to everyday, real life experiences, such as human anatomy and physiology, I began to shape African- American students’ ways to co-construct intertextual links with their science concepts. My concern over Jarvis’ unusual problem of understanding calcium, made me think it necessary to inquire about his teacher’s certification. I was relieved to find she holds a degree in science. When teachers teach out of their field, they may have difficulty explaining complex concepts, which in turn makes it hard for the students to grasp and understand the concepts. This apparently was not the problem where Jarvis’ public school chemistry class was concerned. Jarvis is an FCAT success story; he made a perfect score on the test. His success on the FCAT should indicate to his teachers that Jarvis is a very intelligent student. Jarvis tries to understand each concept before moving to more complex concepts. Since I have been tutoring him for a number of years, I am familiar with his learning patterns and have a theory concerning how he constructs his learning. In my personal tutoring practices, I try particular discursive strategies wandering from one method to another, trying to promote “student talk” to help me understand more of what teaching method is best for the students. This method of trying to promote students’ talk worked in some cases, but did not work well in the majority of the tutoring sessions. Jarvis did talk when he did not understand various concepts. Jarvis talked the most during the tutoring session on the electron configuration of calcium, which he still does not completely understand. The problem involves his belief that on the third electron shell of the atom’s configuration up to eighteen electrons can be placed on that energy level; no exceptions to this rule exist. Unfortunately, as noted previously, there are exceptions and calcium (Ca :) is one, which becomes clear when constructing the Lewis-Dot Formula for calcium. I suggested to Jarvis that he discuss this concept further with his public school, chemistry teacher.

87 In looking at the Standards for science teaching, the Standard states that students should become independent, lifelong learners. Therefore, students need to understand the integral path to learning science. For Jarvis to be able to become independent in learning the Lewis-Dot- Formula, he needs to repeat those concepts again.

LaToya LaToya is the second tutoring participant and is a college student enrolled in a class of human anatomy and physiology I. LaToya’s college class was a blended class with an on-line lecture component and face-to-face laboratory component. One of the problems I noticed immediately was the fact that LaToya was unable to pronounce terms associated with human anatomy and physiology. Many of LaToya’s five tutoring sessions were scheduled for 30 minutes, but ended up lasting for up to one hour, in order for us to cover all the concepts of a given chapter. Since these were subjects she was presently taking, I had no control over the topics. I tutored, in any given session, as long as it took LaToya to indicate that she understood the concepts. LaToya is a second year, pre-nursing, college student. Her teacher is white and works in the medical profession as a chiropractor in Jacksonville, Florida and teaches an adjunct class on anatomy and physiology at Florida Community College at Jacksonville. If the classes are as large as they were when I was teaching, it is likely that part-time teachers may not have time to provide individual student help. Further complicating the teaching-learning situation is the fact that LaToya is both employed full-time and a student. So I really don’t know if she has the extra time to visit her professor for help. In blended classes, such as the one that LaToya is taking, teachers expect students to learn from independent reading and classroom instruction, which could prove problematic for some of the African-American students who may need to hear terminology stated and discussed verbally. LaToya’s first tutoring session on tissue types began with the major groups and the subgroups. I though it was important that I carefully pronounce terms related to each chapter along with teaching the concepts. I have terminology tapes on each system for students to use to set the correct environment for the tutoring. In LaToya’s sessions, I used both textbook illustrations and many transparences to show LaToya how the tissues appeared and where those tissues are located in the body. I defined and described the basic characteristic of the different types of tissues in this tutoring session, April 10, 2006:

88 T On the first page there are group of cells that are common in embryonic origin. The four main ones are epithelium tissues, connective tissues, nervous tissues, and muscle tissues. Each cell group form junctions between their cells to join and function together to do the same performance; they have specialized activities. Epithelial covers organs; they cover the surface of your body... L Yes. T ...and we do have some glandular epithelial that you can look at, and also it serves for protection, secretion and absorption. Once you look at the skin, it gives protection, and also secretes. L Right. T And of course absorption. Another kind of tissue is connective tissue. Ah, this is tissue that binds and holds things together. They connect one layer to another. L Right. T For example, under the epithelial tissue you have connective tissue that will attach it to the underlying muscle. Okay and the name actually describe what it does. L Right. I paced the concepts to make sure, from my observations; that LaToya understood what we covered, and to determine if my tutoring was the best method for her conceptual learning. I introduced more concepts, repeated concepts mentioned earlier, and formed a bridge for clarity on the concepts. I discussed how epithelial tissue is classified, discussing the anatomy and the differences between each type and gave examples of each. T Epithelium cells are composed mainly of densely compacted cells, which mean they are real close to one another. L Okay. T See how compact those cells are and even when you look, this is a simple layer here and of course, this is a stratified layer. Simple means it consists of one layer of cells. Stratified means it consists of more than one layer of cells. L Right.

89 T Ah, epithelial tissue sits on a basement membrane, and that’s the basement membranes right here before it is connected to connective tissue that connects this to the underlying muscles. L Okay. T This is how it really looks, probably under the microscope. There are...These are kidneys right here, and this is how they will appear under the microscope. These are your epithelial tissue and you can see it is like this. L Right. T … these are stratified but you also have pseudo-stratified epithelial. I don’t see columnar, but “pseudo” means false, and what this means is that this tissue appears to be more than one layer, because of the location of the nucleus. In reality, it’s only one layer. L Okay. T Columnar epithelial, that’s because they are column shaped, and of course you can see that the nucleus are at different positions on each one of these cells, making it appear to be more than one layer, pseudo = false. L Pseudo = false. T Okay, pseudo-epithelial. I will talk about the junctions later. L Okay. Using Transparencies and text to show the location of the tissues, we continued…. T You can see where they are located here… this is the intestine. L Right. T That’s where it’s located. We have some cells that are elongated. This is how the column-shaped cells look, see they are elongated. L Right. I believed LaToya’s response of “Right” meant she understood. Based on this assumption, I bridged another concept. T So, this is simple columnar epithelial, right here, and of course, in it you have a fat cell, a goblet cell, and this is where it secretes. L Oh, okay. T It secretes the oil. L Right.

90 T It secretes that oil. These are your nuclei and right under here you have your connective tissue. L Right. Again, repetition seemed to work well for LaToya. It was time for another concept. T …You have these cells that are cube shaped, see the shape of this, cube. L Right. T These are called cuboidal epithelial, and when there is only one layer, it’s simple cuboidal epithelial. L Okay. T They only have one layer here. Usually the kidney has those cubical cells in them, but we can look at the pseudo-stratified again. In it you have goblets cells; you also have basal cells at the base of the tissue. This is your connective tissue down here. This is ciliated pseudo-stratified columnar epithelial. See the cilia here, the hair-like structures? L Okay. T Again, the goblet cell, the basal cell, and the cilia. L So I have a question. The basal cells will always be located at the base? T Yes. L Okay. At last, a question to which I can give a reply! If I can get her to talk in conversation, I can get a better understanding of her method of learning. We continued by reviewing what we covered. T ...Usually anything that has any connection to the atmosphere is covered with epithelial tissue, in your mouth, epithelial tissue, in your nose, epithelial tissue, because it is communicating with the... L Air. T ...with the atmosphere. This is stratified cuboidal epithelial, cube-shaped. L Right. T Again, stratified epithelia... Keratin simply means... L Are you talking about this? T Yes. L Okay.

91 T This tissue has a lot of keratin in it, so it is keratinized. This is dead squamous tissue. This means that your skin on the outside is dead. This is dead. You are looking at dead skin right here. L Okay. T But right under it you have living cells. L Okay. T This is keratinized because it has a lot of keratin in it. L Okay, what is that? T Keratin is a protein that gives a lot of protection. L Okay. T It waterproofs the skin. L Okay, now I understand. At this point I realized that I must cover most of the concepts of the tissues. The expression in LaToya’s face tells me that she was presently constructing tissue concepts that should have been learned previously, on-line. With this thought in mind, I continued tutoring epithelial tissues, repeating as often as possible. T Okay, now this is stratified squamous epithelia non-keratinized epithelial tissue. L Okay. T This is transitional epithelium, which means that this can transcend into any kind of epithelial tissue your body needs. L Okay. Tutoring LaToya was different than tutoring Jarvis. With LaToya I used the common sense route because of some of the past experiences she encountered. I also used other author’s texts and transparences to discuss and illustrate how tissues developed. The latter is one of my criticisms of most human anatomy and physiology texts. Most authors do not include a chapter on the concept of cell junctions, which show how tissues form. I have mentioned this to some of the authors, but I have not yet seen a complete chapter on cell junctions, to date. When I look at some of the present texts I consider them disjointed. Having the knowledge of what a cell junction is prevents students from leaping from the cells, across a gap of nothingness; to the tissues. I always fill in that gap with a discussion on the cell junction concepts. I helped Latoya

92 visualize the bridge that forms cells into tissue by discussing the cell junctions, which had not been previously mentioned to her. LaToya wrote in her journal after the session: April 10, 2006 Tissue: Today’s lesson was learning the different tissues and their functions. The information learned today was very specific about cell junctions, also, the general epithelial features. Entering into the session I was familiar with the general types of tissues.

In the first tutoring session on tissues with LaToya, I talked about cell junctions, of which she had never heard. However, after the discussion on cell junctions, LaToya wrote in her journal that she understood the information presented on cell junctions. In keeping with Bloom’s second cognitive level, LaToya was able to grasp the meaning of the concept, allowing knowledge of her comprehension to be demonstrated by her ability to translate concepts from one form to another. She understood the cells’ anatomy and physiology and bridging the cell junctions allowed her to more fully understand tissue formation. This additional topic allowed her to develop that bridge needed for her to understand how tissues are formed from cells. I used the authoritative lecture method during this tutoring session on tissues. I introduced the four major tissue types, their anatomy, physiology, and locations. We were able to follow LaToya’s text through the use of the text’s transparencies. Transparencies were useful, in that as I described and showed the anatomy of the tissue, LaToya had the opportunity to actually see what I was describing and in most instances, where that tissue is located. I used transparencies from more than one author; I put together my selections to show what I thought the authors wanted LaToya to learn. So for LaToya, some of those transparencies were the pictures in her text, while others were from other texts. All covered concepts that I personally added, such as cell junctions. Thirty minutes was not enough time for tutoring LaToya on tissues; therefore I scheduled more than one session of tutoring on tissues for her. In the first session, LaToya’s response to the concepts were either “yes” or “right”, as I tutored about various concepts. I interpreted her remarks to mean that she understood. In many of the cases I asked if the concepts were clear. LaToya replied, “yes” or “right.” I should have

93 asked her more frequently if she understood, which I normally do, along with observing her facial expressions. I think I was so busy tutoring for her understanding, not asking her for more clarification was an oversight. Finally, LaToya stated that she had a question: L So I have a question. The basal cells will always be located at the base? T Yes. I am assuming LaToya asked questions when concepts were not clear and sometimes LaToya would complete my sentences, making me think that she knew or was familiar with that concept. T … In other words, when you cut yourself, if you just; leave it alone... L ...it will heal. Learning is successful when students can repeat what lessons were taught to them and to make sure, repetition was the method I used. T Again, looking at the anatomy … For an additional 30 minutes, we continued the tutoring on tissues. I wrote in my journal on April 10, 2006: LaToya seems to understand the tissue subject. LaToya was familiar with some of the concepts but did not understand how they relate to each other. The biggest problem was her inability to pronounce the tissue names and other terms associated with the tissues. I also used films that pronounced terms of the tissues, however, LaToya did not use terminology tapes during this session. There were later sessions in which she chose to listen to the terminology tapes. In the second tutoring session I began by reviewing the first session and continuing with the other tissues. LaToya responded much better during the second session. I began by associating epithelial with the skin. T Now the general types of epithelial tissues are … I explained the difference between the exocrine glands and the endocrine glands and the three modes of glandular secretions. T You have glandular epithelial, founded in two kinds of glands... You have endocrine glands, which are ductless and you have exocrine glands that secrete into ducts... L Okay. T …leading to the outside.

94 L Right. T Does it make sense? L Yes. I repeated concepts as often as possible to ensure that LaToya was constructing concepts. I used two sets of transparencies to show as I continued discussions on the tissue concepts by describing the anatomy and physiology of the bone tissues. T Okay. This is a widely separated cell. It is because these cells are surrounded by that ground substance. L Okay. T Not on exposed surfaces. I think the greatest of the most common place you can see this is bone. L Uh, huh. T Abundant blood supply. Those cells are immature cells, and mature cells. The immature cells are undifferentiated, which means that they have not become specialized. L Okay. T They are capable of becoming specialized into mature specialized tissue. L Okay. T Names ending with “blast” is a term that makes tissue. Osteoblast makes bone tissues. Chrondroblast makes cartilage tissue...... Names ending with “cytes” are usually mature cells, such as the mature bone cell called the osteocyte. L Right. Because I knew this was to be a double session of tutoring, because LaToya has to test this system tomorrow, I continued tutoring, with her permission, by saying: T ...You have spongy and you have compact (Dense). Dense bone, I showed you the osteon, remember the canal, the central canal that runs down into the bone that permits the blood vessels to go down into the bone. These cells are called osteocyte, that’s a mature bone cell and they lie in a lacunae... L Right. T …and the trabeculae are along the lines of stress. The openings where the red blood marrow are... If I had your book I could show you what I am talking about.

95 L We had uh, a thing on line where we were looking at, I don’t know if it was a joint, the bone in the arm, it was cut in half and you could actually see the spongy bone. At this point I thought a film on the bone tissue would be better for her to hear and see actions of bone tissues at the same time. T Okay. I have the bone tape upstairs too. I will go get it. I introduced other bones that would be on the tape to bridge the complete chapter. I also explained that the only liquid tissue in the human body was blood as shown, and described the components of blood using transparencies. T ...Blood again, is the only liquid tissue that we have. Here’s the plasma, the liquid part of blood, it consist of water, salt and gases. Formed elements are your cells, erythrocytes, the leukocytes and the thrombocytes (platelets). The erythrocytes are red blood cells; the leukocytes are white blood cells, and the thrombocytes are platelets, which are fragments in the blood for forming clots. L Yes, that’s the one I had heard before. T Thrombocyte? L Yes. T These are your platelets. All of these are located within the blood vessels. Function: blood clotting, immunity, but mainly transport. Blood transports your entire nutrients;

transports your gases, transports oxygen gas and CO2, carbon dioxide. Blood transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. It transports your waste; usually the waste is carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous waste. L Okay. I repeated concepts as often as I could when I thought she did not fully understand, which was often indicated by her facial expressions. Often she would say how “tutoring makes sense”, or “this is breaking it down”, or “now I understand.” When she began finishing my sentences during the tutoring process, I began to believe she was constructing knowledge. At the end of each tutoring session I reviewed the entire chapter using summary sheets to bridge all concepts to help her wholly make sense of them. These review sheets seem to have been the ticket for her understanding. These sheets are for LaToya to keep for future reference. LaToya had problems with term pronunciation. After hearing LaToya pronounce some of the systems incorrectly, I decided to continue the use of the authoritative method for the

96 tutoring of tissues. I have come to believe that in blended courses, LaToya does not do as well in the on-line component of human anatomy and physiology. Those students, who have gained experience through employment that involves the anatomical and physiological terms and know their meaning, seem to do better with the blended classes of human anatomy and physiology. When I taught human anatomy and physiology, many of my students appeared to do well because of their employment in the medical professional field, such as in hospitals or doctors offices in Jacksonville, Florida because I believe they were familiar with anatomical terminology. My students who did not have a scientific or medical background seemed to do better in the face-to-face classroom method of teaching. Based on my previous experience teaching, I thought LaToya would learn science better in the face-to-face classroom environment, since she did not work in the medical field. The third session of tutoring was on the nervous system, perhaps the highest-level of the biological science concepts in which LaToya was tutored. (I had previous tutoring sessions with LaToya during her high school years). For this session, I began by introducing the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Pointing out each component in the text or transparences, I began. T This session on the nervous system introduces the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord that goes down to L-1 or L-2 vertebrae. L Two. This tutoring seemed to have a positive start in that LaToya knew a correct answer right from the beginning. Using transparencies to identify the anatomy of the neuron…. T …Let’s look at the anatomy of the nerve. This is the cell body of the nerve. By the way, the anatomic name of the nerve is the neuron.... the neuron has a cell body, this is the nucleus, although it is not labeled, this is the nucleus. But, also it has lots of what is called nissl bodies. This is an axon, right along here. The axon is covered with a fatty layer, which is called the myelin sheath. This is the myelin sheath. These are Schwann cells. These cells produce the myelin sheath. L Uh, huh. T … this neuron has an axon that is covered and protected by the myelin sheath. Schwann cells are there to make or replenish the myelin sheath… this is a motor neuron, it has a

97 cell body and these structures are called dendrites, and the function of the dendrites is to accept a stimulus from another neuron. Nerve cells do not touch any other tissues in your body, they stand by themselves, and they do not even touch other neurons. What happens is across here is a gap called a synapse In that synapse structures at the end of the axon will secrete chemical transmitters that crosses that gap bringing that stimulus to the dendrite of another neuron. L Okay. T the stimulus will travel across the cell body and go down the axon to another neuron. L Okay. T Right here, the terminal axon will secrete a neuro-transmitter that will go to another neuron, sending the stimulus from one neuron to another. L Okay. Repetition appears to be one of the keys for LaToya’s science understanding. So I repeated the information using transparences: T Again, looking at the neuron’s anatomy, these are called dendrites, this is your cell body or soma, this is your nucleus, and in the cell body there‘s a lot of neuro-fibers, a lots of nissl bodies in the cytoplasm, you are familiar with that, mitochondria, there for making energy. This is called the axon hillock. You can see from then on you will have myelin sheath. The first part of the hillock is the initial segment. There are branches extending off from the axon, this is the axon collateral, they also are covered with... L Myelin sheath. T ...you have the myelin sheath. This is a node. Whenever you have myelination like this, the stimulus jumps from one node to another. The nodes are founded right here, so the stimulus jumps from one node to another, meaning that the myelinated axon transmits much faster than the unmyelinated axon. Okay, remember the Schwann cell is that cell that forms the myelin sheath, placing itself on the axon by simply wrapping itself around the axon forming the many layers on the axon. Again, these are nodes; nodes of ranvier at the end here and these are terminal buds. L Okay. T Okay. Does that make sense? L Yes.

98 I noticed her facial expressions while tutoring. It appeared as if this was the first time LaToya was introduced to this concept. I began to wonder if LaToya understood the concepts from her on-line portion of the class. I continued by describing the types of neurons, and the function of each. T … These are the different kinds. You have a multi-polar neuron, normally, these are your motor neurons, you have a bi-polar neuron, and of course you have a uni-polar neuron. What this is saying, multi-polar simply means that the neuron has many, many branches. Bi-polar means the neuron has two branches, and the uni-polar, one branch; it has just the cell body and really no axon. L Okay. T This one, these are dendrites, cell body, axon, this is the terminal right here. What this is showing you is how the Schwann cell forms the myelin sheath and what it does. If this is the axon, it goes around and around, forming all of these layers... L Right. T That’s how myelin is made. Of course a term I mentioned earlier, the neurolemma sheath, is located outside the myelin sheath so it itself is a sheath. There are two sheaths covering the axon, the myelin and the neurolemma. L So the neurolemma will only be on the outside? T Outside. L Okay. T I don’t know if that make sense to you, but... L But I do have a question. T Okay. L You were saying the potassium channels in, and then the sodium, sodium channels out. T They just change places across the membranes. L Okay. I located another illustration in the text to show and explain to her the nerve impulse. T This is what they are talking about right here in references to the charges. See it goes from a resting membrane potential, when it changes that membrane potential, this is

99 when again; those ions exchange their position across the membrane. Same thing happens here, ah, this actually talks about that nerve impulse. T ... up and then it polarizes, of course, which peak began to come down and it began to... L Depolarizes. T Right, and then it will get normal. It goes back to resting stage. The depolarizing phase. But this is: as it moves; it changes position along that membrane. L Okay. T So that is a nerve impulse. L Okay. T These are great to look at. L Yes they are. I used different transparencies to demonstrate the same phenomenon. T Okay. This is the same thing. Sodium is going in the axon, see current flow. This is showing how sodium is getting in but at the terminal end, and this is very important. This is your synapse, this is the gap between neurons, right here, and the terminal end of another neuron, they do not touch, nerve cells don’t touch other nerve cell, and so what do they do? These cells here produce a chemical that is called neurotransmitters that are released into the gap/synapse transmitting the stimulus coming down this axon here to another neuron. L Okay. T They make the chemicals that will be picked up by receptors of another neuron and sent along that axon of that neuron. L Okay. LaToya’s facial expressions indicated that she understood the explained concepts, so I described the different neuron pools, naming the different types of circuits using the text and transparencies. This was new to her, so I explained. T This is called a diversion circuit. In other words, a stimulus can occur here, and can be transmitted to two cells, which also can stimulate two other cells. Stimulation can occur from three cells to one cell. L Oh, it can accept from more than one route? T Oh yes, more than one route.

100 L Okay. T This one to one, it will stimulate one, this will stimulate this and then go to this or go to output, it could be a nerve, it could be a gland or it could be a muscle. Only three, another neuron, a gland or a muscle. L A muscle. T With this, look how many are stimulating that one cell, and it might be going to a muscle. ... When you see a cell like this one, this is a motor cell... Do you have any questions? L No. I repeated as often as possible for LaToya to help in the construction of her knowledge of the nervous system. This seems to work for her in the form of bridging one concept with another. I continued. T This is a glial cell. Did you study about the glial cell, the neuroglia? L No. I asked her because of her facial expression. I carefully watched LaToya’s facial expressions, as I believed they revealed to me concepts LaToya was and was not familiar with. I tried to cover as much of the concept as possible covering every detail of that concept. I continued with the supporting nerve cells. T The glial cells are of many types, these are cells that nurse and protect the neurons. L Okay. T The cell that we just talked about that form the myelin sheath. L Right. T It’s a glial cell. In the central nervous system, you have the astrocyte, the oligodendrocytes, the microglia, and the ependymal. In the peripheral nervous system, you have the Schwann cells, which are called the neurolemocyte, this is the Schwann cell, and you have the satellite cells. All of these are helper cells; functions include regulation of chemical environment, monitor health of neuron, lines the central cavities of the central nervous system, helps circulate spinal fluids, and forms sheathes. L Okay. T Okay. This talk about all of the different helper cells, the astrocytes, these are usually located in the gray matter of both the brain and the spinal cord and sometimes in the

101 white matter. They serve as neurotransmitters, metabolism, they are responsible for that, potassium balance for nerve impulses, neuro-migration, they can move them from one site to another, blood-barrier; this is something that can prevent harmful things from entering various organs of your body. It forms barriers to maybe prevent a virus or bacteria from entering many sites. L Okay. T Okay. That is a part of the network of the nerves. And it links neurons to blood vessels, these astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes, mostly around body cells, they are between neutrons to give support in both the central nervous system and the making of myelin. In the central nervous system, we are talking about the brain and the spinal cord. L Okay. T The microglia are the smallest cells, their origin comes from the monocytes; usually they are stationary. Wherever they are they stay there. Sometimes they will migrate to an injury site. You know wherever there is an injury, then they go there, they have the ability to destroy microbes, acting as microphages, Okay. Ependymal cells, ah, they may be ciliated, you know what this mean? They have cilia. L Right. T They line the ventricles of the brain and the spinal cord, but most of all; they help circulate the cerebral spinal fluid. That’s important. L Okay. T The neuromonocytes, these are the Schwann cells. These are the ones that are capable of producing myelin in the peripheral nervous system on the long axon. L Okay. T And of course you have the satellite cells. They support, they give support to the nervous system, but they are usually located around a ganglion. I have to show you what a ganglia is. I hope this is helping you. L Yes. Repeating and reviewing were the keys to helping LaToya learn the nervous system. I bridged concepts as I introduced new ones, making understanding easier.

102 T ... in different ways. In different ways. Structural again, they are unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar. Functions: afferent, meaning they will send a stimulus to the central nervous system. L Okay. T Efferent meaning that a response will be sent from the central nervous system. L Okay. T Associated means transmitting a stimulus within the central nervous system. L Okay. T Now they can be either covered with myelin or not covered with myelin. So they are myelinated or unmyelinated. L Okay. T Okay. I mentioned the term synapses. A synapse is that space that is between a nerve and another structure. L Okay. T ...usually in synapses you will find the release of a neurotransmitter substance that can go to a muscle, so a synthesis can be a neuromuscular junction. Okay. Are you familiar with that? L Yes. T Or a neuro-glandular junction. L Right. LaToya seemed to associate fragments of the nervous system to her body or experiences she had in her life. Explaining to her the path of the nerves off the spinal cord to the arms from the text, she located and traced the “nerve path” on her own arm: From LaToya’s textbook, I tutored the following: T See these come off the spinal cord, see your nerves and this is the ulna. L Yes. T This tells you that some of these nerves, right here, see the cords, branch, and looking at parts of your body, you know what, sometimes you can see them. L Like now? LaToya traced the nerve path on her arm: T Uh, huh. They come down the radius bone.

103 L They run along here. LaToya was really pointing at the path of the nerves as illustrated in her text. What were visible to her were her veins in her arms. I corrected her and showed her another picture in her text. It had been her responsibility to read the assigned chapter on the nervous system, and she was expected to know the concepts before undertaking the laboratory component at the college. This tutoring session came between the on-line reading and the in-house laboratory. This was beneficial for LaToya, making sure she did not miss concepts as she read the chapter. LaToya’s tutoring between her reading the on-line assignment and the hands-on laboratory practices helped her to learn what the author wanted her to view and learn from her laboratory experiences. LaToya wrote in her journal comments about her tutoring. I was surprised to read LaToya’s entry in her journal stating: L In today’s lesson I learned the functions of the nervous system. My thought is that as LaToya enters different systems of human anatomy and physiology, the first concept to learn is the structure and function of that system. LaToya’s on-line- assignment, I believe, should have allowed her to learn the function of the nervous system before the tutoring sessions. I now wonder how much of the on-line method of concept building LaToya really experiences. However, since I am not able to measure that level, I attempted to begin my tutoring at levels of understanding that gave additional useful information and so built LaToya’s knowledge base. Since her verbal responses were very slow, I had to depend on gestures or ask her if she understood. When her facial expressions changed as if she did not understand, I began at a lower level of the concept or returned to the basic level of the concepts. In doing this, I began at a lower level while observing LaToya’s face as I listened to her verbal responses, such as “right” or when she began to complete my sentences was I am tutoring. After I stated a concept, I asked her if she was familiar with that concept. If her answer was yes, I continued my level of tutoring and bridged new concepts and added additional concepts at a higher lever. The higher level concepts included higher level terminology, as appropriate. However if the response was no, I began at a lower level and increased the complexity of that concept as I tutored her. I am prepared to begin with terminology, if needed, on any of the systems in human anatomy and physiology. I have terminology tapes for each of the systems, along with microscopes and slides for LaToya to view for her clarity and understanding. I am

104 sure her laboratory exercises in her face-to-face class allowed her this experience; however she must know the concepts in order to know what to view, in order to learn the anatomy of a structure and its physiology. What I discovered was that LaToya did not know laboratory practices are the concepts of systems in motion. The fourth tutoring session covered the spinal cord, which is a perfect continuation of the nervous system. I believe continuing with the spinal cord reinforced already learned concepts of the nervous system by presenting a continuous flow of concepts within the nervous system. In learning the general nervous system, the spinal cord is only one of the specialized divisions to cover as a subsystem of the nervous system. In this session I used a small model of the skeletal system along with the text and transparencies to show the location of the spinal cord, beginning at the base of the brain and continuing down to the second lumbar vertebrate (L-2). LaToya was surprised to know that the vertebral column consists of different divisions. In her journal, she stated: L ...that I was not sure of the function of the vertebra. This is a clear indication that LaToya did not fully understand the on-line skeletal system and its functions. With this in mind, using texts, transparencies, and skeletal model, I began my tutoring by first describing the anatomy of the spinal cord, including the nerves of the cranial and the spinal cord nerves. I discussed the names of the nerves, the anatomy of the nerves, and showed illustrations of the path of the nerves, coming off the brain and spinal cord, passing through the vertebral foramina and traveling to sites in the body to innervate glands and muscles. As I was tutoring on the spinal cord, I felt the student had not previously heard of these concepts. LaToya’s journal reflects that she was not clear on what the nerve function was. However, after tutoring, LaToya indicated in her journal that she was clear on the system. The fifth tutoring on the endocrine system allowed us the opportunity to teach the correct pronunciation of the term “endocrine”. She stated in her journal that “this was the most exciting tutoring session, because I did not know how to pronounce the term, and now I can pronounce the term “endocrine,” know the function and how the system produces hormones that are released in the bloodstream to be transported throughout the body”. My belief is that LaToya did not learn any endocrine concepts before tutoring. My belief also is that students having trouble pronouncing anatomic and physiologic terms should chose the face-to-face method of instruction for both lecture and laboratory class sections.

105 I really had to begin at the beginning with my lowest level of instruction, terminology, and cover every concept that the author thought to be important. I used the transparencies to show the locations of the various glands and the path of the hormones in the blood to target sites. I explained what action occurs once the hormones enter the target cells. At one point LaToya looked confused as I was tutoring the reaction of a hormone that entered the cell. I asked her about her facial expression, and she assured me she was not confused. I repeated concepts often to make sure LaToya understood; therefore most sessions were over 30 minutes. My objective for tutoring is to help students understand concepts in science. My belief is that as each system forms a bridge to other systems, it forces the integration of other systems into our discussion. Human anatomy and physiology authors seem to know that there is a special sequence to the systems but often fail to bridge systems for a continual flow of understanding. Two systems that are occasionally bridged together as one system in a few texts are the skeletal and muscular systems. Since systems of the humans’ body depend on other systems, I integrated those systems that give support to the endocrine system. The endocrine hormones are released by stimulus from the nervous system and put into the bloodstream; therefore, I included portions of the cardiovascular system and reminded LaToya of the nervous system functions. LaToya knew general features of the blood and heart, but was not informed about other elements in the blood. At this point my concern was more for this student’s understanding and construction of what I could teach her on the endocrine and supporting systems. When you really look at your body, all of your systems depend on help from other systems. The nervous system works with the endocrine system. We tutored this system earlier, and mentioned that nerves innervate glands. LaToya remembered the tutoring and was able to construct her knowledge on the nervous, blood, and endocrine systems working together for a common function. LaToya stated in her journal “I learned the elements of blood which are erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes. The functions were fully explained. This portion of the session was preparing me for anatomy II”. LaToya’s belief for the additional tutoring was different from my objective. However, I think the tutoring met the students’ objective. My beliefs are that all systems are connected and should be bridged to each other according to their functions. LaToya further stated in her journal “I learned how the endocrine produces hormones that are released in

106 the bloodstream and transported throughout the body”. The transparencies gave LaToya a visual view of the structures of the glands and their locations, as I explained their functions. LaToya stated in her journal that the transparencies and writing on the whiteboard should be continued, added that terminology should also be included. This is based on the term “endocrine”, a term she could not pronounce before we began our tutoring on that system. When I asked her how she pronounced it, she gave me many versions, none of which were correct. After the tutoring she stated in her journal “Endocrine was the most exciting section because I did not know how to pronounce the word endocrine, now I can pronounce...” Based on her personal experiences LaToya recommends the addition of anatomic terms to my tutoring practices. I will tutor her in anatomy and physiology II. However, I did advise her to select the face-to-face classroom method of instruction for both the lecture and laboratory sessions of human anatomy and physiology II. I think this method of teaching will best fit her learning style.

Discussion From the reflective standpoint, students’ journals revealed that their reflections were mostly technical. Examples included reflection of what they were able to learn, such as LaToya’s understanding of the nervous system and the reaction of Jarvis in his struggle to understand the configuration of electrons, especially calcium. From Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Domains of Learning, analysis from the students’ journals indicated both of the students gave favorable reports for Bloom’s three levels. Referencing Bloom’s cognitive domain (Relevance Domain: to think) they stated that the tutoring caused them to think, thus creating a level of understanding of the science concepts (reaction). This was especially true for LaToya and her struggle with the nervous system and her understanding of the neuron. Also, Jarvis’ struggles with the electron configuration of calcium, especially since some of the atoms have more than one configuration. Jarvis was at the point of not believing me simply because his teacher did not explain every aspect of the configuration to him. LaToya had not bridged to the concepts of the nervous system because she did not understand what she read from the on-line presentation. However, after the tutoring sessions, Jarvis’ and LaToya’s responses were favorable for the Affective Domain (to feel). The current

107 science teaching standards advocate going beyond the basic facts to include the thought processes (NRC, 1996). I have shown that it is meaningful by relating the science concepts to everyday life and life functions for students to gain a better understanding. An indication of Jarvis’ and especially LaToya’s feelings were demonstrated through their facial expressions when they reached the level of understanding. These results are due to the unlimited dialogue and the unrestrictive time allowed in tutoring for students’ comments and questions to be answered. An indication of the Psychomotor Domain (to do), shows that LaToya and Jarvis knew the importance of learning the concepts and in the future will study hard to learn them knowing how it will relate to their future experiences: Jarvis’ plan of becoming a medical doctor and LaToya’s of becoming a registered nurse. Jarvis’ successful evaluation in chemistry was a positive indication of the psychomotor domain. LaToya, the second science tutoring student participant, enrolled in a blended class of human anatomy and physiology for pre-nursing students and she struggled with the on-line portion of the class. Research indicates that teachers who readily integrate technology into their instruction are more likely to possess constructivist’s teaching styles (Judson, 2006); however, blended classes do not fit the learning style(s) of all students. Human anatomy and physiology is one of the highest levels of biological sciences offered at Florida Community College at Jacksonville. Some of the systems are more challenging than others. Among the hardest systems to understand, the nervous system and the endocrine system, prove most problematic. With this in mind, the problem is compounded; as students who take on-line anatomy and physiology classes may be unable to hear the pronunciation of important chapter terms. For this problem, I use anatomic terminology audiotapes for the introduction of the chapter to be tutored. Concepts of human anatomy and physiology may be very different for students who choose to take part in the class on line as opposed to those students who are taught in the face-to- face classroom environments. LaToya’s assignment in the on-line component of her human anatomy and physiology class was only the lecture; the laboratory component was a face-to-face, in-house, teaching method. Therefore, communication across physical borders was the most important assumption of this teaching method. LaToya struggled with the on-line component of her chapters. Erickson (1987) argues that the communication process that African-American

108 students use creates different speech network communities than that of their white teachers. African-American students have their own ways of communicating. Language can be a factor in cultural incompatibility. I do not think that any of the students had a problem with language in the tutoring sessions because the tutor and tutees came from similar home cultures. The most common theory concerning home and school culture and academic achievement for the African-American students within the United States lies within the theory that African-American students experience a cultural dissonance between their home culture and their school culture (Ladson- Billings, 2001; Erickson, 1987). This theory credits greater student success when cultural compatibility between the teacher and the student is congruent. However, different cultural behaviors performed by the teacher and students are open to misinterpretation because neither party realizes that they may be operating on different cultural codes (Irvin, 1990). This was true in the case of Jarvis’ questions not being answered in the public school classroom. When Jarvis asked the same questions in his tutoring session, he received answers and understood all but one of his inquiries. Kegan (1994), a constructivist developmental theorist of early life (the Magic stage), says parents should be leaders of their children, taking responsibility to institute a vision and set values in them by which they operate. When students transcend to the next level within the same stage, teachers can meet students’ developmental needs. Through this training received at home, children should be taught the value of knowledge, and as Kegan puts it, while training increases the fund of knowledge, education leads us from one developmental stage to another, liberating us from one construction of mind to a larger one. In other words, Kegan states what I practice with some of my tutoring students and I am presently doing with my grandchildren. This family value has been a part of my practices for over 55 years. Erickson (1987) also states that African-American students have their own speech network, which is different than teachers who do not share the same culture. This should not have been an issue in the tutoring sessions since the teacher and the students come from the same culture. However, this could account for some of the success of the tutoring students of Kollege Kampus. It was thought in the past that students learned more in traditional classroom settings. My belief is that distance instruction offers more challenge than traditional instruction to some of the African-American students; however, many of the African-American students need to make sure they can navigate the aspects of on-line programs. For example, can students use the

109 dictionary to pronounce and define terms? LaToya’s attempts at this process could have helped with her pronunciation while enrolled in an on-line anatomy and physiology lecture class. I have tutored her over the years and believe distance learning of human anatomy and physiology for her is more difficult than the face-to-face classroom method of instruction. I conclude this because I am so familiar with her learning styles. Using the experience I gained while teaching my blended class of human anatomy and physiology using the method of on-line lecture teaching, laboratory instruction, and face-to-face testing, helped my students to be very successful. In my enrollment were students who were employed in the medical field and came to our campus because of its location. My campus was located about four blocks from a medical complex: Brewster Hospital, St. Luke’s Hospital, Shands of Jacksonville [University of Florida], and the Veteran Administration Clinic. Those students used the on-line portion for constructing human anatomy and physiology concepts while attending the classroom for laboratory practices, lecture, and laboratory testing. Additionally, I incorporated tutoring for my entire class in an assigned classroom at the college. My belief is that students who are familiar with anatomy and physiology terminology through their experiences usually do better than students who are unfamiliar with anatomic terms. Most of my students worked in one section of the medical complex, which is four blocks away from the college. Generally those students did better in human anatomy and physiology than students who had not been exposed to this experience. LaToya did not have this experience before her anatomy and physiology class Repetition can have a powerful impact on learning. Fritz and Morris (2005) suggest that it’s surprising how much “sticks” with repetition. Their study of college students revealed that students retrieve 75% of names they learned after 30 minutes, 40% two weeks later, and 27% 11 months later. Fritz stated that the more times the student repeated the process, the better they became at remembering. In my inquiry, the student listened to the repetition of concepts during tutoring, therefore improving understanding and learning. Theorists state that repetition gradually enhances some underlying process in learning. As did the effects of repetition with the anatomy and physiology conceptual learning that LaToya experienced. The anatomy and physiology laboratory plays a distinctive role in the construction of concepts by allowing benefits in learning from experiencing laboratories activities. I really did not ask LaToya about her learning in the laboratory. I only asked if she had covered the

110 laboratory on this system. She would either say yes or no. In my college laboratory I used the cat for the study of various systems. Presently, I have models showing all systems for tutoring my students. LaToya was able to construct some of her anatomy and physiology due to her everyday experiences along with the repeated concepts. LaToya wrote in her journal June 10, 2006, It was really interesting to learn the anatomy of the nerve, such as the dendrites, nucleus, and the axon. She further stated that: I did not know that the nerve cell could have more than one dendrite. LaToya had references to the many projections that create the structure of the dendrite located on the cell body of the neuron. The tutoring session on the nervous system occurred after an on-line lecture component of the class but before the laboratory component. I am beginning to see a pattern emerge of the things that feed my beliefs actually began with this tutoring process over thirty years ago. That emergent pattern is that often students are not learning what they should learn on their grade level. I think in some students do much better in face-to-face classroom environments while others do well with the distant learning environment. There may be many reasons why students do not learn readily from on-line classes. Teachers should be able to recognize what teaching method is best for the student. LaToya stated in her journal June 10, 2006: The session today was really helpful in giving me a clear understanding of the nervous system. The indication here is that she really did not understand the nervous system before her tutoring session but has learned, or at least has had information clarified, from her tutoring. The nervous system tutoring is the most complicated system of the course and could not be completed in 30 minutes. After observing the number of concepts in the chapter and the percentage LaToya seemed familiar with, I decided to cover the entire chapter, since this is the chapter she is presently learning. There were many parts (anatomy) she needed to learn; therefore this session’s time frame was one hour. Tutoring became my bridge for helping my children, grandchildren, and my community’s children, all who attended public schools and college, to keep up with the pace of their education

111 and to comply with the demands of their various grade levels. These students were all enrolled in the Duval County public school system. What originally prompted me to begin tutoring was because I was unhappy with the many things my children and grandchildren were not learning in the public school system. At that time, I had earned my third college degree and was capable of teaching my family members, since I taught in the local college system. Even as late as the 1970’s and 1980’s, I think the public school system did not well serve the African-American students and provide the quality of education they both needed and deserved. Most African- American students possess previously constructed perspectives that should allow them to construct an interrelationship between themselves, their environment, and science, and to form connections so vital in the learning of science. In Jarvis’ tutoring I made the connection between the chemicals and his own body, since he is interested in becoming a doctor. As an example, oxygen, one of the reactants he had to know, was explained as a necessary element for his body and was traced in the blood to the body cells. I explained the chemical reaction that occurred to make that transport possible. I showed him transparencies showing the site of cellular respiration, in the process explaining what happens in each compartment. In doing this, the chemistry construction of cellular respiration made sense to him. When I taught human anatomy and physiology classes, the nervous system chapters were problematic for most of my students. For those problematic learning issues, I set up hours and classrooms for tutoring. Not only did my students come, but also students from other campuses joined us for the reviews. The number of students attending tutoring sessions, forming a community of learners, indicated that my tutoring, along with peer tutoring, helped them to construct their human anatomy and physiology knowledge. Recent science education reforms call for teachers to employ a number of strategies to meet the needs of different learning styles. Tutoring gives teachers one-on-one experience with students and so helps teachers become familiar with the students’ learning styles. This gives tutoring teachers an edge to choose or create effective methods for science teaching. Researchers have written concerning the differing educational needs of African- American students in school settings. Atwater (2000), explores the many experiences that African-American students have in science in the United States today, and offers suggestions as to how these students can have an equitable opportunity to learn quality science. Atwater lists those preparatory skills that are fundamental for African-American students’ success in science.

112 These include (1) equity in science learning, (2) science teaching, (3) science school practices, (4) quality science opportunities, and (5) efficiency of culturally relevant science learning. Presently in the “state of integration” all teachers should be familiar with these needs concerning their African-American and other minority students. Integration adds more cultural richness to classrooms, therefore necessitating that teachers reshape their teaching methods to meet the needs of all their students. Asante (1991), argues that African-American students must have a curriculum that is culturally relevant, an Afrocentric education. His idea of Afrocentric education has established a framework using African-centered curricula to enhance the self-esteem of African-American students, while motivating them to learn. Afrocentric theory held true for tutoring as different approaches and examples were used for the understanding of different concepts, in both chemistry and human anatomy and physiology. Most of these approaches were based on past or everyday living experiences. Hale (1994), agrees with Asante by saying that it is necessary to design an educational system that compliments rather than opposes African-American culture. This change compliments home and school cultures of African-American students. Given the pace and degree of change that has occurred in education over the years, I do not think such a student- specific design is currently possible in the United States public schools without creating controversy. Schlesinger argues that the Afrocentric idea is anti-white. In reply to Schlesinger’s criticism, Asante responds that viewing Afrocentricity denounces racism, ignorance and monoethnic hegemony in educational curriculum. Asante described Afrocentricity as pro-human with the aim of curriculum to make America flourish as it should, not divide America, and to nullify the deculturization that African-American students experience in public school in the United States. Researchers (Clewell, Anderson, and Thorpe, 1992), continue to document the difficulties faced by educators, who in cultural practices, clash when the school culture and home culture employ differences mechanisms for verbal and non-verbal conversations as well as problem resolution (Connell, 1994). Lee (2001), states that students should make the connection between their domain specific learning and the knowledge they bring from home.

113 Tobin (1998a) suggests that teachers should allow power sharing in their classrooms to facilitate co-participation to reflect the cultural realities and histories of students. In my tutoring, I tried to provoke “student talk” as a form of power sharing and though it did not produce the results that I wanted, one thing I will continue to use is the students’ journals concerning their tutoring. Glasser (1986) contends that all humans have five basic needs that should be fulfilled: to survive and reproduce, to gain power, to belong and love, to be free, and to have fun. Glasser maintains that when these needs are met in the classroom, there are few problems, if any, and the learning environments are satisfactory. However, if these needs are not met, the classroom becomes an unsatisfactory environment and brings about inappropriate choices in order to satisfy those five needs (Glasser, 1986). The students of this tutoring organization are well-rounded and have had the five basic needs met, as suggested by Glasser. Therefore, learning should be no problem in the right environment. In the tutoring practices of the human anatomy and physiology student, I read Herbart’s assumptions and compared my tutoring practices:

Theory of instruction Theory of Theory of Conceptual Theory of Teachers’/Teaching interest concept Understandin Application Students’/lear formation g ning Subject matter Creation of mind. Stimulated the The teacher Direct Students Mind is a set of pupil interest. should place instruction; demonstrate the concepts that are richly Pleasure before the the teacher acquired interconnected. derived from students’ ideas systematically knowledge. (Constructed direct that can explains arrangement of ideas experience combine with something to from the sense from the existing ideas. the pupil that perception for mind nature world, they could not development). and our social discover interactions. alone. Fig. 10. Johann Friedrich Herbart’s curriculum pedagogy: Curriculum Critique/Human Anatomy and Physiology (Development of mind).

114 Fig. 10. Continued. Practices in the Kollege Kampus tutoring: Relate to The use of Face-to-face Student 1. Establish a level to the human models and instruction (Jarvis) begin tutoring body the videos allows demonstrates based on levels of concepts enhance the interaction his students’ known to be visions of between understanding concepts. learned. students as tutor and by answering they construct tutee for correctly 2. Bridging concepts their questions problems is important to knowledge. and presented to develop a flowing answers. him. line of concept construction.

This inquiry documents tutoring reflections from tutoring my African-American students. Their reflections could significantly change my practices. I have gained multiple perspectives through my collaboration with my two students. The patterns that emerged after listening to tapes, reading their journals, and reflecting on my own methods forced me to think about my general beliefs and practices. My overall belief is that African-American students can construct science as well as or above what other students can do by employing appropriate strategies. Reflections written from the students who co-researched my practice gave me insight into how students perceive my science teaching. Jarvis stated in his journal: “I would like to see your writing on the board continued because it helps me to have a better visual of what I’m learning.” And “this tutoring practice has helped me because it makes it a lot easier to connect to the topic because of the visual”. This tutoring process demonstrates that students possess the potential to reach a higher level of learning. I believe the most important task of tutoring science is to seek the appropriate path for individual students to accomplish their goals by using practical and realistic illustrations, such as the human body and its workings to help students understand and construct their science concepts. I will keep in mind that students’ achievement may differ, given how much time students are able to spend on a concept and task in the tutoring session. The tutoring sessions were scheduled for 30 minutes; however, in order for students to accomplish their learning task,

115 most of the sessions lasted for up to 60 minutes. For optimum learning to occur, one should not end tutoring until the students have constructed the concepts fully and successfully. This research concludes by drawing out some distinctions between two African- American students’ perspective on my practices. Journals kept by Kollege Kampus African- American tutoring students became the highway for students’ reflections on my tutoring practices. Journal reflections informed me of the methods that were effective and those I should include and so served as an avenue for improvement. From the reading of their journals and listening to tutoring tapes, I will use their suggestions for improvement to my practices. The emergent themes of action research were both very similar and very different between the African-American students represented.

When Where How do these Concepts of Theory themes occur in learning the text Jarvis’ Jarvis’ method of Jarvis learning of Learning of vital Theory of Tutoring learning in Ca using the knowledge based Constructivism tutoring. Lewis-Dot on previously Formula learned concepts that allow students to attain goals. LaToya’s LaToya’s method LaToya’s learning Learning in an Sewell’s Theory of tutoring. of learning in the forming of environment with Structure/Agency tutoring tissues, learning models, pronunciations, transparencies, and structures of videos, and texts, the nervous along with system. repetition, for students to develop their own learning. Fig.11. Theoretical Model: Comparing and contrasting themes and concepts.

The tutoring students were very different in their method of receiving science knowledge. The face-to-face tutoring method was the best for the college student whose on-line component of human anatomy and physiology should have been more successful. Instead, the student’s major problem was her inability to pronounce anatomical terms. With the on-line class there was no technology for hearing the terms pronounced. LaToya’s responsibility was to individually read the assignment associated with that chapter and experience her face-to-face laboratory practices. She had no experience pronouncing the chapters’ terms until she came to the tutoring

116 or was in the laboratory component of the class. Because of this, I determined that she should listen to terminology tapes before the sessions. LaToya listened to one terminology tape on the nervous system and the spinal cord before the tutoring session. Her facial expressions indicated that she perceived concepts during the tutoring lectures better, since the tapes introduced all terms in connection to the system. LaToya and I both agreed that the terminology tapes should be viewed before each tutoring session. I also recommended that she enroll in face-to-face lecture and laboratory in Anatomy and Physiology II. For the 10th grade student, Jarvis, everyday schooling was in a face-to-face environment. Therefore his conceptual acquisition was more characteristic for his learning as an African- American student. Jarvis’ school environment allowed him the opportunity to hear chemical terminology pronounced and the opportunity to ask questions about concepts he did not understand. Jarvis had no problem with chemical terms, but he did complain that he did not receive a clear answer to a particular question he asked his teacher in the classroom. In the tutoring session, he was afforded the opportunity to ask his question. Once it was explained to him, he responded: now I see. Husserl argues that the relation between perception and its object is human consciousness actively constituting objects from experience. Consciousness constructs as much as it perceives the world (Husserl, 1970). From my personal tutoring experiences, African-American teachers should extend their students’ science-world knowledge as much as possible for the maximum amount of knowledge construction. For both, the college student and the 10th grade student, the teacher/tutor was the critical role in the students’ knowledge construction. LaToya wrote in her journal that she was glad that her grandmother was her tutor. Many students do not construct knowledge well with family members; however, she did well in her human anatomy and physiology I class. After 35 years in the classroom, I am experienced in promoting students’ learning. The question remains as to whether or not African-American teachers’ home cultures play a role in their ability to communicate effectively when teaching African-American students. One might assume that an Africa-American teacher will be able to communicate effectively with their African-America students, but this may not always be the case. This question arose in my mind when the 10th grade student, Jarvis, who had an African-American teacher, had not

117 understood his teacher’s explanation of the exceptions in the Lewis-Dot formula for calcium. The 10th grade student received conflicting or incomplete concepts in his learning process, which confused him. I tried to correct some of the misunderstandings, but even after tutoring, I am not sure Jarvis understood the Lewis-Dot Formula regarding calcium. Perhaps the problem lies with Jarvis’s own prior knowledge and his construction of the information presented to him.

What I learned from Action Research As part of my attempt to understand myself, researching my life by autobiography as my method of research to reveal my beliefs and values concerning my science teaching practices is also revealed in the student’s journals. Revealed were the following: 1. Practice different aspects of tutoring: I practice tutoring differently based on individual students’ science education needs. Teachers should know that students need to construct their own understanding of concepts, so that my primary role of tutoring is not to lecture, explain or attempt to transfer knowledge, but to create situations for students that will foster students’ making mental constructions (to think). A critical aspect of this approach is a breakdown of each into smaller developmental steps (Piagetian theory of knowledge), based on observation of students as they learn concepts. My two students demonstrated the differences in their methods of perceiving tutoring concepts; therefore my tutoring practices were based on students’ reactions (verbal response, gestures [feelings], answering students’ questions, and journals). When my tutoring student does better than other public school students on standardized tests, this shows validity of science tutoring at Kollege Kampus. One student made a perfect score on the FCAT. Florida’s grading system uses FCAT results to evaluate school and student performance. 2. Social aspects of science tutoring: I am aware that students are different and each student constructs their own understanding of science concepts generating their own rules and mental models to accommodate new experiences. One of the advantages I have over many of the other science tutors is the length of time my students have been members of my tutoring group. Tutoring students from before they began public schooling through their college years allows me an opportunity to know how to present concepts to individual students. I try to understand the mental models that my students use to

118 perceive and develop their knowledge. In doing this, I am aware that African-American students’ individual tutoring has to be customized according to the needs of that student. I discussed topics that my tutoring students were presently covering in their public school classes. This choice of topics served the students rather than made them study some topic particular to this inquiry. I believe that African-American students excel when experiencing tutoring once the students’ method of perceiving the knowledge is identified. I believe in creating a smooth flow of concepts by bridging connections between known concepts and new learned experiences. I bridge life experiences to the concepts for students’ understanding. As experienced in my tutoring, especially with tissues, I connected the formation of tissues from cells (junctions) that the teacher did not cover. Gaps allow students to fall through learning spaces that are present when there is not a smooth flow of concepts between different topics in the same domain. I have not tested the success of my students who have attended Kollege Kampus; however, I have seen many successes demonstrated by these students in their public schooling reports. One such demonstration was a perfect score on the FCAT test, others involves the “A’s” and “B’s” on their report cards. Many of my tutoring students consider a “C” as a failing grade. When I compare my beliefs concerning the success of science teaching/tutoring with Bloom’s (1984) research, he reveals the success levels among different methods of teaching to students’ accomplishments. Bloom’s inquiry of successful instruction methods resulted in: 65% under conventional instruction, 75% under mastery learning, and 90+% under tutoring. The most striking of his findings is that the best learning condition, tutoring, places students above the average student taught under conventional methods of instruction. The impact of Bloom’s inquiry on tutoring shows tutoring to be the most effective teaching method, for tutoring enables students of color, especially African-American students, to construct a science concept, understand a science concept, and react to ideas of science teaching. As equally important as my beliefs, are my values of science teaching/tutoring. The most important value has to do with the vision of the African-American students’ future. I value African-American students’ preparation for their adult lives.

119 Students have to complete their educational requirements for the future of their choice. The society in which we live is competitive; therefore students have to be prepared beyond high school to meet the challenges they may encounter later in their lives. My family’s theme has remained with me though both my educational and career life. “You don’t finish school until you graduate from college” has been the driving force for me in my educational endeavor. My theme to my students (grandchildren) is “do as much or more than I did”. One of the grandkids asked me” when are you going to stop?” I smiled. This particular one, after visiting the FSU campus and after listening to a dissertation defense, told me he was going to get his M.D. and Ph.D. If he does, he will have done a bit more than his grandmother. I value repetition for greater understanding of science concepts. Teachers must demonstrate things from different angles and different points of views. African-American students have to understand science concepts. Repetition occurs when I see those facial gestures that I interpret as not understanding. I then repeat concepts, sometimes in a different context for the student‘s understanding. It is important that African-American students receive equal educational opportunities and be encouraged to reach their highest potential. African-American students must receive a superior education to secure meaningful jobs in the future. This is the basis upon which I established and continue to operate the tutoring of students at Kollege Kampus.

Choosing theory as a lens to inform practice Habermas’ Theory of Communicative Action allows reconstructing actions and interactions in social roles. Habermas explained this as transitions of normatively regulating actions to a symbolic base action for steering behaviors. This not only allows for communication reconstruction but behavior and disposition as well. Sewell (1992) views structures/agency as mutual resources that empower and constrain social action. His theory views structure as consisting of a static dimension derived from the duality of structure and habitus. Structure involves human agency that transports human roles. Structure has the potential for change because of the multiple overlapping with different resources and meaning.

120 Deciding How to Change My Tutoring Practice I distanced myself from students’ journals as much as possible, expecting the students to engage in cross-categorical meaning -making (Kegan, 1994) concerning what they felt about tutoring. I was looking for Kegan’s working knowledge that I can put to use in this world. From the students’ journals and the tapes, suggestions varied from using the texts to writing on the white board, hands-on practices using models to listening to terminology tapes. The hands-on activities were with models, along with their own bodies. The suggested added practice was the use of the terminology tapes to introduce students to the concepts. From my own journal I gained the understanding that I should tutor slower when covering concepts and not miss any questions that are asked by my students. These improvements I will make in my future science practices. I had not considered the sources of my educational motivation until now. Through the voices of my tutoring students, this inquiry is still revealing unknowns for my understanding.

121 CHAPTER 5 ETHNOGRAPHY RESEARCH AND FINDINGS

The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort and convenience, but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Introduction This chapter explores the educational practices of segregated African-American teachers of Monitor school in Fitzgerald, Georgia. Their voices give insight into their teaching practices in the absence of new textbooks, resources, equipment, cafeterias, and auditoriums for their practice. This ethnographic research with the African-American teachers occurred in Fitzgerald, Georgia during the weekdays, Monday through Thursday, sometimes Friday, when the students I was tutoring in Jacksonville, Florida were in their public school or college. I would drive to Fitzgerald (142 miles from Jacksonville) for interviews with my former teachers. In Fitzgerald, Georgia I stayed in the hotel downtown to be in the center of my participants’ community during the research. (I thank my brother, Julius Calvin (J.C.) who generously offered his home for my stay while in Fitzgerald, but I thought my location in the center of my research participants’ community as more convenient for me). On Thursday or Friday I drove back to Jacksonville, Florida to continue my tutoring practices and action research. This inquiry presents video/audio and observational data from three African-American teachers, who speak for themselves, sharing their experiences and practices in their all-black, segregated, public schools in Fitzgerald, Georgia from school years 1942 to 1954. The interpretive methodology used in this inquiry involved interviews and conversations with my African-American teachers in Fitzgerald, Georgia, who shared experiences while teaching in the all-black, public, segregated school, Monitor, located in Fitzgerald, Georgia during the school years 1942-1954. The interviews took place in Fitzgerald, Georgia, a unique Southern city where I completed my public school education. Using an African-American centered framework (Afrocentricity), this interpretive research was designed to establish and

122 document a specific, culture-centered documentary of my African-American teachers’ experiences within the African-American community and culture of Fitzgerald, Georgia to get at the origin of my beliefs. I collected my research data by videotaping and audiotaping conversations with my African-American teachers who shared their extensive experiences as teachers in a Fitzgerald segregated school. My research questions were: 1. What are your beliefs/values of teaching in an all-black segregated school? a. What were the cultural influences that shaped what you could and could not do? b. What were the cultural influences that determined what you could or could not teach? 2. What are your beliefs of teaching science in the all-black school? a. What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both the advantages and the disadvantages in your segregated, all-black school? 3. What are your thoughts concerning the limitations and benefits of such educational situation for students like me, Sarah Caruthers? Using these questions, the following method was used.

Ethnographic Methods Participants R1-Teacher-Reseacher P2-Mrs. Pettigrew P0- Photographer P3-Mrs. Goseer P1- Mr. Hall C1-City of Fitzgerald

Techniques Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Participant Observations P1, P2, P3 R1, P1, P0 P1, P2, P3 Conversation Interviews R1, P0, P1, P2, R1, P0, P1, P2, P3 R1, P0, P1, P2, P3 P3 Video Tapes R1, P0, P1, P2, R1, P0, P1, P2, R1, P0, P1, P2, P3 P3 Audio Tapes R1, P0, P1, P2, R1, P0, P1, P2, P3 R1, P0, P1, P2, P3 P3 Member Checks R1, P1, P2, P3 R1, P1, P2, P3 R1, P1, P2, P3 Journal R1 R1 R1 Artifacts R1 Maps/Diagrams C1 Analysis & Interpretation of Data R1 R1 R1 Fig. 12. Ethnographic Participants

123 Participants of this ethnologic inquiry included three public schools, African-American teachers, who agreed to be participants in this ethnographic inquiry. First, Mr. Hall, my high school science teacher, second, Mrs. Pettigrew, my middle school general education teacher that also taught health and science education, and third, Mrs. Goseer, an elementary school teacher who taught basic education. Participants agreed to share through conversation their segregated classroom practices and experiences by video/audiotape. The remainder of this chapter focuses on understanding those experiences and segregated teaching practices. I will use what I have learned to understand the origin of my beliefs/values of science tutoring. The methodology is grounded in socio-cultural theory and ethical stance that obligates me to adhere to criteria mentioned earlier. First, I addressed the necessity for research with human subjects to be ethically accepted, coupled with informed consent forms for each participant. Second, the video and audiotaping of their conversations, I reviewed my interpretation of the data with the participants, trying to understand data involved in auto-ethnography and autobiography, as I incorporated analysis into ethnography. Third, member-checks allowed all participants to speak and be heard. All participants know what was learned from my inquiry.

Human Subject Research When I began my research in 2006, I obtained approval from the Institutional Review Board at Florida State University for research with human subjects. All participants signed forms from the university for the researcher. The purpose of this process was to obtain and maintain their signatures for my inquiry and to enact ethical practice. This process protects participants’ rights and recognizes a relationship between the participants and researcher (Guba & Lincoln, 1994) and between the participants and their stories. Stories, experiences, and voices are the media through which we know reality. Critical race theorist (Pizarro, 1998) argues that only by having access to the experimented knowledge of those who have been victimized by racial inequities can we understand the socially ingrained and systemic forces at work in their oppression. In critical race theory, the nature of reality has been shaped over time and history by a series of social, political, cultural, economic, ethical, and gender factors and crystallized into a series of structures that are now inappropriately taken as real (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).

124 Stepping Back in Oral History: African-American Teachers of Monitor School 1942-1954 Working from critical race theory, the way of knowing reality is by asking Monitor’s African-American teachers about their experiences. The inquiry allowed participants to benefit from my inquiry. Finally, I concluded with a discussion of themes that emerged from the inquiry, to understand their beliefs/values, and the origin of my beliefs, values, and practice of science tutoring. Much of the literature on African-American teachers’ experiences in the public, all-black, segregated schools present a negative view of the educational situation. However, there are some positive public, all-black, segregated schools and Monitor’s story could be considered one of these successes. Only in existence 40 years (1927-1967) during the “separate but equal” years, my memory of our school was better than many segregated schools described in the literature. We did not have the best of everything but what we had was of good quality, especially the teachers. They were highly qualified and intelligent; most of the teachers had master’s degrees. That alone was a distinguished and outstanding characteristic for any teacher during the years 1942-1954, but especially for African-American teachers. Moreover, the African-American teachers at Monitor were special because they had a deep concern for their students. When a person taught in the African-American community of Fitzgerald in the 1940’s that teacher was shown great respect and received all types of recognition from everyone in the community. Our teachers’ mission was clear: to make as many of their students as possible capable of competing with anyone, anywhere, and at any time. In consideration of the fact that Monitor’s students did not have proper equipment, supplies, and materials, along with second- hand books, many of those teachers crossed the border to the families and the community for support in fulfilling the educational needs for their students’ education. These African-American teachers dedicated themselves to making sure that their students were more than qualified to compete in life after school, including going to college. In my own case, the idea of going to college was constantly reinforced. All you heard from my family was “you don’t finish school until you graduate from college.” Both teachers and family demanded the best of students to meet these great expectations. I, along with many of the other students, never questioned our educational duties.

125 With this philosophical underpinning, I have achieved numerous college degrees and I feel honored to have those African-American teachers, who taught in that segregated era, describe that time and place, as well as offer their opinions on the ultimate dissolution of Monitor, Fitzgerald’s segregated, all-black, public school, in 1967. In this next session I will introduce the three teachers interviewed in this study. Conversation with Mrs. Goseer Mrs. Goseer did not teach me at Monitor. Mrs. Goseer was the wife of my principal, and I thought her interview could show the political power of the segregated era as she shared some of her teaching beliefs and experiences. With experiences in both segregated and integrated schools, she compared the cultural Fig. 13. Mrs. Goseer differences she experienced in the two school environments as to their advantages and disadvantages of teaching in the all black, segregated school. She told me she would not be able to answer all of the research questions but will answer what she could. I agreed and told her how much I appreciate her participation. In Mrs. Goseer’s videotape/audiotaped interview in the living room of her home in Fitzgerald, Georgia, she stated: I hold a B.S. in Education from Albany State University, in Albany, Georgia and M.Ed. from Loyola University, in Chicago, Illinois. I finished high school, Salem University, in Selma, Alabama, in 1930. In 1931, I was a freshman. The year that I finished high school, my husband graduated from Payne College and came to Salem University to work. He worked one year. We were married the next September. I had one year of college at that time. We came to Fitzgerald, where he became the principal of Monitor High School. Between babies, after babies and before babies, I went to Albany State in the summers and ended up with a 2-year teaching certificate. Told myself, I was not going back to school anymore. New Superintendent came and said if you don’t have a degree; don’t stop until you get one. I started back up to Albany State, got a degree and

126 said I was not ever going back to school anymore. The National Teachers’ test was required. They said if you make a certain score, you could go to work on your Masters’ with the help of an educational scholarship. I went to work on my Master’s at Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois. I have a Master’s Degree from Loyola University, Chicago. These African-American teachers have shown the same educational cultural patterns for many generations. An example, the struggle she encountered to receive her degree was a common example repeated by many African-American teachers during the 30’s and 40’s. Mrs. Goseer moved, along with her husband, to Adel, Georgia where he had gotten a job and remained there for four years. During that time she gave birth to her first child, and three years later, she had her second child. In her efforts to become certified for teaching, her mother, in Alabama, kept her children so that she could attend Albany State, and receive her 2-year teaching certificate. She spoke of their coming to Fitzgerald, Georgia where her husband became principal of Monitor school. Mrs. Goseer recounted those years: The National Teacher’s test was required. They said if you make a certain score, you could go to work on your Master’s, Half Star helped, so I went to work on my Master’s at Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois. I have a Master’s Degree from Loyola University, Chicago. Mrs. Goseer was unable to get an advanced degree in the State of Georgia. She received her Master’s degree over five summers as her mother kept her children. The same trend of grandparents keeping their grandchildren still occurs today in African-American culture. I noticed that all three of the African-American teachers I interviewed received their B.S. degree in the all-black college in the state of Georgia, while their higher post-secondary degrees were earned outside the state of Georgia. Confirming this, Mrs. Goseer said: ...that during my teaching era, the highest degree the African-American teachers could obtain in the state of Georgia was the B.S. degree. For an advanced degree, the Masters Degree, African-American teachers had to go to college and universities outside of the state of Georgia. Mrs. Goseer taught second grade for 30 years at Monitor School; she taught an additional six years in an integrated school in the Fitzgerald, Georgia school system, after Monitor was ordered closed in 1967.

127 Conversation with Mrs. Pettigrew Mrs. Pettigrew, my 6th grade teacher was ill when I arrived for her interview. In fact she had a doctor’s appointment right after her interview with me. She was determined to participate in my inquiry and for this I am grateful. She told me she was not able to answer all of the research questions because she did not teach Fig. 14. Mrs. Pettigrew science, however she will answer what she could. I wanted to use Mrs. Pettigrew’s voice because she taught me sixth grade health. I think this began my love for the sciences concerning the human body. The interview with Mrs. Pettigrew occurred in her dining room at her dining table. Mrs. Pettigrew attended the State College Teachers Agriculture College for one year, located in Forsyth, Georgia. Her first teaching position was in a one-teacher school in Brantley County, Georgia at a salary of $25.00 a month in 1933. During those years, salaries were very low for African-Americans in the rural areas. She received her Master degree from Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, with further studies at the University of Rhode Island. She stated that she went away to college with $25.00; following her desire to become a teacher from her childhood dreams. Mr. Kinder, our photographer prepared the scene for Mrs. Pettigrew’s interview. When the signal was given to begin, I asked Mrs. Pettigrew to introduce herself. She stated her name and position and that she taught at Monitor for 20 years. She began by saying: I am Oltha L. Pettigrew. I graduated from Savannah State College with a B.S. in Education and I received a Masters Degree from Tuskegee Institute. Since then I have done three other studies at Mercy, and the University of Rhode Island.

128 After Mrs. Pettigrew’ graduation from Savannah State College, her first teaching job was in Brantley County, Georgia in 1933 earning $25.00 a month. Mrs. Pettigrew, concerning her teaching career, stated: I worked 39 years teaching, with 21 years at Monitor school, 3 years in Hazlehurst, Georgia, two years Irvin County, and worked in curriculum during integration in Wilcox and Turner Counties for seven years. Mrs. Pettigrew, who taught all the classes for 6th grade at Monitor Elementary, stated: During those years, the elementary teachers, when I was teaching 6th grade, I had to teach all the classes, all the subjects in the class and we had to integrate some of the subjects. I taught language, art, mathematics, social studies, health education, health and science, language arts (reading, English, spelling, and writing), mathematics (addition, division, fractions, subtraction and multiplication), social studies (geography and history), and health science (care of the body, vitamins, nutrition and exercise). Conversation with Mr. Hall: Mr. Hall was my high school science teacher in the 1952-1953 school years. He offered an interesting glimpse into the science teaching at Monitor. My interview with Mr. Hall occurred on the porch of Hall’s Funeral Home, in Fitzgerald, Georgia. Listening to the video I can hear the sounds of birds, cars, and other humans talking, which in some small way seemed to enhance Fig. 15. Mr. Hall the history of his classroom practice over the years. Mr. Hall was a science teacher throughout the 1940- 1990’s. Mr. Hall’s interview is very important because he was the only junior and high school teacher of science and because he was a male teacher in the science classroom. His extensive knowledge and experiences during his teaching career in the segregated era add a wealth of information to the literature on the African-

129 American science teacher. Mr. Hall’s interview is very important to the history of the African- American male science educators in the classroom. Mr. Kinder, an African-American, male photographer, who lives in Fitzgerald, Georgia was hired to videotape and audiotape the conversations since I was an active participant in the interview process. He was scheduled to arrive at the site and begin taping Mr. Hall’s interview session at 9:00 a.m. on May 10, 2006. Mr. Kinder was a few minutes late and that gave me an opportunity to talk with Mr. Hall concerning some of the changes that had occurred in Fitzgerald. Where we were sitting for his interview, I could see the boarded up buildings where my uncle had a poolroom, an insurance company and construction company on downtown Pine Street in Fitzgerald. Around the corner on Thomas Street was a building that had housed my uncle’s Paradise Club, all in the same downtown block. Minutes later the photographer arrived to set up his equipment, and the interview session began. Upon the signal from Mr. Kinder, I introduced myself and asked Mr. Hall to introduce himself. I started the conversation by saying that I was retired professor of human anatomy and physiology and tutored science for 35 years at Florida Community College at Jacksonville, in Jacksonville, Florida. After retirement, I returned to Florida State University for further schooling, which includes the writing of my autobiography. In doing this, I returned to Fitzgerald, Georgia, the site of my K-12 public, segregated schooling to interview three African- American teachers of my segregated school. I next introduced Mr. Hall, who taught me general science and biology at Monitor school. I led the conversation by asking him to further introduce himself. He began by saying: I am Charles C. Hall, former science teacher Monitor High School, Fitzgerald, Georgia. I also taught science at Wilcox High School, Wilcox County. I served as principal at Magnolia Street Elementary School, Valdosta, Georgia. Principal of Southeast Middle School, Valdosta, Georgia, and Pineview Senior High School, Valdosta, Georgia. I also taught several summers at Daniel Payne College in Birmingham, Alabama. He is clearly very proud of his achievements. These African-American teachers chosen for this inquiry are located in the public school system at segregated Monitor school in Fitzgerald, Georgia. Fitzgerald is a small city located in the southern part of the state. Monitor school was the only public African-American school in

130 the city. Elementary, junior high and high school was represented. The socioeconomic, educational, and cultural levels of this African-American community varied, making the community great for various agencies: teachers, students, parents, community, and church. In the African-American school parents and community have a long history of involvement; from fundraising to providing input into decisions, on different levels and types of involvement. It is interesting to note that parents and community/church is evolving toward traditional nature, and even while parental involvement is emerging, the sanction of the science teacher is necessary. Teachers for the most part believe in the traditional roles for parental involvement; for example, fundraising and assisting, parental involvement is less direct in high school because of independent nature of its students. However, for Monitor, parental involvement was always welcomed. This inquiry focuses on findings of the ethnographic inquiry with regards to: 1) factors contributing to successful parental and community involvement in obtaining resources, 2) factors contributing to barriers, and 3) outcome of parental and community involvement. The following chart describes the most emergent factors contributing to African-American classroom practices. Fitzgerald’s School Board, under the “separate but equal” policy for public schools, did not provide equality in the public schools after building segregated Monitor in 1927. Monitor’s teachers became agents for securing needed resources for their teaching success.

Themes American Ms. Goseer Ms. Pettigrew Mr. Hall Group Dual America: one African- Used books Used books No science equipment/ white one black American resources, Used books Create new African- Lunchroom Division of Science related classroom American Basic needs labor in Shades at window environment classroom Devise ways to African- Cook meals Different Recruit teachers, acquire resources American Basic needs classroom tasks students, parental, Discipline community/church Create multiple African- Safe place, Cultural norms Use large cans/ plant modes of American warm Different seeds, watch growth; practice/learning environment classroom task drawing from Basic needs board/charts/ Films Fig. 16. Factors Emerge as Contributing To Successful Teaching (Parents and Community Involvement)

131 Fig. 16. Continued. Create equal African- Food Discipline Content knowledge opportunities American Cultural norm Role Modeling African- Basic needs Cultural norm Advocate American Discipline Community African- Safety Cultural norm Resources Involvement American Basic needs Equipment Parental Communit y/Church

Mrs. Goseer’s main concern was with her 2nd graders’ basic needs, she fed them to satisfy their hunger, which in turn increased their learning abilities. Mrs. Pettigrew’s concern with moral/conduct created a division of labor among students in her classroom to improve discipline. Mr. Hall’s concerns about science teaching, recruited other teachers, students, parents, community, and church for securing science resources. The church was one of the greatest resources, not only for funds, but also for announcing the needs of Mr. Hall’s students in the segregated school. The following chart summarizes the African-American Teachers beliefs/values:

Mrs. Goseer Mrs. Pettigrew Mr. Hall Basic needs Cultural norms (discipline, Content Commerce, moral) Knowledge commercial commodity Fig. 17. African-American Teachers Values/Monitor School/Fitzgerald, Georgia

The support of African-American teachers emerged as the key factor contributing to parental and community involvement. The science teacher, in his quest to purchase science a resource advocates for parental and community involvement by encouraging students and other teachers to involve parents and community. They all accepted and solicited help from parents and community. The science teacher played key roles in fostering other important contributory factors, namely creating a welcoming environment, conveying appreciation, fostering two-way communication to consider students needs. Teachers’ support also emerged as a key factor. Monitor’s African-American teacher created a school-community connection in the traditional roles for African-American parental involvement; for example, fundraising. Often, elementary teachers were seen as the most important bridge to parents since they are an early student contacts in their schooling. Teacher

132 support varied from one teacher to the other according to the ages of the students. All teachers seemed to welcome parents, working hard to form cohesion between school, home and community. Parental support was a successful involvement. Parents had a high interest in helping Monitor school. In general, parental involvement is less direct in high school due to independent attitudes of students. However, in this instance parental involvement was welcomed at all levels. Teachers created a welcoming environment for setting African-American educational goals. Teachers identified needs and fostered involvement at the classroom level. As in the case of teachers, they are instrumental in creating a welcoming environment conveying appreciation, fostering two-way communication, as well as conveying student need. Teachers’ interests in students led to contact between school and home. Teachers felt it important that they become involved in community activities if parents were expected to become involved in school activities. Parental support was a factor contributing to successful involvement at Monitor School. At one point the community was seen as the driving force behind involvement. A welcoming school environment was a major contributor to parental and community involvement. Parents picked up their elementary children from school, allowing opportunities for daily contact with teachers. Appreciation was shown to the teachers by the parents and to the parents by the teachers. This was made evident by parents’ assistance with field trips and collaboration to purchase resources. Communication was a factor contributing to African-Americans’ educational success. Reaching parents and community was necessary for involvement. Students’ needs were considered key to involvement. Monitor accepted thankfully whatever contributions families were able to give, realizing that Fitzgerald has differing economic, educational and work circumstances. The church/school connection was the major factor involved in Monitor’s receiving resources. Communication between school and community was facilitated through church announcements. Combined African-American agencies contributed to successful parental and community involvement for the success of the African-American students and teachers at Monitor did indeed perform their best.

133 One agency emerged as having no positive impact on Monitor’s success, namely, Ben Hill County School Board. The school board commitment was to Ben Hill County’s all-white public schools for new books and resources. When resources were provided at the school board level, and received by all-white schools, the discards were taken to the segregated school, Monitor. The following chart shows the barriers that hindered the success of African-American teachers and students.

Theme Source Mrs. Mrs. Pettigrew Mr. Hall Goseer Received School No Used, worn dirty Inadequate content resources for Board cafeteria books Desk, chair, cabinet Monitor school. Old books counter Old used books Effects on School/ Extra Impression of Teacher driven teacher/students. community effort books acquisition of Cooking Recognized laboratory/equipment at night maltreatment /resources Care and Impression of books concern Recognized maltreatment Fig. 18. Barriers Most Commonly Emerged as Hindrance to Success

African-American agencies viewed Ben Hill County School Board as a barrier against Monitor schools. Monitor overcame the hurdles by accepting commitment from parental, community, and church involvement. African-American teachers felt that the involvement of families, community, and church created a positive outcome allowing teachers and students to overcome school board neglect.

Monitor’s Teachers Outcomes Mrs. Goseer Mrs. Pettigrew Mr. Hall Ability to teach Encouraging Discipline Resources Community Improved Improved practices ability, Member practices (Shared new books High (Feeding) responsibility) Improved practices expectations (Fostered confidence) Monitor’s Students Increased Increased Increased learning Increased learning resources learning Increased self Increased resources Motivation Nurtured esteem Confidence Success Cooperation Fig. 19. Outcome of Involvement

134 Fig. 19. Continued Parent/Community Improved Personal Supported Provided resources relations with relationship discipline Monitor Connection

Teachers’ practices are more effective with community involvement. A greater variety of teaching/learning strategies can be utilized. Practice improved with resources for classroom. Students have increased resources for their learning. Increase in motivation, self-esteem, and attitudes leading to better attendance and greater success. Parents and community was honored to fundraise for increased resources. They became better informed as they build a rapport that enable a cooperative approach to deal with the resource problem. The overall outcome is of benefit to African-American teachers, students, and education at Monitor school. Continuing my conversation with Mrs. Goseer about her experiences in both the segregated and integrated schools, Mrs. Goseer compared the culture differences she experienced in the two school environments on advantages and disadvantages of teaching in the all-black, segregated school. Mrs. Goseer stated: ... one of the advantages of teaching in the all-black segregated school for 30 years is that I was able to teach two generations from the same family, enabling me to know the background of the students and understand their needs. This is important in practices, meeting the needs of a student. At the same time, however, I also noted that in the segregated school, the supplies needed for teaching what the students needed were not available. Mrs. Goseer knowledge of students’ ways of learning empowered her to know what methods best suited a given student in her teaching. Recent education reform calls for the need for teachers to employ a variety of instructional strategies to meet the needs of different learning styles. The advantage of being familiar with a particular student’s learning style gave an edge with their learning. Mrs. Goseer, while teaching second grade at Monitor, was aware of the many strengths as well as the many problems, to be found within her students and their families. She was also keenly aware of the need for her students to develop a strong sense of self-esteem in order to achieve success in life. Today, this is not an easy task. I realize that the term “family” has a

135 different meaning for the African-American students than from other students, and this term has a constantly changing meaning. Many of the African-American students have difficult and fragmented families; many of the students come from single parent homes and many do not live with their parents or have ever experienced an ideal family. However, Mrs. Goseer established teacher-student-family culturally connected relationships through “school-family knowledge” communication. During those years, Monitor’s teachers would visit homes and teachers were keenly aware of students’ home lives. I have seen African-American teachers of Monitor school supply clothes and shoes to students with need. They really cared. Mrs. Goseer also praised the cooperation given in support of education for African- American students by the African-American families, as well as the respect given by African- American students in the all-black school. This praise is due for the parental support shown in regards to the respect, moral conduct, and education provided for their children at Monitor. She mentioned that several years after she retired she substituted in a second grade class for another teacher and found the classroom culture to be very different from the culture of her students when she was teaching. She stated that she had taught second grade all of her teaching career, but this was a whole different game, the children were in charge. This classroom substitute teaching occurred after the integration of the public schools. I then asked Mrs. Goseer the question, “What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both advantages and disadvantages”? She compared the availability of resources in the segregated school and the integrated school by stating that: Supplies were not available for teaching in the segregated school as they were in integrated school. In the integrated school, supplies and materials were in great abundance. New books were available every year, and the working conditions were much better. Again, she repeated a story of most African-American teachers of segregated schools. Mrs. Goseer mentioned “no communication” between the African-American teachers and the white teachers. Since the need to communicate is a powerful force of the human existence especially in the educational environment, not knowing the classroom practices of white teachers “forced” African-American teachers to design their own classroom practices. The African-American

136 schools did not have the resources that were available in the white schools, therefore classroom practices were different. She was careful not to say anything negative in this inquiry. Her answer did not identify the influences under which was believed to have been the problem for the limited resources, but acknowledged this to be a common problem for all African-American teachers in every all-black, segregated, public school. I now know when I was a student at the public, all-black, Monitor, and from the literature, that the state and local political powers were responsible for the distribution of funds and resources to the all-white and the all-black schools. African-American teachers at Monitor always were aware of the problem and made adjustments for any educational deficiencies, especially those classes with laboratory components of our classes. African- American students were really not aware of any changes added to the teaching practices because of our teachers. Mrs. Goseer had the opportunity to teach in the all-white school in Ben Hill County, Georgia when Monitor was ordered closed. Many African-American teachers did not have the opportunity of teaching in the all-white schools. This ordered merge caused the firing of African-American teachers at other all-black, segregated, public schools. Therefore, Mrs. Goseer was able to share some of her experiences while teaching in differing cultures, the all- black, segregated, public school and the all-white, integrated, public school. In her comparison of the two classroom environments, she stated: ...each student brings his/her special cultural heritage and life experiences to the classroom. Mrs. Goseer believes that teachers must learn to value and respect the students’ cultural heritage. This is the key to success in education for the teachers and students. According to the “Coleman Report” (1966), schools bring little influence on a child’s achievement that is independent of his background and general social context. Reaching back a bit further, Mrs. Goseer noted the change in the African-American families after World War II, during segregation. She stated: ... the effects of the War changed the culture of the African-American families. She remembers: …The family being strained and sometimes with parents migrating to Detroit, Michigan, to work in the car factories or to Alabama, to work in the steel mills. Mrs. Goseer stated:

137 also the farm work changed for the African-American family because of the invention of tractors and other farming machines. Students in African-American families were often left in the care of the grandparents. Historically, the African-American family has been tremendously important in the lives of African-Americans students. The African-American grandparents provide a support system allowing families to survive, both physical and emotionally, in the face of many obstacles. The African-American family usually contains strong role models, both male and female, and is built on an inter-relationship foundation that fosters responsibility, sharing, and caring for other family members. However, throughout the United States’ history, social and economic forces have worked to weaken the African-American family and erode the strength of family ties. Despite these negative forces, the African-American family unit survived and promoted the survival of African-Americans against tremendous odds. One such force was World War II. World War II rearranged the African-American family structure in Fitzgerald, Georgia by the decline of job opportunities for African-Americans. African-American parents traveled to other states seeking better jobs, while their children remained in the care of their grandparents to continue their schooling at Monitor. Many of us grew up in the homes of our grandparents and in some cases, other family members, placing a new and different culture in the African-American families. When Mrs. Goseer was asked about her typical teaching day at Monitor, she replied: My school day arrival began at 8:00 a.m.; 8:30 a.m. my classes begin. Monitor had no lunchroom so the students brought their lunches to school. Anticipating that some of the students would have no lunch, I would cook more at suppertime in order to have extra lunches for students the following day. I would place the food on the classroom radiators to keep the food warm until lunch. Mrs. Goseer, faced with institutional racism, as with all other African-American teachers, created bridges for her class that formed new policies and operating procedures, favoring her second grade classes. By listening to her conversation, we can better understand how Mrs. Goseer and her daily interactions helped her students. She fed them in order to shape their social structure for learning. This practice constitutes a classroom community showing how discourse and class interactions shaped the nature of a learning classroom environment. This is only one of the examples of many bridges between teachers, families, community, and students in Fitzgerald.

138 I can remember when teachers purchased clothing for some of the students, especially shoes. Those teachers showed much caring for the students (Gilligan, 1982). Mrs. Goseer had the opportunity to teach six years in the integrated school; experiencing the other world of teaching in that school. She stated: Integrated school provided better facilities and more materials with which to work. The working conditions were most pleasant and because of the lack of communication between the races in the past, I became aware that students of all races had common physical and emotional needs, which I was able to meet in the integrated school just as I had met in the segregated school In the integrated school, by contrast, there was a lunchroom with a regular lunch menu. All students were able to eat lunch at the integrated school. Mrs. Goseer said that she enjoyed her teaching experience in both schools. What became clear is how lucky Monitor’s second grade students were to receive cooked meals from their second grade teacher, almost before they realized they were hungry. However, administrators of Monitor school also realized this and regularly served the whole school hot meals. The students brought their eating utensils from home for their meal, which were mostly served in the winter months. Food was served in the halls and students returned back to their classroom seats for their feast. Like all caring African-American teachers, they knew that in order to feed the mind they must feed the stomach. Mrs. Goseer realized what Abraham Maslow revealed years ago: basic needs, such as food, shelter, and safety have to be met for higher level needs, such as intellectual education achievement to be met. She fed the stomach in order to feed the minds of her students. Another comparison Mrs. Goseer shared were conditions of the segregated and integrated schools in reference to the auditorium and lunchroom: The Monitor’s all black, public, segregated school lacked an auditorium. As a result, graduation and some of the other activities were held in Salem Church. However, some of the Monitor school activities could not take place in the church, which then required locating other sites for those activities. In the integrated school, the school auditorium served as the site for graduation and all other school activities. In sum, Mrs. Goseer stated that the teaching position was much better in the integrated setting. When asked what characteristics a teacher should have today, Mrs. Goseer replied: Teachers must be open-minded to the cultural changes and have patient tolerance.

139 Culturally relevant education for teachers encourages those teachers to know that knowledge is created in culture, especially teaching diverse students. Therefore, teachers need to know and understand the process by which cultural paradigms juxtapose to knowledge construction. Teachers should encourage students to interpret their own world through the students’ way of knowing: Afrocentric or Eurocentric. Mrs. Goseer stated: …school systems are not failing the students. The students today have more opportunities now than ever to succeed. They can be anything they want to be, but the motivation of society is different. The social values are changing, and today’s school are offering more than I have ever seen before, but I see students not accepting what schools are offering. Mrs. Goseer’s answer to the question concerning what she had expected of me when I was a Monitor student, she stated that my aunt was going to see that I was successful. Her actual reply was: I know if Presley lived, you were going to be somebody. She was going to see to that. Never have truer words been spoken. My aunt and my grandparents were my closest family in my schooling experiences. All teachers knew to let Mrs. Presley know every educational blunder I made so that my aunt could “correct it”. She planned my educational life. I am thankful for such a supporting family. I had all the encouragement and support from my family I needed to motivate me to accomplish what I have achieved. African-American students need supporting families who are involved in their lives and education and are available for guidance when problems occur. I wanted Mrs. Goseer to give more specific examples of the political influences on teachers in Ben Hill County, Fitzgerald, Georgia that affected Monitor school teachers, especially since she was the wife of the principal. Even though all of the teachers knew that the State of Georgia used state policies to produce racially disparate funding to Monitor School, Mrs. Goseer did not want to say anything negative regarding that issue, in her interview. Mrs. Goseer did speak on some of the sociological issues of both the segregated and the integrated schools. She noted that African-American families used their influence to foster the success of their children in public school The literature speaks of other caring African-American teachers of all black, segregated, public schools. It appears this cultural value is still held today, although perhaps not as widely as it once was. The research of Gail Thompson (2003) on African-American teachers asked this

140 question: what should teachers do when students come to school hungry? The answers were varied. Some responses were negative. One elementary teacher turned up her nose and said, “I don’t think that it’s my job to feed other people’s children.” Another teacher replied, “I don’t want to hear anything about the kids’ home life.” By contrast, a third teacher answered, saying, “I got tired of my students saying “I’m hungry”. I went to the $ .99 cent store and purchased juice and crackers so when they are hungry, I will feed them.” The African-American feminist styles of Monitor School teachers were not so much those of a fighter, but those of a caregiver who looked after and supported the African-American students under segregated conditions. From crystallization of transcriptions of videotapes/audiotapes of Mrs. Goseer’s conversations, researcher’s journal, observation, and participants’ member check I identified the following themes: 1. Created a new classroom environment. 2. Created personal, family, and community bonds. 3. Changing family structure. 4. Created equal opportunities. 1. Create new classroom environment. Mrs. Goseer, realizing the lack of lunchrooms at Monitor, realized that some of her students did not have food at lunch. Students at Monitor brought lunch from home for lunch period in her classroom. She stated: Anticipating some of the students would not have a lunch, I would cook enough for several lunches, placing the food on the radiators to keep warm until lunch. Mrs. Goseer belonged to a generation of teachers who are characteristic of caring. Her classroom became their lunchroom during lunch period. That caring attitude (Maslow, 1954) helped many of the students’ learning process not having to worry about food. Mrs. Goseer taught second grade at Monitor school for over 35 years, Mrs. Goseer made sure that all her students had food to feed the body so her classroom practice could feed their minds. Given this situation, she worked to make sure her students were able to eat and therefore learn. 2. Created personal, family, and community bonds. Mrs. Goseer believed that there are advantages in teaching two generations from the same family. In knowing the family’s background, and their economic conditions she understood their needs. She stated:

141 I knew the background of each child and could understand its needs. All forms of racism were practiced in Fitzgerald, Georgia and at Monitor, societal racism and institutional racism were especially evident. Not only did the constitution of the United State mandate a separate but also equal school, in reality this law resulted in a separate and unequal school for students in Monitor. African-American teachers hid or disguised this treatment by favoring the African-American students (Asante, 1998). 3. Changing family structure. Mrs. Goseer spoke of the change of the African-American families in Fitzgerald that created a new culture for the African-American family and students. She remembers: ...The generation following World War II, when families were broken up, mothers went to work and children were scattered with grandmothers and anywhere else, that’s when I saw a change in the attitudes and values. ...Families were different, migration to Detroit to work in the factories, and to Birmingham, to work in the steel mills. Mrs. Goseer believes this to be the beginning of the changing African-American family structure in Fitzgerald, Georgia and at Monitor. She also mentions one more event that changed Fitzgerald’s African-American family culture. She stated: ...The farm workers were different; there was no more sharecropping. Tractors didn’t need them, so they had to go somewhere. Also the depression... Mrs. Goseer listed many factors that could have contributed to the changing home and school cultures of the African-American community in Fitzgerald and Monitor. She did not mention how the changing home environment affected her 2nd grade and Monitor school. 4. Creating equal opportunities. Mrs. Goseer, as all other African-American teachers of Monitor created classroom conditions to bring equal opportunities for learning by feeding students who had no food. Because of the separate but equal clause in the constitution, the school board forgot to include a cafeteria in the planning of Monitor. She therefore made plan for the students to have food in her class. She stated: ...there were children who did not have any lunch, didn’t have any money so I was very careful to cook a little more that afternoon for the next morning so I can wrap up a lunch...

142 Mrs. Goseer stated that many years later Monitor was fortunate to have the commodities of a lunchroom and an auditorium. However this did not occur during the years I attended, (1942-1954). A clear example of dual America was heard in the voice of Mrs. Goseer when she spoke of food she shared with her students. Beck and Cowan (1996) identifies Mrs. Goseer’s value level and ways of thinking about her classroom practice. For that teacher whose concerns were students’ basic needs we see a survivalist.

vMeme Life Goals Strategies Used To Deal With The World. Beige/Purple Survivalist Caring (mother hen) The habitat in which teacher Fed students for continued survival. finds purpose through sharing Fig. 20. Mrs. Goseer (Elementary Teacher)

For that sensitive, humane, affectionate person who cares for others, we look Mrs. Goseer’s feeding of her students (Beige) to meet the needs of educating them (Purple). The major underpinning of Mrs. Goseer’s inquiry comes from the studies of Maslow (1954) and his hierarchy of needs who believes those students’ basic needs (food, water, clothing, air, etc) must be satisfied for student learning to be at its best, or at the most extreme level, to even begin. Mrs. Pettigrew’s conversation on her classroom environment showed sharing of responsibilities by students. She stated: During these years, the rooms were crowded because we had some 40-50 students in our rooms The students performed most of the tasks in the classroom, such as keeping the boards clean, sweeping the floors when necessary, and helping with keeping the fire going in the heaters by placing coals in the heaters. Mrs. Pettigrew placed special emphasis on the culture of the African-American boys in her classroom (Kohlberg, 1984). She praised the boys for their role in “keeping the rooms warm” for our classes. This is one of the cultural influences that shaped the practice in her classroom. Girls also earned duties or positions in the classroom. I was, and have been considered, for the past 53 years since graduation, class secretary. Even today I am called upon to prepare presentations for special functions in Fitzgerald, especially during Fitzgerald’s homecoming when Monitor’s 1954 graduated class has their reunion. I prepared a Power Point

143 presentation for our last 1954 class reunion that the class president, who teaches at Tuskegee Institute, presented at our banquet. However, in Monitor’s classrooms students cooperated with teachers and each other for common goals, treating Mrs. Pettigrew and each student with respect and obeying beyond the threat of teachers getting words of your actions to your family. The culture of the classroom when I was in sixth-grade public school was much different from the culture that developed after the desegregation of the public schools. Mrs. Pettigrew mentioned: During those years...discipline at that time was not like it is today. Students seem to be much more attendant than they are today. Mrs. Pettigrew described the cultural influences in her Monitor’s classroom as very manageable. However her practices go back to her one- room classroom in 1933, in Brantley County, Georgia. Mrs. Pettigrew’s 30 years of classroom practices reached back earlier than Mr. Hall’s or Mrs. Goseer’s. Therefore, allowing the comparison of the classroom culture of African-American students of her one-room school with multiple grades to the culture of her classroom practices in her single grade classroom culture at Monitor school. She taught all subjects to the multiple grades, however different subjects to fewer students in the same classroom. She also taught all subjects in her Monitor classroom, but the main difference was that all students studied the same subject at the same time. Her belief concerning the classroom culture was that both groups of students were very manageable and accepted responsibilities for learning in the classroom environment during her tenure. She was not only exposed to her African-American students, but the students’ African- American families also. She talked concerning the effects of African-American mothers’ roles to the students. I think one of the things that have happened with our children and the schools; the mothers at that time seems to stay at home more because there wasn’t much work for them to perform and they could see after the children and check on them. The mothers of students during 1942-1954 school years stayed home, which created a different culture in the African-American family and the community from today. Usually when an African-American mother is a stay-at-home mother, she is there for the duties of home and family. When a mother does not work outside the home, students get hot meals before going to school and in the afternoons when returning home, which create a different learning environment for the students and the teachers.

144 Mrs. Pettigrew thoughts concerning the limitations and benefits for me as her student was the following: I remember Sarah to be cheerful, smart, and manageable and ready to accept responsibilities, eager to excel and well liked by her classmates. I had no concerns for her not being able to achieve what worthwhile goals she wanted to achieve. My only concern during the early years was to wonder would she continue to be living in a cultural environment, which she was accustomed to... When I taught her she was living with her aunt who was very concerned about her developments.

Themes that emerged from Mrs. Pettigrew’s conversation/transcription, video/audiotapes researcher’s journal, observation, and artifacts are: 1. Create new classroom environment. 2. Created personal bonds. 3. Role modeling achievement. 1. Create new classroom environment. Mrs. Pettigrew describes her classroom practice as corporative, by allowing students to have a sense of obligation, performing many of the classroom duties, she stated: During those years, the rooms were crowded because we had some 40-50 students in our rooms...During those years ... when I was teaching 6th grade I had to teach all the classes...I taught language, art, mathematics, social studies, health education health and science. Mrs. Pettigrew was the only 6th grade teacher at Monitor, teaching all required classes to 40-50 students took careful planning. With the 1948 school year enrollment, being twice the number of students average teachers have in their classroom, one of her better choices was to have students to help in her classroom. With an enrollment this great, the choice of assigning duties worked successful for her classroom especially since these 40-50 students are in puberty years. 2. Create personal bonds with students. Even with the 40-50 students in her classes who remained with her all day, discipline was minimal for that number of students. I remember the boys keeping the classroom warm by keeping fire burning in the heaters and keeping boards clean. She stated:

145 ...Our room during the winter was heated with coal heaters. ... During those years, the students performed many of the tasks around the school... The boys and girls were taught responsibility through division of labor in the classroom. One example was by keeping the classroom warn and suitable for teaching and learning in the winter months. 3. Role model achievement. With the number of students Mrs. Pettigrew taught in her class she placed morality at high level. She stated: ...Discipline at that time was not like it is today. Students seem to be much more attendant than they are today. I think one of the thing that has happen to our children and the schools; the mothers at that time seems to stay at home, and more because there wasn’t work for them to perform and they could see after the children and check on them. Since morality is concerned with conduct, any dualisms that are set up between mind and activity must reflect themselves in the theory of morals. The currency of moral ideals split the course of activity into two opposing factors, the inner and outer or spiritual and the physical, respectively. This division is a culmination of mind and world, soul and body, ends and means, the total student. Motive and character were positioned something inner, existing exclusively in consciousness; while consequences and conduct were positioned outside the mind, conduct having to do with the movements that carry out the motives. Schools identify morality with inner state of mind or the outer act and results, each separate from the other. Ross (2002) bases his moral theory on a variety of relationships among individuals that are morally significant. Among these relationships are benefactors-beneficiary, guarantor- guarantee, and teacher-students. The action within this relationship is called conditional duty. Ross (2002) describes conditional duty as an act, which is duty proper. Duty proper according to Ross means moral obligation. A teacher-student classroom duty creates an environment to improve the conditions of students with respect to intelligence. This duty in other words, bridges teachers to self-improvement of students’ learning environments. Even today, Kozol (2005) has accuses the United States of turning its back upon the moral implications... However, in Mrs. Pettigrew’s class morality was the controlling element of discipline.

146 The one incident that happens to me during that educating journey happened in Mrs. Pettigrew’s class. First of all, Mrs. Pettigrew lives across the street from my aunt, Mrs. Presley. They were friends and as her student in sixth grade she only had to send me to my aunt once, when she came between a note and me that originated with one of the male student. Mrs. Pettigrew sent me along with another student and the note to my aunt’s classroom. After that talk I received, I could not think about anything but attempting the best in my educational endeavor. In spite of the conditions under which Monitor’s African-American teachers worked, Monitor’s teachers provided the motivational experiences for the success of many African- American students through their classroom practices. I am proud to say I am one of those students who received public education in Fitzgerald’s all-black, segregated, public school, Monitor. Mrs. Pettigrew’s classroom environment at Monitor was a corporate community and learning environment. Students worked together for a common function. The literature speaks of many African-American public school conditions across the United States during the segregated years, many not as nice as our school. Some of the most extreme cases involved segregated schools of African-American students with no heat in the winter, or the roof of the school buildings was not suited for schooling in the rain. In Fitzgerald, Georgia during my school years I can’t remember any of the African-American students in Monitor school that were cold, or wet, we had a janitor and new brick buildings at Monitor school. At least the students were comfortable in their classrooms. Beck and Cowan (1996) vMeme identifies Mrs. Pettigrew’s value level and ways of thinking about her educational practice. For the teacher who does well for students by making life as independent as possibly, employing moralist practices, expecting the highest of respect vMeme Life Goal Strategies Used To Deal With The World. Blue (Amber) Authoritarian Moralistic practices Mrs. Pettigrew Discipline is strict but fair. High respect in classroom. Fig. 21. Mrs. Pettigrew (Junior High School Teacher) in her classroom (Blue), allows boys to be in charge of the warmth of the classroom, while other tasks were assigned to other students (Blue). Mrs. Pettigrew’s teacher-centered curriculum was

147 well organized with high morals levels and expectations, as demonstrated among the students and teacher. Giving students’ responsibilities in the classroom allow students to learn pathways to independence. Her vMeme describes her thinking as absolutist, rigor and discipline in her classrooms, sacrifice of self for reward to come through obedience to rightly authority in purposeful way. Mrs. Pettigrew expected high achievements for the students. Her teaching practices were authoritarian, well disciplined, and teacher directed. After his introduction, I continued the conversation by asking Mr. Hall the following question: What are your beliefs/values of teaching science in the all-black school? In answering the question Mr. Hall began by saying: Teaching in the all-black school is one of the greatest challenges any teacher can face, especially a science teacher. The first disadvantage for the African-American science teacher was the absence of a science laboratory and proper science equipment. In my science classroom was a desk, a chair, a cabinet/counter that was put together for the science Teacher…this was it. (Hall, oral conversation, 2006). The lack of the science laboratory was one of the manifestations of the “separate but equal” doctrine that defined the education at Monitor. I can attest to Mr. Hall’s story of “not having a science laboratory and scientific supplies” because I was a student during the 1942- 1954 school years. Monitor’s education situation is one of many similar situations: “no science laboratory or inequalities in their science laboratories in all-black, segregated schools” according to the literature. All-black segregated schools virtually never had equal facilities, despite the “Plessey” decision of “separate but equal” a standard that defined African-American students’ public education in the state of Georgia and all other states. At Monitor, Mr. Hall purchased a movie projector, microscope, dissecting kits, and chemicals for experiments that we did in our classroom. He discovered that he did not need a proper laboratory for his students to learn everything that they needed to know in science. Realizing those students had to develop an appreciation for science vocabulary, he took advantage of the glossary in the science textbooks along with the dictionary. Mr. Hall often had his students spell science terms on the board; those terms related to the chapter we were studying. His students had to spell, define, and write those terms in their notebooks for future references. In this science practice, Mr. Hall and other teachers like him were trying to bring students up-to-date with not just reading the material, but understanding and interpreting what they read.

148 The challenges of the African-American teachers to create optimal learning environments for African-American students and better ensure their success were worth the energies of Monitor’s African-American teachers. These African-American teachers worked to get some of the needed science supplies. As we continued Mr. Hall’s interview, he stated: Truly, we had used books that were sent to the segregated schools but it was the teachers’ responsibility to find some updated textbooks somewhere. We did this by looking over textbook catalogs, knowing we could not get books for every student, but we could get a book and from that book we compared the knowledge that was recorded in the older book with the new book. Many times the knowledge in the new book was the same knowledge in the old book with a little arrangement of the contents. The teachers searched for any new information in the new book and placed it on the board for the students. Information written on the blackboard was taught along with information in the old book. How did we get science knowledge over to the student? At Monitor, Mr. Hall developed specialized methods to address the needs of the African- American students by emphasizing the practical application of science. He also used experiential learning methods with their African-American students because of the lack of supplies. For example, to teach botany, Mr. Hall related how he used large tin cans that had contained vegetables or fruits that were then filled with dirt and fertilizer so that the students could plant various seeds and watch plants grow to learn the stages of plant development; the anatomy of the plants and the fact that plants grew from seeds. Mr. Hall stated: So first, we knew we could understand plant life by growing plants, which we did. We would take seeds, plant them in those cans, and we would watch these seeds as they grow. This led to a way to better understanding the development of plants because the seeds grew into plants. And many plants produced flowers, buds on the plants, and it’s from those flowers or buds that the seeds from the plant can produce the same kind of plants. This is valuable understanding the plant... I remember the cans and planting the seeds and doing something with the plants that grew. In the absence of a well equipped and supplied science laboratory and equipment, I made an “A” in Mr. Hall’s biology class. In fact, I made good grades in all my science classes (Appendix D.)

149 As my inquiry evolved, the questions expanded to address the practice of how were African-American science teachers to get the science knowledge over to the African-American students? Mr. Hall solved his problem by the change of his classroom environment at Monitor. He first purchased shades and placed them to the windows, controlling the amount of light he allowed in the classroom. Next, he set up a campaign to purchasing science equipment by taking pennies from the students, donations from other African-American teachers, and monies raised by the parents from the sales of baked goods they contributed. I remembered cakes sold by the slice that had money placed under them. If you are lucky enough to get the slice with the money you received your cost back. Those funds were contributed to the science cause. In creative ways such as this, the African-American community was able to fund the expense of successful science learning. Mr. Hall continued by stating: In the school where I started teaching science in Fitzgerald, Georgia there was not a movie projector available. By inspiring students to believe that there was a world of knowledge that could be obtained to enhance their learning if we had a movie projector they became very energetic. Students sponsored different occasions and raised money to buy a 16mm projector. In the non-segregated school they were equipped with a laboratory, with all of the necessary chemicals, charts, visual aids, and whatever was needed to teach science. We could not let this prohibit us from doing what we were supposed to do, so therefore, one of the greatest sources of information was on charts and diagrams that we purchased. Charts had the different human systems that the students could draw and label. So not having a science laboratory was truly a drawback but you create an environment where students can learn the same information the students learn in the school that was fully equipped. Imagine the 1940’s and 1950’s, the following scenarios occurred at Monitor: Mr. Hall divorced his practices from the regular teaching operations of the all-black schools. Under this extreme circumstance, he called upon other African-American teachers, African-American students, African-American families and the community for involvement, to contribute extra non-curriculum activities for fund raising. The teachers contributed monies while students donated their pennies and the families baked cakes for sale to help raise funds for the science teaching resources at Monitor school. The funds then purchased science equipment and supplies for the science laboratory. This is a different model for how teachers, parents, community, and

150 students were involved in students’ education. Crossing boarders into the communities were common in the all-black segregated culture in Fitzgerald. African-American teachers’ duties stretched outside the classrooms to get the job of educating the African-American students done. While racism was the central problem for Monitor, funds raised for science education was the key for breaking the system of the school boards, legislators, and policy makers. They wished African-American students to labor under their segregated conditions. However, in response, the African-American community assumed responsibility and empowered itself to meet the needs and demands of helping to create an effective science education environment for Monitor’s African-American science students. They did this by contributing funds for equipment and other resources and by their own creative, community-based efforts. The African-American community in Fitzgerald, Georgia perceived their public education as the primary means for pursuing the goal of improving the race. Their strong belief in this goal united them to persist and to develop cooperative efforts, which enabled them to build effective school communities for the African-American students despite “separate but unequal” treatment by the white establishment. Community empowerment in this inquiry means that the community had information and organization to participate effectively at every level of their children’s education. In this regard, I asked Mr. Hall the question: What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both advantage and disadvantage? Mr. Hall’s response concerning the disadvantages was to cite the lack of financial support: ...there were never finances available for the purchase of resources. It was a common practice for schools to receive disproportionate funding, but it appears segregated schools of Monitor were denied not just equitable, but basic funding. In the school district of Ben Hill County in the 1942-1954 school years, their superintendent, who had considerable autonomy, decided the direction of funding. Mr. Hall called upon the community and the receipt of answers meant that he gained empowerment by letting the community gain information and form as an organization to participate effectively at various levels of their children education. In this regard, I asked Mr. Hall, “What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both advantage and disadvantage?”

151 Mr. Hall’s response concerning the disadvantages was to cite the lack of financial support: The disadvantage was lack of financial support; there were never finance available to purchase resources to teach all subjects in the segregated school. This cultivated a challenge for the teachers to find additional ways of teachers parting knowledge to students... Many times, in the field of science, it was not too much new information but it was recorded information down through the ages. So that served as an advantage, to be able to look for information that you wanted your students to become familiar with. Now we had to find different equipment other than a laboratory, which we did not have, so as a teacher we took our pennies and the students’ pennies, which they did not mind sharing, and first of all, we tried to get models, small models that we needed in the classroom, sharks, gophers, etc. We further discovered that there was a greater source of material than ever was in the library. For instance, there were hundreds of films that were available and all you needed to know is where to find them. Fortunately, somewhere I came across a book that had the listings of all these films, so whatever topic you wanted to touch on in science if you had a 16mm movie projector. The drawings we had students to do were not only based on sketches and textbooks, but on showing films over and over and over again. In the school where we were teaching science in Fitzgerald, Georgia when I started as a teacher, there was not a movie projector available. By inspiring students to believe that there were a world of knowledge that could be obtained to enhance their learning if we had a movie projector. These students were very energetic; they sponsored different occasions and raised monies to buy a 16mm projector. These same students also helped sponsored projects to buy a microscope to be used so that other knowledge can be unlocked for the enhancement of their learning. It was a common practice for schools to received proportionate funding, but it appears that “segregated school of Monitor was denied not just equitable, but basic funding. He continued as if the practice was yesterday. We could not let this prohibit us from doing what we were suppose to do, so therefore, one of the greatest sources of information was on charts, the different systems, the human body. For instance, we had charts that relate to the human body systems, for example, the nervous system, the circulating system, the nutrients system, the reproduction system,

152 and the immune system in the human body. These charts also were diagramed to the extent that students could draw from the muscular system etc. in the body. So not having a laboratory was truly a drawback but you can learn the same thing that the child could learn in the school that was fully equipped. The classes were so well planned that at that time I did not know how wide the differences were comparing the all-black Monitor school and the all white schools in reference to science supplies and equipment. There were 16 students in my graduating class at Monitor school. I don’t know if my classmates were aware of much of our deficiencies, however, we all learned science. All of these students were successful in that they completed high school and others were successful with no additional schooling. Many of my classmates continued their education while others traveled in other directions, such as going into the armed services or starting their own businesses. Other students went on to college and eventual successes. I wonder if the impact would have different had Monitor received new science books, had supplies for every need of science teaching, and a well equipped science laboratory. Could there have been a difference in student achievement? Mr. Hall shared other disadvantages under financial support that involved the African- American teacher’s salary. The state of Georgia’s playing field was not level when comparing African-American teachers’ salaries to white teachers’ salaries. As one might expect there were great differences in the African-American teachers and white teachers pay in Fitzgerald. Teachers’ salaries and benefits were determined by education. Looking at the differences in pay between the African-American teachers and white teachers makes one wonder how many pay formulas were used during that time and what color were the papers? About the double standard used for public school teachers’ pay in Fitzgerald, Georgia, Mr. Hall gave an insight into those salaries, stating that there were great differences in the salaries of the African- American teachers and the white teachers. He described different levels of teaching credentials: Two-Year Certificate and Four-year Certificates (Professional or Provision), based on teachers’ college degrees. Degrees were earned in an education major and in pure science concentration major, such as biology, chemistry or mathematics. He stated: At the beginning of my teaching, many of the elementary teachers were not college graduates. This is no reflection on the black teachers; this was true for the white teachers

153 and black education. The salary for the two-year certificate for white teachers was as great as the college graduate in the black schools. The two-year college black teachers’ salary was extremely low; it was just a little step above common labor. The four–year professional teaching college certificate was granted based on a college degree. The salary for the person that had the teaching degree (called at that time) in mathematics education made more money than the person who taught the pure science concentration classes, which was totally unfair. But this was the way it was set up. The persons with the four-year professional or provision, white or black, they received a totally different salary that was approximately $40.00 a month more, making a total differences of a four- year professional black-teacher $136.00 as compared with $176.00. One thing emerged that I will address in my next study concerns teacher education. He stated that the same thing was true with the Master’s degree. Now the Master degree was all kinds of tricks about certification. Whether or not you had a pure field, as it was called at that time, or the field of education. Was your certificate based on your concentration of what you were teaching”? This, at all times was a drawback, especially since there was no provision for Masters’ degrees in the state of Georgia for African-American teachers. Under normal conditions, an alternate salary structure for the teachers who are teaching the same curriculum with the same level of education and years of experience would receive the same salary. Any alteration from this in the teaching profession can affect the ability of schools to attract and keep qualified teachers, which in turn influences learning. This was not the case of the African-American teachers at Monitor schools in Fitzgerald, Georgia. The dedication of those teachers to their students did not prevent those teachers from giving their best in their practices to produce as many successful African-American students possible. This pay inequality is yet another reflection of the “separate but equal” doctrine that had defined public education in the South since 1896, when the Plessey’s doctrine of “separate but equal” facilities defined the treatment of teachers and conditions they worked in, the state of Georgia. Higher education for Georgia’s African-American teachers had a different twist. Since Georgia had no provision for Master’s Degree for African-American teachers, they had to seek

154 their Master degree through other educational opportunities outside the State of Georgia. All of the African-American teachers interviewed for this inquiry attended colleges or universities outside of the state of Georgia for their Master’s (or higher) degrees. My teachers at Monitor Schools received their Masters’ Degrees and higher degrees outside of the state of Georgia. Mr. Hall’s response concerning me, as his student was that: Sarah was an energetic young lady, and I was blessed with the opportunity of having been her instructor in general science and biology. She was a well-disciplined student and I attribute that to her home environment. One of her aunts was on the faculty, Mrs. Mattie Presley. Sarah Ann Caruthers, as I may call her at this point, dared not to venture from her training. She had a little mischievous streak about her, but she tried to conceal it so that I would not be aware of it. But she was a student who knew how to listen in class, and listening contributed greatly to learning. My response to Mr. Hall’s statement was to thank him for the hard work he performed as my science teacher to make learning easier for me. Literature speaks of others who experienced equality. Mason (1999) finds that all other things being equal, African-American teachers accumulate 0.29 more years of education than whites, but still earn less. Mason finds that racial discrimination and economic inequality continue to exist even when skills are measured and matched between groups. Salary was based on levels of education; however acquiring higher education in Georgia presented a problem for African-American teachers. Recent research compared the salaries of African American and “non-Hispanic whites”, which had the same education, experiences, and test, scores (Roger, 1999). Roger concluded that the black-white wage gap is mostly due to labor market discrimination and not to test score differences that point to racial skill gap. Not able to attend Georgia’s University did not hinder Mr. Hall from the increased science knowledge. He along with other African-American teachers left the state for advanced degrees. The State of Georgia was one of many states in the 1940’s and 1950’s that did not allow African-Americans to attend their state owned colleges and universities. Georgia was not the only state in which this was true. University of Florida’s higher education twist was a bit more interesting for it offered an educational alternate. Several African-American students (Dunn,

155 2004) applied to University of Florida received rejection letters because of race. The letter stated that “Negroes students were not admitted to the all-white University” but offered to pay the tuition of any student who attends any institution outside the state of Florida. Inequality was not only in Fitzgerald, Georgia, but other places at different levels. Continuing with themes that emerged from Mr. Hall’s transcription of video/audiotapes conversation, researcher’s journal, observation, artifacts, and participant’s member check are: 1. Dual American: one white and one black 2. Create new classroom environment. 3. Devise ways to acquire resources. 4. Created personal, family, and community bonds. 5. Create multiple models of practices/learning 6. Creating equal opportunities. 1. Dual America: one white and one black.

Inequality and double standards during the 1942-1954 school years involved unfavorable attitudes, and unfavorable actions toward people who were members of African-American descendants in Fitzgerald, Georgia. All forms of racism emerged against teachers’ practiced in Fitzgerald, Georgia and Monitor: overt racism, covert racism, societal racism, institutional racism, and civilization racism. Not only did the constitution of the United State mandate separate but also equal public school, in reality this law resulted in separate and unequal school for students in Monitor school. African-American teachers hid or disguised this treatment by favoring the African-American students (Asante, 1998). A clear example of dual American: one white and one black were clear in the voice and actions of science teacher, Mr. Hall. Mr. Hall recruitment for science equipment and supplies became a part of his curriculum because the school board never had funds for science resources for Monitor school. Mr. Hall stated three inequalities: first...... was the lack of financial support; there was never finance available according to purchasing... This cultivated a challenge for the teachers to find additional ways of teachers’ parting knowledge to students...

Mr. Hall stating another example of a white/black experience during his segregated teaching experiences occurred when African-American students at segregated Monitor school

156 received from all-white schools used, outdated texts, while the white students received new text. Mr. Hall stated second that: We had used books that were sent to the segregated schools, but it was the teachers’ responsibility to find some updated textbooks somewhere... Mr. Hall stated a third unequal white/black practice that involved African-American teachers: their salary. He stated: There were great differences between the salaries of African-American teachers and the white teachers... The salary for the two-year for the white teachers was as great as the college graduate in the black schools... The differences in salary did not interfere with Monitor’s African-American teachers’ dedication in their quest for the production of successful students. 2. Create new classroom environment Having no science laboratory and limited resources, (desks, chairs and cabinet counter) for his science classroom, Mr. Hall decided to change the classroom environment. He stated: I immediately began to change the classroom environment first by putting shades in the classroom so it will darken the classroom when we wanted Secondly, we decided to set up a campaign to purchase a movie projective...a microscope, and later, to purchase chemicals and dissecting kits... In the absence of science resources, another creation of Mr. Hall involving segregated classroom practice allowing students to plant seeds in large fruit and vegetable cans, watching the development of the seeds into plants to learn the anatomy of development and physiology of plant life. Mr. Hall’s response...... If you can recall that we had some gallon cans in the classroom that perhaps fruits and Vegetables came in from the store, but were empty cans. These can were placed in the classroom for the purpose of placing soil in these cans and adding fertilizer to these cans of dirt... The reason for doing this was to give students a chance to understand how plants grow. Remembering the absence of the science laboratory and used books, Mr. Hall’s efforts to make adjustments was evidence. Mr. Hall stated: Truly, we had used books that were sent to the segregated schools but it was the

157 teachers’ responsibility to find some updated textbook somewhere. So we did this by looking over textbooks catalogs. We could not get books for every student, but we could get a book and from that book we compared the knowledge that was in the older book with the new book. Many times the knowledge in the new book was the same knowledge in the old book but rearranged... We always search for new information if any. 3. Devise ways to acquire resources. Mr. Hall explained the influences of economic pressures, having to acquire funds from teachers, students, families and communities; sociological influences, gathering agreements among individuals united for a common cause, and mostly political influence experienced, taking sides against the political forces of the state and local governing bodies to secure science resources during the school years 1942-1954. As his work extended beyond the classroom at Monitor, he placed emphasis on his teaching science beliefs and his science practice as he asked teachers, students, African-American families and African-American communities of Fitzgerald, Georgia for financial help. He stated: Now we have to find different equipment, other than a laboratory, which we did not have, so as a teacher we took our pennies and students’ pennies which they did not mind sharing, ... small models that we needed in the classroom...By inspiring students to believe that there were a world of knowledge that could be obtained to enhance their learning if we had a movie projector... they sponsored different occasions and raised monies to buy a 16mm projector...*In the non-segregated they were equipped with a laboratory with all the necessary chemicals, charts, etc., visual aids and whatever was needed to teach science. Tally (1978) argues that when African-Americans were politically excluded from the body politic and chiefly operating in a hostile environment due to racism, “defensive mobilization” occurs (p. 73). This political strategy engenders a collective consciousness and a common social agenda and lays the basis for social change (Morrison, 1987). Mr. Hall’s belief of the importance of students’ education motivated him to find ways to get science resources. 4. Created personal, family, and community bonds. The efforts of the Baptist Ministers’ Organizations, community efforts, African- American families, and teachers, created educational structures to ensure a better education for African-American students despite the neglect and antipathy of the local dominant culture. To

158 show how strong the bonds are between the agencies of Ben Hill County, Mr. Hall began with the history of educating African-American children and segregated schools in Ben Hill County. He stated: ... The impact of education upon the black community was a guiding influence of the black community. It was there that the school, church, and community organizations tried to be sure boys and girls of school age had the opportunity to attend school. ...We had two private high schools in Ben Hill County, the GC&W high school located in Fairview community, and Queensland High school, where we had dormitories where students can board and attend high school. The GC&W came from the two conventions, W, for Willachochee, and the GC for Gum Creek. ...The funding for Queensland came from the convention every year when the Association met, the education director made their appeal to the general association. ...They were asked if they raised crops to take food there for the children, they had dining halls. ...They were further encouraged to share monies they earned to buy bedding to go on the beds of the dormitories. They also raised monies monthly...to pay teachers’ salaries at their schools. 5. Create multiple models of learning. In Mr. Hall’s science class with limited resources, learning occurred through many lenses: hands-on by planting seeds in large cans to watch growth of plants, coping from the board new information that is not in our old used books, drawing science pictures from scientific charts, and using the dictionary for scientific vocabulary. Mr. Hall stated: We took advantage of the fact that all science books, good science books, had a glossary in them... We took advantage of what the dictionary could contribute to teaching science we often have students spell words on the board. Other models, such as planting seeds in cans, drawing from charts, writing from the board what should have been in textbooks, and viewing films have been discussed earlier. 6. Creating equal opportunities Mr. Hall worked to even the slate for the African-American students by supplying laboratories to support science lectures. As science classes progress through the complex stages, equivalent laboratory exercises were created to accompany the concepts students were studying. Most of the laboratories were understood, however with proper resources and equipment teaching could have been much easier.

159 Supplying science education for his student was only one of the inequalities for Mr. Hall. Emerged from his inquiry was the fact that he himself was not permitted to enter Georgia’s all- white Universities for his Master’s Degree This is an interesting area that will inform my next inquiry. He stated: ...You could not go to University of Georgia, Georgia Tech, etc....The only reason I went to Columbia University of Columbia. We were denied Technical Education. Fortunate there was a man named Booker T. Washington, who headed Tuskegee Institute and Dr. B. F. Hurbert who headed Savannah State, who had worked under Booker T. Washington, set up technical training for our people... This was a drawback to keep us from making good salaries. Using Beck and Cowan’s framework we can categorize Mr. Hall’s experiences in the following table.

vMemes Life Goals Strategies Used To Deal With The World. Blue/Orange/Green A balanced system of Moralistic practices; high community and personal respect in the classroom, work growth. is motivated by human contact Teacher becomes and contributions. facilitator. Teaching style: Values openness and Teacher directed; trust. Student centered, Subject centered, Open-ended teaching Fig. 22. Mr. Hall (High School Teacher)

Mr. Hall’s Blue/Orange/Green levels reveal a balanced system of community and personal growth as a facilitator. His work (Orange), motivated by human contacts (Blue) and contributions for science purchases gave him an even chance at contributing to the education of his science students (Orange). Even in the absence of science equipment and resources, his science classes were rigid and to the text (Blue). He used many ways of demonstrating classroom practices for conceptual support (Green) in scientific non-laboratories, using resources present in our classes. Not having the proper equipment and supplies from the school board did indeed place him at an “open-end teaching technique position” with his classes, since he used non-traditional practices for laboratory practices, such as the planting of seeds in the opened can of fruits and vegetables.

160 Mr. Hall’s conversation revealed the inequality that exists at the beginning of many African-American students’ educational and career journey. State laws provided for oversight of all black segregated, public schools. Many of the Southern schools where African-American teachers taught were dilapidated; supplies were limited, and books discarded from white schools. Most segregated schools were starving for resources; a product of the distorted politics of races (The New York Amsterdam News, 2006). Bernadine Morris (Foster, 1999) describes one such school in Hampton, Virginia: Etta Joan Marks (Foster, 1999) of Lindale, Texas recalls similar conditions she endured in her all-black school. However, many of the African-American students were very successful mainly due to teachers’ encouragement and extra efforts of African-American teachers promoting a positive mind frame. Among such teachers was Professor Benjamin E. Mays (Foster, 1999) from Georgia State University, who spoke about his own education in the segregated South at a conference. His positive experiences with the African-American teachers and the all-black schools he attended were indeed what he needed for his success. He states that we need to look at the past through new eyes in order to determine what we might learn to help address the apparently difficult educational issue of providing an excellent education for African-American children. However, other states also experienced inequality. Georgia was not the only state in which the all-black schools received from the all-white schools. In the state of Florida, Marvin Dunn, an African-American student attending a public school in Volusia County Florida in the late 1950’s went to the Deland’s all-white public school to collect supplies for the all-black, segregated school sciences laboratory. He took any laboratory equipment for the science classes that he could get his hands on, broken Bunsen burners, test tubes and such. He took everything back to his school and installed it without a word of complaint from his African-American teachers and principal. To question this practice would have resulted in their firing. Jim Haskin’s (1969), a high school teacher working with the inner-city all-black segregated school in New York had similar complaints. Haskin reported that his science laboratory had no sink, no running water, and no supplies for chemistry experiments. In American’s educational arena, this is truly a reflection of a dual American: one black and one white. Public school for white Americans had a science laboratory, with all the necessary supplies. Public schools for the African-Americans struggled to get equipment and supplies to

161 create a laboratory, and, even then they might not have received them. African-American teachers struggled to create support and to secure science equipment and supplies; whatever support, equipment, and supplies they obtained them usually did on their own. This was the plight of African-American teachers in the American education system during the 1942-1954 segregated school years. We clearly see that this was not a “deep south” problem but a United States problem. Mr. Hall’s interview is important because first, he is an African-American science teacher, second, he is male, and third, he helped to created educational structures and discourses that challenged the notion of exclusivity as the only route to the success of his African-American students by taking the “African-center approach” (Asante, 1987) and locating an alternate paradigm that reached out of the oppression of dominate perspectives. Mr. Hall realized that the greatest distance in the Ben Hill County decisions for Monitor’s schools was not only space but also culture. Recent literature reported male teachers in classrooms hit a forty-year low (NEA, 2005). The report did not state the percentage of African-American male teachers or science teachers. However, one male teacher admitted he spends his days attempting to teach students who are more interested in playing video games than in learning. He also devotes part of his weekend to grading papers and planning lessons. Hard work, long hours, and modest pay are not the only challenges male teachers faced both then and now. Mr. Hall was always working, not just with direct teaching, but also in planning how to get science concepts over to the students through engaged laboratory procedures. He added to his extra curricular activities by raising funds to purchase equipment and supplies for Monitor’s non-existent science laboratory and supplies for the African-American science students. Mr. Hall did all of this along with planning and teaching his science class. It is a reverse of the education history; the male was the dominating figure in the classroom and females were restricted to specific areas; today, in the year 2006, males are considered to be working in a female-dominated profession. This change occurred slowly, over the years. The literature listed some of the reasons males were leaving the teaching profession. Research reveals three key reasons for the shortage of male teachers: low status and pay, the perception that teaching is “women’s” work, and fear of accusation of child abuse (NEA, 2005). Research reveals that male teachers have been asked to carry heavy boxes by female teachers.

162 Also, because administrators think male teachers are better at dealing with disciplinary problems; male teachers have been assigned extra lunch duty and hall patrol duties (NEA, 2005). The assumption that male teachers can be counted on to administer discipline is one of the gender- related biases that are unfair to male teachers. There is sexism. Male students in particular get the message that nurturing and teaching are not true male activities. The shortage of male teachers is most pronounced in elementary schools where males make up 9% of teachers. Secondary schools have a better percentage at 35%. Because of this low male classroom presence, students are missing special teaching approaches, alternative figures, and male-role models. It seems that integration revealed different problems for the male teachers. This problem does not touch the problem Mr. Hall had in the segregated school. I remembered only two male teachers at Monitor, the other male teacher worked in sports and DTC. A brighter side of this dilemma in education occurred this year (2006) when over six hundred male students graduated from Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. This number was history-breaking number and should produce a great number of pre-service teachers, hopefully many of who majored in science teaching. Horace Tate (1977) the head of the Black Georgia Teachers and Education Association, offered a more qualified view by stating that before integration, African-American teachers commanded little respect from white teachers, they made do with hand-me-down textbooks, taught a limited, curriculum, and worked in grossly inadequate school facilities I might add, for a lesser salary. Amanda Grace (Foster, 1999) started her career in a one-room school in rural Louisiana, Vanessa Siddle Walker (1996) in her book, The Highest Potential, describes a school and its teachers in segregated North Carolina that provided an excellent education for its poor clientele. Walker especially focused on the importance of dedicated teachers and the principal who believed their job extended beyond the classroom. Walker praised the parents who worked hard to support the African-American schools. Siddle-Walker’s description of schools in the South, USA was similar to the school, Monitor, in Fitzgerald, Georgia. She described “good” segregated education due to people of the community working together to assure educational success for their children. These different practices of the earlier science teachers, such as Mr. Hall have shifted the focus of African- American education.

163 The history of African-American education during segregation has shifted from a focus of the many inequalities to understanding the kind of education African-American teachers, principals, and parents attempted to provide under the extreme restrictive public school conditions (Walker, 2000). Results reveal those exemplary teachers, the innovative curriculum and extra-curricular activities, the dedicated parental involvement, and the extraordinary leadership of school principals was critical characteristics influencing the community’s perception of the school (Walker, 2000), and greatly contributed to the success in educating their students. One advantage was the culture and circumstances they all shared: parents, having grown up in similar circumstances, for example, knew what their children were experiencing and could take measures to better ensure the coping skills of their children, which in turn, enabled their children to learn more effectively. If advantages were few for Mr. Hall, efforts to teach science allowed him the freedom to cross boarders to pursue funds for science materials and equipment from people and organizations in the community that were willing to contribute to the success of science teaching and learning. You may not know the names of these ordinary teachers, parents, and students who worked together to build an extra ordinary school community for African-American students. However, one will be proud of the persistent efforts of Mr. Hall, Monitor’s African- American science teacher, for providing effective segregated schooling for African-American science students. The major underpinning of this inquiry comes from the studies of Glasser (1998), choice theory. Much of the value of my ethnographic research lies in the telling of stories that are based in cultural representation. The stories of the African-American teachers of my all-black, public school, Monitor, with the many inequities imposed on Africa-Americans students reveal strength and success while dealing with the nightmare of segregation until Monitor school was ordered closed. In the last years of segregation, between 1954 and 1972, almost 40, 000 African- American teachers in seventeen states in the south lost their jobs (Irvine, 1990). This was a backlash to desegregation. With the decrease in the African-American teachers came an increased possibility for African-American students to be educated by teachers who did not share the same culture, knowledge, customs, emotions, rituals, traditions, and values that are embodied in a set of behaviors designed for survival in a particular environment (Irvin, 1990). Many of

164 Monitor’s teachers retired, while others were transferred to the integrated schools. Mrs. Goseer was one of the teachers to transfer to the all-white school from the all-black school Monitor, in Ben Hill County, Georgia. Mrs. Goseer’s greatest belief was that teachers need to be aware of methods that effectively decipher student’s knowledge which can direct their teaching toward their intended learning outcomes (Hutchison, 2006). By portraying African-American teachers as brave, self-defined individuals confronting race, gender, and class oppression, Afrocentric teaching demonstrated the importance that knowledge played in empowering oppressed people. The thoughts of the African-American teachers insist that both the changed consciousness of students, families, and communities and the social transformation of political and economic institutions empowered African-American teachers/students of Monitor to succeed. This result came through clearly in the crystallization of my data. Crystallization of the data from my interpretive research emerged from the interaction between social phenomenology and an ethnomethodological process of research, which developed out of conversations of an historical nature (Foucault, 1982) with three African- American teachers revealed throughout the discourse of their conversation; the role of the African-American teachers, African-American family, and African-American community as a frame of reference for an analysis of power relations. The first question that guided this ethnographic study was: 1. What are your beliefs/values of teaching in an all-black, segregated school? All of the teachers believed that the school board could have provided more resources for the all-black school. The all-black school received old books that were outdated and worn. Monitor received old used resources from the all-white schools. In the case of the science classroom, the resources were non-existent. Mr. Hall said when his requests for science resources were made; the school board’s reply was always “there are no funds for whatever they requested it for.” Also, the all-black school did not have a cafeteria, so there were no hot meals for the students, staff or teachers. As there was no cafeteria, there was no auditorium. The activities scheduled for the school such as graduation, plays, and other events were performed in Salem Church, across the street from the school, at the corner of East Palm Street and Monitor Drive.

165 Another problem that emerged was the pay scale. There existed two different pay scales, one for the white teachers and one for the African-American teachers, based on their level of education. African-American teachers at Monitor school received less pay than their white counterparts with the same certification and experience. Here is another corollary question that guided this research: 1a. What were the cultural influences that shaped what you could or could not do? The major personal cultural influence that affected all African-American teachers involved the state’s law that prevented African-American teachers from receiving the resources need for their classroom practice. Teacher received out-dated books from the all-white public schools. For the science teacher, there was only one white high school to donate their used books, sometimes not enough for the number of African-American students. Another major cultural influence involving classroom practice of African-American teachers was the absence of funds for resources and equipment. African-American students, families and the larger African-American community, worked together to generate funds to purchase equipment and materials for the teaching of science, as well as other educational activities, at Monitor. Through African-American agencies, the purchase of resources, equipment, was successful. African-American teachers were able to present to their African- American students updated concepts in their subjects. There was no communication between the all-white teachers and African-American teachers concerning school issues. The African-American teachers taught African-American students as they had been trained to teach. The Board of Education did not offer the African-Americans any accommodation for high school graduation. Graduation was the greatest achievement of public school, yet the school board did not think in this way. The students were invisible in reference to their high school education achievement. Another corollary question followed from the previous one: 1b. What were the cultural influences that determined what you could or could not do? In the public school system in Ben Hill County, African-American teachers could not practice in the all-white schools, nor could African-American students attend the all-white public schools. This is a mandate in the Constitution of the United States. 2. What are your beliefs of teaching science in the all-black school?

166 Mr. Hall stated that this is the greatest challenge that any teacher, especially African- American teachers, faced. African-American science teachers constantly dealt with a lack of funds for equipment and resources. Yet, Mr. Hall and other teachers had to alter their teaching practices because they lacked money and also regularly solicited funds for equipment and resources from the students, families, and the larger community, for their practices. 2a. What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both the advantages and the disadvantages, in your segregated, all-black school? There were both negative and positive cultural influences that affected Monitor school’s availability of resources. The negative cultural influences centered on the school board’s favor to all-white schools supplying new resources to all of the all-white school and Monitor receiving used or no resources from the school board. Mrs. Goseer mentioned about the allotted land for Monitor. The land for Monitor school was half the size of the all white school, therefore not allowing space for the African-American students’ room for play. The positive influence, in response, the African-American formed community parenting, sharing positive cultural values such as trust, hard work, hope, courage in the face of adversity, passive resistance (going alone with the segregation rules, but working quietly in opposition), and raising funds for needed supplies for Monitor. The cultural influences within the African-American society, teachers, families and the greater communities formed a cultural intervention, working together to change Monitor’s teaching environment. This influence came about due to the environment of the science department and the determination of the African-Americans’ community to change the school’s science environment to educate its African-American students. Those forces at work within the African-American society formed complex interaction to influence changes in Monitor’s environment. The greatest cultural influence that determined resource disadvantages at Monitor all- black school during the 1942-1954 school years was lack of funds for purchasing resources. The African-American students were invisible in the public school system. The United States promised “separate but equal” schooling, those guarantees were not met in Fitzgerald, Georgia. The last question to the teachers:

167 3. What are your thoughts concerning the limitations and benefits of such educational situations for students like me, Sarah Ann Caruthers? All of the African-American teachers mentioned my aunt, Mrs. Presley, who was their co-worker at Monitor school, as the major influence in my educational advancement. They all expected me to succeed because of my family and community’s support. Mrs. Goseer stated that she had no doubts concerning my education. She stated the “if Presley live, I have no doubt Sarah was going to be somebody.” Mrs. Pettigrew stated that the only concern she had was that I continue to live the kind of lifestyle in which I grew up. She knew me best when I live across the street from her with my aunt. She stated that I was smart and loved by my classmates. Mr. Hall stated that he had no doubts that I would succeed in school. He seems surprised that I choose science as my field of interest. Mr. Hall also stated that he remembers me with a lot of energy, well mannered, and well disciplined, which he attributed to my home environment. He stated that I dared not to venture from my training. He stated that I was a student who listened in class, and that listening contributed greatly to my learning. He was pleased to say I made an “A” in biology. After high school graduation in 1954 from high school I moved to Jacksonville, Florida and continued my education in all-black colleges. I received my B.S. Degree in Biology/ Chemistry in 1967 and my Masters Degree in Science Education 1970 from Florida A & M University. This ethnographic inquiry has been very informative to me and I am honored that the African-American teachers of Monitor schools agreed to share their lived experiences with me. So what have I understood?

168 CHAPTER 6 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN AFRICAN-AMERICAN SCIENCE TEACHER

If you do not tell the truth about yourself, You cannot tell it about other people. Virginia Woolf

Introduction Wilber’s quadrants provide a framework for the participants and actions within my research. Wilber knew in order for me (1P) to understand my research, I had to visit others sources (2P). According to Wilber’s (2000) “I” quadrant, I am that person who seeks to understand herself through my research, and the “We” quadrant, directed me to co-research with my tutoring students to understand my values of my science practices, while my ethnographic inquiry allowed me to understand the origin of my beliefs and values. These beliefs and values were unfolded by methods learned in my reviewing Roth’s, Auto/Biography and Auto/Ethnography: Praxis of Research Method (Roth, 2005). Roth allowed me to understand how scientific data are collected and how empirical evidence has to be constructed. Writing my autobiography is a way to reflect on my life and personal practices. Autobiography and autoethnography offer an epistemological perspective for my understanding of self and research object in the context of my questions. As stated by Roth (2005) “the materiality of the body as condition of consciousness implies a holistic participation of researchers engaged in the endeavor understanding their research object (p.100).” This understanding was revealed through conversations with three African-American teachers and action research data collected from the collaboration of two of my African-American co-researcher tutoring students concerning my practices of science tutoring (Kollege Kampus) in Jacksonville, Florida. During the research I looked into the corridors of my memory to recollect those persons and events in my educational life that shaped me into the person I am today and those that influenced me into becoming a science educator. The questions that are the focus of this chapter: 1. What are my personal values/beliefs of teaching science as revealed through tutoring?

169 2. Using these values and beliefs revealed through analysis of my tutoring practices as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these beliefs? In this chapter I will set the stage by describing the context of Fitzgerald, Georgia exploring the origin of my beliefs, values, and science tutoring.

Introductory Story Fitzgerald was created in the post Civic War era as a resort colony for retired Union soldiers, allowing them to escape from the cold environment of the North to enjoy the warmer climate of the South. Union persons planned the colony, inviting the Northerners to come, purchase land and build the government. Southern Confederate soldiers were later invited to purchase homesteads in the colony. Persons coming from the northern states were white bringing with them their unique cultures and beliefs. There were very few African-American families living in the city of Fitzgerald. Most of the African-American families lived in the county. Provisions were made in the plans of the city for white schools, but none were made for African-American students. The teachers in the white schools all came from the North. The principal however was a Southerner. According to Mr. Hall, African-Americans families as well as the larger African- American community were concerned about the education of African-American children, and so were the driving influence for education building and education system of African–American children. The African-American community organized to make sure that African-American children had the opportunity to attend school. The old African-American Baptist Ministers joined two forces in a convention (Gumcreek, and Willachochee), and saw to it that a private school, the GC&W in Fairview area, was established in Fitzgerald for African-American students. The funding for the school came from the Baptist Association. Every year when the Baptist Association met, the educational director appealed to the general association to keep the school open. Families were asked that if they raised crops, they take food to the school to the dining hall. The Association raised money to pay the teachers’ salary. The Association appealed to the Board of Education for a school for African-Americans to be built in the Second Ward of Fitzgerald, Georgia Ben Hill County. The Board ordered a survey of the African-American students and determined that a need for a school for the African-American students existed.

170 After a number of years, the Board of Education built Monitor school in 1927, which allowed me an opportunity to earn my public education between the years 1942-1954. Two of the three buildings are shown in the photograph (Fig 23), the Elementary building, and the Junior High/High School building.

Fig. 23. Monitor School built 1927. Photography taken from “Born Colored: Life before Bloody Sunday” (Mitchell, 2005)

Fig. 24. Path I walked to Monitor Segregated School. This map was taken from: www.google.com/maps?

171 The path I walked to every school day to Monitor school (Fig. 24) started at 514 West Orange Street in Fitzgerald, Georgia, second house from the corner off Gordon and West Orange Streets. Walking to the corner from my home, turning right on Gordon walking one block to Palm Street, turning right on Palm (walking past the all-white high school and an all-white elementary school), then 13 blocks to Monitor Drive, turning right again walking one block on Monitor Drive to the school’s location at East Orange, on Monitor Drive. The distance I walked each day is not known, but small groups of students made it fun.

Exploring my research My story is the story of science tutoring practice. I am in the process of understanding my beliefs, values, practices, and origin of tutoring science. I am also in the process of applying theories to provide my own understanding of my beliefs, values, and practice. In using ethnographic inquiry I was given an opportunity through teachers’ conversations to gaze into history of classroom practices of African-American teachers who taught at Monitor Schools in Fitzgerald, Georgia during my enrollment during the years 1942-1954. I was also engaged in action research with my tutoring students, based on the model of Kemmis and McTaggart (1982), which is a focus on collaborative inquiry that results in a culture change through the improvement of practice. My ethnographic inquiry data collecting process was based on interviews, videotaping, audiotaping, observation, translating and interpretation of tapes, journal, and member checking. My action research data collecting process was based on audiotapes, tutoring of science topics, translating and interpretation of tapes, observation, interpretation of students’ and researcher’s journals, and member checking. I used Wilber’s model of integral theory to position my participants and myself.

“I” 1P “IT” 3P Subjective Interior-Individual Phenomenology Personal Transformation Structuralism Intentions and Consciousness Beliefs/values “WE” 2P “ITS” 4P Interior-Collaborative Shared Experiences Students Fig. 25. Integral Theory Model

172 Fig. 25. Continued. Teachers Hermeneutics Postmodernism Organizational Culture

As a science tutor I was interested in my own beliefs, values, and practice of tutoring science. I then will be coming from the 1P perspective in the “I” quadrant of Wilber’s model. I am also interest in where my beliefs originated, for this understanding I look to the “WE” quadrant, 2P person perspective. From the “I” perspective, I was interested in understanding my own beliefs and intentions through reflective research. From the “We” perspective “I” was engaged in lived experiences (ethnographic research) based on Roth (2000) with my African-American teachers of Monitor Schools in Fitzgerald, Georgia. The research process of data collection was based on video and audiotaping, conversation, and their comments on the research. According to Wilber’s model: From the “I” perspectives, my research questions and the research results include: 1. How do I increase my understanding of my values and beliefs about my teaching, revealed through analysis of my practices as a tutor of science? 2. Using these values and beliefs as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these beliefs? Also from the 2P perspective, I will apply the Spiral Dynamics (Beck & Cowan, 1996) model to understand culture as it moves through stages called vMeme. Culture transmission is the link between the past, present and future of the African-American world (http://www.coribe.org). vMeme offers understanding of shared ways of living and being in the world according to what you are doing. Cultures are positioned at a particular level that is identified according to a particular vMeme and represented by a color. Individuals also experience more than one vMeme at any given time.

Spiral Dynamic Analysis From the ethnographic research of my African-American public school teachers, their levels on the vMeme scale range from Beige vMeme, basic needs of students, to Green vMeme, quality for students.

173 vMemes Life Goals Strategies used to deal with the world/teaching style Beige/Purple Survival Sense: The habitat where Group bands together to teacher finds purpose through stay alive. sharing. Teaching style: Teacher directed Blue Authoritarian Moralist practices. Discipline is strict but fair. High respect in classroom.

Teaching style: Teacher directed Authoritarian Blue/Orange/Green A balanced system of community Moralist practices; high and personal growth. respect in the classroom; Teacher becomes facilitator. work is motivated by Values openness and truth. human contact and contributions.

Teaching style: Teacher directed; Student centered; Subject centered; Open-end teaching. Fig. 26. Value Theory Model

Monitor’s African-American Teachers Mrs. Goseer fed her students (Beige) to meet their basic needs (Maslow, 1970), to educate them. She, as Maslow believed, that people have different needs, beginning with the physical needs (purple) of air, food water, sleep and exercise. Her VMeme level is (purple/beige), therefore she values humanity and sharing, which was radiated through her sharing of her family’s supper to the students (Purple) the following day. She sought out of life mutual growth, demonstrated by the practice of segregated schools whose needs were the same as the practices needed at the integrated school. She learned that many students’ needs were the same and she addressed those needs, as she did at the segregated school, but in a different way. Mrs. Goseer stated: ...because of lack of communication in the past, I had to come aware that children of all races have common physical and emotional needs. Some of these I was able to meet in the integrated school just as I had in the met in the segregated school.

174 Mrs. Pettigrew allowed the boys to be in charge of the physical warmth of the classroom, while other tasks were assigned to other students. Her VMeme level was blue (amber). She placed independence in the path of the African-American students trying to prepare for future emerging forces. She stated: During those years the students did many of the tasks around the school. Coal heaters heated our rooms during the winter... Students seem to be much more attendant than they are today... Mr. Hall recruited the community to raised funds for the purchase of science resources for teaching science to substitute for their limited or non-existing resources for his classroom science practice. Mr. Hall’s vMeme is Blue/Orange/Green. Mr. Hall was successful in going to the teachers, students, families, and community, to secure funds for the purchase of science resources. Mr. Hall stated: ... we decided to set up a campaign to purchase a movie projector, next we set up a campaign to purchase a microscope, and later...chemicals and dissecting kits... Looking at the vMeme value levels, Mr. Hall was able to secure the science equipment and resources that got results, putting African-American students equal or in some cases, ahead in science satisfying self-fulfillment (Maslow, 1970). For that sensitive, humane, affectionate person who cares for others, we look to Mrs. Goseer. She not only supplied the first level of need of Maslow’s hierarchy, but also helped ensure that the student met the physical need to advance to a higher level. The basic rule is that one level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has to be satisfied in order to advance to a higher level. However, I saw the possibility of satisfying more than one vMeme level at the same time. In Mrs. Goseer practices, she made sure food, was given to students in need; giving students the ability to learn without hunger conflict. For the teacher who realized that during puberty, students’ change for the adult years, Mrs. Pettigrew allows practices that begin “survival” in the form of independence for her students. Through the assignments we received in her classroom, we gained steps toward the preparation of living in the adult environment. Mrs. Pettigrew, in her assignment of various tasks in the classroom, organized the classroom practices to allow independence in students, leading to responsibilities and toward personal excellence. Through conversations 2P of African-American teachers I understand 1P some of the hardship African-American teachers

175 encountered in their segregated classroom practices in order to deliver quality education, especially in the sciences. Through the determination of these teachers, we received a “complete” education. To understand African-American teachers’ practices requires a view of the context in which they taught. African-American teachers at Monitor faced enormous obstacles in educating their African-American students. The science practices were applied to learned and everyday experiences, making science interesting and easy to relate. The processes of introducing students to responsibilities that might be encountered in adulthood came through the practices of Mrs. Pettigrew, while receiving the basic needs of life to get her students on their way in education, came from the practices of Mrs. Goseer. This was the environment in which I was educated.

My Public Education: Introductory Story I lived at 514 West Orange Street, which was located on the opposite side of the city from my school. I was raised in my grandparent’s home, along with three of their five children, one aunt and two uncles. All three of her sons later enlisted in the military, as did my grandfather before the boys. My mother, who was a practical nurse moved, to New York for better work opportunities leaving me to live with my grandparents. The last aunt to leave Fitzgerald went to Detroit, Michigan. She was my younger aunt who took me to school on my first day. I remember my aunt walking me to my school and enrolling me in Mrs. Cook’s kindergarten class. Mrs. Cook taught kindergarten and first grade, called at that time first and high first grades (Goseer, 2006). I recall well the path I walked. I began walking from our home to the corner, passing one house on the corner, turning right, walking one block up Gordon Street to Palm Street turning right, and on until I arrived at my school. I can’t remember if my aunt carried me part of the way, but that was a long walk for a six-year old. One good thing was that the streets were paved all along the way to Monitor School. Not all streets were paved at that time in Fitzgerald. However, because I lived close to the white public schools, I was lucky to walk to Monitor on paved streets. As I reflect back on this, it meant that though I walked on paved streets, I walked pass two all-white schools on Palm Street to reach my school. At such a young age of six years, when I began public school in 1942, I, like most African-American students had no idea or knowledge of racial segregation or the unfair treatment of Africa- Americans in the public schools. At age six, I did not realize my aunt walked me by two all-

176 white schools before arriving at my school. I walked one block from where I lived on Orange Street, in the second house from the corner, and to the right one block, where the all-white high school was located on Palm Street at Gordon was the first school location I passed. Farther down Palm Street was the all-white Second Ward Elementary school that I passed. A few blocks from this school was Monitor school. There were only a few African-American families living on Fitzgerald’s west side. Although I walked from West Orange Street to East Orange Street, I could not walk straight on Orange Street from the west to the east side due to one of the planned parks’ location which required Orange Street to be closed a number of blocks at that location. Monitor had two new large brick school buildings; one building for the elementary classes and one building for the junior and high school classes. A third smaller building housed the homemaking classes for girls and vocational programs for boys. We had the newest, most spacious, segregated, public school available for African-American students. The school resource building was built on one-half the area allotted for white schools. It was inadequate in

Fig. 27. Monitor’s 1932 African-American Teachers. Shown above from left to right: Front row, Bea Cook, Josephine Spauldin, Mamie Grant, Mable Goseer, and principal, Stanley Goseer, Second row: Isabelle Spauldin, Mattie Presley, Laney Hunter, Ida Cook, and Faustine Boyd-Watson, This picture was among personal possessions of my aunt, Mattie Presley . Mrs. Goseer identified the teachers.

177 the play area for the students. Monitor school buildings were nice, but at the time, I did not realize that the school had no lunch room, no auditorium, no gymnasium, no transportation (school buses), along with used furniture, used text books, few resources, and inadequate equipment. The lack of commitment by the School Board of Education in Fitzgerald, Georgia prompted inequality of needed resources for Monitor school. I don’t remember specifics about the very earlier years of my public schooling. I remember some of the teachers, such as Ms. Cook, Mrs. Goseer, and Mrs. Turner; the librarian, Mrs. McKenzie, but nothing stands out in my memory concerning them. With Mrs. Presley, however, everything comes to mind. Mrs. Presley was my aunt and police-person throughout my public schooling. Mrs. Ida Cook, the fourth teacher on the back row of this 1932 picture was my kindergarten teacher. Mrs. Pettigrew was not a member of Monitor’s faculty at the time of the above picture. However, Ms. Cook and Mrs. Presley were those teachers who played a role in my life. Mrs. Presley was my aunt and Mrs. Cook was my kindergarten teacher. Mrs. Pettigrew was my sixth grade teacher. I thank her for agreeing to be a participant in my research. In my conversation with Mrs. Pettigrew, she stated that she taught all classes for my sixth grade class. The class I can remember most in sixth grade was health. At a very early age I was interested in anything dealing with animals and the human body. At one time during my decision-making period, I thought of becoming a medical doctor or medical researcher In fact, I became a medical research technician (which will be explained later). Mrs. Pettigrew also taught students’ responsibility by assigning tasks in the classroom. We had rotating duties. This was her way of creating responsible, dependable, and reliable students, who would exhibit these traits in their later lives. This was necessary because there were no male teachers for the boys’ image in 6th grade. It was about this time while in her class, that I began to notice all the text books we received had quite a long list of names written in them, at least the ones that had covers did. Coming from the stockpile of discards from the all-white schools, the books principally contained the names of white students, but some of those names did belong to Monitor’s African-American students, who used that book for years before I received them. So not only was my text book coming used from the all-white schools, but they were also passed down from other students who were in grades ahead of me at Monitor school.

178 During 1942-1954, political influences in the culture in Fitzgerald, Georgia were a destructive force for the segregated, all-black, public school, Monitor. Segregation was an unspoken political reality in every area of African-American life and education. So ingrained had this political reality become, that it often simply went unnoticed or at least unchallenged, directly. African-American teachers and students were invisible to the school board in reference to resources. Funding African-American schools was not a priority. Remedying that oversight motivated collaboration among three African-American groups: Monitor’s African-American teachers, African-American families, and the larger African-American community. Mr. Hall stated: The relationship between the school, church, and the community...had dedication as one of the main influence upon the students... teachers were dedicated... The support triangulation of school, community, and church joined forces, in the face of segregation, came up with useful counters to the prevailing bleak educational situation. African- American teachers called on African-American parents and advocates as well as the entire African-American community to bridge the needs of science and other disciplines. These African-American groups played the key role in getting resources and equipment for science education, while also finding the funds for other resources for Monitor schools. In doing this, African American teachers were clearly committed to African-American students’ success. The all-black, public, segregated school, teachers made sure they knew their students parents, their family’s economic status and what their home were like. Often they were invited to the homes. This was important because parents made decisions, gave support, and were mediators for their children and their education. In the time I was in school (1942-1954) the focus was not primarily on inequalities of African-American education, but on the practices of the African-American teachers’ and parental support under the restricted cultural environment. My science teacher, Mr. Hall employed students’ involvement that became critical to his successful teaching practices at Monitor. He stated: ...by inspiring students to believe that there was a world of knowledge to enhance their learning if we had a movie projector. ...they sponsored different occasions and raised monies to buy a 16 mm projector...to buy a microscope. : My interest in and inclination toward science began with health during sixth grade and continued with general science and biology in high school. I enrolled in all science classes that

179 included the study of the human body. I enrolled in general science in the eleventh grade and in twelfth grade, I studied biology. In earlier education in the United States, girls did not take science, especially African-American girls. African-American students took classes for making a comfortable home life for their families, such as cooking and sewing (Conversation, grandmother). Many of the earlier African-American students were schooled in African- Americans’ homes, with limited books, no laboratory with resources I was lucky to have been enrolled in science classes in the 1940’s and 1950’s public education. In Mr. Hall’s class, I remember some of the practices, especially hands-on activities, but I don’t remember ever competing in any science fairs, for which I constructed projects to compete with other students. In fact, I am not sure there were science competitions at that time. I completed my public education requirements graduating from high school one year later than I planned because my class in 1953 was the first class to enter and complete twelfth grade. All classes, before my class graduated at the end of the eleventh grade. Throughout the history of my twelve school years (1942-1954), I received support from my grandmother, aunts and uncles. My oldest aunt was a teacher at the school and monitored my educational advancement at all times. She tutored me when I needed help. To illustrate her vision, in an extreme case, my aunt came to my grandparents’ home, and moved me into her home when my grades did not meet her approval. My grandmother, aunts, and uncles helped in my tutoring process. My family expected me to do well in my educational endeavors and worked with me to help me achieve academic success. In my views of my African-American public school teachers, their level on the vMeme scale range from beige, basic needs of students to Green, equality for students. Looking at the vMeme value levels that sensitive, humane, affectionate person who cares for others; we look at Mrs. Goseer (Beige). Mrs. Goseer fed her students to meet the needs of educating them (Purple). Mrs. Pettigrew allowed the boys to be in charge of the warmth of the classroom, knowing that this leadership value will last throughout adulthood. (Blue). Mr. Hall recruited the community to raised funds for the purchase of science resources for teaching science (Orange). Mr. Hall was able to secure the science equipment and resources that got results, putting the students equal or ahead in science (Orange). My teachers’ classroom practices motivated students with opportunities for success.

180 Fig. 28. Monitor’s 1954 Graduates. Picture from Julia Cummings-Lewis

After my graduation in 1954 from high school I moved to Jacksonville, Florida and continued my education in all-black colleges. I received my B.S. Degree in Biology/Chemistry in 1967 from Florida A & M University. Florida A & M University, an all-black university, offered more degrees from which to choose. My advisor and teachers of biology, Mr. Ware and Mr. Metcalf were very demanding and expected high levels of achievement from their students. Since my desire was to go into research, I enrolled in as many biology and chemistry classes as possible, receiving a double major of biology and chemistry. I achieved my master’s degree in science education, again not planning to go into the teaching field, but into scientific research of some kind. At the very beginning of my career, however, my goal was to work in research; therefore I did not apply for science teaching. My application to the Department of Health for the State of Florida was accepted and I worked in chemistry laboratory before transferring to heart research

181 laboratory. Electrophesis was very new in 1967, but I performed this chemical process on lipoprotein molecules for a medical doctor who did this research. The salary was not good; therefore I taught classes at the new college, Florida Junior College, (FJC) while working in the laboratory. When I graduated from FAMU, I worked in the Heart Research Laboratories for the State of Florida. I began my career as a full-time technician in the Heart Research Laboratory, but it was short lived (1967-1968), at the same time I taught biology classes at Florida Junior College. At the laboratory, I worked first in central chemistry and then in the heart research laboratory splitting lipoprotein molecules by the process of electrophesis. I was one of the first of three people to receive a state permit to work in state laboratories in 1967. Never did I plan to be a teacher. However, after one year, I had resigned from the State of Florida’s Research Laboratory due to unequal pay treatment. Because I was hired as a chemistry technician in 1967 by the Department of Health for the state of Florida, I had hoped I could advance since I had majors in chemistry and biology. Many of the workers in the laboratory had only high school degrees and did the exact same testing that I did. I did get a promotion to the research laboratory, but without the increase in salary that goes with that position. I enjoyed the work and did the process successfully. I worked with a heart specialist who did research with the lipoprotein molecule. My duty was to split that molecule by a process called electrophoresis. I really enjoyed the work, but the pay was inadequate. Soon, I realized the state’s plan was to hire someone to supervise me. No official person informed me, but when a chemist appeared in the lab and could not perform the process, I must admit, I did not show her. Instead, I accepted a full time job at the college (FJC) working as a college professor, teaching biology, human anatomy and physiology, and later serving as Chairperson of Natural Science Department (1968-2003). I was hired part-time in 1967 to teach, while working in Florida State Board of Health Laboratories, and after one year I resigned that full time position and was hired by Dr. Edgar C. Napier, Interim College President in 1968, to work full-time in the position of teaching biology and later human anatomy and physiology at Florida Junior College. My beliefs about teaching science soon changed when I entered the teaching environment and was able to bring some of the laboratory experiences to my classroom practices. One of the more popular laboratory exercises that I added to my class had to do with blood identification to

182 include the determination of the father of a child. The first time the students did this activity, it quickly became a campus-wide topic of conversation among students. The activity clearly was an attention getter, a way to generate interest in science. I actually built bridges between everyday events to science, getting students to think in a practical way to help them understand science concepts. In other words, I attached the scientific concept to something students easily related to in their everyday life. Applied this way, science became more meaningful; students gained both a deeper appreciation and understanding of science. My classes were very crowded, usually filling every seat on the first day of registration. In the 1970’s, I had to think of ways to still reach my many students when I could not physically be present. Many times I was busy with other classes. Using a grant for the purpose of enhancing my teaching practice, I was the first teacher to make audiotapes of science terminology, with the help of a student assistant, and placed them in the library for student use. At that time, there were few available tapes on anatomy and physiology. This practice became popular among my students and prompted the production of many tapes that allowed my students to check out the tapes overnight. For my efforts, the college nominated me for the EVE award (Appendix, D). This award honors women who have made a significant achievement in education, volunteerism, and employment. I was a finalist in education. The award was given to State Senator Mary Singleton who well served Duval County and deserved this award. During my tenure at the college, I used every available opportunity to develop innovative educational materials. I worked with Indiana University in the development of physiology computer software with Dr. John H. Dustman. My students, along with the students at Indiana University, used this software. The computer teaching proved to be powerful in helping my students learn physiology concepts. I received a salary for my input, but the benefit was the help it delivered to the students. The library later gave my science students a special room, with a computer and space for groups of students to use the audiotapes and computer software. This practice seemed to help the students’ understanding of science concepts. In the early 1980’s, before working with Indiana University, I attempted computer teaching at FJC. For the computer teaching, my vision was a classroom filled with computers. I received the space of a double office, created when the president, Dr. Duane Dumberton, ordered the walls between my office (A-3096) and the adjoining office torn out, giving me double-office

183 space for the students and one IBM computer. We used the IBM education Biology series version (55x9151, version 1.00; Copyright International Business Machine Corp. 1985) that worked well at that time. The programs allowed groups of students to view science concepts together, which in turn allowed students opportunities for discussions while viewing the concepts (Sewell’s Structure & Agency). During this time computer teaching was barely an experimental technique for science teaching at the college. Today my ex-office on the third floor of the downtown main building remains the largest single professor’s office. There students studied the science software in groups, forming conversation among themselves. Sometimes, the small space with the one computer would be crowded with students; however, they were sincere and worked hard together. Most of the first computer software was on structure, such as biochemical molecules in the human body and the anatomy of some systems. This networking was important for students to group and learn from each other. In fact, I grouped students or allowed them to group themselves for all of the laboratory activities in my science classes. Before my retirement in 2003, my classroom (A-3094), along with many of the other classrooms on the downtown campus, had the latest in computerized teaching systems installed for the teachers’ practices. I often think of what would have happened over 25 years ago if I had been able to introduce computer teaching on the large scale across the campus of FJC. I also wonder, if that endeavor had been even more successful than it was, where would the use of computer-assisted instruction be now? For my efforts, I was nominated by the college, and was awarded the State of Florida Distinguished Teacher Award (Appendix, D). I have conducted science tutoring for over 35 years with my students. Tutoring helped students who came to the sessions with their science concepts questions. The tutoring sessions became so large that we moved to a classroom that accommodated all of the students. In the tutoring sessions students were allowed to ask questions, give their opinions, answer questions of their peers, and in general, participate and collaborate within the group. The tutoring sessions allowed students to share their beliefs concerning the laboratory experiments they performed. Some of the students were in different sessions, but conducted the same laboratory tests. The tutoring sessions were scheduled every week for the students. I tutored in sessions throughout my entire teaching career. Since retirement, I have continued tutoring science.

184 To add to my knowledge base, during my teaching career, I attended many conventions and workshops. One such convention in Canada was different from all other conventions I attended. The Biology Association and the Human Anatomy and Physiology/Medical Associations joined their powerful forces and presented convention programs that were enlightening and useful for science teaching. At the University of Toronto, in Toronto, Canada, School of Medicine, I viewed preserved dissected human bodies of children and adults and older humans encased in clear plastic cases for the medical student’s education. This was exciting for me, a teacher viewing the very human structures that I had been teaching for years but had never had the opportunity to see in reality. The dissection of each exhibit allowed me to see every organ of the human body. I spent at least seven hours there. Interestingly, I was told these dissected individuals were victims of war; one of the professors/doctors had retrieved and preserved their remains. The publishing company, McGraw Hill, presented a memorial workshop; which selected 12 professors from across the United States to send to Hawaii for a workshop dealing with the many problems that affect science texts and the students who use those texts. I was asked to report on student retention in science. A side benefit of this workshop was that it allowed teachers to realize that we share the same problems all over the United States. At the same time, the Human Anatomy and Physiology Convention was in session on the island, allowing me to attend that meeting as well. I attended the workshops in the mornings and the convention in the afternoon. This workshop brought together teachers with both similar and different problems. It allowed 12 teachers and professors from colleges and universities throughout the United States to share with each other their problems and their beliefs of how to solve these problems. Retention seemed to be the major problem we had in common. It was good to know that the problems I was experiencing at my college were the same being experienced at other colleges, especially New York City College. My knowledge gained from conventions, workshops, and my research laboratory practices enhanced the directions of my practices in my own classroom, especially in the laboratories activities. Many of the laboratory activities cause the generation of bio-hazardous waste. My knowledge from my laboratory experience introduced me to the procedures for safely disposing of laboratory bio-hazardous waste. This waste had to be discarded in a special way.

185 Many of my laboratory activities used human materials, such as blood and urine that had to be carefully discarded. In the laboratory exercise of the urinary system, many of the students asked to bring in their own specimens. For example, one of the pre-nursing students tested the urine of her own child, using the laboratory steps in the text, and then as a result of what she discovered, she took her child to the doctor. She was able to write her laboratory report to reflect all of what she did. Other students also used urine from their relatives, while other students requested artificial urine be provided. No matter the urine used, when it became waste, urine, as well as blood, had to be disposed of very carefully. This began the Hazardous-Waste Program at the college through Phelicia, who later became the head of the newly established department. She designated certain containers for different wastes, including liquids such as acids that were kept under lock and key and were collected under specific conditions by specifically trained personnel at Florida Community College at Jacksonville. I was selected Chairperson for the Department of Natural Sciences after refusing an invitation from campus president Dr. Duane Dumberton to become a Dean of the campus. I declined the dean’s position because it placed me in a position where I would face an increase in work hours that I could not control. As the Chairperson of the Natural Science Department, these hours were more controllable and that was necessary for me because of my children. Among my many duties as Chairperson of the Natural Science Department was the scheduling of classes for the department. Much of the time teachers were able to simply submit their schedule requests and if the classrooms and times were available, this became the schedule. Other times I had make adjustments so that all the classes that students needed were offered and all the professors got the classes they needed to satisfy their contracts. I also scheduled adjunct classes. The classes I scheduled included anatomy and physiology, biology, human biology, chemistry (three different levels), physics (four different levels) geology, general science, earth science, and astronomy. The science schedule of classes went well, with very few problems. The rooms were occupied most of the time. I used the auditorium for my classes, allowing me to lecture to more than one class at a time and then scheduled the classes laboratories in different sessions. The adjunct sessions were scheduled the same way. The class schedule went well and the teachers worked well within their schedules. One other duty was the selection of the text for the classes. I arranged for the teachers of the same subjects to meet with publisher representatives or textbook authors to select their texts

186 together to ensure the same texts on all five major campuses were the same for all the students. Jacksonville is a three Navy Base city and military parents who moved between bases presented a set of problems for students transferring between campuses. I found that continuity of practice and curricula at each campus minimized problems for the students, no matter what campus they attended. Considering the needs of the students first and foremost, I frequently contacted sales representatives and asked them to arrange the author of a given text to come and give a presentation on his text, and allow questions from the teachers about it. I learned early that if the publishers compete against each other, teachers get great deals for their classes and students. These meetings often occurred in my classroom or in the library. After the presentations, teachers discussed the information and decided on the next text for the department. Textbooks were selected for two years, after which time we decided whether or not to keep the text for another two years or change the text, depending on the quality of the text in practice and the needs of our students. Science texts supplied by the various publishers were then given to teachers and left in the library for students use. I found this collaborative, collegial practice to be very effective and personally, very enjoyable. During my teaching career, I raised five children (one biological son and four adopted children, two boys and two girls). As Chairperson, I scheduled the classes which were good for all the teachers and me. When the children were younger, my work schedule was the same as my children’s school schedule, which allowed me to be home with them. Classes were offered day and evening. Evening classes were taught by adjunct professors that I recommended for hiring. The schedules were from 8:00a.m .to 10:00 p.m. I worked usually from 7:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. Occasionally I had a night class. My commitment to teaching and learning kept me attending school throughout my career, sometimes I discovered alternative strategies for teaching science. For my efforts I have received many awards, certificates, titles, both in county and state (Appendix, D). Finally, in 2003, following my retirement from Florida Community College at Jacksonville, I returned to pursue my Ph.D. in Science Education at Florida State University to improve and expand my science tutoring practices, so that I could realize my vision of a tutoring organization I plan, called Kollege Kampus. My vision for Kollege Kampus is to construct an intergenerational campus that not only allows retired science teachers, in particular, to come to the campus to tutor science students, but will also allow other retirees from other disciplines to come and share their

187 different experiences and knowledge with students. My belief is those retirees of all disciplines have special experiences they need to share with the younger generations. By placing the intergenerational groups of students and teachers together on the same campus, everyone benefits. Receiving my Ph.D. can help me achieve my vision. I plan to achieve my degree by developing a more thorough theoretical basis for my vision. This includes understanding both the teaching and learning that is the basis of my vision through research. In the process of understanding my values and the experiences upon which they were built and by connecting these to the literature on learning among African-Americans, I intend to create a solid foundation upon which to build my Kollege Kampus. By using reflective, autobiographical research, as well as participatory action research involving two of my tutees, I will come to thoroughly identify and to understand my values of science teaching. Also, through conducting an ethnographic inquiry using African-American teachers, I will identify and better understand the origins of my beliefs and values in teaching science. My intention is to blend ethnographic inquiry with my autobiography as a means of understanding how African-American, segregated, educational and general cultural experiences from 1942- 1954 influenced the science teacher/professor I became and continue to be today, as owner and principal tutor at my Kollege Kampus. I returned to the FSU campus, as I had envisioned originally on February 3, 1986 (Appendix, D). Several reasons directed my timeline of physically arriving on campus to begin my Ph.D. work. First, I wanted to finish raising my children, second, one of my adopted daughters became ill with leukemia at age 32 years; and third I wanted to wait until after my retirement from teaching at FCCJ in 2003. Learning that my daughter was in remission, I enrolled in classes on August 2003 at Florida State University. I rented an apartment near the campus, within walking distance to all my classes. I tried to fit with the style of the students by purchasing my first pair of jeans (and have since purchased many more). I had tennis shoes from playing tennis. I felt like a true college student once again. On campus, I had a hard time remaining in Tallahassee after learning that my daughter slipped out of remission with her disease. Trying to achieve my goal as originally planned, I traveled every Thursday to Jacksonville to check on her. She did not recover from this condition, making it difficult on me to continue with my educational plan. Later my husband’s

188 cancer reappeared. He had surgery in 1995 for cancer, and in 2004 it reappeared. He did not recover from this bout with the disease. Then, January 7, 2007, my father died. Through all of this, however, my classes were good for me. I received more than I expected on campus. I enjoyed all of my classes, especially my participation in the new inquiry method of teaching science. I had practiced hands-on activities, which is much different from inquiry-based teaching. I plan to design my tutoring curriculum around inquiry based practice when possible. After passing all prerequisites and obtaining all clearances for my research, I went back to Fitzgerald to begin my research. I choose to do in depth interviews with my own African- American teachers to help me understand the origin of my beliefs, first hand. Returning home, to Fitzgerald, Georgia was a joy. I lived in a hotel downtown to be as close as possible to those I wanted to interview. Enriching my experience further, I also saw a few of my Monitor classmates (there were 16 that graduated in my class). While home in Fitzgerald, I visited many places that proved helpful in doing my research. I was able to get my high school records that listed my mother’s career as a practical nurse. While she spent most of her life in New York where she worked for better pay, while in Fitzgerald, she worked for Dr. Willcox who was our family doctor and for whom my mother also assisted with the raising his children. Moreover, I discovered that Dr. Willcox’s oldest son, David, moved back to Fitzgerald. When I returned home, David Willcox informed me of six authors in Fitzgerald, Georgia. This information also provided valuable in my research as I worked to understand and develop my story as an African- American woman and teacher. I met with Mr. Hall, my science teacher who suggested that I ask Mrs. Goseer, the principal’s wife to be a participant in my research. When I asked her, Mrs. Goseer agreed to be one of my participants along with Mrs. Pettigrew and Mr. Hall. I presented the participant’s with the necessary permission forms (Appendix A), and hired Mr. Randolph Kinder of Kinder Video Services, as the photographer to audiotape and videotape the conversations of the teachers. We scheduled dates, places, and times for the interviews. The teachers were just as excited as I was. I explained to them what I wanted to do, giving them the research questions to guide their interviews. Only Mr. Hall could answer all of the questions, however Mrs. Goseer and Mrs. Pettigrew answered those questions that related to their practices in the segregated school. I will use the Afrocentricity to develop an Afrocentric (Asante, 1991) standpoint,

189 focusing on lived experiences of African-American teachers unfolding in narratives. Crystallization of their conversations helped me understand the origin of my belief and values of science teaching. I began with my science teacher’s beliefs of “teaching science in the 1942- 1954 years in segregated school” interviews. Mr. Hall, my high school’s general science and biology teacher’s beliefs and values on teaching in the segregated school environment were quite amazing. Mr. Hall’s belief of teaching in the all-black, segregated school was one of the greatest challenges he faced, especially as a science teacher. There were many disadvantages he overcame, and yet, he was still able to teach the students. The greatest disadvantage was the absence of a science laboratory and supplies. In his classroom were a desk, chair, and the cabinet counter that was put together for the science teacher. With this, and only this, in the science classroom how was the practice of science to occur? Mr. Hall changed the environment of the classroom when I was a student at Monitor. Mr. Hall first purchased blinds to cover the windows, to control the amount of light and darkness in the classroom. Mr. Hall’s beliefs of his classroom practices allowed him to plan his actions for securing funding for equipment and resources. He arranged for sources of funding from teachers, students, family, and community, for the purchase of a movie projector. He had learned that there were greater sources of science information on films. It allowed students to see and hear concepts at the same time; a form of double reinforcement of science concepts. Not only was Mr. Hall concerned about the classroom environment but the textbooks also presented a problem for teachers. African-American students at Monitor received texts that were old, worn and often outdated. He was deeply concerned about the outdated textbooks that we were receiving for our classes from the all-white schools. Mr. Hall adjusted his practices to compensate for the disadvantages. From the book catalog, Mr. Hall was able to order just one book to compare the science concepts in the new text to the concepts in the old and make adjustments where needed for our conceptual learning. Many of the new books had the same information as the old books, with the table of contents rearranged. During that time, there actually was not very much new science information in the new books. Therefore, teachers were able to teach updated science concepts using the old texts. Should there appear a new concept in the one of the new textbooks, that concept was taught to us as it was placed on the board for our notes.

190 With another disadvantage taken care of, there was a new wave of fund-raising from the students, families, and community sponsored events to purchase science models and charts. We only afforded one of each model, or chart, which was sufficient for our class. However, we had another wave of fund-raising to purchase chemicals and dissecting kits. At this point, Mr. Hall realized that he did not have to have a formal science laboratory in which to teach science. With help from students, families, and communities, Mr. Hall purchased everything needed for his science practices. One of the student fundraising events I remember was the placing of a dime under a slice of cake that a parent or teacher had made for students to purchase by the slice. If the money appeared under your slice of cake, you were returned your purchase price. This activity generated funds from students. Students never knew that Mr. Hall was making the science curriculum the best possible with no funds from the Board of Education to purchase science equipment and resources. Each year Mr. Hall received almost no funds from the School Board. It was a challenge for him to teach science in the all-black, segregated school. Mr. Hall had to create ways to both teach and raise funds for resources he needed to teach science at Monitor. Funds from the students, families, and community made it possible for African-American students to learn science concepts that were equal to students who had formal science laboratories. One of the hands-on activities in science I experienced at Monitor school was the actual planting of seeds to study the growth development and the cycle of reproduction. To actually grow this plant impacted learning greater than just reading the concepts on this process. This was important to Mr. Hall, because his belief is that the goal of science is to investigate and understand nature, to explain events, and to use the explanations to make useful predictions. So it was very important to him for his students to understand science concepts. Ladson-Billing (1994) described types of successful teachers who produce successful students. One such type teacher, she calls a coach. Mr. Hall, acted as a coach in that he believed his students were capable of excellence and he was comfortable sharing the responsibility of helping his students achieve excellence, along with their parents, African-American community members, and the students themselves (p. 24). The educational practices of Mr. Hall are characteristic to that of a coach. He petitioned the African-American families, African-American

191 community members, and the African-American students to raise funds for the purchase of science equipment and science resources in the face of segregated social policies, oppressive educational policies, racial prejudice, and inequality. That was not the only disadvantage that involved money. African-American teachers’ salary was another inequality. There were two pay scales, one for the white teachers and one for African-American teachers. Mr. Hall stated: The salary for the two-year certificate for the white teachers was as great as the college graduate in the black schools. The salaries were supposed to be based on level of education, not race. It was probably no accident that in the state of Georgia, African-American teachers could not attend State Universities and Colleges. The African-American teachers, in order to increase their education to get higher salaries had to enroll in colleges and universities outside the State of Georgia. However, even if they were able to obtain equal education, African-American teachers at Monitor school received less pay than the all-white school teachers. During my years at Monitor, I saw dedication in my public school teachers who thought it was their duty to us, their students. I had no idea that they suffered for their practices as much as has been revealed through this research. Maybe I wasn’t thinking along those lines. African- American teachers had nice homes, cars, and dressed well, creating the image of affluence. Their inequality in pay did not detract from their home-life styles or practices in the classrooms. Most of the teachers were married and this provided household money for the life styles, preventing anything that obstructed classroom practices. Mr. Hall’s comment on how he remembered me in his classroom was surprising to me. I had been wondering if he remembered me in his classroom at all. Fitzgerald’s African-American student population was small enough to allow teachers to keep track of the progress of most of the students. Mr. Hall remembered me as a very energetic young lady, who was well disciplined, which was attributed to my home environment. He stated that I had a little mischievousness about me that I tried to conceal, but I was a student who listened in class, and listening contributed to my learning.

192 Even today, I think it is important to listen to others as they teach in order to learn as much as possible. One of my professors at FSU commented I had not said much in class, but I learn best when I listen. Mr. Hall’s belief that the inequality in Monitor’s science education called for him to take charge through his science practices to teach science concepts, independence, and self- sufficiency to African-American students in their struggle for success. His practice reflects hand-on activities for learning science concepts during the 1942-1954 school years at Monitor. His beliefs/ values and practices of science teaching connected science concepts to learning with students’ everyday life experiences. Most of the families’ homes had a garden for food production or at least flowers in the yard, where the planting of seeds was the first step, experiences students were familiar with. His practices demonstrated Afrocentric practice. Mrs. Pettigrew’s conversation was my middle school interview. The morning of Mrs. Pettigrew’s 9:00 a.m. interview (Appendix B), she was ill. In fact, after she completed her interview that morning, she visited her doctor that afternoon. She revealed in her conversation, that when I was in school during the 1942-1954 school years that she taught all the classes for sixth grade: language arts (reading, English, spelling, writing), mathematics (addition, division, fractions, subtraction, and multiplication), social studies (geography, and history), and health science (care of the body, vitamins, nutrition and exercise). The one I remember most was health where we studied the human body. Teaching all the classes was a common practice for public school elementary and junior high school African-American teachers during 1942-1954 school years. I don’t remember changing classes until high school. In sixth grade, classmates remained classmates throughout that school year. Today’s students change classes in middle school, usually having more than one teacher. African-American teachers taught us as they were taught to teach in their schooling. Today’s teachers practice according to National Standards and Benchmarks. I asked Mrs. Pettigrew if the African-American teachers’ practices were attached to National Standards. She replied that if there were National Standards for teaching practices for African-American teachers, State or local, she was not aware of them. She stated she was given some used books for each subject on grade level; many times there were not enough for every student in the class. With no instruction for her practice, she taught what was thought to be best for her students.

193 The classroom practices of Mrs. Pettigrew at Monitor during the years 1942-1954 focused on African-American teachers’ concepts of knowledge. Without the knowledge of national, state, or local standards, or a required curriculum; she taught her students to achieve success. The National Science Educational Standards were written in 1995. She also stated that her classes were crowded, up to 35-40 students per class; however discipline problems were at a minimum. I remember a large number of students in the middle school, especially the sixth through the ninth grades. Some of the 63 students came from the county school and enrolled in Monitor school. I don’t know what happened to most of the students after ninth grade. In high school many of the boys enlisted in the military, reducing the class rolls, while some of the girls married or simply left before graduating in 1954. Out of the 63 students in middle school, only 16 graduated. Mrs. Pettigrew embedded in me and other students, a sense of responsibility for self and problem solving at an early age; she facilitated growth and even stronger empowerment as students grew toward adulthood. Mrs. Pettigrew was interested in dealing with students’ needs. My conversation was with Mrs. Goseer, an elementary teacher who taught second grade throughout her teaching career in the segregated, all-black and later in the integrated school, after Monitor was ordered closed. For 30 years Mrs. Goseer taught at Monitor and six years after that at the integrated school. During her interview, she stated that the advantage of teaching at Monitor for 30 years allowed her to teach two generations of students from the same family, know the background of these students, and understand their needs. This enabled her to meet the needs of these students. In knowing the students, Mrs. Goseer knew many of the ways her students’ perceived concepts and knew how her classroom practice for each student should be. She also compared the culture of the integrated school. Her focus in her comparison of the cultures of the two classroom settings was on some of the differences she experienced while teaching in both school environments. She stated the integrated school had supplies needed for educating the students. Mrs. Goseer mentioned the cafeteria, auditorium, and plenty of play space for the students. Mrs. Goseer also noted a change in the integrated classroom structure, stating that it was a different environment. Mrs. Goseer noted the change in the African-American family structure, especially after World War II, while she was teaching at Monitor. African-American families maintained a strong sense of family, teaching us morals and values that produced productive students. Mrs.

194 Goseer remembers the families being broken as parents went to Alabama to work in the steel mills and Detroit to work in the car factories. She also stated that farm work was different; the invention of the tractor interfered with the tradition African-American sharecrop farming. Continuing with the school environment, she stated that the integrated school provided better facilities and more materials for teacher practice. The working conditions were most pleasant. Mrs. Goseer mentioned that as she entered the teaching practices in the integrated school, she became aware that all students had common physical and emotional needs that she was able to meet, just as she did in the segregated practice. I speak of lunch period first; because of the belief of the teacher that the stomach has to be fed in order to feed the mind. Mrs. Goseer stated that most students (Monitor) brought their lunch to school, some of the students were able to purchase food from the store close to the school and a few ran home for lunch. Still keeping in mind that “It takes a village,” Mrs. Goseer anticipated that one or two of her students would not have lunch the next day, so would cook enough supper the night before for at least two student lunches the following day. Then she took them to school and placed them on the radiator until lunch for any student who had no lunch. Mrs. Goseer was popular for cooking and sharing with the community. She always made sure her students had food and often cooked from her husband’s garden. She wanted no interference in their learning. Knowing the students and their families for over two generations, she knew who would not be likely to have food. Her comparison of the integrated school was quite different. Mrs. Goseer stated that the integrated school had a cafeteria with hot food for teachers, staff, and students. They also had a free food plan for those students who could not afford to pay for their food. This was an advantage that was much better than what Monitor had and provided for the students who had no lunch. She mentioned the absence of an auditorium as another comparison between the schools. Another inequality of Monitor school was the absence of an auditorium. Graduation and other activities were held at Salem Church. Mrs. Goseer stated one of the advantages of integrated schools was having an auditorium that allowed for graduation and other activities to be held. Her teaching position in the integrated school was better in many ways. One of the things she is proud of is the fact that at Monitor, she had the opportunity to teach more than one generation of students of the same family, allowing her to know the needs of

195 the students and the economic status of the family. This was very important to her to know how those students learned as so to direct her classroom practice toward that student’s needed. Mrs. Goseer stated that according to her observations a teacher today must be open minded to the cultural changes and have patience and tolerance, especially when teaching in the integrated classroom. Her experience in the segregated and integrated environments allowed her to compare the two classroom cultures. She noted that teachers, having no experience teaching other cultures, needed training in cultural sensitivity in order to meet the needs of the different students. In the early years of Fitzgerald’s schools, understanding a student’s home culture was not a problem because everything was “separate, but unequal.” However, she mentioned that the school systems are not failing the students today because students have more opportunities now than ever for their success. She thinks that the motivation from society is different and that social values have changed, the schools are offering more than she has ever seen and students are not accepting the offerings. Perhaps Mrs. Goseer cannot see the impact of society’s loss of teachers like her who provided for the basic needs of their community’s children. Mrs. Goseer, age 94 years, is not pleased with the cultural changes she sees in the Ben Hill County schools today. She stated that changes in society’s values are one of the reasons for the action of students. Mrs. Goseer experienced both the segregated and integrated school classroom practices, but insist that today’s classroom performance is much different from when she practiced in her classroom. What African-American students valued during the 1942-1954 school years, when I was a student at Monitor, is different from the values of students today. Mrs. Goseer compared some of the social events we enjoyed to those students enjoy today; quite a difference She stated also, with some surprise, students from Monitor whom she least expected to succeed were the ones who were most successful in their lives. She has learned not to predict the future in reference to students. Mrs. Goseer, in her expression concerning me, stated that, she knew that if my aunt lived, she was going to see that I was going to be somebody. She was going to see to that. I think I fulfilled the wishes of my family by finishing college. My ethnographic inquiry and action research allowed me to understand my beliefs/values of science teaching and where it originated. Understanding my science teacher’s practices and

196 experiences in his classroom during my schooling (hands-on/ relate to everyday practice) is the origin of my beliefs/values of teaching science, in spite of my intentions of entering the medical field. Themes that emerged from my story are: 1. Needs of students first. 2. Value my classroom. 3. Bridge scientific concepts to everyday lives. 4. Dialogue. 5. Continuing learning/life learning 6. Networking is important 7. Value hard work. 8. Repetition 1. Needs of students first. The only reason for a science teacher to be teaching in a classroom should be to teach students. I believe that a teacher’s focus should be completely toward this duty in order to meet the needs of his/her students. Teachers must first know what they need to do in to facilitate the transfer of scientific knowledge. In other words, they should first learn how their students learn best and use that method of delivery for optimal outcome. 2. Value my classroom. I have sometimes wondered if I made a mistake when I did not accept the invitation to becoming a dean. However, looking back, I feel confident that I made the right decision for me. I remained with my love of science teaching. Although my first wish was not to become a teacher, I quickly changed my mind when I accepted the classroom position at the college. I enjoyed when students learned and moved to another level of achievement in their endeavors. 3. Bridging scientific concepts to everyday lives. I think humans are walking warehouses of chemical reactions. When thinking about the inner workings of the body, I can easily relate a complicated chemical equation that is written on paper to some chemical reaction within. If a 10th grade student can gain a better understanding from this way of teaching, it should be even easier for college students to understand. However, if I find this method of teaching needs more clarity, I add another method. 4. Dialogue.

197 I encourage students to ask questions, give their opinions, answer questions, and actually collaborate within groups. Most of my college students were working in medical areas, such as hospitals, doctors’ offices, and other types of medical facilities that encourage groups to form on the job. Many of the students study together as group before coming to class. And when they are in my class, they are placed in groups, especially for laboratory practice. This allows students to collaborate within their group. 5. Continuing learning/life learner. Most professions are expected to maintain a level of knowledge that reflects the latest development in their fields. Science teachers should continue their education for as long as they teach. Science is continuing to develop and teachers are responsible for keeping up. I have tried to maintain updated knowledge in order to provide students the most current information. 6. Networking is important. Networking allows students to learn from each other. Grouping, in my case is creating classroom environment suitable for networking. This worked well for all because it involved all my students within the groups. What I did in the laboratories was to visit each group to ensure they were learning the concepts the author wanted them to learn. 7. Hard work. I think in order to succeed teachers must work hard. Teachers have to maintain a level above their students in order to make sure they learn the information they need to know. Ways that I prepared myself was to stay ahead of my classes that I taught, I also took advanced classes in my field of study; workshops, conventions and any other knowledge receiving process that helped me. 8. Repetition The challenge of science teaching is to get students to understand science concepts. While I am teaching and tutoring I both listen to dialogue and observe gestures of my students, which allow me to question if they understand the concepts. Many gestures appear in the form of facial expressions. I noted with tutoring students that their facial expressions rang a bell for me to ask if they understood. If students don’t understand, try explaining using other methods or examples.

198 Combining these belief/values with the data from the tutoring students, the ethnographies inquiry, and my personal story, I am beginning to understand my beliefs/values and the origin of those beliefs and value concerning teaching science. The first research question: 1. What are the values revealed through analysis of my practices as a tutor for science? Using the 2P perspectives (Wilber, 2000) and Spiral Dynamics (Beck & Cowan, (1996) my values are from Blue/Orange/Green color range.

vMemes Value Ways of teaching Blue Respect and truthfulness Authoritarian Repetition Orange Success driven Questions and answers Extra effort/hours Green Community equality Community education Dialogue Collaboration Fig. 29. Researcher’s Values

As a tutor, my goal is to empower students by giving them the tools to understand worldviews, enhance ways of thinking and ways of knowing, while acting with ethical freedom according to their inner needs. 2. What are my beliefs revealed through analysis of my tutoring practices? My beliefs concerning my tutoring practices range from blue to green according to vMemes. The determining factor lies with the needs of students; since students perceive concepts differently. For the anatomy and physiology college student, I utilized the authoritarian approach in tutoring, while the chemistry approach with the high school student was more collaborative. Several times I stepped into a higher level of knowledge when I referenced specific structures and functions of the human body for clearer understanding. This is especially true for chemistry. My years of tutoring in addition to my regular work hours reflect my concern for equal access to education for all. The third question I wanted to understand: 3. Using these values and beliefs as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these beliefs?

199 Using the beliefs and values of my African-American teachers, authoritarian teaching, basic needs, discipline, and respect for science, I am a product of their values and beliefs. Each of my teachers described their beliefs concerning my values, expressing their expectation that I live fully as a responsible student and community member, demonstrating holistic learning and inner wisdom. Experiences placed me in the Green vMeme, always respecting other’s views through collaboration. This is especially true for not only my co-workers in the choice of the science books and curriculum at the college, but also of my students. I am still realizing my vision of an intergenerational campus. In 1995, when my vision of an Intergeneration Campus was first recognized and presented to Atlantic Bank, I was informed that I should find a partner and come back. My oldest son said if I would wait until he was able, he would go into business with me for the realization of my tutoring dream. Now in the year 2007, my son has begun to build a community of military retirees through establishing an assisted living facility. The first structure will open soon, housing 18 beds for veterans. I am hoping they will serve as successful role models and tutor online for boys and will share many of their educational stories with me for others to enjoy.

200 CHAPTER 7 BELIEFS/VALUES OF AN AFRICAN-AMERICAN SCIENCE TEACHER

Much of life can never be explained but only witnessed Rachel Naomi Remen

Introduction This inquiry centers on my values and beliefs as an African-American science teacher and the culture in which they originated. As with other cultural groups, values among American- Americans have a historical context. In my study I used Afrocentricity (Asante, 1991) to develop an Afrocentric standpoint focusing on the primacy of lived experiences of three African- American teachers. I used conversations in assessing their experiences and values through storytelling (hooks, 1990), the ethic of caring, and the ethic of personal accountability (Collins, 1990). My role as a researcher in lived experiences of African-American teachers, both past and present, revealing rightness in a culture I shared years ago and unconsciously share with African- American students today. In this process of understanding, sharing with others through dialogue has produced rich information through enacting a hermeneutic-dialectic cycle, paired with phenomenology. This process allows interpretation on the simplest level permitting me an opportunity of understanding through explanation-seeking analysis. Explanation and understanding share a dialectical relationship. Understanding emerges from lived experiences in a non-methodical analysis while the methodical analysis consists of explanations emerging from hermeneutic (Gadamer, 1996) 2P (Wilber, 2005).

Lived Experiences and Action Research I used the holistic approach in an attempt to integrate Wilber’s (1999) matter, body, mind, and soul to understand my approach to realities of chemistry, anatomy and physiology, psychology, and mysticism. Holistic in this inquiry is an attempt to go in to the depth of experiences that connect with the conscious and unconscious; becoming enlightening of experiences and practices. From the 2P (LL) quadrant I identified two African-American tutoring students as co- researchers to provide ways to obtain their perspectives on what is salient in my

201 teaching/learning science practice. I identified questions that could reveal their views of my practice along with their added perspectives, intended to benefit my practice. The major role of the students was to engage in the creation and exchange of their perspectives that will provide knowledge on how to improve my science practice. This role allowed students to maintain journals of their perspectives from each of their tutoring sessions, which were augmented by my journal reflections on their performances. Students were also given opportunities to produce new cultures transforming their identities and roles in their life worlds (Tobin, 2006b). Students’ journals and my journal allow me the opportunity for differing perspectives to emerge from different levels, both for individual and collective understanding (Wilber, 2000), to the extent that they provided new insight into my practice and an appropriate modeling of my tutoring curriculum. The student’s perspectives in their journals stated what might be retained from this inquiry and what I might add to my practice for enactment in the future (Appendix, C). Some of those suggested additions/changes from the students’ journals highly recommended the use of terminology tapes and subject audio-visuals to introduce new chapters. This method, used before the chapter, would allow students to be introduced to new terminology and pronunciation. Both students agreed that writing concepts on the board should remain, since both students are visual learners. Both students also stated that the transparences should still remain as a teaching tool. From the students’ journal, researcher’s journal, and observation, the following values were unfolded:

Students’ Journals Tutor Values Tutor Practice Type Practice Description Terminology tapes Basic practice Student centered Students’ needs are first Write concepts on Basic practice Teacher directed Multiple modes of practice. board Transparences Academic Authoritarian Success driven from many authors rigor Collaborative High respect in tutoring. Fig. 30. Action Research Results

Folding in new practice to improve my tutoring was a benefit of action research. Most important to me through this action research was my ability to become a learner, benefiting from the feedback and support from the student participants. From their journals, I experienced the

202 understanding of changes needed to improve my practice and the reconstruction of my beliefs and values of tutoring, according to suggested changes. Being a participant of the process and seeing the result immediately from students’ journals made reconstruction and negotiation quick and easy for me. Through action research with my tutoring students I am able to negotiate changes in my tutoring practice to meet their needs. Reconstruction of my practice began during the inquiry, as I read the students’ journals, and will continue to be a life-long commitment as long as this practice is successful. I plan to use action research for as long as I tutor for continuing practice improvement. I now have a different view of my tutoring environment, recognizing how important my students are to changes in line with modern epistemology for learning and curriculum construction. As new practices continue to engage our lives, such as on- line teaching, my tutoring practice will be reformed. As I reflect on my tutoring experiences and using the perspectives of my teachers, I develop a more sophisticated understanding of the origin of my own beliefs. This understanding informs me about my practices and allows me to realize needed elements to change my practices. Cooper’s (2003) notion of cultural synchronization refers to the quality of fit between teachers’ and students’ cultures as it relates to Afrocentricity and the culture of black life. She believes the closer the cultures are to each other the greater the chances for academic success and improved student self-direction. African-Americans have their own cultural language, which is understood better within that culture. I saw tutoring success with Jarvis and LaToya in part because of our common home culture. However, I also enjoyed tutoring success across cultures in my work life at Jackson Community College. The use of current, albeit less accurate, information from textbooks and Jarvis’ teacher’s approach was useful to Jarvis in achieving immediate success because of the fit between the method and his current learning environments, as well as the standardized testing, on which he performed very well. The tutoring prepared Jarvis for immediate success in learning the Lewis Dot Formula. The nature of Jarvis’ chemistry test permitted immediate feedback, while passing his classroom chemistry test showed the validity of his understanding. To address the larger learning needs of Jarvis, along with other students, classes need to meet those diverse learning needs through the teacher and the structure of the curriculum. Currently, we must rely on those who set the national standards to provide the highest quality preparation for students’ future success. Perhaps it is time for the educators of our communities to begin to work together to ensure the science being taught is contemporary.

203 Perhaps we should work to synchronize our cultures to demand with a unified voice, adequate if not excellent, education for all.

Cross-Culture Communication Variations exist in the rules for general discourse, in addition to differences in vocabulary and grammatical structures among cultural groups. Delpit (2005) speaks of those white teachers, teaching African-American students, who possess the discourse pattern and values that reflect our educational system. Delpit further stated that white teachers, without cultural capital, tend to struggle when teaching African-American students because they must learn new language codes and value systems, many of which are implicit. When an understanding of implicit code is attempted across cultures, communication can break down. African-American students are then held accountable for knowing a series of rules that no one has taught their teachers (Delpit, 2005). Mismatch of language between races are not deficit but different. White educators find it difficult, at best, to understand the logic to African-American discourse and therefore are unable to adequately coach African-American students (Delpit, 2005). Unfamiliar with cultural communication differences can lead to misinterpretation, misunderstanding, and even unintentional insult (Delpit, 2005). In the determination of the Lewis Dot Formula for Ca: I encountered a similar situation when I used the term “exceptional”, meaning it is different from the atomic structure with which the student was familiar. This notion of not understanding across cultural borders creates the need for teachers to understand and be accountable for providing cultural recognition. My responsibility as an African-American tutor for African- American students is to teach using the language and communication skills needed for each student’s academic success. My responsibility as a human being living within a diverse population of multiple cultures is to learn to listen with a cross-cultural ear for optimal understanding and the most effective communication possible.

Origin of Values Spiral Dynamics of Beck and Cowan (1996), is recognized as a schema through which we interpret the world. Spiral dynamics consists of models of consciousness presented in a spiral developmental form representing analysis of value categories called patterns of thinking, vMemes (values-attracting meta-memes). There is a hierarchy involved in the structure that has evolved eight dominant vMemes. vMemes emerged historically in response to new more

204 complex life conditions, illustrated by color codes. vMemes allow me to understand my African American teachers’ values of teaching in the segregated school. Spiral dynamics argues that human nature is not fixed; humans are able to adapt to their environment by constructing new, more complex, conceptual models of the world that allows the handling of new problems. Each new model includes and transcends all previous models. This explains values very accurately as they unfold; the teachers’ ways of thinking is demonstrated in the vMemes and is represented by colors. Beginning at beige/purple, survivalist, through red/blue, beginning to construct an orderly society, African-Americans, often rooted in the traditional devotional, have a moral compass which separates right from wrong, through orange, creating a better life by the manipulation of both natural and human resources, and green, which is activated when a culture begins to solve red/orange problems and is a product of the success of reaching affluence. Monitor’s segregated African-American teachers’ ranges of values can be explained as following:

Mrs. Goseer (Elementary School) vMemes Value/Adaptive Strategies Beige/Purple Values: Survivalist Goseer Care based Teaching style: Student centered

Mrs. Pettigrew (Middle School) Red/Blue Values: Absolutistic obedience Pettigrew Academic rigor, discipline High achievers Teaching style: Authoritarian, discipline Teacher directed

Fig. 31. Monitor’s teachers value chart

205 Fig. 31. Continued. Mr. Hall (High School) Blue/Orange Values: Scientific/strategic, knowing Hall Science, academic rigor High achievers Teaching style: Teacher directed Student centered Subject centered Open-ended teaching Community sustained

As similar values emerge for me today, I have added updated practices as I attend workshops and conventions, since I believe in life learning. This gives me alternate practices for different students’ learning patterns. This practice also influences my vMeme. In my tutoring, practices factors encourage different vMemes to govern thinking for the benefit of individual students. I might rely upon one vMeme in a lecture domain and another in an evaluation domain. In time of stress, previously emerged vMemes often come to the surface and allow for a kind of structural analysis that is useful in promoting a calmer situation Beck & Cowan, 1996) and greater learning. The goal of the vMeme spiral in this inquiry is to identify values of the African-American teachers’ and my values, for comparison to understand the origin of my beliefs/values and practice. In the following chart is an illustration of how my African-American segregated, public school teachers’ values integrated into my values.

vMeme Value/ Adaptive Strategies Blue /Orange Values: Academic rigor Knowledge/respect of science Success driven Students first Fig. 32. Researcher’s Value Chart

206 Fig. 32. Continued. Purposeful/authoritarian Archivists-scientific/ Strategic Tutoring enterprise Educational justice Community/Collaboration Community education

Remembering my schooling experiences along with my teachers’ practices is a journey I will always remember. The following chart compares the researcher’s values to her African- American teachers, values.

African- How they Classroom vMemes Researcher How I view Practice Type vMemes American view the Practice Values the world Teachers world Types Values Basic needs Food Student Beige/ Students’ Tutoring Teacher/ Beige/ centered Purple needs first Student Purple centered Cultural Discipline Teacher Red/Blue Respect Success Repetition Red/Blue Norms Moral centered science driven Hard work

Content Educational Teacher Red/ Knowledge Dialogue Authoritarian Red Commerce/ justice centered Blue/ content Respect Blue/ Knowledge Orange Community Networking Science Orange Commercial/ Subject Education Educate Commodity Centered Enterprise Community Enterprise Community Fig. 33. Comparison of African-American teachers’ and Researcher’s values

Stack (2006) speaks of a similar progress, for unfolding experiences. She stated to progress up a stage is called transformation, and to broaden one’s experiences in a stage is called translation or information (Stack, 2006). Monitor’s African-American teachers and the researcher made this enlightening trip. Like my teachers, I use many of the classroom practices I learned in public schooling and college. Unlike my public school teachers, my curriculum planning covers National and State Standards. However, I find myself relying heavily on what and how I was taught in public

207 school, my family’s tutoring, and my college training in science education. I felt that to be the best practice for teaching African-American students science. I will remember most Wilber’s integral of consciousness theory that positions my inquiry in the upper left and lower left quadrant of his Integral model. The Upper left quadrant embraces intentional: subjective spectrum of consciousness, self-transcending that allows the teachers and me connection to our inner self for adoption of a conscious philosophy of life. In order to unfold past schooling and practice experiences, a visit through transformation of consciousness is necessary. We have to board at “mind station” to unfold past practice experiences from theta level of consciousness travel. Changing to a slower, deeper journey in consciousness unfolds deeper past practice experiences in consciousness exploration. Unfolding those practice experiences for travel back from that deeper journey to combine gathered practice experiences; each enfolds its predecessor in the development of an envelope. Through coordinated integral efforts to unfold the various practice experiences transcended in memory for the teachers and the researcher. Mind is the natural organ of subjectively and objectively studying consciousness. The layover at mind allows incoming unconsciousness and consciousness to be present in the mind for this agreement. Natural mind allows unconsciousness to reveal itself to the conscious in images, which initiates processes of conscious reactions and assimilations, by allowing unconsciousness and consciousness to react, creating an organic relationship to one another. This reaction forms the development of consciousness: transformation, liberation, and deliverance. Natural mind contains the window that interfaces inner consciousness and deliverance. Deliverance notes its presence in the form of remembering, as demonstrated through Monitor’s African-American teachers’ conversations with the researcher. Unfolded practice of Mrs. Goseer involved satisfying life’s basic needs for students’ learning. Others, such as Walker (1996) believe that African-American teachers are really “other mothers” because of their beliefs about their students’ ability to achieve. Maslow (1954) also believed that humans’ basic needs must be satisfied first to achieve further success. Mrs. Goseer, in her performance, mastered this role (looking for needs). While satisfying their basic needs, she also created a secure learning environment where young children could learn without the added stress of hunger. I believe students’ basic needs should be met in order for conceptual learning to occur.

208 Unfolded practice of Mrs. Pettigrew involved development of leadership and morals for her students’ future life. She values high morals, respect, and creating independence in students by allowing students to accept responsibly in the classroom. My practice of the value of authoritarian teaching, strong leadership, and respect allows my students to accept responsibility for their learning, as they give respect to other students and their teacher in their classroom. Unfolded science practice of Mr. Hall involved the mass collaboration of teachers, students, families, community, and church, interconnected and orchestrated, combining their powers into a massive collective force for the purchase of science equipment and resources. Mr. Hall’s value of science education has been demonstrated over years of fighting the science education depression. My own quest for equal access and excellence are a mirror image of the role Mr. Hall played for equal education. I think African-American students should receive the best of education. Senge (2000) describes schools as partnerships between teachers, legislators, parents, and community members, acting together to benefit the school. He states that the process should begin by calling people to come together to think and act with the power they have concerning things important to them. Senge (2000) believes that individuals with a personal vision should do as much as possible to encourage leaders to look at their own strengths and weaknesses while working on their personal vision and mastery before the shared vision process begins (p. 291). Leaders should be very clear about their personal vision for the school and for themselves. For Monitor’s science class, it was very clear that in the absence of a school laboratory and resources for the students, the students’ interest was placed first for academic achievement. It was clear that all students would learn, not just through rote transmission of a text book-driven curriculum but through discovery and pursuing answers to questions as Senge suggested (p. 305). With this in mind, Mr. Hall began to form the triangulation of school, community and church in his vision. Senge (2000), outlined steps to realizing a successful vision. First he named a belief system, which Mr. Hall had formed for Monitor school by including the student’s needs of materials, indicating his bottom line is student success. Second, Senge mentioned higher standards. African-American teachers at Monitor school had no idea of standards, local or statewide. They were reliant on the textbooks to guide them in what they were to teach. Mrs. Pettigrew said she had no knowledge of standards and Mrs. Goseer stated there was an absence of communication between the white and African-

209 American teachers. We can conclude that there were few or no standards available to my African-American teachers during the 1942-1954 school years. So in light of the missing communication about standards, resource availability was visible evidence of the disparity between the white and black communities. Therefore, Mr. Hall’s focus on resources can be understood as a desire for equitable education. In any case, the acquisition of resources for Monitor school raised the standards for the students and teachers’ practice. The third step was school reform. Receiving resources for Monitor school changed the teaching practices and student learning. Giving this support to the students takes care of Senge’s fourth step, supporting students and families. Monitor’s teachers’ value of equality in education formed the agency and gave support to students, through their families, churches, and communities. Monitor’s teachers worked together to replace the non-existent resources for our learning. . They formed the dual socializing agents (teachers, families, and community) for resources to replace the duties of the Ben Hill County School Board. These agents were able to accommodate Monitor school, allowing it to receive resources for teaching practices. I, too, value equality in my tutoring practice. I also purchase supplies and resources along with received resources from colleges and military surplus, supplies that help my tutoring students with their conceptual learning. I see similar beliefs/values between my teachers’ and my beliefs/values. Understanding my teachers’ beliefs/values of teaching in my segregated school allows me to compare my emerged beliefs/values to those of my teachers. I understand now that there is a strong possibility that my beliefs/values of teaching science originated with my teachers. Reading Ladson-Billing (2005) inspired me to equate my African-American teachers to my earlier learning in biology; viewing how lower animals work to bring about world stability and success. I was aware of superior and inferior creatures on earth. My mind focused on the inferior creatures such as the ants, badgers, locusts, and the lizards, because when they apply wisdom to their lives, they succeed. The African-American community was viewed as inferior in the eyes of the Fitzgerald Board of Education. During segregation, the world had a way of viewing African-Americans students as inferior. Applying wisdom to the inferior African- American students’ lives excelled those students. Monitor’s African-American teacher’s application of their many classroom practices created many different conceptual learning environments in which African-American students succeed.

210 Let’s began the story. Ants demonstrate preparation by storing food all summer. They know how to prepare for their winter months (biological needs, Goseer, 2006; Maslow, 1954). African-American teachers are familiar with preparation also. Students are prepared for challenges they expect to face in life through “food” that has been planned for them. African- American teachers prepare students to be responsible for their future life challenges (Pettigrew, 2006, Maslow, 1954). Monitor teachers made sure the science students were prepared for their future challenges in later science (Hall, 2006; Senge, 2000). Their determination to prepare us for later life was unmistakably visible and supported by the African-American community. Another animal I have considered is the badger. Badgers are a dedicated, determined species that allows nothing to stop his building. A badger can build a home anywhere, building on steep cliffs, in rocks, or running streams (Pettigrew, 2006; Hall, 2006; Maslow, 1954). African-American teachers did not let the absence of a cafeteria, auditorium, and teaching resources stop them from their teaching practices of bringing knowledge to students. They were like the badger; using dirty, torn used books from the white schools and resources from the community to build successes of their African-American students. They let nothing stop their successful classroom practices. Locusts prioritize their work. One locust determines he cannot work alone. As an individual, a locust will meet death, but many locusts together can consume and destroy an entire field (Hall, 2006; Maslow, 1954). Just as the locust, the African-American teachers, families and communities can function more successfully working as a team. In Fitzgerald, the African- American community worked as a team along with teachers and the community for the benefit of African-American children. Mr. Hall’s vision was equality in science education. By asking teachers, family, and community for resources, he was able to increase the level of his science practice, thereby raising the knowledge level of his science students in Fitzgerald. Lizards have a purpose. They are found everywhere even in kings’ palaces; in the highest places, with the purpose of eating insects, cleaning up areas (Pettigrew, 2006; Hall, 2006; Goseer, 2006; Maslow, 1954). As African-American teachers fulfill their teaching purposes, African-American students are elevated to higher places. My family’s approach was to tell me: “you don’t finish school until you graduate from college”, elevating me to a higher place. The purpose of my inquiry was to understand how my early schooling experiences influenced my beliefs/values and science practices. My African-American teachers fulfilled their

211 purpose by presenting a holistic education that encouraged the transfer of learning across academic borders, using African-American cultural, moral, and political contexts of our lives. My teachers fulfilled the purposefulness of their lives by prioritizing their practices, as they maintained dedication by going great distances to be prepared. Even among the smallest of animals, the cycle is survival in different forms. Monitor’s African-American teachers, African- American students, African-American families, and African - American community survived by combining their forces for the African-American students of Fitzgerald, Georgia. Many of my African-American, segregated teacher’s beliefs/values were instilled into their practice, which I now use in my tutoring practice today. Values such as high morals, respect for students and classrooms, and respect for science will continue to be a part of my new science curriculum along with all suggestions by my tutoring students.

Implications Teachers should be encouraged to experience action research in their classroom. Even short periods of time are beneficial for most teachers. Teachers educated in colleges and universities will have the task of transition from their college/university world that has been dominated by college/university classes to their teacher/world. Teachers must transfer college/university learning to their classrooms. Transferring class knowledge to classroom practice is not an easy task, therefore, teachers must learn to admit to themselves when they might need assistance and not hesitate to ask for feedback and reflection from the one of the best resources in their classroom, the students. This will enable teachers to use their college/university learning in their new environment. Teachers are the brokers for students’ science learning. In order for teachers to teach in a manner that is beneficial to themselves and their students’ learning, I think they must listen to their students’ voices. For me, this action research will be a life long and continuing improvement for my practice at Kollege Kampus. I plan to incorporate action research into my tutoring practice as a regular means of practitioner research and as my means for improving my practice while allowing students to have a voice in their learning. This research will make a contribution to the historical and culture knowledge of events and problems that shaped African-American teachers’ practice while teaching in the segregated

212 schools. The implications and conclusion of this inquiry are considered for this research only but offers an opportunity for further study.

Conclusion As I sat on a bench in Wilber’s UL Park, reflecting on my journey into consciousness that allowed me to understand my beliefs/values of science teaching and their origin, I realized I was moving slightly in response to the wind blowing against my face. I constantly feel radicals striking my body, and realize this is the war I was born into and this is what is bombarding me. I am an African-American feminist working within the scholar movement of critical race theory, trying to understand self. I allowed critical race theory to guide my inquiry and used it to construct a theory of black feminist thoughts, grounded in everyday classroom experiences of my Monitor’s segregated, African-American teachers in Fitzgerald, Georgia, and my African- American tutoring students in Jacksonville, Florida. In my departure from the traditional “solutions within European paradigms”, as an African-American researcher, my inquiry took center stage through the theory of Afrocentricity. Afrocentric discourse shifts, constructs, critiques, and challenges the ways of knowing by discerning my knowledge from epistemology engendered within European cultural construct to one which is engendered or centered within an African-American cultural construct (Asante, 1988). Asante, (1987), believes new learning and knowledge for African-Americans emerged out of a need to survive; therefore, one can conclude that new learning and knowledge also emerged from the struggle out of the educational depression; this new learning and knowledge allowed African-American education to progress. Growing up in Fitzgerald, Georgia, I had always been exposed to some form of education for as long as I can remember. In my home, my grandmother and aunts who tutored me saw education as a ticket out of an oppressive and discriminatory environment, for both their children and grandchildren. My grandmother, born in 1896, talked about her life before she moved to Georgia. She told stories about her educational experiences in South Carolina’s segregated schools. Always in the back of her mind was, “you don’t finish school until you graduate from college.” She believed, also, every generation should acquire more education than the past generation to help future generations transform to a new cultural level, allowing a new kind of thinking and acting. I think she saw her vision in me.

213 APPENDIX A HUMAN SUBJECT FORMS

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219 APPENDIX B RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Action Research

Student Tutoring 1. What are the values and beliefs about teaching revealed through analysis of my practices as a tutor of science? 2. Using these values and beliefs as a starting point, what experiences from my own life contributed to the formation of these beliefs?

Students’ Journal Assignment 1. Write about the tutoring practices you would like to see continued. a. Give reasons. 2. Write about the tutoring practices you would like to see discontinued. a. Give reasons. 3. How has this reflective practice helped you?

Ethnography

Teacher Questionnaire 1. What are your beliefs/ values of teaching in an all-black segregated school? a. What were the cultural influences that shaped what you could or could not do? b. What were the culture influences that determined what you could or could not teach? 2. What are your beliefs of teaching science in the all-black school? a. What were the cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both the advantages and the disadvantages in your segregated, all-black school? 3. What are your thoughts concerning the limitations and benefits for Sarah as your student?

220 APPENDIX C ACTION RESEARCH JARVIS’ TRANSCRIPTION OF TAPES

Tutoring Session 1 October 11, 2006 Jarvis tutoring on chemical reactions types Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Sunroom; Roundtable Instructional supplies and equipment: tape recorder, 30 minute tapes, chemistry texts, transparencies, white board, board pen, large writing pad, pencils, pens, Participants: T= tutor (teacher/researcher) J= student (Jarvis) T This student is having problems understanding the different chemical reactions and need to understand chemical reactions as expressed in equations. I think we missed synthesis reactions, which are simple; we put things together, and decomposition is when you take them apart. Okay. Replacement is when one atom is replaced by another atom. That’s all it is. You have a—ah, I am trying not to do double replacement—AB+CDÆ AD+BC, but that also can be double replacement. Do you see what I did? J Uh, huh. T Okay, this went with this and this went with this, but it still can be double replacement. AB+CDÆ AD+BC Its just replacement. It’s when one atom replaces another. Ah...and you have examples that are given. This right here. Ah...let me show you how they got this. You have three, this count everything that’s written in here, the parenthesis. Okay. You have three nitrogen, but three times four is what? J Twelve T Twelve hydrogen times two, so we have six nitrogen plus twenty-four hydrogen, right? You see that, or you can say, two times four equals eight times three equals twenty-four. J Okay. T Okay, what do you have over there? You have twenty-four hydrogen, right, what do you have on your paper?

221 J twenty-four hydrogen, six nitrogen T Okay, hold it. You have one carbon times three, right? J Uh, huh. T So you have three carbons total and you have three times three equals nine oxygen. J Uh, huh. T Okay, for this you have three magnesium, you have six chlorines, one sodium and one bromide. Is that right? What about this? J I have two hydrogen, two chlorides. T Okay, but it yields two hydrogen, chlorine-two, that’s what it yields. Okay, you know this, right? J Uh, huh. T Synthesis again is just when you put one atom with another atom for form a substance. Decomposition is when you take a substance and break it down to its basis components, being the atoms that make up that molecule. Replacement reaction is when atoms replace one another or each other in a reaction in a given chemical reaction. It can occur in a simple replacement or double replacement. I think you have an example of single because I put single when we were talking about sodium plus hydrogen yields, you only have one replacement to occur, plus sodium, and your replacement was this right here on to here to form that acid plus sodium. This is plus charged, this is minus charged. Double replacement again is when there is a double replacement occurred from here to here and a replacement occurred from here to here, but they are both replacement reaction, and this is a single replacement. J Okay. T Are you sure? J Yes. T Reverse reactions again are those reactions that are reversible. In the body what we are talking about is maintaining equilibrium. In the body’s fluid you have a lot of reactions to occur. Sometimes they occur in a split second and reverse. That happens in the body quite a bit. You might have something in your book.... uh; let me see what you have on that. If a double reaction does not go to completion, no participate, gas, or molecule species is form, which means that a new substance is not formed then the reaction is

222 reversed. Okay, no ion has been removed, they are at equilibrium, and of course, they have forward and reverse reactions taking place. This occurs often in the body. This is one barium chloride is a liquid plus sodium oxide; it’s in a liquid. Formation of a participant, all this is formation...this means that this reaction could form in a liquid environment and you are going to have a solid to form. Then there are lots of reactions, probable all of these reactions, there is potassium sulfate, magnesium chloride, titanium nitrate, they are all solid materials. Formation of a gas also can occur. Actually when you break down water it forms into two gases, water forms into hydrogen gas plus oxygen gas. J How do you get two hydrogen? T Because I put two molecules in water in order to make this gas, oxygen gas. Okay. In order for an equation to be balanced, they should contain the same number of atoms on each side of the yield sign. You have four hydrogen, four hydrogen, you have two oxygen, two oxygen. Okay. That’s a balanced equation. This is what this is all about, balancing equations. Same thing for here: you have one sodium, one sodium, one chloride, and one chloride. One hydrogen, one hydrogen, but their combination is different because you have had a replacement to occur. So they are different. Uh...reversible reactions ... this can be one. Oxygen is always going into reactions with a lot of things within the body for form various compounds, and a lot of time they are broken down. The most common material that is broken down usually is, I guess, hemoglobin. You know what that is? J No. T Hemoglobin is a protein molecule that is attached to the red blood cells but forms a chemical reaction with oxygen in order to carry oxygen throughout the body. Okay. Hemoglobin, at one point of the hemoglobin, you are going to have oxygen `attached to it. At another point on the hemoglobin there is an attachment for carbon dioxide. This red blood cell carries oxygen to the body organs. It can attach carbon dioxide, which is waste, and bring it from the body organs to the lungs so that we can exhale it out. In other words, when we look at this reaction we are looking at hemoglobin that joins with oxygen and what it does to carry it to the body by way of the blood. It carries it in the form of oxy-hemoglobin. Now once oxy-hemoglobin gets to the cells, where the oxygen

223 is being transported to, it will release the oxygen, the hemoglobin stays on the blood cell. The purpose of oxygen is to carry on cellular respiration, which it does by going to the cells and help by forming the energy that is needed (ATP). All of this involves nothing but synthesis, decomposition, and more synthesis and decomposition, and usually it occurs reversed. Okay. The food that you eat goes to the cells. The food that you eat contains carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the source by which your body makes energy. Are you with me? J Yes. T. Okay. Now the energy that your body need is what? J ATP T Okay. So this glucose will combine with this right here, oxygen, and it needs to be balanced, to form six carbon dioxides plus ATP plus six waters. Let’s see if it’s balanced. There are twelve carbon dioxides, twelve oxygen, twelve hydrogen and six more oxygen. In cellular respiration, it takes glucose molecules combined with oxygen...

224 Tutoring Sessions 2 June 6, 2006 (12 noon) Kollege Kampus’s Student Jarvis Tutoring on Balancing Chemical Equations Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen, Roundtable Instructional Supplies and equipments: Audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, chemistry textbook, white board, markers, large writing pad, pencils, pens, and transparencies. Participants: T= tutor (teacher/researcher) J= student (Jarvis) T Today is June 6, and I am here with Jarvis and he has a problem with balancing equations. This session will be on balancing chemical equations. Primarily Jarvis, what we are looking at is making sure that the number of atoms on one side of the equation is the same number on the other side of the equation. There is a rule that matter is never created or destroyed, so are you familiar with this? J Yes. T Okay. Say if we have, say for example, hydrogen plus oxygen, in order to create water,

O2 is oxygen, and then of course, this simple means that a chemical reaction has occurred on this side. This will give two waters. I am sorry you did not bring your book, your chemistry book, but I do have books out there where we can look and get more complex reactions. Were there any reactions you had any problems with? And in the meantime, while you are picking I will go get additional chemistry books. Is there any reaction in particular? J Like for this equation that means it four hydrogen, right? That’s what I don’t understand.

T Okay. I need to put this right here. Oh...hydrogen, o.k. take gases, H2 is a gas plus O2 is a gas to form water. Yields hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, but always two, see. Hydrogen two indicates that there are two hydrogen atoms needed for one oxygen atom in order to form water. So you have two atoms here, then you need four atoms here. J Okay. T To form water. Is that clear? J Uh, huh.

225 T This should not be here. This should not be here. Hydrogen gas plus oxygen will yield water. J Okay. T This one, two hydrogen; hydrogen two, one oxygen; four hydrogen, two oxygen; and, four hydrogen, two oxygen. Okay. Here you have four hydrogen, but you also have... J Two oxygen. T Yes, but it’s still wrong. You see you have two oxygen here, that’s right, okay, you have two waters. So, let’s mark out this, and this is not to say its’ wrong but whether not we can find in here and come up with any kind of more complicated ...you are on the 10th grade level, you were dealing with what acids? J Yes, acids.

T H2SO4? Okay. So you are dealing with acid-base balancing? J Uh, huh.

T This is acid-base reaction. In other words it has H2SO4 + KCHO2 > K2SO4 + HCHO2. So we are talking about potassium formate, which is KCHO that goes into reactions with an acid, uh...and of course, what they did was to give a reaction that was not balanced here and they want you to balance it. J Uh, huh.

T So we have H2SO4 plus we have 2K here, right, that’s potassium, and you have how many C’s, uh...one and one, okay, KCH, okay, you have, this is oxygen, you have two hydrogen right here, no you have two oxygen right here, but you have one hydrogen, o.k.

HCHO2, HCHO2, o.k. and you have K2, so two K and you have SO4, H2, and H and you

have another hydrogen, okay. So HCHO2, HCHO2 yields 2HCHO2. So we add a 2 here because of the number of H over here, so you have 2 here and 3 total and over here you only had 2 so you will have to put 2 H to equal that out. Okay. This is more complicated. Do you understand this? J A little bit. T Okay. I need to go an easier one. Okay. All this is saying is that the same numbers of atoms that is on the left side of the yield sign should equal the same number of atoms on the right side of the yield sign (cough). Simple because matter can not be created or can matter be destroyed. It can be re-arranged but it cannot be created and it cannot be

226 destroyed. Let’s go to a simpler one. What about sodium? This is simple Na + S Æ what? J NaS right? T NaS, uh. Okay, in order, in order to determine how many to put, remember the equations that we did, the atom, the structure of the atom? J Uh, huh. T Okay, for sodium the atomic number is what? J Eleven. T The atomic number is eleven. J Yes. T The atomic mass is what? J Twenty-two point nine, nine. T Okay. We will just say twenty-three. J Twenty-three. T Twenty-three, so the atomic number tells you how many, tell you what? This is the nucleus remember. J The atomic number tells you the number of protons.... T Protons, positively charged protons, eleven. The atomic mass, which is twenty-three, tells you the number of protons and neutrons. J I though you subtract. T you do, neutrons in it minus the protons, so we are talking about twelve right? Okay. the number of electrons... J Is the same as protons. T is the same as the protons. On the “K” shell you have two. J “L” shell you have eight. T On the “L” shell you have eight; and on the outermost shell, because there is only ten, there is one. J One. T Okay. Now, what about sulfur? J Sulfur has sixteen protons, sixteen electrons. T What is the atomic mass?

227 J Thirty-two. T Protons, you said sixteen, neutrons? J Sixteen. T Sixteen, on the “K” shell, two electrons, on the “L” shell, eight electrons, you should be doing this. Okay. do we need another energy level? J Yes. T Okay. One the outer most energy level, okay, what is the maximum number that can go on this level? J On the first, two. T On the third one. J On the third, eighteen. T Okay, but what number creates stability? J Two, right? T Eight, so you only have six here and there’s room for two more. Again when we are looking at sodium, plus, let me say this, on this outer ring, there’s only one electron in sodium, but this can accept two electrons, right? J Uh, huh. T So, sodium plus sulfur yields, there has to be two sodium. We can put sodium here, and we can put a sodium here, right to create that compound. Are you with me? J Uh, huh. T Okay. So two sodium plus sulfur yields what? J Uh, two sodium sulfur T Sodium two sulfur. J Oh yes. T Does that make sense? J Yes it does. T Sodium two sulfur. So this is how you determine how many you put in the various compounds, but remembers, when you balance it then the same number of sodium, two sodium, two sodium sulfur, sulfur, the same number of atoms on the right hand side of the yield sign should be on the left hand side of the yield sign. You have to determine

228 through the structures. Okay. One of the things you have a problem with was the charges. Are you clear on those charges now? J Uh huh, I am clear on the charges. T Sodium again is what? J Oh what? T The atomic number. J Eleven. T Eleven and twenty-three, right? On the “K” shell two electrons, on the “L” shell, eight electrons, outermost shell, one electron. Chlorine, the atomic number? J Seventeen and the atomic mass thirty-five point four five seven. T Protons, seventeen, electrons, eighteen, two electrons, eight electrons, and then eight more or do I need eight? J Seven more. T So this has a space, because eight forms stability for one. J Uh. T This only has one in the outer most shell, so in a chemical reaction between sodium plus chlorine you have what we call ionic bonding, remember what that was, ionic bonding? J Uh, huh. T To occur. Ionic bonding is the transfer of this one lonely electron from the outer shell of sodium to the outer shell of chlorine, right here. Once it loses an electron, then a charge is put on the atom. Now for sodium, it lost a negative electron, therefore the charge on this atom is a positive one. J So if it loses, it really gains. T If it loses, then the positive charges are more that the negative charges. J Got you. T Okay. if it gains an electron, then the negative charges are more than the positive charges, so the negative charges are in charge, negative one. So what we have is sodium plus chlorine yield sodium chloride, and this is table salt. This is a gas, this is a gas, but this is a solid. J Okay.

229 T And it has a charge on it. That’s why you can put this in water and acid and it can generate electricity, did you know that? J Uh, no. T Yeah, you can put it in water and acid, has a bulb and everything you need and put it in there... J Yes we did that lab. We did do that. T Okay. That’s because it has charges. This is making more sense now that you are not under pressure. J Yes. T Okay. let’s try another one. This one is fraction; I don’t want to go into fractions. See if there’s any in that book that you can uh...uh J What am I looking for? T Let’s try calcium carbonate, are you familiar with that equation? J Uh. T Plus hydrochloric acid. Are you familiar with this? J A little bit. T By the way, these are called reactants because these are the two that will go into chemical reaction with each other to form a new substance over here. These are reactants. J These are products, right? T These are products, right. Okay. uh, this usually is a solid right here and this is an acid which is a liquid. If you pour hydrochloric acid over calcium carbonate, it going to produce a, I don’t know if you did this, you will see I won’t say a smoke but something coming up which is carbon dioxide. J No, I know we did a lab with hydrochloric acid. T Okay, but you didn’t pour it over calcium carbonate? J Uh, huh. T Okay. Uh, plus water. So this got to be balanced. Okay. Calcium okay. chloride two, so two should be two hydrochloric acids, oh, here’s another carbon, two hydrochloric acids, so we have one, two, three, one, two, great. Okay, how many oxygen? J Three. T Its three oxygen, two hydrogen, and one sulfur.

230 J Two hydrogen? T Two hydrogen. J Uh, huh. T The same number of atoms on the left hand side of the yield sign should equal the same number of atoms on the right hand side. Okay, okay. We will go through all of the different kinds of reactions. Do you remember them? You remember synthesis? remember those? J Yes. T That’s the putting together A + B Æ AB. Decomposition? J That breaking it down. T ABÆA + B. Replacement? I don’t know if this is the term that is in your book. Replacement, you can have AB + CDÆ AC + BD. J plus BD. T Okay. you got that and reverse. Reverse reaction is when a chemical reaction occurs then of course when it does simply reverse itself immediately, and this is indicated with a small arrow in the reverse direction. When we get to cellular respiration, we will do synthesis, decomposition, replacement, and reverse chemical reactions. It will make sense when I go through it. It will make sense to you. Okay. J Okay. T Because all of this occurs in the body. Okay. Do you think you can balance equations or should I do a few more? J I can try one. T Okay. Let me just do one or two more and then I can write some out to make sure you understand how to balance them. Let me try aluminum. Do you know most of the symbols? J Yes. T Okay, that’s good. J I know the top ones. T You have to know more than the top.

231 J I am working on the ones at the bottom. T Aluminum is Al, plus oxygen. I should have given you this one. Ah, the co-efficient of oxygen is three, is three to the ...did you all have co-efficiencies? J Yes, Uh, huh. T You did. The coefficience of oxygen is three-halves. J No. T Then I won’t go into that. But its three-halves. When you get that co-efficiency in order to know what to put here, you multiply three-half times two, equals actually six over two which equals three. You see you got to know what the co-efficiency of a give atom is. So this comes out to be aluminum plus three oxygen yields. You can do it this way or the other way I showed you. Okay. This comes out to be aluminum oxide. What about iron,

Fe plus O2?

J FeO2. T Iron oxide. Was that dog barking at your earlier? J Yes. T Did you work with, I mean did you talk about mercury? J Yes. T Mercury is dangerous. J We talked about it but we didn’t do anything with it. T I had a student in my class that was exposed to mercury, he ended up dying. Don’t ever... J Where do you get exposed to it? They have it in a thermometer? T Yes, but if it breaks, immediately get rid of it, tries not to touch it. But now they have thermometers now that you don’t have to use mercury so try to get one of those. I think what I will do is to see if you can balance some equations. I will get a small pad for you to work. Now let me see...these are so confusing. These directions show that the same number of atoms on one side of the yield sign is the same number on the other, and they are the same atoms. Carbon 12, hydrogen 14, hydrogen 28. How do you get hydrogen 28? You put a 2 here.

232 Tutoring Session 3 June 6, 2006 (12 noon) Kollege Kampus’s Student Jarvis Tutoring on the Lewis-Dot Diagram Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen, Roundtable Instructional Supplies and equipments: Audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, chemistry textbook, white board, markers, large writing pad, pencils, pens, and transparencies. Participants: T= tutor (teacher/researcher) J= student (Jarvis) T This session is on the Lewis-Dot diagram. When I was in school, we called it the electron-dot configuration. So we goner look at the atoms and look at where to put the dots in reference to the diagram. First you must know again the structure of the atom. Ah, let’s take one, one of the easier ones. Let’s take hydrogen, a very easy one. Hydrogen has an atomic number of one, the atomic mass of one. In the nucleus you have one proton; on the energy levels you only have one electron, so a dot diagram of hydrogen would be as such: H. Which illustrate one electron on the outermost shell. This is what you did? J Uh, huh. T Okay. let’s take a more complex one. Ah...Say calcium, Ca. what’s the atomic number? J Twenty. T That’s big, o.k. we will go with it. What’s the atomic mass? J Forty. T Forty, okay. Protons, twenty, neutrons, and twenty, on the “K” shell, you have two electrons, on the “L” shell, eight electrons, and we can just put the number eight. Okay. That’s ten. On the “M” shell we have up to how many? J Eighteen. T Eighteen, we will go on and put eight, therefore on this one we can put two. J You don’t need eighteen, it’s only twenty, right? T The number of protons, so its two, ten, so we need eight. J No, we need ten more.

233 T So you got eight and then you have two, right? J It will be ten on the third. T No, we will put eight for stability and then two. So with calcium...okay. we will find....we will look for that one right here, but it should be two. Calcium can accept (cough) two atoms. Again, eight for stability, for stability therefore you have two more left over, two on the outermost shell. We will look at this one, okay? T Okay. let’s take chlorine, no we did sodium, and we did chlorine, what about carbon? What is carbon? J Twelve, right? T Six and twelve. J Yes, uh, uh. T Protons six, neutron six, and one, two, three, four. So carbon, this means it has four electrons. dots. J So whatever is on the outer, that’s what you put? T Yes, but this also means that it can take on four other electrons. Okay, let me show you how. We can do hydrogen that has only one electron, right. We can add hydrogen here, hydrogen here, and hydrogen here, and hydrogen here, four hydrogen for that compound of methane. J Okay. T Let’s do chlorine, Cl. Okay, this was what, seventeen, the atomic number? J Uh, huh. T Seventeen, protons, seventeen, neutrons, eighteen. Okay. Two electrons here, eight elections here, right? J Uh. T Protons, seventeen, the atomic number… J. …and the electrons, what are the electrons? T Yes, should be the same as protons… J Oh, all right. T So you have two here, and you have eight here, so you have seven here, and you have a deficiency of one here J Uh, huh.

234 T So chlorine… J But look that is one, how come this one is two? T Because it’s two in the outermost shell. J Uh. T It’s two in the outermost shell. J But I thought you weren’t there. T It’s only six here, so it’s two left. J Okay. T It’s seven here, so it’s one left. J What I am trying to figure out is why it only two left. T Calcium has more than one configuration. In this instance we are talking about the Electron-Dot diagram, we are talking about what we can join in order to form a given compound. J Well I went past twenty like… T Ten, eight… J Eighteen on the third one. See that’s what confuses me. T …eight, okay, on the third …… J Can it go up to eighteen? T Look up, see if calcium is in there. J What you mean? T See if calcium is described in there. Because in this instance, we are trying to, uh, that’s why you should have bought your book. J I turned them in. T Oh, you turned them in? T In these books, the Lewis Dot formula will `not be shown. I will look for Electron-Dot formula.

235 Tutoring Session 4 June 6, 2006 (4:00p.m.) Jarvis, a Kollege Kampus student, receiving tutoring on the respiratory and circulatory systems in order to better understand the chemistry of cellular respiration. Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen (roundtable) Instructional Supplies and equipment: audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, anatomy and physiology, chemistry text book, transparencies, white board, board marker, large drawing pad, small writing pad, pens, pencils. Participants: T= tutor (teacher/researcher) J= (student/Jarvis) T This session has to do with the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system in order for Jarvis to understand cellular respiratory. Because you are goner have to know from the very beginning what happens to those molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and of course what reactions occur in references to cellular respiration in the mitochondria. Now to begin with the systems, we are talking about air from the atmosphere entering the nasal cavity, so it enters the nose, really it goes across the hard pallet, right down this way across the soft pallet and of course into the epiglottis that opens up and expose the glottis, and into the trachea, that is cartilage and into the right and left lungs. We will talk about where it goes once it gets to right and left lungs. Ah...this is the anatomy of the nasal. You see that most of it is cartilage. You do have a bone, that’s very small, you can see it from here to here and you can actually feel it. J Uh, huh. T Okay, that’s your bone, but all of this is cartilage. All of this cartilage is called septal cartilage, but all you have, the lesser alar cartilage and the greater alar cartilage, you can see where they are located and it is held together by dense connected tissue. It was with LaToya that I went over the tissues. Once you get into biology, you don’t need to know all of this anatomy but once you gets into biology you will learn quite a bit of anatomy. Ah, this is how the epiglottis looks. The epiglottis is simply a flap-like structure and what it does is that tit closes over the glottis whenever you eat food and make the food go down the esophagus but it opens up whenever you breathe so that the air can go to the

236 right and left lungs. Okay. this is how it looks, this is that flap-like structure here, it simply closes, but when it opens up, these are your vocal cords right here, and down in here is the trachea, that’s the cartilage you saw on the other transparences. And of course you have different kinds of cartilages because even this is cartilage. The air goes through the opening of the cartilage and these again are your vocal cords. That’s how they look. They are responsible for your hearing me right now. You have true vocal cords and you have false vocal cords. Once the air enters into the trachea, right here, then you can see that the cartilage branches to the right and left lungs. So that’s the path of air, and remember, we are talking about air entering the lungs so that out of that air the body can isolate oxygen atoms to cross into the blood out of the lungs. Okay, this is in the lung, these are cells, but on the opposite side well, you can see the blood vessels, see how they line those cells... J Uh, huh. T …but only oxygen, the air that’s in here, only oxygen can get across the membrane where the blood is. The blood then takes it to different parts of your body. Okay, all of this collects any kind of foreign substances that might enter into, these are cilia that collect dust or what ever is harmful to the body. Okay. this is truly how those vessels look, like this, this is the trachea and this is the right and left lungs, and these are the blood vessels, but it covered by this. See it in there, okay, the lungs have lobes. On the right side you have three lobes, one, two, and three. Superior lobe, middle lobe, inferior lobe. On the left hand side, you have the inferior lobe and the superior lobe. Also this end of the lung is called the apex. I don’t think you need to know all of this. This is called the base, and it’s at the base of the lungs where the heart sits. The heart sits right in there. But the reason I am going over this is to show you the path of air into the lungs. The air gets into the lungs, and we do this by inhaling, to get it into the lungs. Then once it gets into the lungs, these are called alveolus here, only oxygen passes out of the air into the blood. Only oxygen, because oxygen is that molecule, I think I mentioned this before, that attaches to the hemoglobin, right here, oxygen out of the lungs, see all these blood vessels? J Uh, huh.

237 T Okay, only oxygen goes across the membrane of the lungs and the blood vessels and gets into the blood. Once it gets into the blood then it become attached to the hemoglobin molecule that is attached to the red blood cells, these are red bleed cells, these are red lungs by way of the alveolar, you can see that vessel cluster around the alveolar and this is where it picks up a load of oxygen. I don’t think you should be concerned about how much oxygen. The only thing that this is telling you is that 760 mm of pressure is usually required for the oxygen to go across the membrane from the lungs into the blood vessels. This pressure is necessary to get the aid into the lungs. During inhalation and exhalation when you inhale and when you exhale, the pressure changes. The change causes air to go into the lungs due to the contracting the diaphragm creating room for the lungs to expand to allow the air to enter the lungs. Pressure changes also cause the diaphragm to relax placing pressure on the lungs pushing air out of the lungs into the atmosphere. And it is air, a combination of gases, not only oxygen. At this time you would have gotten rid of a load of oxygen to your body and the red blood cells. Are you with me? J Yes. T Okay now, what is important is, once that oxygen gets into the body, where it goes. When it gets into the body and gets into your system, it is classified as oxygenated blood. Oxygenated blood is very red. When blood has lots of carbon dioxide in it the color is bluish. The vessels that you see are veins and these veins you have blueish blood because it is loaded with carbon dioxide. These are arteries, bright red blood, containing oxygenated blood. So arteries will carry blood to the various organs, and veins will bring carbon dioxide from the various organs with the exception of one case. But it is what happened between the dumping of oxygen at the cell and the collection of carbon dioxide that is very important, because this is where cellular respiration occurs. So we will get into all of the chemistry because once oxygen is transported to the organs and cells of your body, there is really a lot of chemical activities in order to produce the carbon dioxide which is returned to the lungs as waste, so that it can be exhaled. Okay, so cellular respiration lies between the bringing of oxygen to the cells and the taking away of carbon dioxide from the cells. This is the chemistry we are going to get into. This is why I wanted to go through this first, so you will have the whole picture of what we are talking about. In other words, this is a normal flow here, these are conditions, this is

238 pneumonia, this is emphysema right here, ah, this shows you how those vessels, and these vessels are arteries, surrounds the arteries so that oxygen can come out of here and again get into the blood, and it is carried to the many organs of the body. I just wanted to get you to the cellular respiration so we can talk about when it happens and introduce to you what molecules that are taken to the cells to make it happen. This tells you about what nerve is important to make the heart pump in order to make the blood go through the body. And of course, you can see these arteries, they are very important. This is your lungs, this is a person who smokes, and this person died from smoking here. J Uh, it’s bad. T People don’t realize how bad smoking is even for people who are in the midst of smoking, it just pretty bad. Okay, I don’t know if you were introduced to any of the laws in chemistry, such as Boyd’s law... J Uh, huh. We did all of these. T Okay. all of these laws apply to respiration. To review, Boyle’s law states that the pressure of gas is proportion to its volume assuming the temperature remains the same. The pressure of gas is equal to the volume assuming everything remains constant. And as we go through some of this stuff, I will say this is Boyle’s law, this is Charles’ law. Charles’ law states that the volume of a given quality of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, again, assuming that the pressure is constant. The total pressure of a gas mixture, this is air, is equal to the sums of the partial pressures of its individual gases. In other words, when gases are mixed, hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, nitrogen gas, all of these gases are mixed, the pressure of each one of the individual gases remains the same and this is why even on television they don’t say the individual pressure of individual gases, they say the relative pressure is...right? J In the broadcast. T Okay, Henry’s law states that at the aid/water interface, the amount of gas that dissolves in water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in the air, again assuming that the constant, that the temperature is constant. Okay, we will come back to these. Did you understand these when you went through them? J Uh, huh. T Okay, this is about volume, does that sound true to you?

239 J Uh, huh. T Okay, just since it makes sense to you. Again cellular respiration occurs between the deposit of oxygen molecules on the cell or to the cells and the release of carbon dioxide from the cells. We are going to talk about what actually happens in cellular respiration. Of all of these things you sort of looked at so these are...

240 Tutoring Session 5 June 6, 2006 (4:00p.m.) Jarvis, a Kollege Kampus’ student, receiving tutoring in order to better understand metabolism

and the chemistry of cellular respiration (C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 36ADP) →6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP). Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen, (roundtable) Instructional Supplies and equipment: audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, chemistry text book, transparencies, white board, board marker, large drawing pad, small writing pad, pens, pencils. Participants: T= (Tutor/Researcher), J= (Student/Jarvis) T We need to first clarify the term metabolism. Metabolism has to do with how food is broken down in the body, in your body, and used by your body. The food group that is normally present in food that we eat is proteins, right? J Uh, right. T Then we have lipids, you know what lipids are, fats. J Yes. T These are fats, and then you have carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose. But you also have minerals, vitamins, and others too. However, these three are the main ones for metabolism. Proteins are broken down to amino acids. Are you familiar with that word? J Yes. T O.k., they are digested down to peptides, p-e-p-t-i-d-e-s-. Lipids are acted upon and broken down too, mostly to fatty acids. Carbohydrates are broken down to the end product, I will put glucose. Okay. are you familiar with this? J Yes. T Okay. Amylase, and lipase are the enzymes that do all of this. Lipase works on lipids, amylase digests carbohydrates. This is, once you have eaten. This is the food that you eat. Amino acids are used in the body’s repair of body tissues. If you tear your skin, scratch your skin, it repairs itself because of the proteins. Lipids are secondary sources of energy. Lipid can be converted in the production of ATP too. If the body does not have

241 enough carbohydrates, the body can convert lipids to glucose. This is the molecule that goes through cellular respiration to produce ATP. This is your main source of energy. We are talking about ATP. ATP, adenosine tri-phosphate is composed of adenosine plus three phosphate, plus bases that are bonded together. The last phosphate containing the

high energy in its bond. This is the chemical formula here, C6H12O6 + 6O2 →6CO2 +

6H2O + 36ATP. The ATP bonds are high energy, meaning that the bonds have energy in them. In order to retrieve the energy, the third bond has to be broken. This converts the ATP molecule to ADP, which is adenosine di-phosphate, used energy. Used energy is a way for you to remember “di” which is two. and “tri” means three referring to the phosphate groups. "Tri" is your usable source of energy; "di" is your molecule that needs replenishing. This energy goes through the process of cellular respiration to be restored back to ATP. How it happens; the first process allows glucose to go through glycolysis. Glycolysis involves ten steps; you see here, glucose molecule is converted to glucose 6- phosphate, which is converted to fructose 6-phosphate, which is converted to fructose 1- diphosphate. The double arrow is an indication of a possible reversible reaction, but normally it continues until it becomes two molecules of pyruvic acids. Glucose undergoes ten chemical reactions to become two molecules of pyruvic acid. O.k., pyruvic acid has to undergo a chemical change to become acetic Co-A to enter the mitochondria and the Krebs or Calvin cycle. All reactions occur in the cytoplasm. Once it enters the Krebs cycle, each one of the molecules under goes ten reactions, producing different acids and carbon dioxide is also given off as a by product. Electrons are collected and taken to an electron chain, every thing is chemistry. The electron chain occurs in another part of the mitochondria, allowing the electron to react with NAD, an enzyme to transport the electron to the bonding site of the phosphate in forming ATP. The hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water, a by-product, and carbon dioxide as a waste product. All of the waste products will get into the veins to either attach to hemoglobin on the red blood cell or chemically become bicarbonate by bonding with water for the travel to the lungs to be exhaled. I think before you go back to school you need to watch the film on cellular respiration. J I need to learn all those steps too.

242 T Yes sir, you do, the summers is a good time to really just stay into what you have learned and learn some more because I have you a little more advanced and I want to keep you there. T To review, o.k., each of these nutrients will undergo metabolism. What we looked at was the metabolism of carbohydrates. So, you eat bread, you eat starch and eat sugar and it is broken down to a simple sugar. The simple sugar will be absorbed out of the small intestines into the blood stream. The blood stream will take it to the various parts of your body. The blood around those of the different parts should have a good supply of insulin there so the simple sugar can enter into the cells. Once glucose gets inside the cell, it undergoes glycolysis, remember the ten chemical equations that converts glucose to pyloric acid which is then converted to acetic Co-A, which enters the Krebs cycle which undergoes ten, some texts give nine, more chemical reactions producing electrons and hydrogen ions, and a waste of carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide and water goes into the blood and can react with each other to form bicarbonate, which travels in the blood back to the lungs. But once it gets to the lungs, it reverses back to carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide can attach to the hemoglobin molecule to be transported to the lungs. Once at the lungs it reverses back to water and carbon dioxide, which goes through the respiratory membrane into the air in the lungs for exhaling. The water usually remains in the body. Does that make sense? J Now it does. T We need to do this again? J Uh. T Do we need to do this one again? J Yes. T Okay, it’s a lot of chemistry in it, especially glycolysis, especially this because these are chemical equations here, and I don’t think they are going to require you to learn them until you get on college level. Now my students had to learn them. These also are chemical equations, but you can see with pyloric, even when it is converted to an acid, it gives off lots of carbon dioxide, in fact three molecule of carbon dioxide from one pyloric acid and it too has to leave the body. Do you understand it? J I get the concept; I just have to learn it.

243 T You got to go back over it and you got to learn it. J Yes. T And we are going to go back over it, but next time I will go over it I am going to let you view a film first. What the film does is actually show you these molecules going into the cell; it actually shows you the chemical reactions. When ATP, when that high energy molecule, high energy bond is formed to put back on the high energy bond for the attachment of. The film shows a big explosion, which indicate energy; it’s worth looking at. Okay, any questions? J Nope. T Okay, later on, we are going to trace your proteins; we are going to trace your lipids in the body. Okay, and you will be ready for college level biology. You will be ready for it. I think that this might be the hardest area right here. This and also fluid and electrolyte balance. I want to review that with you too because, right here, what did I say, you are a walking warehouse of chemical reactions, right? Right here, this happens in your fluids. You have water, right here, fluid and electrolyte balance, ah, you have water, you have spinal fluid, you have eye fluid, you have two eye fluids, you have fluid in the ear, you have fluid every where. And each one has a different concentration of ions. You might have sodium ions, ah; this one has lots of sodium in it. Nominally, you might have any other kind of ion. See with this you have chlorine, you have sodium, bicarbonates, and this is blood plasma. Interstitutial fluids chemicals are your sodium, your bicarbonates, but see its different amounts, different concentrations, cell fluid, and lots of proteins in cell fluid, sulfate, phosphate, chlorine, and bicarbonates. I want to have you, once you look at a chemical formula like this you will know what it means. We will work on this during the summer. This along with cellular respiration might be your two difficult areas, and I will try to explain it more so you can understand it. Any questions? J Nope T So you know you have a long way to go? J Right.

244 LATOYA’S TRANSCRIPTION OF TAPES

Tutoring Sessions 1 April 10, 2006 (12 noon) Kollege Kampus’s Student LaToya’s tutoring on Tissues Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen, Roundtable Instructional Supplies and equipments: Audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, anatomy and physiology textbook, white board, and transparencies. Participants: T= (Tutor/ Researcher) L= (Student/ LaToya) T This session is on tissues and the four main ones are epithelium tissues, connective tissues, nervous tissues, and muscle tissues. Tissues are defined as groups of cells that perform the same function. Okay, on the first page there are group of cells that are common in embryonic origin. They function together to do the same performance, and of course, they have specialized activities. Epithelium cells are composed mainly of densely compact cells that mean they are real close to one another. L Okay. T Usually they cover organs, they cover the surface of your body, this epithelial again, they cover organs, and they form glands... L Yes. T ...and we do have some glandular epithelial that you can look at, and also it serves for protection, secretion and absorption. Once you look at the skin, it gives protection, and also secretes. L Right. T And of course absorption. Another kind of tissue is connective tissue. Ah, this is tissue that binds and holds things together. They connect one layer to another. L Right. T For example, under the epithelial tissue you have connective tissue that will attach it to the underlying muscle. Okay, and the name actually describe what it does. L Right.

245 T Here we have tendons, we have ligaments, cartilages, and also bone. The blood is connective tissue. By the way, blood is the only liquid tissue that you have in your body. L Blood is tissue? T Yes. Then of course you have nervous tissue. This tissue specializes in the transmission of information from other cells, and also from your external environment… L Okay. T …and you have muscular tissue specializing in contraction, and provide movements, its tissue composed of elongated, excitable cells, specialized for contraction. We are going to look at striated muscles, or skeletal muscles. We also are going to look at heart muscles. We have those on slides over there. The walls of the visceral organs are composed of smooth muscles; this is where they are located. The study of tissue is called histology. The study of tissue is called histology. The study of abnormal tissue is called pathology. L Right. T That’s disease tissue. L Right. T Okay. you have a Pathology Department in the hospital. L Right, right. T So that’s pathology. Usually a biopsy is tissue that is taken from the body, right here, for examination for disease. L Right. T Okay, again, the general types are epithelial, connective, muscles tissue and nerve tissue. L Okay. T Those are the general types. This is primary just looking at cross-sessions, I think I will go through this first and then we will come back to this because this talks about the epithelial tissues. You can see how compact these cells are, one to the other. L Right. T See how compact those cells are and even when you look, this is a simple layer here and of course this is a stratified layer. Simple means it consist of one layer of cells. Stratified means it consists of more than one layer of cells. L Right.

246 T Ah, epithelial tissue sits on a basement membrane, and that’s the basement membranes right here before it is connected to connective tissue that connects this to the underlying muscles. L Okay. T This is how it really looks, probably under the microscope. There are...These are kidneys right here, and this is how they will appear under the microscope. These are your epithelial tissue and you can see it is like this. L Right. T This is how it looks in the kidney and this right here is diseased, this is the small intestine and you can see, at this at this junction right here could be enlarged... L Right here? T Yes, but those are the intestines, and this is where the epithelial tissues are found. L Okay. T This is some of the places it is found. Again, this is simple epithelial, stratified epithelial. L Okay. T Okay, these are stratified but you also have pseudo-stratified epithelial. I don’t see columnar, but “pseudo” means false, and what this means is that it appears, because of the location of the nucleus; it appears to be more than one layer. In reality, it’s only one layer. These cells are elongated and these elongated cells are called columns, they are actually called columnar. L Okay. T Columnar epithelial, that’s because they are column shaped, and of course you can see that the nucleus are at different positions on each one of these cells, making it appear to be more than one layer. Pseudo=false. L Pseudo=false. T Okay, pseudo-epithelial. I will talk about the junctions later. L Okay. T Okay, if you go, if you go two or three pages over, this is the trachea, and it appears to be more than one layer, but again, in reality it’s only one layer. This is the artistic drawing here and this is the slide that comes out of human. So pseudo-stratified. L So this is the trachea?

247 T The what? The trachea. The trachea right here. Pseudo-stratified, and this is where it is located. This is simple squamous epithelium. Again, simple means one layer, squamous means that these cells are really close together. See if I can fine an example. We will go back over it. These are the squamous cell here. L Okay. T You can see where they are located here, look where they are located, this is the intestine. L Right. T That’s where it’s located. We have some cells that are elongated. This is how the column-shaped cells look, see they are elongated. L Right. T So, this is simple columnar epithelial, right here, and of course, in it you have a fat cell, a goblet cell, and this is where it secretes. L Oh, okay. T It secretes the oil. L Right. T It secretes that oil. These are your nuclei and right under here you have your connective tissue. L Right. T Okay, this talk about microvillus. You have these cells that are cube shaped, see the shape of this, cube. L Right. T These are called cuboidal epithelial, and when there is only one layer its simple cuboidal epithelial. L Okay. T They only have one layer here. Usually the kidney has those cubical cells in them, but we can look at the pseudo-stratified again. In it you have goblets cells; you also have basil cells at the base of the tissue. This is your connective tissue down here. This is ciliated pseudo-stratified columnar epithelial. See the cilia here, the hair-like structures? L Okay. T Again, the goblet cell, the basil cell and the cilia. L So I have a question. The basil cells will always be located at the base?

248 T Yes. L Okay. T This again is your trachea, this is a mucosa. Uh, stratified epithelia, which it means that there is more than one layer, that’s all it means. Simple, one layer; stratified, more than one layers. L Okay. T Simple, one layer, stratified more than one layer. You know the foot; you know how thick the skin is? L Right. T Okay, this is the vagina, this is the mucus layer in the vagina, and it is composed of stratified epithelial tissue. Usually anything that has any connection to the atmosphere is covered with epithelial tissue, in your mouth, epithelial tissue, in your nose, epithelial tissue because it is communicating with the... L Air. T ...with the atmosphere. This is stratifies cuboidal epithelial, cube-shaped. L Right. T See those cell, they are cube-shaped. L Right. T So cube shaped, and this is the placenta here. L Right. T And the ovaries. L The ovaries. T This is where they are located. This should be in your book, are they? L Uh, huh, some of them, it looks familiar. T Again, stratified epithelia, keratin simply means.... L Are you talking about this? T Yes. L Okay. T It has a lot of keratin in it, so it is keratinized. This is dead squamous tissue. Living cells, and this means that your skin on the outside is dead. This is dead. You are looking at dead skin right here.

249 L Okay. T But right under it you have living cells. L Okay. T This is keratinized because it has a lot of keratin in it. L Okay, what is that? T Keratin is a protein that gives a lot of protection. L Okay. T It waterproofs the skin. L Okay, now I understand. T Okay, now this is stratified squamous epithelia non-keratinized epithelial tissue. L Okay. T That’s the vagina. Again, stratified cuboidal epithelial, again you are looking at the ovaries. L Okay. T This is transitional epithelium, which means that this can transcend into any kind of epithelial tissue your body needs. L Okay. T Under it, this has to do with the cord. Usually in the cord, and this is why they are collecting it now at birth. L Cord blood. T Right, that’s what it is. These cells can transcend into any kinds of tissue and that why... L Okay, okay. T See where they are? L Yes mums. T Oh, this is where the tendons are. Right in the feet, those are tendons. Tendons are connected to...

250 Tutoring Session 2 April 10, 2006 (2p.m.) Kollege Kampus’s Student LaToya’s continued tutoring on Tissues Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen, Roundtable Instructional Supplies and equipments: Audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, anatomy and physiology textbook, white board, and transparencies. Taped the session: T= (Tutor/Researcher) L= (Student/LaToya) T Now the general types of epithelial tissues are okay, let’s talk about types, and function as covering again. When we look at the epidermis, that’s made of epithelial cells. L Right. T ... and when I look at you, you look at me; you are looking at the epidermis... L Right. T ...so it covers... L Okay. T ...epithelia covers... L Right. T ...epithelia linings. L Like the walls? T ...ears, nose, and the mouth..... L Right. T ...anything that’s open to the atmosphere, it lines. Of course, the glands are made of epithelial. L Okay. T Okay. it consists of closely packed cells that can be single, or multi-layered. L Okay. T They have surfaces with basil always at the bottom. L Right. T They have cell junctions. We just went through this. Epithelial tissues do not have vessels.

251 L Okay. T There are no veins or arteries in epithelial, so they are avascular. There are no vessels in epithelial tissues. L Okay. T Always lies on a basement membrane. L Okay. T Epithelial tissues are highly mitotic. This means that they reproduce rapidly... L Okay. T ...by mitosis. L Oh, okay. T In other words, when you cut yourself, it you just leave it alone... L ...it will heal. Okay. T They are diverse, which means that they have many different embryonic origins. They originate from the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the ectoderm layers. Now are you familiar with those? L I saw the mesoderm layer. T The mesoderm layer? L Yes. T Okay. The ectoderm layer is the outermost layer. The mesoderm is between the ectoderm and the endoderm. L Okay, okay. T Now these are all of the functions: give protection, it filters, secretes, digests, absorption, transports, excretes, sensation, and reproduction. All of these are functions of the epithelial tissues. L Okay, this breaks it down real good. T Uh... L I said, this breaks it down real good. T Uh, huh. You have specific types, and these are some of the ones we just looked at; simple squamous, and these are the characteristic: one layer, flat cells, it lines the kidneys; it lines the ear, tympanic membrane, in the inner surfaces of your body.

252 Functioning in filtration, diffusion, and osmosis and secretion. Simple cuboidal epithelial, one layer, anything simple is one layer. L Right, right. T Okay. Cube shaped, it’s found in the ovaries, the lens of the eyes, the kidneys, functions; secretion and absorption. Non-ciliated simple columnar, one layer, anything simple is one layer. L Right. T No cilia, rectangular, may contain goblet cells, and I showed you those, microvilli, those are hair-like structures on the cell, lines the gastro-intestinal track, ducks of the glands, gall bladder, function in secretion and absorption. L Okay. T Ciliated simple columnar, one layer, has cilia, reticular, may contain goblet cells, lines respiratory tracks, uterus, uterine tube, central canal, and spinal cord. Function; to move particulars and fluid. L Okay. T I mean this thing really breaks it down. Now we have stratified. Stratified means what? L More than one layer. T More than one layer. You have stratified squamous, many layers, stratified cuboidal, more than one layer, stratified columnar, transitional has variable appearance. It lines the urinary bladder, parts of the uterus, and the urethra. It allows stretching. “Pseudo” again means false. L Right. T Pseudo-stratified columnar, not actually layered, all cells attached at same level, usually it’s found in the epididymis, large ducts of the glands, part of the male urethra, auditory tubes, ah, and of course the upper respiratory tracks. Function in secretion and it moves mucus. This goes into the characteristic of each one of the specialized cells. You have glandular epithelial, founded in the glands; you have two kinds of glands. You have endocrine glands, which are ductless and you have exocrine glands that secrete into ducts... L Okay. T leading to the outside.

253 L Right. T Now the endocrine glands will secrete directly into the blood stream and the blood will take it to different sites within the body. Those secretions are hormones, such as the thyroid hormones, and the pituitary hormones. L Okay. T Does it make sense? L Yes. T With the exocrine, we are talking about mucus; we are talking about perspiration that is secreted to the outside of the body. L Right. T Also talking about sebum, this is oil. L Right. T Others, okay, structural classification, functions; holocrine, mericrine, apocrine, this simple means where they secrete. Connected tissue, the same thing; this talks about traits; the components are cell and matrix. Matrix is made of ground substances and fluid. L Okay. T Okay. This is a widely separated cell. It is because these cells are surrounded by that ground substance. L Okay. T Not on exposed surfaces. I think the greatest of the most common place you can see this is bone. L Uh, huh. T Abundant blood supply. Those cells are immature cells, and mature cells. The immature cells are undifferentiated, which means that they have not become specialized. L Okay. T They are capable of becoming specialized into mature specialized tissue. L Okay. T Names ending with “blast” is a term that makes the tissue. Osteoblast makes bone tissues. Chrondroblast makes cartilage tissue. So the blast cells make tissue; it secretes tissue.

254 L So that’s why fibroblast... T Uh, huh. L Was it fibroblast? T Yes. So, mature tissue is differentiated which means that they are specialized such as the nerve cell, bone cell, and epithelial cells. Names ending with “cyte” are usually mature cells, such as the bone cell called the osteocyte. L Right. T It maintains the matrix. It gives an example here of those cells. The fibroblast, plasma cell, leucocytes, and adipose. L Okay. T If you are not sure what he is saying later looks them up. L Okay. T This tells you what the ground substance is made of right here. These are fibers; collagen, elastic, and reticular. These are your fibers. We have embryonic connected tissues, the mesochyme and also the mucus membrane. L Okay. T Mesochyme contains star-shaped cells that contain semi-liquid ground substance, they are very delicate, and also contain reticular fibers. Founded in embryos right under the skin along bones. L Okay. T In adults, along blood vessels. The mucus contains star-shaped cells, thick jelly-like brown substance; fine collagen fibers founded in the umbilical cord and support other tissues. This talks about some of the characteristics of mature connective tissue. It’s loose; it’s dense, such as dense regular and dense irregular and dense elastic tissues. Cartilage, you have three types of cartilage; hyaline, fibroblast, and elastic. You have two kinds of bone tissue; compact bone, and spongy bone. With your blood, we are talking about plasma and formed elements. The formed elements are your cells, your have red blood cell and you have white blood cell and platelets. L Okay. T Loose connective tissue, you have areolar; remember I showed you this earlier. L Right.

255 T You have adipose and you have reticular, okay, this simply tells what fibers are in all of them, and of course where they are located with cells and where they..... L ...and their function. T and their functions. So go through that. Ah, she probably won’t be this specific. L Specific. T This connective tissue, same thing, cartilage again, you have hyaline cartilage, fibroblast and your elastic. This tells the shape, the function, the location and everything. L Okay. T Okay. Bone again, bone tissue, you have spongy and you have compact (Dense). Dense bone, I showed you the osteon remember the canal, the central canal that runs down into the bone that permits the blood vessels to go down into the bone. These cells are called osteocyte, that’s a mature bone cell and they lie in a lacunae. L Right. T And of course you have the lamellae. Ah, the spongy bone has the red bone marrow in it. L Okay. T and the trabeculae are along the lines of stress. The openings where the red blood marrow are. If I had your book I could show you what I am talking about. L We had uh, a thing on line where we were looking at, I don’t know if it was a joint, the bone in the arm, it was cut in half and you could actually see the spongy bone. T Uh, huh. L So... T Okay. and I have the bone tape upstairs too. I will go get it. Bones location, bones of the skull. Okay, function is that it gives a lot of support, it gives a lot of protection, leverage, it houses hemopoietic tissues, and it stores fats and minerals. Okay, blood again, this is the only liquid tissue that we have. Here’s the plasma, the liquid part of blood, it consist of water, salt and gases. Formed elements are your cells, erythrocytes, the leukocytes and the thrombocytes (platelets). The erythrocytes are red blood cells; the leukocytes are white blood cells, and the thrombocytes are platelets, which are fragments in the blood for forming clots. Learn that, be sure you know it. L Yes, that’s the one I had heard before. T Thrombocyte?

256 L Yes. T These are your platelets. All of these are located within the blood vessels. Function, blooding clotting, immunity, but mainly transport. It transports all your nutrients;

transport your gases, transport oxygen gas and CO2, carbon dioxide. It transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. It transports your waste; usually the waste is carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous waste. T Okay.

257 Tutoring Session 3 June 10, 2006 (9 am) Kollege Kampus Student LaToya tutoring on the Nervous System Site: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen, Roundtable Instructional Supplies and equipments: Audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, anatomy and physiology textbook, white board, markers, large writing pad, pencils, pens, and transparencies. Participants: T= (Tutor/Researcher) L= (Student/ LaToya) T This session on the nervous system introduces the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord that goes down to L-1 or L-2 vertebrae. L Two. T Uh, huh. And the peripheral nervous system, we are talking about the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves that innervate all of the organs of the body. On this illustration we can see the skin and the nerves that innervate the skin. This is the integument system. This imparts of the small intestine and these are nerves that innervate to keep the smooth muscles contracting so that the food can be pushed along the track of the digestive system. Okay. Coming off the brain, you have cranial nerves with many of them innervating the face, which is responsible for your eye movements, your tongue, and all down here. Those nerves coming off your spinal cord, we will talk about these plexuses here, these are spinal nerves and plexuses, all of these nerves will innervate organs that are in the body, plus these nerves goes down the arms and is responsible for the actions of the hands. Okay. There are three types of nerves, ah ...all of these are motor nerves here, and I was going to look at the sensory nerve, the motor nerve, and the inter-nerve, but let’s look at the anatomy of the nerve. This is the cell body of the nerve. By the way, the anatomic name of the nerve is the neuron. So the neuron has a cell body, this is the nucleus, although it is not labeled, this is the nucleus. But, also it has lots of what is called nissl bodies. This is an axon, right along here. The axon is covered with a fatty and the Schwann will come in and regenerate the myelin sheath. So you have nerve body or cell body, it has a nucleus; you are familiar with the generalized cell?

258 L Uh, huh. T But this has an axon which is covered and protected by the myelin sheath. Schwann cells are there to make or replenish the myelin sheath. Usually what happens, this is your neuron, this is a motor neuron, it has a cell body and these structures are called dendrites, and the function of the dendrites is to accept a stimulus from another neuron. Nerve cells do not touch any other tissues in your body, they stand by themselves, and they do not even touch other neurons. What happens is across here is a gap and in that gap this structure at the end of the axon will secrete a chemical that crosses that gap and bring that stimulus to the dendrite of another neuron. L Okay. T It will travel across the cell body and go down the axon. L Okay. T Right here, the terminal axon will secrete a neuro-transmitter that will go to another neuron, sending the stimulus from one neuron to another. L Okay. T Again, looking at the anatomy, these are called dendrites, this is your cell body or soma, this is your nucleus, and in the cell body there‘s a lot of neuro-fibers, a lots of nissl bodies in the cytoplasm, you are familiar with that, mitochondria, there for making energy. This is called the axon hillock. You can see from then on you will have myelin sheath. The first part of the hillock is the initial segment. There are branches extending off from the axon, this is the axon collateral, they also are covered with... L Myelin sheath. T ...you have the myelin sheath. This is a node. Whenever you have myelination like this, the stimulus jumps from one node to another. The nodes are founded right here, so the stimulus jumps from one node to another, meaning that the myelinated axon transmits much faster than the unmyelinated axon. Okay. remember the Schwann cell is that cell that forms the myelin sheath and it on the axon by simply wrapping itself around the axon forming the many layers on the axon. Again, these are nodes, nodes of ranvier at the end here, these are terminal buds. What they do is make the transmitting chemicals that are called neurotransmitters. That transmitting chemical will transmit that stimulus or action

259 potential to another nerve cell, or to a gland, or a muscle; causing a muscle to contract, causing a gland to secrete, and transmission to another neuron. L Okay. T Okay. Does that make sense? L Yes. T Okay. These are the different kinds. You have a multi-polar neuron, normally, these are your motor neurons, you have a bi-polar neuron, and of course you have a uni-polar neuron. What this is saying, multi-polar simply means that the neuron has many, many branches. Bi-polar means the neuron has two branches, and the uni-polar, one branch; it has just the cell body and really no axon. L Okay. T This one, these are dendrites, cell body, axon, this is the terminal right here. What this is showing you is how the myelin sheath is formed by the Schwann cell and what it does. If this is the axon, it goes around and around, laying all of these layers, see all the layers. L Right. T That’s how myelin is made. Of course a term I mentioned earlier, the neurolemma sheath, is located outside the myelin sheath so it itself is a sheath. There are two sheaths covering the axon, the myelin and the neurolemma. L So the neurolemma will only be on the outside? T Outside. Okay. This is talking about the spinal cord, right here. This is a cross-session. You see it is composed of white matter and gray matter. The gray matter is shaped like an “H”. What is not shown is that there is a canal, right here, and in that canal is cerebral spinal fluid. L Okay. T They didn’t show it on here; they will probably show it later. Okay. The brain also is composed of gray matter and white matter. The basic differences here are that the white matter is on the innermost anatomy of the brain, while the white matter here is on the outer-most anatomy of the spinal cord. Ah, what this is talking about is how transmission occurs. Transmission occurs when there is a change in the membrane potential allowing the potassium and sodium ions to cross to opposite sides of the membrane. The concentration also plays a major part in it because these cells here, these cells are

260 channels, you have the potassium channels and you have the sodium channels. These channels will open up, this is a potassium channel, this is out-side the cell, they will open up and allow potassium to come through the membrane and enter the cytoplasm on the inside of the cell, whereas, sodium channels will also open up allowing sodium to go to the outside of the cell. I really don’t see it here; I see flow going this way. Whenever the concentrations of both sides of the membranes changes, that puts an electrical current along where it under-going that change. L Okay. T I don’t know if that make sense to you, but... L But I do have a question. T Okay. L You were saying the potassium channel in, and then the sodium, sodium channels out. T They just change places across the membranes… L Okay. T ...and I though this was saying that, but this talk about the extra-cellular fluid are on the outside of that membrane. The cytosol is on the inside of that membrane. So the sodium ions are in the extra cellular fluid and this is a phosphate here, on the inner-side of the membrane. Whenever sodium and potassium change position they set up a gradient along the membrane, and that charge will just travel. L Okay. T This is what they are talking about right here in references to the charges. See it goes from a resting membrane potential, when it changes that membrane potential, see it lines, it changes. This is when again, those ion exchange their position across the membrane. Same thing happens here, ah, this actually talks about that nerve impulse. Side two T ... up and then it polarizes, of course, that peak began to come down and it began to.... L Depolarizes. T Right, and then it will get normal. It goes back to resting stage. The depolarizing phase. But this is as it moves; it changes position along that membrane. This is what happens. And this thing here travels along the axon. L Okay.

261 T So that is a nerve impulse. L Okay. T Right. Okay, this is saying the same thing I just said. See sodium, potassium, and what it does is just send...see it goes through the gated area and it will initiate action potential. Action potential is the nerve impulse right along that axon membrane. L Okay. T These are great to look at. L Yes they are. T Okay. This is the same thing. Sodium is going in the axon, see current flow. This is showing how sodium is getting in but at the terminal end, and this is very important. This is your synapse, this is the gap between neurons, right here, and the terminal end of another neuron, they do not touch, nerve cells don’t touch other nerve cell, and so what do they do? These cells here produce a chemical that is called neurotransmitters that are released into the gap/synapse transmitting the stimulus coming down this axon here to another neuron. L Okay. T They make the chemicals that will be picked up by receptors of another neuron and sent along that axon of that neuron. L Okay. T This is important because, okay, I got this right, this is important because we have in the body various circuits, stimulus can go into different directions. This is called a diversion circuit. In other words, a stimulus can occur here, and can be transmitted to two cells, which also can stimulate two other cells. Stimulation can occur from three cells to one cell. L Oh, it can accept from more than one route? T Oh yes, more than one route. L Okay. T This one to one, it will stimulate one, this will stimulate this and then go to this or go to output, it could be a nerve, it could be a gland or it could be a muscle. Only three, another neuron, a gland or a muscle. L A muscle.

262 T With this, look how many are stimulating that one cell, and it might be going to a muscle. Okay. When you see a cell like this one, this is a motor cell, and this is the same one we went over before. Ah, the basic anatomy, you have the cell body, nissl bodies, this is the myelin sheath, but remember the myelin sheath is covered with another sheath which is called the neurolemma, and what is shown here is that the schwann cell is actually regenerating damaged nerve tissue. This is what actually happens in the body. This is why sometimes when people appear to be what, I will use the word, temporary paralyzed, maybe in six months... L they will walk again. T Right, regeneration has occurred. Okay. Do you have any questions? L No. T Okay. In other words, with the nervous system we are dealing with the central nervous system, that includes the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, that includes the nerves that comes off the brain and the nerves that comes off the spinal cord. Ah, if function in sensory by detecting environmental changes, you know that. L Right. T Also integrated function by the analysis of many things that you do. You are also capable of storing a lot of information. You can make decisions by yourself and you can. The system makes glands secrete and make your muscles contract. L Right. T Okay. This is just a review. These are your motor nerves, sensory, integrated nerves. The study of the nervous system is called neurology of neuro-anatomy, either one; it’s according to where you are studying. Neuro-anatomy can be in the upper institutions, ah, neurology could be in a medical facility, but human-anatomy is in the two-year system. L Okay. T Okay. Again we a re talking about the central nervous system, we are talking about the brain and spinal cord. Functions, integration, memory, and (it's) responsible for initiation of many of your responses. The peripheral nervous system talks about the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves function in afferent and efferent functions. The division being that of the somatic, this is your autonomic, which is involuntary function. In the involuntary functions, you have the symphatic and the parasymphatic. Symphatic division comes off

263 the thoracic and the lumbar areas of the spinal cord. The parasymphatic comes of the cranial and the sacrum portion of the spinal cord. We are talking about the origins of these nerves. L Okay. T Ah, function is to maintain homeostasis of body fluids and the entire body really because these nerves innervate our muscles, organs, and all over the body. It is believed that they have mitotic potential in the adults. This is a glia cell. Did you study about the glia cell, the neuroglia? L No. T The glia cells are of many types, these are cells that nurse and protect the neurons. L Okay. T The cell that we just talked about that firm the myelin sheath. L Right. T It’s a glia cell. In the central nervous system, you have the astrocyte, the oligodendrocytes, the microglia, and the ependymal. In the peripheral nervous system, you have the Schwann cells, which are called the neurolemocyte, this is the schwann cell, and you have the satellite cells. All of these are helper cells; functions include regulation of chemical environment, monitor health of neuron, lines the central cavities of the central nervous system, helps circulate spinal fluids, and forms sheathes. L Okay. T But sensory and motor neurons are always there. L Okay. T They don’t seem to have the ability to reproduce by mitosis in adults. They are less numerous than the helper cells because they are the nurse cells, these are cells that give protection... L Right. T ... in different ways. In different ways. Structural again, they are unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar. Functions, afferent, meaning they will send a stimulus to the central nervous system. L Okay. T Efferent meaning that a response will be sent from the central nervous system.

264 L Okay. T Associated means transmitting a stimulus within the central nervous system. L Okay. T Now they can be either covered with myelin or not covered with myelin. So they are myelinated or unmyelinated. L Okay. T Okay. This talk about all of the different helper cells, the astrocytes, these are usually located in the gray matter of both the brain and the spinal cord and sometimes in the white matter. They serve as neurotransmitters, metabolism, they are responsible for that, potassium balance for nerve impulses, neuro-migration, they can move them from one site to another, blood-barrier; this is something that can prevent harmful things from entering various organs of your body. It forms barriers to maybe prevent a virus or bacteria from entering many sites. L Okay. T Okay. That is a part of the network of the nerves. And it links neurons to blood vessels, these astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes, mostly around body cells, they are between neutrons to give support in both the central nervous system and the making of myelin. In the central nervous system, we are talking about the brain and the spinal cord. L Okay. T The microglia are the smallest cells, their origin comes from the monocytes; usually they are stationary. Wherever they are they stay there. Sometimes they will migrate to an injury site. You know wherever there is an injury, then they go there, they have the ability to destroy microbes, acting as microphages, okay. Ependymal cells, ah, they may be ciliated, you know what this mean? They have cilia. L Right. T They line the ventricles of the brain and the spinal cord, but most of all; they help circulate the cerebral spinal fluid. That’s important. L Okay. T The neuromonocytes, these are the Schwann cells. These are the ones that are capable of producing myelin in the peripheral nervous system on the long axon. L Okay.

265 T And of course you have the satellite cells. They support, they give support to the nervous system, but they are usually located around a ganglion. I have to show you what a ganglia is. I hope this is helping you. L Yes. T Okay. I mentioned the term synapsis. A synapsis is that space that is between a nerve and another structure. L Okay. T It’s a function of contact; and usually in a synapsis you will find the release of a neurotransmitter substance that can go to a muscle, so a synthesis can be a neuromuscular junction. Okay. Are you familiar with that? L Yes. T Or a neuro-glandular junction. L Right. T Okay. Those are the two, and in each one of these junctions you are having a neurotransmitter being released. It will maintain normal functions in those junctions. In other words, whatever is released in those junctions, they are there to make sure that it goes where it is suppose to go. L Okay. T You are familiar with the cell body. In it you have a nucleus, you have cytoplasm, you have lipofusion, and this is a chemical and these are nissl bodies. L Okay. T And these are neurofibers, those are just simple fibers. Dendrites, I showed you, but also you have axons. These are all the parts of the axon. Groupings in the peripheral nervous system include nerves, ganglia and then the central nervous system; you have the nucleus and tracks. This I will tell you about a little bit later.

266 Tutoring Session 4 June 10, 2006 (12 noon) Kollege Kampus’s Student Tutoring on the Spinal Cord Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen, Roundtable Instructional Supplies and equipments: Audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, Anatomy and Physiology textbook, white board, markers, and transparencies, terminology tape. Participants: T= (Tutor/Researcher) L= (Student/ LaToya) T This session is chapter 13 in your text and it’s on the spinal cord. The spinal cord and of course the spinal nerves. Here we are talking about vertebral column that protects it, the coverings which is the meninges and the fluid as we look at this figure. This is your spinal cord. Remember the “H” that we saw earlier in the spinal cord, this is the gray matter and this is your white matter. These are the spinal nerves. Look at the anatomy, how they come off different sessions of this spinal cord. Ligaments hold them there, right here, these are ligaments and the different areas, this is the pia mater, the next covering is the arachnoid and the outer most covering is the dura mater. This is the sub- dural space, this is the dura mater under, underneath here, and you have the sub-dural space. Under this you have the arachnoid, right here, and under this you have the arachnoid space and under this is the pia mater covering the spinal cord. Again, these are the three membranes: pia mater, arachnoid, and the dura mater that covers the spinal cord. And again, these are the spinal nerves. These are ganglion; these knob-like structures are ganglions. Again, these membranes give protection to the spinal cord. This is how your spinal nerves look. My students learned all of this, “C” for cervical, “T” for thoracic, “L” for lumbar, “S” for sacrum, and the nerves are so named. Many of the nerves have additional names, however most are name to compliment their origin, where they come off the spinal cord. You have right here, this grouping is the cervical plexuses coming off this area, going to special senses and muscles, also coming down the arm. You have thoracic nerves right here, their origin from the thoracic body region. These are the lumbar nerves, the sacral nerves and the coccyx nerve. L This is a smaller plexuses.

267 T This is a larger plexuses. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves; twelve pairs of thoracic nerves; five pairs of lumbar nerves; five pairs of sacral nerves; and one pair of coccyx nerve. Each of these nerves goes and innervates; innervate simple means that the nerve stimulates another structure to cause action in that structure. This shows you how a stimulus is transmitted from a spinal nerve. The sensory neuron will transmit to actually the gray matter with the spinal cord. You can see that it doesn’t touch here; but that chemical. L Neurotransmitter? T …neurotransmitter will say, stimulate the interneuron and it will return back out by the motor division usually to a gland or muscle. L Okay. T Same thing here. This is another example…. sticking a pen in your feet. It will stimulate the sensory neuron that takes the stimulus to the spinal cord to the interneuron. The interneuron makes decisions and transmits an answer to a motor nerve to be transmitted back to muscles of your feet. L Okay, ha, ha. T That’s a good way of putting it. Now, this is a sensory neuron, this is what they call an integrating center, this is an association nerve, and this is a motor nerve. Also, this is an afferent nerve, and this efferent nerve. Afferent nerves goes to the central nervous system. L Efferent nerve goes from the central nervous system. T right… This is a simple reflex that is very similar to what you have seen, such as a bang on the knee can cause the sensory neuron to transmit a stimulus to the spinal cord. It will transmit to the interneuron or the association nerve to send a response by the motor nerve to the muscle, causing the leg to spring forth. Between the times you receive the hit on your knee and your leg bounce is a short period of time. That’s how quick the entire process happens. L Uh, huh. T That is quick, quick. This is the same thing. What this is talking about is the anatomy of the spinal nerve. The covering that surrounds the entire nerve is the epineurium. Within this epineurium you can see a lot of nerve fibers, these are nerve fibers. You can see

268 bundles within these nerves. The bundles again are made of nerve fibers. The endoneurium surrounds each individual nerve bundle. The connective tissue connects the arteries and veins to the nerve tissue for a great blood supply. L Yes. T So the endoneurium... this is by the perineurium, and this by the epineurium surrounds this. L Okay. T This is to show how it sits in your vertebrae. See how it comes in, lets do this slide here, see how it comes in and see how it innervates right here, actually on both sides of it. That’s the anatomy of the vertebrate. L Right. T Now the nervous system is responsible for a lot of actions. These are the nerves from the cervical, C-1 through C-5. L Right. T We see that each segment comes off the spinal cord, and they sometimes branch. Whenever they branch, they acquire a new name. L Right. T What we are looking at here are some nerves that came off the cervical, the head area, and right? L Right. T This goes to the occipital, this goes to the hypoglossal, this is cranial nerve twelve (C-12) that goes to the medulla oblongata for tongue movement. This chart tells the origins and where nerves go, the innervations of the nerves. L Right, they go in different directions. T Yes, These are the roots, these are the nerves. L Yes. T See these come off the spinal cord, see your nerves and this is the ulna. L Yes. T This tells you that some of these nerves, right here, see the cords, branch, and looking at parts of your body, you know what, sometimes you can see them. L Like now?

269 T Uh, huh. They come down the radius nerve. L They run along here. T Yes. These are just some of the actions that the nervous system allows you to do. Uh, these are conditions, these are conditions, all of these are a condition that causes this drop wrist and they can’t get it up. These are conditions from the nerves. Okay, now this is the hip area. This gastric goes into the hip area, these are the ones that go down the legs, and a lot of time these are the ones that innervate the toes. Look at their names. The muscles, bones, and nerves share some of the same names to identify their position within the body. These fibers –cough—again, these are your lower ones, it tells it origin and where it goes, the lumbro-sacro trunk. These nerves innervate the skin. You can feel a touch because of these nerves. Some of the cranial nerves go down the arms. Thoracic nerves innervate the skin. Okay. Does that make sense to you?

270 Tutoring Session 5 June 10, 2006 (2p.m.) Kollege Kampus’s Student LaToya’s tutoring on Endocrine System Setting: 1517 Ribault Scenic Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32208 Kitchen Roundtable Instructional Supplies and equipments: Audio tape recorder, thirty minutes tapes, anatomy and physiology textbook, transparencies, white board/marker. Participants: T= (Tutor/ Researcher) L= (Student/LaToya) T This tutoring session is on the endocrine system, and of course we are talking about glands that secrete within the body’s fluid various hormones in order to cause action to occur from hormones. The hypothalamus, which is located underneath the brain, right here, sees the hypothalamus? L Yes. T It is part pf the brain that control the autonomic nervous system, but also it‘s responsible for the secretions that are initiated in the brain that are responsible for many of your emotions states; it stimulates your special senses, especially your sense of taste, sense of smell, it’s also is responsible for your body’s activities, the osmolarity of your body’s fluid and also your blood level. We are talking about blood level, we are talking about glucose, the various gases in the blood and we are also talking about ions that are in the blood. The hypothalamus also is directly linked to the autonomic nervous system. The posterior hypothalamus is responsible for your symphatic division. Your symphatic division controls your flight and fight responses. In other words, if you see a snake on the floor, you will immediately respond. L Yes. T Okay. That’s was fright and also when you run, that’s flight. That’s your posterior hypothalamus. The anterior portion, your parasymphatic division is responsible for responses such as your heartbeat, things of that sort. Now when we are talking about the endocrine system, we are talking about various glands, again, see the hypothalamus is located right here and there are two glands in the same general area, the pituitary and the pineal glands. The pituitary gland will sort of be a leading gland, a master gland in that

271 the secretions from the pituitary gland goes to the thyroid gland, it goes also to the thymus, it goes to the adrenal gland, to the pancreas, small intestine, testes. Also the female reproductive structures, the ovaries and the uterus... These hormones that are secreted by the pituitary, they go to various glands and stimulate these glands to secrete their hormones. L Okay. T Okay. Does that... it’s like a chain reaction. This secretes here to cause this to secrete its thyroid hormones. Also to cause secretion of hormones from the thymus, and so forth. We are going to look again at the glands in the brain. I mentioned the pineal along with the pituitary and the hypothalamus located in the cranial area. The thyroid gland and on the posterior thyroid, you have the parathyroid glands. You also have the thymus gland, which is located in the thoracic area. You also have the thymus that is located in the thoracic area. Ah, you have the pancreas right here, its right in here. You have the adrenalin and you have the gonads. When you look at the hypothalamus secretions, I think your book talks about various classes of hormones and what these various classes of hormones can do. Your chapter should have ended with certain disorders. Hypo- secretion can cause certain disorders in man. Hypersecretion is over secretion of these given hormones. Sometime the thyroid will over secrete, and that will cause those thyroid glands.... L ...to swell. T Right, to swell. If it under secretes, it causes a person to be very nervous, experience a weight loss drastically. Hyposecretion, which is not enough hormones secretion, can cause the voice to deepen, facial expression changes, and sometimes tumors are seen to grow in... L The thyroid. T ...in the thyroid. Endocrine simple means that the chemical is secreted directly from the secreting cells into the blood stream. Endocrine. You also have exocrine secretions; this is an example where the secretion is put into pores to come to the external of the body. With endocrine secretions, all of the hormones are put directly into the bloodstream to be circulated to their target cells. If this cell had been one in the hypothalamus, then that stimulating hormone would have gone to maybe a gland such as the thyroid gland when it

272 comes out of the bloodstream at that target area and target cell, causing these cells to secrete its hormone. L Okay. T Now this is also showing you the receptor cell. On each one of these cells, there is a molecule that is capable of accepting their hormones and brings it to the inside of that cell. Circulating hormones, ah, this is primary what it is doing down here. Now this is showing you the transport, and this is a liquid soluble molecule. Now you have two kinds of molecules, you have one that is water soluble that travel easily in the bloodstream by itself because the blood is water based... L Right. T ... you have lipid soluble hormones that have to be attached to carrier, sometimes like a taxi, protein; this is a transport protein, to be carried to its target cell. Once it gets there it will release it. One thing about this, since the membrane of the cell is lipid, right... L Right. T ...then this lipid soluble hormone can easily go through the membrane whereas the water- soluble molecule has to be taken into that cell. But this can easily go in there. Once it gets in there, it goes to the nucleus and causes changes to occur with the DNA in the nucleus to form massager RNA to cause changes in the formation of a new protein within the cell, right here. Okay, am I losing you? L No. T Okay, then you have a new protein that is made, usually goes out of the cell or it can stay in the cell if the cell needs to use it, it will use it. It’s according to what kind of protein it is. But if it does not need it, it goes out of the cell and goes where it is needed. L Okay. T Okay, this is the function of that hormone; to cause changes to occur. The changes that occurred here is that it changed the DNA so that the DNA can send a message in the form of RNA out of the cell to make a new protein. L Okay. T You see how one thing just builds on the other? L You see the chain.

273 T Okay. This just takes you through all of the steps it takes to build another molecular. This is the water soluble hormone and of course when it comes out it is attaches to a receptor cell. You can remember receptor because when you meet someone at the door, you are... L Receptor, you meet at the door. T It brings the molecules into the cell, and once it gets in there it will combine with ATP to form AMP, that’s cilic AMP. L Right. T These are the other steps it goes through in order to form a hormone that goes to other target cells. This is different from this. This is lipid soluble, and this is water soluble, but different activities occur because of these various hormones. Okay. Again, the hypothalamus is the initiator and this is where it is located. You have two kinds of transport systems coming from the hypothalamus. There are nerve endings, but there are also blood vessels coming from the hypothalamus. The nerve endings transport two kinds of hormones to the posterior pituitary, which is right here. L Okay. T The vessel transports hormones to the anterior pituitary. You want to answer that? The hypothalamus again secretes by nerves means two hormones that goes to the posterior pituitary, right here and by the cardiovascular system, these cluster of capillaries here will transport the hormones down to the anterior pituitary, right here. Now the ones that leaves here goes to various organs, some of these organ we have previous reviewed earlier, whereas, the ones to the posterior pituitary is stored here until, number one, you have a child. L Okay. T Okay. You can always go back through these. If we need to review them again, then we can. Okay, okay. This is the hypothalamus, the hypothalamus release releasing- hormones. Releasing-hormones are those hormones that go to other areas or other glands and cause this gland to release its hormones. L Okay.

274 T So again, it’s a chain reaction. This goes to here causing secretion of the cells in here to release other releasing hormones, or stimulating hormones that releases a hormone to go to another gland. L Okay. T Okay. You look confused. L No. T Okay. The releasing hormones, the releasing hormone is corticotrophin releasing hormone that goes to the anterior pituitary, remember by way of the blood vessels to the anterior pituitary and cause corticotrophin hormone to be released. When the corticotrophin hormone is released, it goes to the adrenal cortex and causes the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids. L Okay. T Okay. elevated amount of this hormone in the blood stream stops the release of this hormone from here to here. L Okay. T This is just another example, this one is good, and this one is low blood sugar, which you will be dealing with throughout your career. Low blood sugar will stimulate the release of the growth hormone. L Okay. T This is the growth hormone releasing factor here that will go down to the anterior pituitary and of course once it stimulates special cells in the hypothalamus to secrete growth hormone; it enters the blood stream to the pancreas stimulating the secretion of insulin. L Right. T Insulin is important because in the presence of insulin in the blood, then the glucose molecule can go inside the cells. L Okay. T You want to get glucose out of the blood into the cell and if the insulin level is low, all of the glucose cannot get into the cell and accumulate in the blood. L Okay. T And this is when people...

275 L becomes diabetic. T Exactly, due to the sugar level. The pancreas secretes that. Ah, this is the posterior hypothalamus and of course in there again you can see these are nucleus. This is the paraventricular nucleus and this is the supraoptic nucleus right here. You can see how they will make two hormones, ADH is one. ADH is a hormone that is responsible for the retention of water. The other hormone has to do with child birth. Usually it is not released until you go into labor. L Okay. T Another function of ADH in reference to high blood pressure, this is osmotic pressure. Again ADH as I said, it retains water; it does so through kidneys functions, but also the skin is a target area too and the blood vessels, these are target areas. If you get too hot it can stimulate sweat. L Okay. T It can increase your blood pressure by constricting the blood vessels. L Okay. T This is just to show you, these are nerve endings here. ADH is one of the hormones that are stored until the body needs it in the posterior pituitary. This has to do with thyroid; this is how the thyroid looks, when you are looking at a person’s face. However, if this is taken out, and we use to take it out of the cat, on the posterior side of this gland, you find four small glands called the parathyroid. L Okay. T The thyroid secretes a chemical that controls the amount of calcium in the blood, thyroxin. On the reverse side, the parathyroid glands do the opposite in the control of calcium on the blood. For example, thyroxin decreased the calcium level in the blood, and the parathyroid hormone increases the calcium level in the blood. L Okay. T This does the reverse. This is how your thyroid glands look, and the cells that are responsible for making hormones that are secreted by the thyroid gland. We will go later through the steps for making the hormones, in fact, this is it. I will wait until later on. I am trying to get through the anatomy of it... L Okay. This is...

276 T … thyroid gland. L Yes. T TSH is secreted from the anterior pituitary and it goes to the thyroid follicles. This is the thyroid follicle. I showed you these cells right here. These cells are responsible for making thyroid hormones through the oxidation of iodine. The thyroid hormones are T-3 or T-4 right here. The path of iodine into the body is through inhalation. L Oh, okay. T In the air, foods, iodine gets into the body. Once inside, it is incorporated into the making of the thyroid hormones, which is stored in the lysosomes until the body needs it. It is released in the form of T-3 or T-4. We have an amazing body. L I see. T An amazing body. The better you understand this, the better you can understand what is going on with your child. Okay, now, this is primary the same thing, These are cells of the... L Uh, huh. T ...parathyroid. See this is how they look on the reversed side. I though they were going to show a picture of the parathyroid glands, right here, see on the back of the thyroid, you have four little patches, see these four patches right here. L Oh, okay. T These are parathyroids and on the front side, that’s your thyroid. This secrete parathyroid hormone, this secretes thyroid hormones, right here. L Oh, okay. T These are parathyroids and on the front side, that’s your thyroid and these are your parathyroids. This secretes thyroid hormones and this secretes parathyroid hormones. L Okay. T It can cause the release of calcium from the bones, parathyroid. The thyroid makes sure that calcium is taken out of the blood. So they actually reverse their actions or their functions within the body. They both act to control the calcium level in the body. L Okay. T Calcium is responsible for the hardness of our bones. L Okay.

277 T Hormones stimulates the reabsorption of calcium from food increasing the level in the blood, which can be reabsorbed by the bones. L Okay. T Now kidneys, ADH is responsible for the water level within the body. The adrenal gland sits right here, and you can see where the kidneys are, you have two. L The adrenal glands? T Yes. This is the adrenal gland, and there are two. This is the tissue of the adrenal glands, and you can see a capsule covers it. It is composed of the adrenal cortex, which is right here, but in the middle you have the adrenal medulla. This will secrete one kind of hormone and this part will secrete another kind of hormone. L Okay. T I know you have read all of this stuff, but I was wondering if you understood it. L I didn’t. This is breaking it down. A lot of it I am doing. T In other words, in reference to the kidneys, when dehydration occurs there is usually a sodium deficiency. L Okay. T Ah, you have a secretion, ADH to go to the kidneys and those kidneys are responsible for an increase in rennin, which is another chemical that is rennin, which is another chemical that is... L Okay. T ...responsible for, in other words, water reabsorption in the body. But this has to do with something else, because another chemical comes from the liver. L Liver? T Right and it works on the... L Lungs. T ...the lungs. So we will just leave it at that since we have talked about ADH. It also controls the electrolytes...well the endocrine system, ah, controls all body activities along with the nervous system. L Okay. T Usually the glands have received stimulus from the nervous system in order to start secreting their chemicals.

278 L Okay. T Okay. This is why normally you take the nervous system first and then you have the endocrine system. L Okay. T Because the nervous system has those motor neurons... L Right. T ...that will stimulate the glands.... L Right. T ...to secrete its hormones. L Right. T These are some of the things they talk about what happens when they are trying to regulate something within the body. See it forms a loop. L Okay. T For example, we are talking about homeostasis probably of glucose because this is glucocorticoids level in the blood. Cells in the hypothalamus will secrete to decrease the corticotrophin hormone that goes right here, to the cortex. L Okay. T Also you will have effectors, you remember those nerve cells? L Right. T To stimulate the cortex. L The cortex. T Causing it to secrete glucocorticoids that will increase the level... L Right. T ...in the blood. L Right. T Once that happens, it will return your body back to homeostasis. So usually whenever your body gets into a crazy spin or into crazy whack, something like this occurs, this loop, in order to get you back into homeostasis. L Homeostasis. T A good example of this is if you go out and if you exercise, you get tired, and you sit down.

279 L Right. T Your body restores itself back to normal state. That’s a good example. Okay this has to do with the... L Pancreas. T ...the pancreas, and this is your spleen. This is your pancreas. The pancreas is sort like an island, and it secretes not only endocrine hormones, but also exocrine secretions. I don’t know it you have had digestion yet, I don’t think you have. You have to learn that the pancreas works to secrete all of those digestive enzymes, but also in the islet, right here, there are cells that secrete endocrine.... L Okay. T ...hormones, and one of course is insulin. But then, there are others. L Through the pancreas? T By the pancreas. L By the pancreas. T I mentioned insulin because these cells, wherever there us low blood glucose in the blood, then it stimulate these cells to secrete glucagon, and glucagon will increase the amount of sugar in the body’s fluid. Usually the body can convert glucose from other molecules such as lactic acid. Glucose can always be converted from fatty acids by breaking the bonds. L Uh, huh. T Creating that C6-H12-O6, see it can be created in the body. L Oh, okay. T So you really don’t have to eat any sweets.

280

ETHNOGRAPHY RESEARCH

Conversation with Mrs. Mable Goseer April 26, 2006 (12:00 p.m.) Transcription of Video and Audio Tape Site- 315 South Logan Street, Fitzgerald, Georgia Equipment: Audio-recorder, audiotape, video camera, videotapes. Participants- G= (Elementary teacher/Mrs. Mable Goseer) T= (Teacher/Researcher) Mr. Randolph Kinder, Photographer. T I am Sarah Caruthers, a past professor and Chairperson of Natural Sciences Department at Florida Community College at Jacksonville in Jacksonville, Florida. I taught over 35 years. Returning back to the campus of Florida State University, I have decided to learn how to write and publish. I am presently in Fitzgerald, Georgia to begin this venture. I have with me one of the teachers from my school, which is Monitor High, the all-black segregated school that I attended during the years 1942-1954. I have Mrs. Goseer. G My name is Mable Goseer, I taught 2nd grade at a Fitzgerald school system for 36 years. Thirty of those years were at Monitor, a segregated school. But the advantage of this was I was able to teach two generation in one family. I knew the background of children and could understand their needs. The remaining six years were spent in an integrated school in the system. There were better facilities and more materials with which to work. The working conditions were most pleasant. Because of the lack of communication in the past, I had to come aware that children of all races have common physical needs and emotional needs. Some of these I was able to meet in the integrated school just as I had met in the segregated school. The experiences in both schools were gratifying and have left happy memories. T What charter does a teacher need to teach today? G To be a teacher today, I think you have to be open-minded to the cultural changes and then have patient and tolerance. T Do you have any special story you would like to share with us?

281 G I can’t think of one, I can’t think of one. I have one story I want to tell you. I had my little girl and Flora Whitman, they were back in there auguring at each other, and we had single seats. I put them both together, touching each other and I said; now when you stop fussing you can go back to your own seats. I though that was brigantine. T The other school? We had a new school. We did not suffer like some of the literature that I have read. Sometimes those values beats you home, you know because they got words to the parents if there was an incident that parents should know about. The parents got it and the parents acted on it in accordance to the teachers. They worked together, and we did not do what I see these students doing could teach there----I have always taught college level---35 years. My experience, growing up is just different. I think I was overly protected. I had an aunt that was a teacher and she was on me 24-hours. Mrs. Goseer was not my teacher, but I just recalled her as being a 1st grade teacher…. G Second grade. T …second grade teacher, that’s right. Mrs. Cook was my 1st grade teacher in the first grade, and I can’t remember who I had for second grade. I had my aunt, but I think it was 4th grade level when I had her. So teachers we looked up to them. What was your typical day at school? G Oh, be there at 8:00 a.m., because school took in at 8:30 a.m., and we had regular courses that we go to and we had lunch period. Oh, that was not what I wanted to say, No lunch room, they brought their lunches and there were children who did not have lunch, didn’t have any money so I was very careful to cook a little more that afternoon for the next morning so I could wrap them up a lunch and put it on the heater, that how the…. Oh, can’t think of the... and I put it on the radiator to keep it warm. Later they were fortunate to have the commodities and then they had the regular lunch room. Sometimes lunch had to be in the auditorium. Later, and that’s when we can have programs we could not have at the church, programs had to be given at the Salem Church. T What were your dreams? G Children who had greater advantages, you expected more from them, and some of us did the best we could for them and look like they will never learn. And now those you had the least expectation for pass by in their Cadillac and wave at me. And some of those I thought would have done more with themselves did not. So that taught me a valuable

282 lesson. You don’t know what the future holds for those who apply themselves. Just whatever talent God has given them. T What were your expectations, if any, did you have for me? G I know if Presley lived, you were going to be somebody. She was going to see to that. T Well at first I wanted to be a teacher simple because they were our role model and once I started to go to school, I don’t know why I choose science, but I love science. I think one of the reasons could be, although we had elementary science, when we were suppose to graduate out of the 11th grade in 1953, we were then told that my class had to go through 12th grade. During that time we had a chance to take science under Mr. Hall. I fell in love with science and science was my major. When I went to college I had no intentions of becoming a teacher at that point, I wanted to go into research. So I took a double major of biology and chemistry on my B.S. level. On my Master’s level, still science, and right now still science, science education. I am thinking that I thought that these teachers were such a good role model that this instilled in me the ability and motivation to do what I did and what I am still doing because even after retirement, I retired June, 2003, and less than forty-five days later I was back on the campus. So I am a lover of science and lover of science teaching. T Do you think school is failing students? G I don’t think the school system is failing the children, students. They have more opportunities now than ever. They can be anything they want to be. But I think the motivation from society is different. The necked motivation is the rap music, rap stuff, that’s what they love. I wonder what they are going to do when social security contact comes, welfare is being cut out. I don’t think it’s the school system, I think it’s the social changes, social values is maybe what I wanted to say. Its social values that. I see, easy money, not working. I think the schools are as puzzled over this as much as I am. They are offering more than they have ever had and the students are not accepting it. T Oh, I really don’t know and right now I don’t have any comments on it. I know that the generations are much different, but we are talking about a span of fifty-five years, so the generation is so different now than it was when I was growing up. We had responsibilities. The students had responsibilities. It seems to me that today’s students don’t believe that they have responsibilities. So the culture is different today than when I

283 was growing up. Did you see differences in those three generations that you taught? Could you see that…? G No, this generation, the last generation, you knew that if you did not get an education, you did have to wash and iron, and you had to cook, and the other generation wash white folks clothes, you had to go get them and find a way to haul them back because a lot of them didn’t have automobile. It’s the generation following World War II when the families were broken up, mothers went to work and children were scattered with grandmothers and anywhere else. That’s when I saw a change in attitudes and values. T What years are we talking about? G Well, whenever World War II was. T That’s the 1940’S. G The families were different, migration to Detroit to work in the factories in the twenties and thirties to Birmingham, Alabama to work in the steel mills. Well when tractors came, the farm work was different; there was no more sharecropping. Tractors didn’t need them, so they had to go somewhere. Also, during the Depression. T I consider you a very successful teacher. Could you tell me a little about your education? G I finished high school, Salem University, Salem Alabama in 1930. In 1931, I was a freshman. The year that I finished high school, my husband graduated from Payne College and came to Salem University to work. He worked one year. We were married the next September. I had one year of college at that time. We came to Fitzgerald, where he became the principal of Monitor High School. Between babies, after babies and before babies, I went to Albany State in the summers and ended up with a 2-year teaching certificate. Told myself, I was not going back to school anymore. New superintendent came and said if you don’t have a degree; don’t stop until you get one. I started back up to Albany State, got a degree and said I was not ever going back to school anymore. The National Teachers’ test was required. They said if you make a certain score, you could go to work on your Masters’. Half Star helped, so I went to work on my Master’s at Loyola University, Chicago, Ill. I have a Master’s Degree from Loyola University, Chicago. T Great, now I see why you are so successfully. G Huh?.

284 T I see why you are so successful. G What about you? I did not have opportunity and you didn’t either, we made them. T That’s, that’s so true, because I got my degrees between two children, I had two biological kids. So thank you.

285 Conversation with Mrs. Oltha Pettigrew April 26, 2006 (9:00a.m.) Transcription of Video and Audio Tape Site: 515 East Chattahoochee Street, Fitzgerald, Georgia. Equipment: Audio-recorder, audiotape, video camera, videotapes. Participants: P= (Mrs. Oltha Pettigrew) T= (Teacher/ Researcher) Mr. Randolph Kinder, Photographer.

T My name is Sarah Caruthers, and I am a retired professor from Florida Community College at Jacksonville in Jacksonville, Florida. I went back to school to learn how to write, how to publish, and I am here with now where I began my education in Fitzgerald, Georgia hoping to broaden my inquiry into whom I am and why I am here. I want to thank Mrs. Pettigrew so much for agreeing to be a participant in my inquiry. She was my 6th grade teacher and I will let her further introduce herself. P Thank you Mrs. Caruthers. I am Oltha L. Pettigrew. I graduated from Savannah State College with a B.S. Degree in Education and I received a Masters Degree from Tuskegee Institute, a Master’s of Education. Since then I have done three other studies at Mercy, and the University of Rhode Island. I have taught more than twenty years at the Monitor Elementary School in Fitzgerald, Georgia. During those years, the students performed many of the tasks around the school. Coal heaters heated our rooms during the winter. During these years, the rooms were crowded because we had some 40-50 students in our rooms. Discipline at that time was not like it is today. Students seem to be much more attendant than they are today. I think one of the things that have happened with our children and the schools, the mothers at that time seems to stay at home more because there wasn’t much work for them to perform and they could see after the children and check on them. During those years, the elementary teachers, when I was teaching 6th grade, I had to teach all the classes, all the subjects in the class and we had to integrate some of the subjects. I taught Language, art, mathematics, social studies, health education, health and science, alright.

286 As a 6th grade teacher of Sarah Caruthers, I remembered her to be cheerful, smart, mannerable, ready to accept responsibilities, eager to excel and well liked by the classmates. That’s sufficient, that all she needs. I have no concerns about her not being able to achieve worthwhile goals she wanted to reach. My only concern lives in a culture environment. When I taught her, she was living with an aunt who was very concerned about her development, period. T Thank for your participation in this interview.

287 Conversation with Mr. Charles Hall May 10, 2006 Transcription of Video and Audiotapes Site- Hall’s Funeral Home Porch. 415 East Pine Street Fitzgerald, Georgia Equipment: Audio-recorder, audiotape, video camera, video tapes. Participants: H= (Retired Science Educator/Mr. Charles C. Hall) T= (Teacher/ Researcher) Mr. Randolph Kinder, Photographer. T I am Sarah Caruthers, past chairperson and professor of the Natural Sciences at Florida Community College at Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida. I am here in autobiography. I have with me my science teacher, Mr. Hall and I would like for him to introduce himself. H I am Charles C. Hall, former Science Teacher at Monitor High School, Fitzgerald, Georgia. I also taught at Wilcox County High School, Wilcox County, served as Principal of Magnolia Street Elementary School, Valdosta, Georgia, Principal of South- East Middle School, Valdosta, Georgia. I also taught several summers at Daniel Payne College in Birmingham, Alabama. T Mr. Hall, One of the questions we would like for you to answer for us is to talk about your experiences while teaching at Monitor High School. So, what are your beliefs and values of teaching in the all-black segregated school? H I think that teaching in the all-black school is one of the greatest challenges any teacher can face especially a science teacher. You had disadvantages that you had to overcome; yet you had students to teach. The first disadvantage for the African-American science teacher, the school was not equipped with a science laboratory. But, you could not let this keep you from imparting knowledge to boys and girls. You look at your classroom, which was visible, a desk, chair, the cabinet counter that was put together for the science teacher; this was it. So how were we going to get this knowledge over to our students? I immediately began trying to change the classroom environment, first by putting shades in the classroom so it will darken the classroom when we wanted. Secondly, we decided to

288 set up a campaign to purchase a movie projector. Next we set up a campaign to purchase a microscope, and later, to purchase chemicals and dissecting kits, etc. We realized that you didn’t have to have a laboratory for students to learn everything that they needed to know. We took advantage of the fact that all science books, good science books, had a glossary in them and an appendix. We also took advantage of what the dictionary could contribute to teaching science education and realizing that regardless of how much laboratory work we do, the students had to develop an appreciation for a science vocabulary. This was worked on every way we knew how. And we read different chapters in the text book; we often had students spell words on the board, which you probably remembered, but you probably didn’t know where they came from. Those words were words that were related to the chapters that we were studying, and we put them on the board, if you can remember. We had you to spell them and define those words and ask you if you would please write these definitions in your notebook. This is where we tried to get you brought up to date with not just reading materials, but also be able to interpret what you read. We sort of took advantage of teaching science in the segregated school by; first, developing an understanding of what science is all about, which it’s the connecting classified information based on the different fields of science. If you can recall that we had some gallon cans in the classroom that perhaps fruits or vegetable came in from the store, but they were empty cans. These cans were placed in the classroom for the purpose of placing soil in these cans and adding fertilizer to these cans of dirt. The reason for doing this was to give students a chance to understand how plants grow. Because the goal of science is to investigate and understand nature and explain events in nature and to use the explanation, to make useful predictions. So it was very important to me, because we had two categories in science that we had to be greatly concerned about. One, zoology that is the study of animal life, and botany. Zoology, the study concerned with animal life. So first, we knew we could understand plant life by growing plants which we did, we would take seeds, plant them in those cans, and we would watch these seeds as they grow. This led to a way to better understanding the development of plants because the seeds grew into plants. And many plants produced flowers, buds on the plants, and it’s from those flowers or buds that the seeds from the reproduction of the same kind of plants takes place. This is valuable and important in

289 understanding the plant phylum, all right. One of the next concerns in understanding animal life is to understand animal life is to understand their different types of animals and different sizes of animals. Even to the extent that man himself is considered an animal. T What were your cultural influences that determined the availability of resources, both the advantages and disadvantages in the segregated, all-black school? H The disadvantage was lack of financial support; there were never finance available according to purchase to teach all subjects in the segregated school. This cultivated a challenge for the teachers to find additional ways of teachers parting knowledge to students. Truly, we had used book that was sent to the segregated schools but it was the teachers’ responsibility to find some update textbooks somewhere. So we did this by looking over textbooks catalogs. We could not get books for every student, but we could get a book and from that book we compared the knowledge that was recorded in the older books with the new books. Many times the knowledge in the new book was the same knowledge in the old book but it has been rearranged. The table of contents had been changed to sell the book. We always search for new information if any. In many times, in the field of science, it was not too much new information, but it was recorded information down through the ages. So that served as an advantage to be able to look for information that you wanted your students to become familiar with. Now we had to find different equipment, other than a laboratory, which we did not have, so as a teacher we took our pennies and the students’ pennies, which they did not mind sharing, and first of all we tried to get models, small models that we needed in the classroom, sharks, gophers, etc. We further discovered that there was a greater source of material than ever was in the library. For instance, there were hundreds of films that were available, and all you needed to know is where to find them. Fortunate, somewhere I came across a book that had the listings of all these films, so whatever topic you wanted to touch on in science if you had a 16mm movie projector, you could get a film and teach what you want your students to know. Many-a-time the drawings we had students to do were not only based on sketches and textbooks, but on showing films over and over and over again. In the school where we were teaching science in Fitzgerald, Georgia when I started as a teacher, there was not a movie projector available. By inspiring students to believe that there

290 were a world of knowledge that could be obtained to enhance their learning if we had a movie projector. These students were very energetic; they sponsored different occasions and raised monies to buy a 16mm projector. These same students also helped sponsored projects to buy a microscope to be used so that other knowledge can be unlocked for the enhancement of their learning. In the non-segregated schools, the other schools, they were equipped with a laboratory, with all the necessary chemicals, charts, etc., visual aids and whatever was needed to teach science. We could not let this prohibit us from doing what we were suppose to do so therefore, one of the greatest sources of information was on charts, the different systems, the human body. For instance, we had charts that relate to the human body systems, for example, the nervous system, the circulating system, the nutrients system, the reproduction system, and the immune system in the human body. These charts also were diagramed to the extent that students could draw from the muscular system etc. in the body. So not having a laboratory was truly a drawback but you can learn the same thing that the child could learn in the school that was fully equipped. T It seems to me that we had more of a hands-on learning experience, which was good. What were your thoughts concerning me as your student? H Misses Caruthers, at that time, Dr. Jackson now, Ms. Sarah Ann Caruthers, as I remembered was a very energetic young lady. I was blessed with the opportunity of having been her instructor in general science and biology. She was a well-disciplined student and I contributed that to her home environment. One of her aunt was on the faculty. If Sarah Ann Caruthers, as I may call her at this point, dared not to venture from her training. She had a little mischievous streak about her, but she always tried to conceal it so that I would not be aware of it. But she was a student who knew how to listen in class, and listening contributed greatly to the process of learning. She also learned that if she did some of the things or most of the things that her instructor ask her to do, that will determine what grade she receives in her class. I am well pleased to say Dr. Jackson made an “A” in biology in my classroom and I would like to congratulate her for that. She was a well mannered student and regardless of what her interpretation of a teacher was, I never heard her, as a student; make negative remark about me as an instructor, so I feel greatly honored to have taught her.

291 T Is there anything else you would like to add? H I might add that we tried to assure in all science that we taught in the classrooms, that students learn something about the environment in which we live; in particularly, what bacteria does and does not do to us as human beings. For instance, we first wanted them to know that some bacteria are harmful and some bacteria are useful. Also wanted them to know that bacteria causes disease that they are often referred to as germs and that everywhere we live and everywhere we go that bacteria exist in the environment where we live. Two things have a great influence on bacteria; one is heat, the other is cold. Some bacteria strive well in a very cold environment, and other survives very well where it is very hot. We also wanted them to understand that bacteria are helpful in the production of much of the food that we eat. Also we wanted them to understand that harmful bacteria must be destroyed. This becomes a necessary part of one community, to prevent passing of disease from one human being to another. T I think I want to add to what you have said. The fact that I got my first belief or training on how to teach from some of the things you did with us in our classroom. My teaching, what I have done, is hand-on activities in order for my students to learn. I never though about the fact that my teacher use to plant the seed, we use to see the seed grow, and in my experiences of teaching, I use the hand-on approach in order for my students to learn. So, I have this feeling this is where my beliefs originated, from my previous training. H Having being an educator in the 40’s, 50’s, 60’s, 70’s, and 80’s, the impact of education upon the black community was a guiding influence of the black community. It was there that the school, church, and community organizations tried to be sure boys and girls of school age had the opportunity to attend school. Allow me to go back; the old black community was greatly concerned about the education of black youth. Fitzgerald itself was a great example of the belief because we had two private high schools in Ben Hill County, and one, which was Queensland high school, where we had dormitories where student can board and attend high school. The elder ministers, Baptist ministers saw to it that these schools were in existence. We had the “GC&W”, which was the other school in Fairview community. The “GC&W” came from the two conventions, “W” for Willachochee, and the “GC” for Gum Creek. All these schools were built to be sure that black boys and girls had an opportunity to receive a high school education in Ben Hill

292 County. It only did not help the students in Ben Hill County, but students from all surroundings attended these schools. Now let’s go a step further…. The funding for Queensland came from the Baptist Association. Every year when the Association met, the education director made their appeal to the general association, “Brothers and Sisters we must keep these school open”. They were asked if they raised crop to take food there for the children, they had dining halls. These children would have food to eat. They were further encouraged to share monies they earned to buy bedding to go on the beds of the dormitories. They also raised money monthly. This is why many of the union meetings came into being so that there would be enough money to pay the teachers salaries at their schools. Now let’s go further…The school ran by the Board of Education provided opportunities for students in later years to receive a high school education. They first started off with a limited number of years for training black high school students, which later were extended to go to the 12th grade. This took place in the 50’s. Now the black high school or the avenues traveled by the black students to get in college. During these years, we could not go to Universities owned by the state of Georgia. We had colleges, which were segregated colleges, which were Savannah State College, Ft. Valley State and Albany State College. But if you wanted to further your education, you could not further your education in the state owned institution. You could not go to University of Georgia, Georgia Tech, etc. For instance, the only reason I went to Columbia University to get a Master’s Degree is because I could not go to the University of Georgia, so I went to Columbia. We were denied Technical Education. Fortunate there were a man named Booker T. Washington who headed Tuskegee Institute and Dr. B. F. Hurbert who headed Savannah State who had worked under Booker T. Washington, they set up technical training for our people to the extent that if a person wanted technical training, you could receive it because you could not go to Georgia Tech nor could you go to what they call Georgia Southern at that time which was in Marianna, Georgia. This was a drawback to keep us from making good salaries. But the old students who attended Tuskegee and attended Savannah State came out with knowledge to make money; this was vital to us as a people. Your early mechanics, trained mechanics, our race was trained at Tuskegee or at Savannah State. Your early contractors were trained at Tuskegee or Savannah State. Your own black dairy owners were trained at Tuskegee or

293 Savannah State, etc. A great loss occurred with the development of black youths. What are the factors that contributed to this loss? Factors include relationship between the school, church, and community. The black schools had dedication as one of the main influences upon the students. Teachers who were dedicated, who kept saying go ahead, go ahead, you must go ahead. Today the influence in the school say drop out, drop out, drop out. This is one of our greatest problems. We were concerned about the protective recreation of our students. Yes, we had socials, but we had chaperoned socials, we had trips to various places every year. We had dances on the weekends but they were chaperoned activities. Today our students are “thrown to the wolves”…so to speak. Their recreations takes place anywhere in the community where ever there is a “juke joint”. And the structure makes sure that the wrong elements also attend the social for the students, and they are exposed to activities that prohibit them from exceeding in life to the extent that they are exposed to the use of drugs at a very early age. They are told in many instances that because you did not make certain scores on a SAT test, there’s no need for you to set your goals to be doctors, lawyers, pharmacists, nurses, etc., that you can’t make it. But I would like to say that this is not the answer. The first black lawyer in Valdosta, Georgia, the first time he took a certain test did not make the highest score, but he was told to keep on taking the test over and over, and over again. The same young man finished college, finish law school, and became the law clerk for the Superior Court Judge in Valdosta, Georgia. Some of the things that are missing are encouragement and inspiration in today’s society. The other one is love for students, we do not need our students discouraged, and they need to be encouraged. T “No Child Left Behind Act”? H How I think about that is how this is intended. We would want to say that the “No Child Left Behind Act” is the greatest act that was ever created, but we must be practical. All human beings do not have the same abilities. My thinking is that every child should have the opportunity to be trained to the extent of his or her ability. T Mr. Hall, I am wondering if you could sort of elaborate on the salaries between the African-American teachers and the white teachers. H There were great differences between the salaries of African-American teachers and the white teachers. At the beginning of my teaching, many of the elementary teachers were

294 not college graduates. This is no reflection on the black education; this was true in white teachers and black education. The salary for the two-year certificate for the white teachers was as great as the college graduate in the black schools. The two-year college black teachers was extremely low, it was just a little step above common labor. The four- year professional teaching certificate, which was granted, based on a college degree, you had two certificates at that time, and you had a professional certificate and a provisional certificate, one for those students who had an educational major instead of a pure concentration major, say for instance, biology, chemistry, mathematics, etc., and those that have mathematic education instead of science education. The salary for the person that had the teaching degree, that they called at that time, mathematic education, made more money than the person with the concentration, which was totally unfair. But this was the way it was set up. The person with the four-year professional or provisional, white or black, they received a totally different salary that was approximately $40.00 a month variation, which made a total difference of a four-year professional black teacher was making approximately $136.00 as compared with $176.00. Same thing was true with the Master’s Degree. Now the Master’s Degree was all kinds of tricks about certification. Whether or not you had a pure field, as it was called at that time, or the field of education. Whether or not you have a pure concentration to an extent was your certificate based on your concentration as compared to what you were going to teach. So this at all time was a drawback if you had not gone to the University of Georgia, Georgia Tech, etc. T In this research you have truly enlightened not only me, but you will enlighten the whole world. I thank you. H Thank you. T Next week we should be able to meet again for what we call member-check.

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APPENDIX D ARTIFACTS

Fig. 34. Public School Records

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Fig. 35. Eleventh Grade (1953) Banquet Photography/Salem Baptist Church

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Fig. 36. Monitor Segregated School

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Fig. 37. Eve’s Educational Finalist. I am Sarah Corbitt in the above photo.

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Fig. 38. Leadership Jacksonville

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Fig. 39. Teaching Certificates

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Fig. 40. Teaching Certificate

Fig. 41. Faculty Certificate

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Fig. 42. 1st Florida State Board of Health Clinical Licenses 1968

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Fig. 43. Florida State Board of Health Clinical Licenses (1968)

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Fig. 44. Hazardous program at Florida Junior College (FJC/Florida Community College at Jacksonville (FCCJ)

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Fig. 45. President’s Letter of Recommendation

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Fig. 46. Dr. Dustman’s Computer Program Development

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Fig. 47. Human Anatomy and Physiology Society Conference

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Fig. 48. Distinguished Teacher of the Year Award Letter 1975-1976

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Fig. 49. Teacher of the Year Award 1975-76

Fig. 50. Passing the Teacher of the Year Award 1976

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Fig. 51. 35 Years of Service

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323 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

I was born Sarah Ann Caruthers, January 7, 1936, in a small southern town, Fitzgerald Georgia. I was educated in the segregated, all-black, public school, Monitor. I began my educational venture in 1942, graduating from high school in 1954. I move to Jacksonville, Florida after graduation, entered a private college in Jacksonville, Edward Waters College (EWC) in 1954. I transferred to an all-black state university, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (FAMU). I earned my Bachelor of Science degree June 17, 1967. I received my Master of Education degree, December 15, 1970, from FAMU. I enrolled in Florida State University, receiving a Specialist in Education March 19, 1976. I was among the first teachers group to participant in the first introduction to biotechnology at the University of Florida (UF), 1990. I returned to Florida State University after my retirement June, 2003. My employment career began after graduating with a double major of biology and chemistry 1967. I was employed by Florida State Board of Health as a technician in the chemistry laboratory, in Jacksonville, Florida. I was transferred within the department to the heart research laboratory. In the research laboratory my duty included chemically separating the lipoprotein molecule by the process of electrophoresis for a medical cardiologist whose research was on that molecule. During the same time frame, I begin teaching part-time evening classes at Florida Junior College (FJC). In 1968 I became a full-time college teacher, becoming a professor/tutor and Chairperson of the Natural Science Department at Florida Community College at Jacksonville (FCCJ). I retired thirty-five successful years later in 2003. During those thirty-five years one of my highest accomplishments includes receiving Florida State Distinguished Teacher Award for the year 1975-1976. I returned to the campus of Florida State University after retirement in 2003 to pursue my PhD degree. To achieve my vision, I conducted a reflective autobiographical inquiry to reveal my beliefs, values, and practices of science teaching, by using action research with two of the tutoring students of my tutoring organization. I also conducted an ethnographic inquiry using my African-American teachers from my segregated, public school to understand how my early school experiences influenced my beliefs, values, and practices in science teaching.

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