THE MEDIA’S COVERAGE OF BLACK COACHES IN THE

NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE: A CONTENT

ANALYSIS OF SPORTS ILLUSTRATED

by

JEANETTE LYNN OWUSU, B.S.

A THESIS

IN

MASS COMMUNICATIONS

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Approved

Anthony Moretti Chairperson of the Committee

Judy Oskan

Aretha Marbley

Accepted

John Borrelli Dean of the Graduate School

May, 2005 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to thank my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. My two years in

Lubbock have clearly shown me the power of God and that I can do all things through

Christ who strengthens me.

I thank my mother for being the mom she is. Her determination and understanding made me the strong individual that I am today, and her support has helped me through my lowest times. I thank all my family and friends for their help, encouragement and prayers.

Many thanks are extended to Carter Chapel C.M.E. Church for the prayers and

warm hearts.

There are so many people that have contributed to me succeeding at this point in life, and much thanks is sent to Mrs. Underwood-Cox, Professor Dayton, Professor

Tormey and Ms. Lockhart. I also must thank all individuals who tried to prohibit my progress to success. Their obstacles made me stronger.

Last, but certainly not least, I must thank my committee. Their hard work, dedication, and support are greatly appreciated.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

LIST OF TABLES iv

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Statement of Purpose 1

2.1 Media Coverage 3

3.1 The Media and Coverage of Controversial Issues 5

4.1 Present Study 7

II. LITERATURE REVIEW 9

1.1 History of Blacks in the NFL 9

2.1 Past Research 13

3.1 Theory 18

4.1 Framing Studies 19

5.1 Hypotheses 24

III. METHODOLOGY 25

1.1 Justification for Selection of Sports Illustrated 26

2.1 Method Use 27

3.1 Codes, Categories/Coding Sheet 28

4.1 Inter-coder Reliability 31

5.1 Sports Illustrated 32

iii 6.1 Additional Sources 32

IV. RESULTS 34

V. DISCUSSION 48

1.1 Cover Photographs 48

2.1 Feature Articles 50

3.1 Kickers 52

4.1 Editorials/opinions 53

5.1 Sport blurbs 54

6.1 Subheads 55

7.1 Equivalent Season Ending Records 55

8.1 Limitations 58

9.1 Future Research 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY 61

APPENDICES 64

1.1 Coding Sheet 64

2.1 NFL Head Coaches at the Start of Each Season 65

Included in the Study

iv LIST OF TABLES

4.1 Number of Overall Mentions of NFL Head Coaches by Race during 40 1998-2004 Seasons

4.2 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 1998 Season 40

4.3 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 1999 Season 40

4.4 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2000 Season 41

4.5 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2001 Season 41

4.6 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2002 Season 41

4.7 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2003 Season 42

4.8 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2004 Season 42

4.9 Overall Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season 42 Ending Records for Seasons 1998-2004

4.10 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending 43 Records for the 1998 Season

4.10b NFL Head Coaches during the 1998 Season with Equivalent Season 43 Ending Records

4.11 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending 43 Records for the 1999 Season

4.11b NFL Head Coaches during the 1999 Season with Equivalent Season 44 Ending Records

4.12 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending 44 Records for the 2000 Season

4.12b NFL Head Coaches during the 2000 Season with Equivalent Season 44 Ending Records

4.13 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending 44 Records for the 2001 Season

v 4.13b NFL Head Coaches during the 2001 Season with Equivalent Season 45 Ending Records

4.14 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending 45 Records for the 2002 Season

4.14b NFL Head Coaches during the 2002 Season with Equivalent Season 45 Ending Records

4.15 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending 45 Records for the 2003 Season Records

4.15b NFL Head Coaches during the 2003 Season with Equivalent Season 46 Ending Records

4.16 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending 46 Records for the 2004 Season

4.16b NFL Head Coaches during the 2004 Season with Equivalent Season 46 Ending Records

4.17 Overall NFL Head Coaches by Race with Equivalent Season Ending 47 Records 1998-2004

5.1 Expected Coverage of Caucasian NFL Head Coaches in Sports 58 Illustrated from 1998-2004

5.2 Expected Coverage of African-American NFL Head Coaches in 58 Sports Illustrated from 1998-2004

vi CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

While African-American and Caucasian refer to an individual’s ethnicity, and

Black and White refer to a person’s skin color, the researcher will use the terms Black and White for this study.

Statement of Purpose

The purpose of this study is to determine if there is a difference in coverage in

Sports Illustrated between Black and White NFL head coaches.

The way in which the leading sports magazine covers Black coaches in the

National Football League is important to increasing the participation of minorities in management careers in all levels of sports. Pascal and Rapping (1976), recognizing the importance of role models to America’s youth, suggested that segregation by position is reinforced as Black youths concentrate on positions in which Black stars are most visible.

Eitzen and Sanford (1975) found that Black youth learn and subsequently occupy specific roles played by Blacks who attained a high level of achievement.

Condor and Anderson (1984) studied the coverage of Black and White athletes in

Sports Illustrated feature articles from 1960 to 1980. The study found that Sports

Illustrated was resistant to change. Overall, as the numbers of Blacks increased in professional sport participation, the number of feature articles on Black athletes did not

increase.

1 The researchers stated that in 1981, when the number of Black athletes in professional football surpassed 50 percent, Sports Illustrated featured Black football players as subjects in an equal number of feature articles to that of White football players.

Condor and Anderson suggested that Black athletes benefited from increased coverage in

American sport. The increased coverage of Black NFL players paralleled the emergence of football in national polls as the top spectator sport as well as the increased participation by Black players in the NFL.

Burns (1988) studied position stacking in the NFL from 1968 through 1983.

Stacking was defined as relegating specific races to certain positions, while excluding the same races from other positions. He concluded that Black players occupied 79.7 percent of the running back positions, 82.1 percent of the defensive back positions, and 76.2 percent of the wide receiver positions. Thus Blacks dominated non-central positions, while their White counterparts were found to overwhelming occupy central positions, including 96 percent at the quarterback position, 100 percent at center, and 75 percent designated as guards.

Burns stated the importance of the study was directly related to the fact that Black athletes accounted for the majority of professional football players and the possibility of discrimination needed to be examined.

Two-thirds of all NFL players in 2002 were Black but Blacks accounted for 6 percent of the head coaching positions. Beginning the 2004 season, five of the 32 NFL teams (15.6 percent) had a Black head coach (2004 NFL Record and Fact Book).

Madden (2004) studied the differences in success of NFL coaches by race from 1990 to

2 2002 and concluded that Black coaches performed better than White coaches based on a comparison of regular-season wins and participation in the playoffs. Madden stated that the data are consistent with Black coaches having to be better than Whites in order to be hired as a head coach in the NFL.

Madden (2004), Williams (1994), Burns (1988), Braddock (1981), Eitzen and

Sanford (1975) and others have contributed to studies involving the differences between

Black and White athletes, from their salaries to stacking at certain positions; however, very few studies have examined Black coaches in professional sports, and none has studied the way in which print media cover Black coaches in the NFL. The current study plans to add to past research of Blacks in sports but study a position of Blacks in professional football that has been overlooked.

Media Coverage

Tyrone Willingham was named head football coach at the University of Notre

Dame in 2001, becoming the first Black coach in any sport in the university’s 263-year history. Willingham was also the first coach at Notre Dame released before the completion of his initial contract.

Media speculation during the 2004 season surrounded Willingham’s job security.

The overall message in coverage of Notre Dame and its coach by some of ESPN’s talk- shows, including Pardon the Interruption, Around the Horn, and Outside the Lines, and other sports programming as well in the pages of Sports Illustrated did not suggest that

Willingham would be released early from his contract. Most sports journalists believed

3 that because Notre Dame had never fired a coach before his/her contract expired that

Willingham would not be an exception.

The December 6, 2004 issue of Sports Illustrated discussed eleven coaches in

Division 1-A football who to that point had resigned, been fired, or might soon join the

ranks of the unemployed. Willingham’s name was not mentioned even though he was

released from his contract a week before the Sports Illustrated issue hit newsstands.

In the days following the firing, Notre Dame’s decision dominated the airwaves

and sports pages, producing deep discussions concerning Blacks in sports. The Seattle

Times (December 12, 2004), San Francisco Chronicle (December 1, 2004), and the New

York Daily News (December 1, 2004), among other publications, filled the sports pages with news of Willingham’s dismissal. The theme that resonated in many of the stories was the small number of Black coaches in college football; at the time of the firing only two Black head coaches remained in Division 1-A football, and the standards to which

Black coaches are held.

Did Sports Illustrated, the nation’s leading sport magazine, cover Willingham’s firing, especially considering he was the highest profile Black collegiate coach ever

(Weiss, 2004) at one of the nation’s most prominent universities in college football?

Even though the story was a week old when Sports Illustrated published its next issue, no feature stories were dedicated to Willingham’s dismissal. The December 13th

issue of Sports Illustrated (pp. 20-21) discussed Willingham’s departure and briefly

discussed the state of Black coaches in Division 1-A football; however, the main focus of

the article was the image of Notre Dame.

4 According to Turner (1998), the content of Sports Illustrated is more a review of the previous week’s sporting news. In comparison, when Bob Davie was fired from Notre

Dame on December 2, 2001, the December 10th issue of Sports Illustrated (pp. 66-67) featured a two-page article on Davie’s tenure, as well as what led up to his firing.

While the Willingham situation is part of college football, it relates in great deal to the NFL and how the media cover head coaches whether they are White or Black. Bob

Davie was a White coach who was fired after five years of service to Notre Dame and received a two-page feature article in Sports Illustrated. In contrast, Willingham was the first coach in any sport at Notre Dame fired before the completion of his contract. He also reached the same winning percentage (.583) in three years that Davie reached in five; however, no feature article about Willingham was included in any issue of Sports

Illustrated. If one of the most prominent football coaches cannot occupy the sport pages in the midst of a controversy, then how will Sports Illustrated cover Black coaches in general?

The Media and Coverage of Controversial Issues

Braddock (1976) reported in his study of the sports page that most sports editors and reporters have opted not to use their considerable power and influence in the struggle to eradicate discrimination in sports at all levels. Wenner (1998) stated that the media contribute to the democratic political process and have significantly increased the popularity of sport in North America; however, the sports media rarely investigate the political issues of sport. Additionally, Serrin (2000) found that the media have failed to

5 provide more accurate, thorough, and balanced coverage of an increasingly diverse

nation, and therefore the media have abandoned their responsibility to foster an exchange

of information and perspectives that is necessary in a democracy. If the media possess

such power in influencing the thoughts and perceptions of society, then they should be

responsible in the information they transmit.

According to Wenner (1998), the increase in televised sports coverage in the

1970’s provided fans a growing opportunity to see athletic events, which shifted the work of print journalists from describing the game and reporting scores to investigating sport from behind the scenes and provide an insider’s glimpse.

The media have a duty to inform and educate their audiences. Within formal news departments, journalists make pragmatic decisions based on daily standards that are not

necessarily fundamental to journalism but have become customary over time. These

standards have emerged from the established mandates of their departments to

investigate, entertain, and/or educate (Wenner, 1998).

According to Lee (2005), there are 1,4561 daily newspapers in the United States,

but there are only five Black sports editors, who are employed by the New York Daily

News, the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, The Dallas Morning

News, and The Courier in Houma, LA. Lee stated that the agenda of most sport departments, in terms of coverage and hiring practices, are still led primarily by White males. Additionally, a recent survey by the American Society of Newspaper Editors

1 Lee’s article in The Boston Globe (March 18, 2005), states that there are 1,456 daily newspapers in the United States. However, according to the American Society of Newspaper Editors’ database (March, 24, 2005) there are currently 1,413 daily newspapers in the United States. Lee’s information remained consistent with the American Society of Newspaper Editor’s database as well as additional reports.

6 (2004) reported only 5.4 percent of journalists in U.S. newsrooms were Black, while

Whites accounted for 87 percent.

An example of how race affects journalistic decisions occurred when ESPN the

Magazine’s sports editor assigned a young Black journalist a feature on Latrell Sprewell

(a Black basketball player). According to Ryan (1998) the editor’s decision was based on the magazine’s desire to get stories about minorities and taking risks. As a result the story was considered a soft piece (Ryan).

Lapchick (1987) identified the role of journalists as to preserve the status quo.

Lapchick classified sportswriters in three categories, box score maniacs- those who reported from a technical aspect of the game, gossips, and sociologists- those who dared to approach sports within the context of a larger society. Additionally, in Lapchick's

Fractured Focus (1986), Smith and Valeriote suggested that sportswriters neglected the big issues in sports on the grounds fans were not interested.

Berkowitz (1997) defines a journalist as someone who simply records the world.

However those recording the world are typically White, middle-aged men. As a result their perceptions of what is important is what makes the sports pages. News legitimizes and supports the existing political-economic system (Berkowitz, 1997).

Present Study

Past research by Murrell (1994), Williams (1994), Lumpkin and Williams (1991),

Burns (1988), Condor and Anderson (1984), Braddock (1981), Schneider and Eitzen

(1979), Pascal and Rapping (1976), and Eitzen and Sanford (1975) supports that there is a

7 difference in the way the media cover Black and White athletes. There has not been a study to determine if this difference extends to the coaching ranks.

Lumpkin and Williams (1991) stated that given the large percentages of Black athletes in professional baseball, football, and basketball, there are few media analyses of

Black athletes. While there is not a large percentage of Black head coaches in the NFL,

Madden (2004) stated that their performance is equivalent to that of White head coaches; therefore Black head coaches in the NFL should be covered equivalently to their White counterparts.

The purpose of the present study is to determine if there is a difference in coverage of Black and White head coaches in the NFL by Sports Illustrated. The study applies the framing theory to determine to what degree, if any, differences occur between

Black and White NFL head coaches in terms of cover photographs, subheads, kickers, editorial/opinions, and sport blurbs in Sports Illustrated.

A combination of books, scholarly journals, newspaper and magazine articles contributed to the study.

8 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section includes a history of the Black experience in the National Football

League, as well as a summary of past research of the media’s coverage of Black and

White athletes, including coaches. The chapter describes the framing theory applied in this study and past research that has utilized the theory. Chapter two concludes with the researcher’s hypotheses for this study.

History of Blacks in the NFL

Blacks have a long history in professional football that dates back to inception of the American Professional Football Association (APFA) in 1920.

The APFA, formed by George Halas and Ralph Hay, consisted of eleven teams throughout the East and Midwest (Ross, 1999). Competing with boxing, baseball, and college football, professional football fought for the interest of fans and may have been more willing to allow Blacks to play because the sport did not have an identifiable fan base (Ross, 1999).

As with many new leagues, the APFA went through organizational and scheduling problems from 1920-1922 (NFL, 1973). Renamed the National Football

League in 1922, Black players were regular members of various teams until 1933.

Fritz Pollard began playing professional football in the Ohio League in 1919.

When the Akron Pros joined the APFA in 1920, Pollard experienced success as a player/coach, compiling an 8-0-3 record and winning the league’s first championship

9 (Ross, 1999). Pollard coached the Pros from 1919-1921. As the league continued to grow, so did the opportunity for Pollard as a coach. He coached the NFL’s Milwaukee

Badgers during the 1922 season (Chalk, 1975; Ross, 1999).

The number of Blacks in the NFL fluctuated from a high of six in 1926 (Chalk,

1975) and to a low of just one during the 1931 and 1932 seasons. After 1933 Blacks were banned from the NFL. As the sport gained popularity, the need for Black players decreased (Ross, 1999).

George Halas, Ralph Hay and Jim Thorpe are a few individuals who were involved in the NFL’s early years and there have been various reasons suggested for none of the teams carrying a Black player for more than ten years; however, the fact remains that there was some type of color barrier preventing Black players from entering the league (Levy, 2003; Ross, 1999, Smith, 1988; Chalk, 1975).

Art Rooney and George Halas, two of the NFL’s visionaries, declared years later that there had been no color ban but signing Black players was just something that no team did. Rooney said that there was never any racial bias (Ross, 1999). Halas, the former owner of the Chicago Bears, stated in 1970 that there was no unwritten exclusionary agreement (Ross, 1999).

However, Halas and Rooney provided reasons for the absence of Blacks that did not seem to affect the league during its first thirteen years. Halas blamed the quality of

Black players, while Rooney said financial constraints prevented adequate scouting systems (Ross, 1999). In order for a Black player to get noticed by the NFL, he had to be a standout at a predominately White university. Black players from Black universities

10 were not actively recruited until the formation of the American Football League in 1960

(Ross, 1999).

Smith (1988) stated that during the Depression decade it was not in the best interest for an NFL team to employ a Black player while so many Whites were unemployed. The NFL was still in the growing stage during the Depression and could not afford to isolate the majority of the U.S. population.

Ross (1999) wrote that during the time Blacks were excluded from the NFL, Jim

Crow was very powerful and NFL owners did not want the reputation of soliciting Black players while baseball was all-White.

George Preston Marshall came into the NFL as an owner in 1932, bringing with him plans to propel professional football to the same popularity college football, boxing and baseball enjoyed. Known as a leader among league owners (Levy, 2003), Marshall brought structure and organization to the NFL. He divided the league into two divisions, developed a league championship, invented the half-time show, and was the first owner skilled at marketing the game (Levy, 2003; Smith, 1999).

Marshall’s influence extended beyond the boardroom. According to Ross (1999) and Levy (2003), he was instrumental in convincing fellow NFL owners to ban Black players from their teams.

Red Grange, considered one of the best college players of all time

(www.collegefootballnews.com), tried to take advantage of the NFL’s ban on Blacks. In an attempt to compete with the NFL, Grange, president of the new United States Football

League, in 1944 acknowledged that because Blacks were fighting for the U.S. in World

11 War II, they had the right to play professional sports in the United States (Ross, 1999).

The USFL never played a single game.

In 1944 a group of businessmen including Arch Ward, a sports editor at the

Chicago Tribune and organizer of the Chicago College All-Star game and baseball all- star games, formed the All-American Football Conference (AAFC). The league did not begin functioning until 1946. With the formation of a new professional football league

Black athletes believed their chance to play professionally had re-emerged. In 1946, while a member of the AAFC, the Cleveland Browns signed Marion Motley and Bill

Willis, the first Black players to sign a contract with a professional football team since

1933. The Browns joined the NFL in 1950, after the AAFC folded. While other leagues began signing Black players, the NFL continued to resist change in allowing Blacks to play.

In 1946, the Los Angeles Rams integrated in order to gain use of the Los Angeles

Coliseum, which was a publicly owned facility that did not allow any organization that practiced racial discrimination to use it (Ross, 1999; Levy, 2003). Gradually, the AAFC and the NFL allowed Black players into their leagues. However, not all teams in the

AAFC signed a Black player before merging with the NFL in 1950 (Ross, 1999). In 1961 the Washington Redskins became the last team to sign an Black player to their roster.

Another opportunity arose for Black players in 1960 with the formation of the

American Football League (AFL). More than the AAFC, the AFL actively recruited

Black players (www.answers.com) from predominately Black schools as well as some of the top universities in the nation.

12 Blacks continued to perform at high levels, but they were unable to move into

leadership positions on and off the field (Levy, 2003). The positions of running back,

wide receiver, and defensive back were almost exclusive to Black players (Burns, 1988,

Eitzen and Sanford, 1975). The opportunity to lead a team in the position of quarterback

was scarce.

In 1988 Doug Williams became the first Black quarterback to lead his team to the

Super Bowl (Levy, 2003). A year later Art Shell became the first Black coach in the

modern era of the NFL (Shropshire, 1996). To date there have been nine Black coaches

in the NFL.

Past Research

There has been substantive research examining racial discrimination in professional football as well as how the media cover the athletes in the sport. To date there have been very few studies involving football coaching.

Eitzen and Sanford (1975) sought to demonstrate that racial stacking exists by position in professional football. The researchers collected data by selecting 38 colleges and universities known for producing professional football players. Predominately Black universities were included because Black players at those schools would play all positions. The sports information director at each school listed their football players drafted by a professional team in the past ten years, as well as the position they played while in college.

Eitzen and Sanford received responses from all schools, creating a list of 533 players. Information on players’ positions in the pros and their race was found by using

13 the 1971 Football Register. The study then eliminated players who retired prior to 1971 or were selected in the 1972 draft. Letters were then written to each player’s high school to see what position they played while in high school, creating a list of 387 athletes (230

White and 157 Black).

The researchers concluded that a shift of Black players from central to non-central positions did occur as the player increased his level of competition. From high school to the pros, 50 percent of the White high school quarterbacks remained in that position through college and in to professional football. In contrast, out of the twenty-two Black high school quarterbacks only one continued in the same position in professional football.

In additional research, Schneider and Eitzen (1979) examined the stacking phenomenon at the college level. The researches wanted to know if stacking was becoming obsolete. Schneider and Eitzen believed that if there were a breakdown in stacking discrimination then it would appear in college football before the professional level.

The results concluded that racial stacking by position was just as severe in college teams as professional football teams in 1978 as it was during 1975 and earlier. Stacking was evident at all positions and allowed Eitzen and Schneider to conclude that Black players must be better than White players to succeed in sport.

Braddock (1981) studied institutional discrimination in the NFL utilizing historical records of active and former players and team management personnel from

1960 through 1979. The researcher used The Encyclopedia of Football, The Sports

Encyclopedia: Pro Football, Official National Football League Record Manual, Football

14 Register, National Football Guide, Ebony and team media guides for statistical and

historical references. The researcher’s objective was to determine if race was a significant

factor in the progression of retired players into management positions.

The researcher compared the distribution of Black and White players in the NFL.

Institutional discrimination was assumed when the distribution of Black and White

players was disproportionate in all positions and levels of the NFL hierarchy.

The study concluded that a Black player was significantly less likely to be

selected for either a head/assistant coaching position in the NFL. Be it direct or indirect,

race was found to be a factor in the career mobility of Blacks in the NFL.

Condor and Anderson (1984) studied coverage of Black and White athletes in

Sports Illustrated feature articles from 1960 to 1980. Feature articles in the magazine

about Black and White athletes were examined over a 21-year period at seven-year

intervals. The study found that between 1960 and 1974, as the number of Blacks at the

top or elite levels of American sport increased, Sports Illustrated feature articles did not

reflect this trend; stories remained predominately about White athletes. In 1960, 1967,

and 1974, White athletes were the subjects of more feature articles and had more in-depth

profiles when compared to Black athletes. However, in 1981, when the percentage of

Black football players rose to more than 50 percent, Black athletes were the subjects of

an equal number of feature articles as their White counterparts.

Lumpkin and Williams (1991) examined feature articles in Sports Illustrated between 1954 and 1987.

15 The study employed five research questions,2 but for the purpose of this study the researcher only identified questions two and five, because of their direct relation to the current study. Lumpkin and Williams asked if the number and length of feature articles disproportionately acknowledged the achievements of White athletes compared to Black athletes in the most popular male sports. The researchers also asked if male or females and Black and Whites in certain sports were featured more and in longer articles.

The study included 3,723 feature articles from Sports Illustrated between 1954 and 1987.

The study concluded that even though Black participation in sports was prevalent and at times accounted for higher percentages than White participation, Black athletes received less than 25 percent of feature articles, while White athletes were featured in

76.1 percent of the stories. Feature articles on White athletes in baseball, basketball,

boxing and football were longer than articles of Black athletes in the same sports.

The sporting achievements of White athletes were disproportionately publicized

as compared to Black athletes in the most popular male sports, supporting the findings of

past researchers that the coverage of Blacks is not proportional with their presence in the

sport.

Lumpkin and Williams stated that the dominance of articles in football, baseball,

and basketball supports previous concerns about discriminatory treatment against Black

athletes because they were featured in a limited number of articles.

2 Additional research questions: Does the publication reinforce traditional attitudes toward females in sport by limiting the number and length of articles and by acclaiming their achievements primarily in “sex appropriate” sports? Is there differential treatment by gender and race in 10 selected sports played by both males and females? Do male authors characterize males and females in different stereotypical ways?

16 Murrell (1994) examined the impact of race on attributions of a player’s performance. Five different magazines from 1990 through 1992 were used in the study, including Sports Illustrated, Ebony, Jet, Sport Magazine, and Boy’s Life.

Three Black quarterbacks were selected because they were the only ones who occupied primary positions during any one of the three seasons in the study. The researcher then selected three White quarterbacks by matching their quarterback rating to the three Black quarterback ratings. Descriptions for success or failure were coded for in terms of locus, stability, and controllability.

The researcher concluded that a Black quarterback’s performance was attributed to being more stable and less controllable (natural ability, being a good competitor) than that of a White quarterback. In contrast, the researcher found that a White quarterback’s performance was attributed to internal, unstable, and controllable factors (trying hard, effort). Murrell stated that the Black quarterback’s performance is a function of the player’s race rather than the player’s performance on the field.

Burns (1988) examined position occupancy as a function of race in the NFL draft from 1968 to 1983. The study concluded that with the exception of the 1971 draft, Black athletes were found to be under-represented at central positions of quarterback, center, offensive guard, and linebacker; and over-represented at non-central positions including running back, wide receiver, and defensive back. Burns defined centrality as how close a member is to the “center of the group’s interaction network.”

17 Madden (2004) examined the differences in NFL coaches by race from 1990 through 2002. The researcher used a list of NFL coaches and team win-loss records and playoff appearances between 1986 and 2001.

Madden analyzed whether race affects the likelihood of being fired, the playoff records for Black and White coaches, and the overall records for Black and White coaches.

The study concluded that Black coaches averaged more wins (9.1) than White coaches (8.0) in their first-year, and 71percent (9.6) of first-year Black coaches made the playoffs as compared to 23 percent (7.1) of White first-year coaches. Twenty percent

(6.8) of Black coaches were fired in the year they made the playoffs, while only 7 percent

(5.6) of White coaches were fired in the year they made the playoffs. Madden concluded that race effects the tenure of a coach in the NFL.

Theory

Reese (2001) stated that framing refers to the way events and issues are organized and made sense of. According to Entman (2001), to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communication text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem, definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and or treatment recommendation.

A frame is also defined as a central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration (Tankard, Hendrickson, Silberman, Bliss, and Ghanem, 2001).

18 Additionally, Hertog and McLeod (2001) noted that the frame used to interpret an

event determines what available information is relevant and what is irrelevant.

Framing Studies

Ashley and Olson (1998) conducted a content analysis examining the framing techniques of three print publications (New York Times, Time, and Newsweek) in their coverage of the women’s movement.

The researchers hypothesized that feminists would be framed as less important, less legitimate, and more deviant than anti-feminists. The coverage of feminists also would emphasize events more than issues, whereas the coverage of anti-feminists would emphasize issues. The last hypothesis was that the coverage of feminists would include use of fewer framing techniques over time.

The majority of framing techniques came in the form of quotation marks around the words “women’s movement” and “liberation.” The quotation marks framed the issue as though it was not serious.

Another example of framing techniques utilized in the study were the many occurrences of dissension among individuals in the women’s movement. This frame gave readers the impression that the women involved were not organized or solidified for the cause.

The study concluded that the media minimized the women’s movement. Framing techniques were present and the women’s movement was framed in a humorous and puzzling way. The publications delegitimized feminists and legitimized anti-feminists.

19 The frames depicted feminists as disorganized, while anti-feminists were depicted as

being organized. Ashley and Olson stated that the media contributed to shaping

perceptions by their word choice.

Messaris and Abraham (2001) examined how visual communication functions as

an agent of framing and in what ways the framing process is affected by the use of visual images.

Examining a story written in The Daily Pennsylvania about rape prevention, the researchers noted that the picture featured in the article was a White man restraining a

Black man. However, the story made no mention of race in regards to those persons guilty of rape or those who should help prevent rape.

Additionally, an evening broadcast of the NBC News was viewed about people moving from welfare to work. While the actual story featured one White and one Black

person discussing their experiences, the introduction to the story including the first 14

shots were pictures of Blacks who were referred to as people who had been on welfare all

their lives, however the shots were field shots that included Blacks, it is not known if the

people were actually on welfare or not.

The researchers concluded that visual framing might convey meanings that would

be more controversial or might be met with opposition if they were conveyed through

words. Messaris and Abraham stated that viewers might be less aware of framing when it

occurs visually.

Bantimaroudis and Ban (2001) examined the framing choices in coverage of the

Somalia crisis by The New York Times and The Manchester Guardian. The researchers

20 selected the two publications because of their considerable influence in their respective countries, the U.S. and England.

A qualitative analysis showed that both news publications framed the events in

Somalia as in opposition with U.N. forces as well as categorizing Somali leaders as warlords. The effort was framed as a humanitarian as well as a military effort.

Bantimaroudis and Ban concluded that The New York Times devoted more space to the coverage of Somalia than The Guardian; however, there was no difference in the frequency of the terms warlords and factions in each paper. Both newspapers over used the military frame.

Sotirovic (2000) examined cognitive structures consisting of frames that people used in response to an open-ended survey question about cuts in welfare benefits.

Sotirovic found that higher education increases the likelihood of using economy, taxes/budget, children will suffer and individualism frames. Older people were less likely to use the increase in differences between poor and rich frame but more likely to use the abuses frame. Individuals that spoke with someone on welfare were more likely to use the abuses frame.

The researcher concluded that individual’s entertainment and news media use affect frames that people adopt in thinking about an important public issue. Also, frames partly derived from the media, shaped the public’s policy preferences. Patterns of media use were found to be relatively important sources of ideas in regards to a person’s thinking. Sotirovic concluded that watching news and public affairs on television discourages the use of crime trends and homelessness frames.

21 Iyengar and Simon (1993) analyzed agenda setting, priming, and framing that

operated on public opinion during the Persian Gulf crisis and war. For purposes of this study the current researcher will discuss only the framing aspect of the study.

Prime time ABC newscasts were examined between August 1990 and April 1991.

The Gulf television news coverage was episodic. Iyengar and Simon stated that episodic coverage focuses on specific events. Viewers rarely were provided with background information about the Gulf conflict, historical precedents or information about the socioeconomic and cultural make-up of Iraqi and Kuwaiti societies.

The study found that diplomatic efforts accounted for the majority of coverage.

Additionally, Republicans, males, people who are more educated, and Whites tended to support the military option. Respondents who were more informed and who watched the news more frequently were more likely to favor military resolution. Overall, exposure to episodic news programming strengthened the support for a military resolution to the crisis.

Iyengar and Simon concluded that television news coverage of the conflict in the

Persian Gulf affected the political concerns and evaluation criteria of George Bush by

Americans. The researchers found in support of their framing hypothesis that exposure to episodic framing of the crisis increased viewers’ support for a military resolution to the conflict.

Wachs and Dworkin (1997) compared the media’s coverage of the Greg Louganis and Magic Johnson HIV-positive announcements. The researchers examined if the athletes were framed as a hero, victim, or carrier with regard to his HIV-positive status.

22 The researchers used various frames in order to analyze the text. Messner and

Solomon’s (1993) media frames of sin and redemption were employed, because they consider what is inside and outside the frame in relation to dominant ideologies. The frames suggested that Johnson’s redemption was inevitable while Louganis’s redemption was impossible due to the frame of sexual identity and the AIDS virus constructed by the news media.

Johnson was framed as a hero living with an illness, while Louganis was framed as a carrier who was morally responsible for alerting the heterosexual community to the risk of AIDS.

Additionally, Johnson’s frame as a hero recapped his success on and off of the basketball court. Many of the articles spoke in great detail to Johnson’s success as a businessman and educating the Black community about AIDS. On the other, no articles made mention of the outstanding diving career of Louganis, rather the one incident when he hit his head on the diving board and bled in the pool was replayed over and over. The story was framed as Louganis posing a risk to the doctors and other divers, even though the chance of transmission was one in a million.

In contrast, when Johnson cut himself and bled during an NBA game the incident was framed as a stigma he must fight to overcome.

Wachs and Dworkin concluded that AIDS is still widely viewed as a gay disease by the media. Sexual identity is a key determinant on how the media frame HIV/AIDS announcements by athletes.

23 Hypotheses

Based on the research conducted on how the media have covered Black and

White athletes, the following hypotheses were developed for this study:

H1: An NFL head coach will be pictured in a cover photograph during the time of

study, but a Black coach will not be pictured in a cover photograph in Sports Illustrated.

H2: Proportional to their participation, Sports Illustrated will feature White NFL head coaches in more feature articles than Black head coaches.

H3: White NFL head coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of

Black NFL head coaches will be featured in more feature articles, editorials/opinions and sport blurbs.

24 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The methodology section provides the reader with a detailed description of how

the researcher conducted the current study. Past research utilizing the same type of

method as the present study is included in this chapter. As well as the type of method used in this study, the research design, past research utilizing content analysis, the

population included in the study, research instruments used, collection of the data, as well

as recording, processing and analyzing the data are included in chapter three.

Methodology

Eitzen and Sanford (1975), Schneider and Eitzen (1979), Braddock (1981),

Condor and Anderson (1984), Lumpkin and Williams (1991), Murrell (1994), Burns

(1988) and Madden (2004) have demonstrated that there is a difference in media

coverage between Black and White athletes including, article length, placement of

articles, type of articles, article tone, and descriptors used to describe the athlete’s

performance.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether there was a difference between

the number of cover photographs, subheads, kickers and article types, including feature

articles, editorial/opinions and sport blurbs, occupied by Black and White head coaches in the National Football League in Sports Illustrated.

25 The expectation of this study was similar to the results that past research has

rendered: there would be a difference in the way Sports Illustrated covers Black and

White head coaches in the National Football League.

The study attempted to find if the differences were apparent in cover photographs.

For the purpose of this study a cover photograph includes any picture of an NFL head

coach found on the cover of Sports Illustrated, the coach can be featured with other

individuals or by himself. Will Black head coaches in the NFL be featured in a cover

photograph in Sports Illustrated? Past research has shown that Black athletes are held to

different standards than White athletes, for this reason the study attempts to examine if

there is a difference in media coverage of Black and White NFL head coaches with

equivalent season-ending records.

The study also examines subheads, kickers, feature articles, editorial/opinions and

sport blurbs to determine if Sports Illustrated featured either a Black or White NFL head coach. The difference may be apparent in the frequency White and Black coaches are featured in subheads and kickers. A concise definition of each term can be found later in the chapter under the heading “Codes, Categories/Coding Sheet.”

Justification for Selection of Sports Illustrated

Sports Illustrated is the leading sport publication in the United States and many researchers including Condor and Anderson (1981), Lumpkin and Williams (1991) and

M. Hardin, Lynn, Walsdorf and B. Hardin (2002), have used the magazine in past research. For this reason the magazine was selected for the current study. The publication

26 is a weekly magazine and represents a White, male, middle-class demographic (Lumpkin

and Williams, 1991).

According to www.magazine.org, Sports Illustrated is the nation’s leading sports magazine. With a circulation of more than 3.2 million in 2003, Sports Illustrated has been one of the highest circulating magazines since its founding in 1954.

Davis (1998) argued that the lack of representation of people of color in the sports coverage and advertisements in Sports Illustrated suggested that Whites are the preferred reader/consumer of the magazine. Newsweek (1998, 66) described Sports Illustrated as being too old, too white guy, and too country club.

Method Use

The present study used a content analysis of all weekly issues of Sports Illustrated from June 1, 1998 to February 14, 2005. Issues featuring NFL head coaches in cover photographs, subheads, kickers, feature articles, editorials/opinions, or sport blurbs were included in the study. The 1998 date reflects ESPN the Magazine’s debut in sporting

publications, and thus the date when two sporting magazines with different target

demographics would cover sports. The ending date covers the last full NFL season to

date.

ESPN was riding the wave of its success as an all-sports cable channel when it

launched the magazine. Sports Illustrated underwent major redesign changes in February

1998 in order to secure its spot as the number one sporting magazine before ESPN the

Magazine hit the newsstands (Gremillion and Granatstein, 1998).

27 Past research has employed content analysis. Murrell and Curtis (1994) examined

print media coverage of three White and three Black NFL quarterbacks regarding the

determining factors the media used to explain their on-the-field performances. Analyses

were done using five different magazines from 1990 to 1992, identifying performance

related statements in each passage.

Braddock (1976) examined if White athletes received more print coverage in the

sports pages of daily newspapers than Black athletes, and if the coverage Black athletes

received was less favorable than White athletes. All articles covering basketball and

football at two leading universities in the Washington D.C. area were analyzed in regards

to the number of articles, article length, article placement, heading focus, and athlete’s

image.

Condor and Anderson (1984) utilized content analysis on feature articles of Sports

Illustrated from 1960 to 1980 to determine if Black or White athletes received more

coverage. The study analyzed race, number of articles, column inches, and specific sport.

In the current study the census includes cover photographs, featuring a head coach

in the NFL, kickers referencing an NFL head coach, feature articles, editorials/opinions,

or sports blurbs about NFL head coaches.

Codes, Categories/Coding Sheet

The coding sheet included a case number, date of publication, if there was a NFL head coach featured in a cover photograph, name of coach featured, race of coach, type of

28 story, name of coach in story type, coach featured in subhead, name of coach featured in subhead, kicker featuring an NFL head coach and name of coach in kicker.

There were six categories in the study analyzed and coded including cover photographs, kickers, subheads, feature articles, editorial/opinions and sport blurbs. A brief description of each is mentioned here. The reader is encouraged to go to Appendix

A for an example of the coding sheet.

1. Case #- number used to identify each coded story or item

2. Cover photograph- any picture on the front of the magazine, including

pictures with other individuals (covers that did not feature an NFL head coach

were not included in the final number of cover photographs)

3. Kicker- small headlines over the main headlines (Tankard, 1991) featured on

the cover of the magazine

4. Subheads- smaller headlines under the main headline within the magazine. An

example includes: Rams’ Staying Power- headline Refreshing Run Under

Vermeil- subhead (Sports Illustrated, November 1, 1999)

5. Feature article- story about athletes, coaches, owners, or other significant

sporting persons, where one individual was the subject of a personal profile

(Lumpkin and Williams, 1991). For the purpose of this study the definition of

a feature article also includes a story related to any sporting achievement of a

coach. In order to increase sample size, the researcher included articles related

to sporting achievement, because Lumpkin and Williams (1991) found that

29 feature articles on coaches and managers accounted for only 8.3 percent of

feature articles in Sports Illustrated

6. Editorial/opinions- any story written by an author clearly expressing his/her

point of view and not necessarily supported by additional sources or brief

comments submitted by Sports Illustrated readers. Editorials/opinions were

heavily found in, but not limited to subsections within the magazine where

feature writers discuss their opinions on specific topics including, Letters

(each submission by Sports Illustrated readers should be counted

individually), King’s Corner-My Two Cents, Rick Reilly, and the Show. An

example includes:

“I think, based on two preseason games, that it’s going to be an awful hard sell for

Tom Coughlin to pick Kurt (Feet of Stone) Warner as the Giants’ starting quarterback”

(Sports Illustrated, August 30, 2004).

7. Sport blurbs- brief mention of a coach, located anywhere in the magazine.

Sport blurbs were heavily found in but not limited to, the following

subsections within the magazine: Go Figure, Blotter, Dispatches, The Buzz,

For the Record, and the Sports Beat. These sections make brief mention of

individuals or events happening in the sports world. An example includes:

“New England’s Bill Belichick and Philadelphia’s Andy Reid are two of the

premier head coaches in the NFL” (Sports Illustrated, February 7, 2005).

30 The present study used the term “equivalent” in H3: White NFL head coaches

with equivalent season ending records to that of Black NFL head coaches will be featured

in more feature articles, editorials/opinions and sport blurbs. Equivalent is defined as

equal, as in value, having identical effects (The American Heritage Dictionary, 1991).

Inter-coder Reliability

Two graduate students from a southwest, public university were selected to code

ten percent (13 magazines) of the Sports Illustrated issues. The coders were verbally given detailed instructions on how to code, as well as a copy of the methodology section to help guide them through the coding process. The researchers answered any questions the coders had in regards to definitions of each variable. The methodology section included definitions, and key sections to help the coders identify various categories. One hundred percent agreement was reached for the following categories: Is an NFL head coach on the cover, name of coach referenced, race of coach and feature articles. Is a coach included in the kicker, name of the coach featured in the kicker and sport blurbs received 84.6 percent agreement. A coach featured in the subhead and name of the coach featured in the subhead received 92.3 percent agreement. Editorial/opinions received 76.9 percent agreement. The overall result of the inter-coder reliability test based on Holsti’s formula was .91.

31 Sports Illustrated

To determine if an NFL head coach was featured on the cover of Sports

Illustrated from 1998 through 2005 the author accessed

http://dynamic.si.cnn.com/covers/advancedSearch, which is the archive of all Sports

Illustrated covers. Each cover was viewed to see if a head coach was featured. Kickers

also were recorded from this site.

All categories including features, editorials/opinions, sport blurbs, subheads and

kickers in Sports Illustrated were viewed utilizing microfilm for all issues dated June 1,

1998 through September 15, 2003. Beginning with the September 22, 2003 issue through

February 14, 2005, the hard copy of Sports Illustrated was used; the researcher is a

Sports Illustrated subscriber and had hard copies of these issues in her possession. Any

article referencing an NFL head coach was recorded.

Additional Sources

In order to search for NFL head coaches with equivalent season ending records,

the NFL Record & Fact Book from 1998 through 2004 was used to compile a list of all

head coaches and records.

Due to the subjectivity of race, the list of NFL head coaches created from the NFL

Record & Fact Book isolated all Black head coaches from the researcher’s prior observations. After Black head coaches were identified, the remaining coaches on the list were classified as White. At the beginning of the 2004 NFL season five of the league’s

32 head coaches were Black (NFL Record & Fact Book). The list of Black head coaches

32 then was crosschecked with recent news publications covering the NFL and Black

coaches. The National Football League’s official website, www.nfl.com, identified three

Black head coaches at the time of the report (February 22, 2003). The News Argus (April

28, 2003) identified all Black head coaches who have coached in the NFL since the first

Black head coach in 1989. In order to account for any coaching changes during the 2003

NFL season, and head coaching assignments for the 2004 season, the list derived from the NFL Record & Fact Book was referenced to account for any additional changes.

Team websites were accessed for teams that had new coaches who did not appear on the list. One Black head coach was added to the overall list of 2004 NFL head coaches. A list of Black coaches in the NFL from the 1998 through 2004 season can be found in the

Appendix 2.1.

33 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

A total of 386 issues of Sports Illustrated were examined. Only issues referencing

an NFL head coach in the categories of the study were included, resulting in 150 issues

utilized for the study.

Four hundred and ninety items were coded. As shown in Table 4.1, an overall

summary of each coded category included: six cover photographs (1.2 percent), nine

kickers (1.8 percent), 72 feature articles (14.7 percent), 146 editorial/opinions (29.8 percent), 133 sport blurbs (27.1 percent), and 124 subheads (25.3 percent).

Overall, White coaches were featured in 69.1 percent of feature articles, editorials/opinions, and sport blurbs. White coaches accounted for 65 percent of features,

70 percent of editorials/opinions, and 70 percent of sport blurbs. Black head coaches accounted for 30.9 percent of feature articles, editorials/opinions, and sport blurbs. Black coaches were featured in 35 percent of feature articles, 30 percent of editorials/opinions and 30 percent of sport blurbs.

The researcher hypothesized that an NFL head coach would occupy a cover photograph during the time of the study, but a Black coach would not be featured in a cover photograph in Sports Illustrated. Hypothesis two stated that in proportion to their participation, Sports Illustrated would feature White NFL head coaches in more feature articles than Black head coaches. The final hypothesis stated that White NFL head

34 coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of Black NFL head coaches would

be featured in more feature articles, editorials/opinions and sport blurbs.

H1 was partially supported. As evident in Table 4.1, an NFL head coach did appear in a cover photograph of a Sports Illustrated issue. However, contrary to expectations, an Black coach was featured in a Sports Illustrated cover photograph.

NFL coaches accounted for 1.2 percent (6) of all covers from June 1, 1998

through February 14, 2005. White coaches occupied 83.3 percent (5) of cover

photographs, while Black coaches represented 16.7 percent (1) of cover photographs. The

major difference between the cover photographs between each race is that an Black head

coach occupied the cover of Sports Illustrated in conjunction with several other

individuals. The actual issue (May 5, 2003) was titled “101 Most Influential Minorities in

Sports.” Herman Edwards, coach of the New York Jets, occupied this cover with 27 other

people.

Sports Illustrated featured Mike Ditka on the cover after a 6-10 season with the

New Orleans Saints (July 20, 1998), but Dennis Green, an Black coach, who’s career

winning percentage is higher then that of Ditka (.57 and .557 respectively), and posted

the second best season in NFL history in 1998, has never received a cover photograph.

Bill Parcells also was featured in a cover photo during the 1998 season, when his

team finished with a 12-4 record. Other coaches to receive cover photographs on Sports

Illustrated during the time period of this study, include Jon Gruden in September 2002,

his first season with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (12-4); Gruden in February 2003, after

35 leading the Bucs to a Super Bowl win; and Parcells again in August 2003, when he

returned to the sidelines with the Dallas Cowboys.

H2 was rejected. As shown in Table 4.1, in proportion to their participation, the

amount of feature articles of White and Black NFL head coaches was equivalent to the

actual percentages of White and Black head coaches in the NFL. White coaches

accounted for 90.4 percent of head coaches from the 1998 through 2004 season, while

Black coaches accounted for 9.6 percent of head coaches from 1998 through the 2004

season.

Feature articles accounted for 14.7 percent (72) of all items coded. Feature articles

in Sports Illustrated reflected the actual numbers of head coaches in the NFL. White

coaches appeared in 90.3 percent (65) of all feature articles, while Black coaches

appeared in 9.7 percent (7) of feature articles.

White coaches averaged 9.29 features each year of the study while the average

feature article for an Black head coach was less than one each year (.857).

White head coaches appeared in as many as 14 feature articles (during the 2001

season) and never in fewer than four feature articles (during the 1998 season). Black head

coaches were featured in a high of three feature articles during the 2004 season and a low of zero feature articles in 1999 and 2002. The highest number of feature articles in one season for Black head coaches came in the same year the NFL experienced the highest number of Black head coaches (5).3

3 At the start of the 2004 NFL season there were five Black head coaches. At the conclusion of the season there were six Black head coaches. Terry Robiskie took over the Cleveland Browns for the remaining five games.

36 H3 was supported. As evident in Table 4.9, Overall White NFL head coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of Black head coaches were featured in more feature articles, editorials/opinions, and sport blurbs.

Noted in Table 4.10 and Table 4.12, during the 1998 and 2000 season, Black head

coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of White coaches accounted for

100 percent (1) of feature articles; Ray Rhodes in 1998 after a 3-13 season and Dennis

Green in 2000 after an 11-5 season.

In 1998 Black coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of White

coaches accounted for 33.3 percent (3) of coaches in the study, while White coaches

accounted for 66.7 percent (6). During the 2000 season Black coaches with equivalent

season ending records to that of White coaches accounted for 28.6 percent (2), while

White coaches accounted for 71.4 percent (5).

White head coaches Bill Parcells, George Seifert, Bobby Ross, and Brain Billick,

after an 8-8 season in 1999 with equivalent season ending records to that of Black coach

Ray Rhodes received 100 percent of feature articles in 1999 and 2002 (4 and 2

respectively). During the 2002 season Bill Belichick and Butch Davis each received a

feature article in the midst of a 9-7 season.

In 1999 White head coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of

Black coaches accounted for 77 percent (10) of coaches in the study, while Black coaches

accounted for 23 percent (3), as seen in Table 4.11. During the 2002 season White head

coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of Black coaches accounted for

37 77.8 percent (7) of coaches in the study, while Black coaches accounted for 22.2 percent

(2), as seen in Table 4.14.

Black head coaches were featured in 100 percent (2) of editorial/opinions during

the 1999 season, including Dennis Green after a 10-6 season with the Minnesota Vikings

and Ray Rhodes after an 8-8 season with the Green Bay Packers. The highest number of

editorial/opinions accorded to Black head coaches with equivalent season ending records

to that of White coaches was during the 2002 season when Herman Edwards (9-7)

received two editorial/opinions and Tony Dungy (10-6) received 1 editorial/opinion.

During the time studied White head coaches never occupied 100 percent of

editorial/opinions, however during the 2002 season they were featured in a high of 13

editorial/opinions.

White head coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of Black

coaches were featured in sport blurbs 100 percent of the time during the 2001 and 2002

season. During the 2001 season Brian Billick (10-6) and Mike Holmgren (9-7) each

received a sport blurb, while Herman Edwards (10-6) and Tony Dungy (9-7), Black

coaches who had the same season ending record and did not receive a sport blurb. In

2002, Steve Mariucci (10-6) and Jim Fassell (10-6) each received one sport blurb and shared the same season ending record to that of Tony Dungy (10-6), a Black coach, who was not featured in a sport blurb during the 2002 season.

White coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of Black head coaches were featured in a high 20 sport blurbs during the 2004 season and as few as zero during the 1998 season. In contrast, Black head coaches were featured in as many as

38 seven sport blurbs during the 2004 season and as few as zero during the 1998, 2001 and

2002 season.

The high of seven sport blurbs for Black head coaches came during the 2004

season, the same year in which the most Blacks held head coaching positions in the NFL.

Marvin Lewis (8-8) and Tony Dungy (12-4) did not receive a sport blurb during the 2004

season. In contrast, White coaches including Marty Schottenheimer and Mike Martz, who

ended the season with the same record as Lewis and Dungy, were found in a 2004 issue

at least once.

Overall, White head coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of

Black head coaches were featured in 65 percent (13) of feature articles, 70 percent (28) of

editorial/opinions and 70 percent (35) of sport blurbs. Black head coaches were featured

in 35 percent (7) of feature articles, 30 percent (12) of editorial/opinions and 30 percent

(15) of sport blurbs. See Tables 4.9 through 4.17 for a complete list.

Because this study is a census, a descriptive analysis of the results was used to

determine if there was a difference in the way Sports Illustrated covered Black and White

head coaches in the NFL.

Overall, White coaches were featured in 69.1 percent of feature articles,

editorials/opinions, and sport blurbs. White coaches accounted for 65 percent of features,

70 percent of editorials/opinions, and 70 percent of sport blurbs. Black head coaches accounted for 30.9 percent of feature articles, editorials/opinions, and sport blurbs. Black coaches were featured in 35 percent of feature articles, 30 percent of editorials/opinions and 30 percent of sport blurbs.

39

Table 4.1 ___Number of Overall Mentions of NFL Head Coaches by Race during 1998-2004 Seasons__ Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 5 (83.3) 1 (16.7) 6 (1.2) Kicker 9 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 9 (1.8) Feature 65 (90.3) 7 (9.7) 72 (14.7) Editorial/Opinion 130 (89.0) 16 (11.0) 146 (29.8) Sport Blurb 116 (87.2) 17 (12.8) 133 (27.1) Subhead 100 (80.6) 24 (19.4) 124 (25.3) Total 425 (86.7) 65 (13.3) 490 (99.9)

Table 4.2 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the1998 Season Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 2 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (5.1) Kicker 3 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (7.7) Feature 4 (80.0) 1 (20.0) 5 (12.8) Editorial/Opinion 11 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 11 (28.2) Sport Blurb 10 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 10 (25.6) Subhead 6 (75.0) 2 (25.0) 8 (20.5) Total 36 (92.3) 3 (7.7) 39 (100.0) NFL Head Coaches 27 (90.0) 3 (10.0) 30 (100.0)

Table 4.3 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the1999 Season Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 8 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 8 (16.0) Editorial/Opinion 2 (50.0) 2 (50.0) 4 (8.0) Sport Blurb 15 (93.7) 1 (6.3) 16 (32.0) Subhead 18 (81.8) 4 (18.2) 22 (44.0) Total 43 (86.0) 7 (14.0) 50 (100.0) NFL Head Coaches 28 (90.3) 3 (9.7) 31 (100.0)

40 Table 4.4 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2000 Season Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (100.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (100.0) Feature 5 (83.3) 1 (16.7) 6 (10.3) Editorial/Opinion 11 (68.8) 5 (31.3) 16 (27.6) Sport Blurb 20 (87.0) 3 (13.0) 23 (39.7) Subhead 11 (84.6) 2 (15.4) 13 (22.4) Total 47 (81.0) 11 (19.0) 58 (100.0) NFL Head Coaches 29 (93.5) 2 (6.5) 31 (100.0)

Table 4.5 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2001 Season Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 14 (93.3) 1 (6.7) 15 (25.4) Editorial/Opinion 7 (77.8) 2 (22.2) 9 (15.3) Sport Blurb 10 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 10 (16.9) Subhead 22 (88.0) 3 (12.0) 25 (42.4) Total 53 (89.8) 6 (10.2) 59 (100.0) NFL Head Coaches 28 (90.3) 3 (9.7) 31 (100.0)

Table 4.6 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2002 Season Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 1 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.0) Kicker 4 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 4 (3.7) Feature 13 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 13 (12.1) Editorial/Opinion 56 (94.9) 3 (5.1) 59 (55.1) Sport Blurb 11 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 11 (10.3) Subhead 18 (94.7) 1 (5.3) 19 (17.8) Total 103 (96.3) 4 (3.7) 107 (100.0) NFL Head Coaches 30 (93.8) 2 (6.2) 32 (100.0)

41 Table 4.7 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2003 Season Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 2 (66.7) 1 (33.3) 3 (3.3) Kicker 2 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (2.2) Feature 11 (91.7) 1 (8.3) 12 (13.0) Editorial/Opinion 22 (91.7) 2 (8.3) 24 (26.1) Sport Blurb 18 (75.0) 6 (25.0) 24 (26.1) Subhead 20 (76.9) 6 (23.1) 26 (28.3) Total 76 (82.6) 16 (17.4) 92 (99.0) NFL Head Coaches 29 (90.6) 3 (9.4) 32 (100.0)

Table 4.8 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches by Race during the 2004 Season Categories White % Black % Total % Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 10 (77.0) 3 (23.0) 13 (15.1) Editorial/Opinion 21 (91.3) 2 (8.7) 23 (26.7) Sport Blurb 33 (82.5) 7 (17.5) 40 (46.5) Subhead 6 (54.5) 5 (45.5) 11 (12.8) Total 71 (82.6) 15 (17.4) 86 (100.0) NFL Head Coaches 27 (84.4) 6 (15.6) 33 (100.0)

Table 4.9 Overall Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season Ending Records for Seasons 1998-2004 Categories White % Black % Total %__ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 1 (100.0) 1 (100.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 13 (65.0) 7 (35.0) 20 (13.0) Editorial/Opinion 28 (70.0) 12 (30.0) 40 (30.0) Sport Blurb 35 (70.0) 15 (30.0) 50 (32.5) Subhead 20 (46.5) 23 (53.5) 43 (28.0) Total 76 (69.1) 34 (30.9) 110 (100.0)

42 Table 4.10 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season-Ending Records for the 1998 Season Categories White % Black % Total %__ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 0 (0.0) 1 (100.0) 1 (20.0) Editorial/Opinion 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Sport Blurb 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Subhead 0 (0.0) 3 (100.0) 3 (80.0) Total 0 (0.0) 4 (80.0) 4 (100.0)

Table 4.10b ____NFL Head Coaches during the 1998 Season with Equivalent Season-Ending Records______White Season-Record(win/losses) Black Season-Record(win/losses) Jeff Fisher 8-8 Tony D ungy 8-8 Dennis Erickson 8-8 Jim Fassel 8-8 Jon Gruden 8-8 Jim Mora 3-13 Ray Rhodes 3-13 Bruce Coslet 3-13 *Dennis Green 15-1

* = Only coach with season-ending record

Table 4.11 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season-Ending Records for the 1999 Season_ Categories White % Black %_ Total %_ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 4 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 4 (21.0) Editorial/Opinion 0 (0.0) 2 (100.0) 2 (10.5) Sport Blurb 3 (75.0) 1 (25.0) 4 (21.0) Subhead 5 (55.6) 4 (44.4) 9 (47.4) Total 12 (63.2) 7 (36.8) 19 (99.9)

43

Table 4.11b NFL Head Coaches during the 1999 Season with Equivalent Season-Ending Records White Season-Record(win/losses) Black Season-Record(win/losses)_ Norv Turner 10-6 Dennis Green 10-6 Bill Parcells 8-8 Ray Rhodes 8-8 George Seifert 8-8 Bobby Ross 8-8 Pete Carroll 8-8 Chan Gailey 8-8 Jon Gruden 8-8 Brian Billick 8-8 Mike Riley 8-8 Wade Phillips 11-5 Tony Dungy 11-5

Table 4.12 Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season-Ending Records for the 2000 Season___ Categories White % Black % _ Total %_ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 0 (0.0) 1 (100.0) 1 (9.0) Editorial/Opinion 1 (50.0) 1 (50.0) 2 (18.2) Sport Blurb 3 (75.0) 1 (25.0) 4 (36.4) Subhead 2 (50.0) 2 (50.0) 4 (36.4) Total 6 (54.5) 5 (45.5) 11 (100.0)

Table 4.12b ____NFL Head Coaches during the 2000 Season with Equivalent Season-Ending Records______White Season-Record(win/losses) Black Season-Record(win/losses) Dave Wannstedt 11-5 Dennis Green 11-5 Andy Reid 11-5 Jim Mora 10-6 Tony Dungy 10-6 Jim Haslett 10-6 Mike Martz 10-6

Table 4.13 _Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season-Ending Records for the 2001 Season__ Categories White % Black %__ Total %__ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 2 (66.7) 1 (33.3) 3 (20.0) Editorial/Opinion 1 (33.3) 2 (67.0) 3 (20.0) Sport Blurb 3 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (20.0) Subhead 4 (66.7) 2 (33.3) 6 (40.0) Total 10 (66.7) 5 (33.3) 15 (100.0)

44

Table 4.13b NFL Head Coaches during the 2001 Season with Equivalent Season-Ending Records White Season-Record(win/losses) Black Season-Record(win/losses)_ Mike Riley 5-11 Dennis Green 5-11 Dave Campo 5-11 Jon Gruden 10-6 Herman Edwards 10-6 Brian Billick 10-6 Mike Holmgren 9-7 Tony Dungy 9-7

Table 4.14 __Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season-Ending Records for the 2002 Season_ Categories White % Black % Total %_ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 2 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.0) Editorial/Opinion 13 (81.3) 3 (18.7) 16 (64.0) Sport Blurb 2 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.0) Subhead 4 (80.0) 1 (20.0) 5 (20.0) Total 21 (84.0) 4 (16.0) 25 (100.0)

Table 4.14b NFL Head Coaches during the 2002 Season with Equivalent Season-Ending Records White Season-Record(win/losses) Black Season-Record(win/losses)_ Bill Belichick 9-7 Herman Edwards 9-7 Dave Wannstedt 9-7 Butch Davis 9-7 Mike Shanahan 9-7 Jim Haslett 9-7 Jim Fassell 10-6 Tony Dungy 10-6 Steve Mariucci 10-6

Table 4.15 _Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season-Ending Records for the 2003 Season__ Categories White % Black % _Total %__ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 1 (50.0) 1 (50.0) 2 (9.0) Editorial/Opinion 1 (33.3) 2 (66.7) 3 (13.6) Sport Blurb 3 (33.3) 6 (66.7) 9 (41.0) Subhead 2 (25.0) 6 (75.0) 8 (36.4) Total 7 (31.8) 15 (68.2) 22 (100.0)

45 Table 4.15b ____NFL Head Coaches during the 2003 Season with Equivalent Season-Ending Records______White Season-Record(win/losses) Black Season-Record(win/losses) Jeff Fisher 12-4 Tony Dungy 12-4 Mike Martz 12-4 Bill Cowher 6-10 Herman Edwards 6-10 Gregg Williams 6-10 Jim Haslett 8-8 Marvin Lewis 8-8

Table 4.16 __Coverage of NFL Head Coaches with Equivalent Season-Ending Records for the 2004 Season_ Categories White % Black %___ Total %___ Cover Photograph 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Kicker 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Feature 4 (66.7) 2 (33.3) 6 (11.0) Editorial/Opinion 12 (85.7) 2 (14.3) 14 (25.5) Sport Blurb 20 (74.1) 7 (25.9) 27 (49.0) Subhead 3 (37.5) 5 (62.5) 8 (14.5) Total 39 (71.0) 16 (29.0) 55 (100.0)

Table 4.16b ____NFL Head Coaches during the 2004 Season with Equivalent Season-Ending Records____ White Season-Record(win/losses) Black Season-Record(win/losses) Bill Parcells 6-10 Dennis Green 6-10 Joe Gibbs 6-10 Tom Coughlin 6-10 Steve Mariucci 6-10 Marty Schottenheimer 12-4 Tony Dungy 12-4 Mike Shanahan 10-6 Herman Edwards 10-6 Mike Sherman 10-6 Mike Martz 8-8 Marvin Lewis 8-8 Mike Tice 8-8 Jim Haslett 8-8 Norv Turner 5-11 Lovie Smith 5-11 Jeff Fisher 5-11 Jon Gruden 5-11 Dave Wannstedt/*Jim Bates 4-12 Butch Davis/*Terry Robiskie 4-12

46 Table 4.17 _____Overall NFL Head Coaches by Race with Equivalent Season-Ending Records_1998-2004_ Year # of White % # of Black % Total % 1998 6 (66.7) 3 (33.3) 9 (12.2) 1999 10 (77.0) 3 (23.0) 13 (17.6) 2000 5 (71.4) 2 (28.6) 7 (9.5) 2001 5 (62.5) 3 (37.5) 8 (10.8) 2002 7 (77.8) 2 (22.2) 9 (12.1) 2003 5 (62.5) 3 (37.5) 8 (10.8) 2004 14 (70.0) 6 (30.0) 20 (27.0) Total 52 (70.3) 22 (29.7) 74 (100.0)

47 CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The importance of the present study is the power of the media and their

considerable influence over their viewers. According to Urquhart and Crossman (1999),

the print media are an influential socializing agent in that they inform and entertain the

reader and encourage social integration and social change by the values, ideas and

attitudes they present. Additionally, historical insights, biases and the rise or fall of fads

can be gleaned from a content analysis of the print media (Urquhart and Crossman,

1999).

The results of this study partially supported H1: An NFL head coach was pictured in a cover photograph during the time of study; additionally a Black coach was pictured, contrary to expectations. H2 was refuted: Proportional to their participation Sports

Illustrated did feature White NFL head coaches in feature articles to those of Black head

coaches. Finally, H3 was supported: White NFL head coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of Black NFL head coaches were featured in more feature articles, editorials/opinions and sport blurbs, was supported.

Cover Photographs

An NFL head coach was featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated during the

time of the study. Head coaches accounted for 1.2 percent (6) of all covers from June 1,

48 1998 through February 14, 2005. White coaches occupied 83.3 percent (5) of cover photographs, while Black coaches represented 16.7 percent (1) of cover photographs.

The difference between Black and White coaches in cover photographs was apparent not only in the amount of covers White coaches received, but in the number of other occupants on the cover with a coach. Bill Parcells was pictured on the cover of

Sports Illustrated twice during the time of the study, once during the 1998 season when he finished with a record of 12-4, and a second time in 2003, when he returned to coaching football and led the Dallas Cowboys to a 10-6 record. Parcells never occupied the cover photograph with another individual.

When Mike Ditka was pictured in a cover photograph, it was by himself. Jon

Gruden was pictured in a cover photograph twice during the time of the study. The

September 9, 2002 issue featured Gruden along with Warren Sapp. The second time

Gruden was featured (February 2003 special issue), he occupied the cover photograph alone. The difference between Gruden and Herman Edwards, an Black head coach who also was pictured in a cover photograph with other individuals, is the fact that Edwards’ picture was substantially smaller than a typical cover photograph and he occupied this cover with 27 other individuals.

It is evident that other factors influence editorial decisions including: coach’s personality, city of the team, controversy, overall appeal of the coach, and editor’s preference, concerning which head coaches in the NFL will be pictured in a cover photograph. After a 6-10 season with the New Orleans Saints, Mike Ditka was pictured in a cover photograph. In contrast, Dennis Green, a Black coach, whose career winning

49 percentage is higher than that of Ditka (.57 and .557 respectively), and who posted the

second best season in NFL history in 1998, has never appeared in a cover photograph.

Additionally, during the time of the study one would expect to have seen Joe

Gibbs or Bill Belichick in a cover photograph. Gibbs ranks third among coaches with 100

career victories (.683) and has won a super bowl. Belichick led his team to three Super

Bowls in four years and was not pictured in a cover photograph.

Being featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated directly affects the frequency in

which an individual will be featured in the other variables in the study. If a coach

occupies a cover photograph, then he will receive a kicker, as well as a subhead within

the magazine, a feature article and possibly editorial/opinions from the readers who have

comments about the coach or the article written about him. The absence of Black coaches

from the cover of Sports Illustrated in terms of cover photographs and kickers directly

affects the magazine’s coverage of Black coaches.

Feature Articles

While past research including Condor and Anderson (1984), Lumpkin and

Williams (1991) and Eastman and Billings (1999) has not taken into account the disparity

among White and Black athletes or male and female athletes, H2 stated that in regards to actual percentages of Black and White head coaches in the NFL White head coaches would receive more feature articles than that of Black coaches. H2 was rejected, because

Sports Illustrated feature articles accurately reflected the actual percentages of White and

Black head coaches in the NFL.

50 White head coaches appeared in 90.3 percent (65) of all features, while Blacks

appeared in 9.7 percent (7) of features. White coaches averaged 9.29 features each year of the study while, the average feature article for an Black head coach was less than one each year (.857).

In comparison, during the time of the study White head coaches accounted for

89.9 percent (28) of head coaches in the NFL, while Black head coaches accounted for

10.1 percent (3.2). Therefore Sports Illustrated’s coverage of White and Black coaches in feature articles was approximately equal to that of the actual percentages of head coaches.

White head coaches appeared in as many as 14 feature articles during the 2001 season and as few as four feature articles during the 1998 season. During the 2004 season

Black head coaches were featured in a high of three feature articles and as few as zero in

1999 and 2002.

The highest number of feature articles devoted to Black head coaches came in the same year the NFL experienced the highest number of Black head coaches (5).4

While H2 was rejected, the researcher noted a difference in feature articles. In

order to increase content for this study the researcher expanded the definition of feature

article and the change in operational definition skewed the results. An addition was made

to Lumpkin and Williams (1991) definition of feature article, to include sporting

achievements of coaches. Based on Lumpkin and Williams (1991) definition of feature

article Black head coaches appeared in only one feature article during the time of the

4 At the start of the 2004 NFL season there were five Black head coaches. At the conclusion of the season there were six Black head coaches. Terry Robiskie took over the Cleveland Browns for the remaining five games.

51 study. The article appeared in the January 17, 2004 issue of Sports Illustrated and

featured Edwards; however, the article focused on the head coach as well as the starting

quarterback, no feature article was exclusive to a Black coach during the time of the

study.

The researcher noticed differences in attribution, the tone of article, article length

and article photographs. In the times Black coaches were featured in the magazine, the

attribution of the teams’ success often was given to individuals on the team, but if the

team was performing badly the coach was blamed either within the article or the subhead.

The one feature article that Edwards was featured in with quarterback Chad Pennington

was shorter than the feature articles of Ditka and Parcells. Within Sports Illustrated very

few photographs during the time of the study, were of Black coaches, however this is

heavily related to the fact that Black coaches were not featured in-depth within the

magazine.

Kickers

Only nine kickers during the period of the study mentioned an NFL head coach.

White coaches received 100 percent of the kickers featured.

Parcells and Ditka received kickers when they appeared on the cover of Sports

Illustrated in 1998. Mike Shanahan was featured in February 1999 after a 14-2 season.

Another NFL head coach was not featured in a kicker until September 2002, when

Gruden was pictured in the cover photo. Bill Callahan and Gruden shared a kicker in

January 2003 in a preview of that year’s Super Bowl. After Tampa Bay won the Super

52 Bowl, Gruden was featured in an additional kicker. During the 2003 season Parcells and

Dave Wannstedt each appeared in a kicker.

The absence of Black coaches from kickers implies that the magazine did not

devote substantial space to the individual within the magazine. Kickers are often used to

tease readers as to what is in the magazine, however a Black coach was rarely the focus

in aspect of the magazine, and therefore did not warrant a kicker.

Editorial/opinions

Editorials/opinions accounted for the highest percentage of items coded for this study 29.8 (146). White NFL head coaches were featured in 130 editorials/opinions

(89.0), while Black head coaches appeared in 16 editorials/opinions (11.0).

The editorial/opinion category is closely related to all other categories in the study. A portion of the editorials/opinions came from readers, but readers could only comment on items featured in the magazine. If there was a lot of information provided about a certain topic, then it usually received a large volume of editorials/opinions. On the other hand, if there was minimal information provided about a specific topic, then it rendered a low number of editorials/opinions.

Within Sports Illustrated, there are four sections in every issue devoted to opinions by Sports Illustrated writers. They are given the freedom to discuss what they want; however, with the majority of writers at the magazine being White, they often write from their perspective and what interests them, which overwhelming at times excludes the coverage of Black leaders in sports.

53 The biggest disparity between races in the amount of editorials/opinions came

during the 2002 season, when White coaches accounted for 56 (94.9) editorials/opinions

and Black coaches were featured in three (5.1). During the 1999 season each race

received two (50.0) editorials/opinions.

Sport Blurbs

Sport blurbs accounted for 27.1 percent (133) of all items coded. White coaches were featured in 116 (87.2) sport blurbs while Black coaches were featured in 17 (12.8).

During the 1998, 2001 and 2002 season, Black coaches received zero sport blurbs.

However, a high of seven sport blurbs came during the 2004 season, the same year in which the most Blacks held head coaching positions in the NFL.

Black coaches were featured most frequently in subheads (19.4 percent) and sport blurbs (12.8 percent). Since sport blurbs were defined as brief mentions of a coach, it is not a surprise that the category received one of the highest inclusions of Black coaches. If the magazine is not going to cover Black coaches in the same manner it covers White coaches Sports Illustrated can stand by the fact that at least they offer Black coaches some type of coverage, which comes in the form of a sport blurb. This feature allows for

Black coaches to appear in the magazine, but less time and dedication is offered to a sport blurb versus a feature article.

54

Subheads

Subheads accounted for 25.3 percent (133) of all coded items. White head coaches were mentioned in 80.6 percent (100) of all subheads, while Black coaches were mentioned in 19.4 percent (24).

Similar to other coded categories the number of Black head coaches featured in subheads had a high of five during the 2004 season, while a low of one subhead came during the 2002 season. Marvin Lewis was the only Black coach who started the 2004 season as a head coach but did not receive a subhead.

In contrast White NFL head coaches were featured in as many as 22 subheads during the 2001 season and as few as six during the 1998 and 2004 season.

In 2004, White head coaches accounted for 54.5 percent (6) of subheads, while

Black coaches were featured in 45.5 percent (5) of subheads, which was the smallest margin between Black and White head coaches in any category featured in the study.

The majority of subheads appeared in “NFL Preview” issues of the magazine, which allowed Black head coaches to be featured more frequently. If subheads from the

“NFL Preview” issues were not included, Black coaches would have received two subheads during the time of the study.

Equivalent Season Ending Records

White head coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of Black head coaches were featured more in all coded categories, with the exception of cover

55 photographs.

White coaches accounted for 70.0 percent (12 and 15) of all editorials/opinions and sport blurbs, and 65.0 percent (7) of all feature articles, while Black coaches occupied 100.0 percent (1) of all cover photographs. Neither race with equivalent season ending records was featured in a kicker. Black coaches were featured in 53.5 percent (23) of all subheads and White coaches accounted for 46.5 percent (20) of subhead features.

In 1998 and 2000 Black head coaches received 100.0 percent (1) of all features.

However, during the 2004 season Black coaches were featured in 42.9 percent of all feature articles, which accounted for three stories, the most during the time studied.

In 1999 White head coaches occupied 100.0 percent (4) of all feature articles, the most from 1998 through 2004.

During the 2002 season White and Black coaches received the highest number of editorials/opinions during the time studied. White coaches accounted for 13 (81.3) editorials/opinions, while Black coaches were featured in three (18.7) editorials/opinions.

Overall White coaches appeared in 70.0 percent (35) of sport blurbs in Sports

Illustrated, while Black coaches appeared in 30.0 percent (15). The highest number of sport blurbs was by White coaches during the 2004 season, when they accounted for 20

(74.1). The lowest number of sport blurbs by a White coach came in 1998, when they received one.

There were three seasons (1998, 2001, 2002) in which Black coaches with equivalent season ending records to that of White coaches did not receive a sport blurb.

However, in 2003 Black coaches received six (66.7) sports blurbs, their highest number

56 during the time studied.

The final coded category for coaches with equivalent season ending records was

subheads. The highest number of subheads among coaches with equivalent season ending

records was by Black coaches during the 2003 season, when they received six (75.0)

subheads. Marvin Lewis received four in that year, his first season as head coach of the

Cincinnati Bengals. The lowest number of subheads by Black coaches was one (20.0)

during the 2002 season.

White coaches were featured in as many as five (55.6) subheads during the 1999

season, while they were featured in as few as zero during the 1998 season.

The category of testing coaches with equivalent season-ending records leveled the

playing field in the study, by minimizing the number of White coaches as compared to

Black coaches. Additionally, since season ending records were equivalent for each coach,

it can be assumed that other factors including editorial decisions or preference, coach’s

personality, city of team and controversy, decide what it takes to appear in Sports

Illustrated whether it be in a cover photograph, feature article, editorial/opinion, sport blurb, subhead or kicker.

57 Table 5.1

Expectant Coverage of White NFL Head Coaches in Sports Illustrated from 1998-2004 Year # of White % Expectant % Actual % 1998 27 (90.0) 90.0 92.3 1999 28 (90.3) 90.3 86.0 2000 29 (93.5) 93.5 81.0 2001 28 (90.3) 90.3 89.8 2002 30 (93.8) 93.8 96.3 2003 29 (90.6) 90.6 82.6 2004 27 (84.4) 84.4 82.6 Overall 28.29 (90.4) 90.4 86.7

Table 5.2

Expectant Coverage of Black NFL Head Coaches in Sports Illustrated from 1998-2004 Year # of Black % Expectant % Actual % 1998 3 (10.0) 10.0 7.7 1999 3 (9.7) 9.7 14.0 2000 2 (6.5) 6.5 19.0 2001 3 (9.7) 9.7 10.2 2002 2 (6.3) 6.3 3.7 2003 3 (9.4) 9.4 17.4 2004 6 (15.6) 15.6 17.4 Overall 3 (9.6) 9.6 13.3

Limitations

The researcher considered the fact that Sports Illustrated issues prior to 2003 were not available in hard copy form a weakness. More accurate evaluation of each issue was obtained when the actual issue was tangible, versus issues on microfilm. The public libraries available to the researcher had a limited amount of hard issues on hand. Most libraries only kept up to three years of the magazine in paper form.

After analyzing each item, the researcher believes that more narrow descriptions of coded categories would allow for better analysis of the magazine. It was not the

58 expectation of the researcher to classify the issue in which Herman Edwards appeared on

the cover as a cover photograph by a head coach because numerous individuals occupied

the cover. However, according to the definition set forth prior to the study, that particular

issue had to be classified as a cover photograph by an NFL head coach.

Additionally, the researcher expanded the definition provided by Condor and

Anderson (1984) of feature articles in Sports Illustrated. According to Lumpkin and

Williams (1991) coaches and managers were featured in the magazine 8.3 percent from

1954 to 1987. To expand the frequencies of including a coach in the current study, the researcher amended the definition of feature articles by Condor and Anderson (1984) and included sport-related material. This decision diluted the feature category. In actuality, only one Black head coach was the subject of a feature article, in which he shared the article with his starting quarterback.

Future Research

In future studies researchers should build on the foundation laid out in the current

study, in regards to the limitations. In order to conclude a more accurate difference

between the coverage of Black and White NFL head coaches in Sports Illustrated the

tone of kicker, subheads and all article types should be explored, the measurement of

article length also will add to past research and possible render different results. Including another sporting magazine in future studies can add another dimension to the current study.

Another interesting aspect to explore would be to determine what influences

59 sporting magazines include or exclude coaches within their issues. The current study has uncovered that something other than winning or losing percentage influences the appearance of an NFL coach within the magazine. The research believes that race is a factor in the exclusion of Black NFL coaches from the cover of Sports Illustrated as well as within the magazine, but it is not the sole reason for their absence. The magazine is in the business of selling issues and in order to do so they must feature individuals who are appealing to their demographic. With the sport of football close to 70 percent Black and some of the biggest stars including Michael Vick and Terrell Owens, being Black athletes, it is important for the magazine’s demographic to be able to identify with someone in the sport. Coverage of positions such as quarterback, coaching and ownership, which have been dominated by Whites since the beginning of the league, is one way for the magazine to appease its readers.

An additional area of research can focus on if there is a difference between Black and White writers in regards to their subjects, incorporating tone of the article.

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64 APPENDIX 1.1 CODING SHEET

Coding sheet: Print magazine coverage of NFL head coaches from June 1, 1998- February 14, 2005. 1. Case # ______2. Date-month/day/year ______3. Is an NFL head coach on the cover? Yes ______No ______

4. Name of coach referenced ______5. Race of coach White ______Black ______6. Is a coach included in the kicker? Yes ______No ______7. Name of coach featured in the kicker ______8. Is coach featured in subhead? Yes ______No ______9. Name of coach featured in subhead ______10. Type of story Coach featured: ______• Feature ______• Sport/blurb ______Coach featured: ______Coach featured: ______• Editorial/opinion ______• Feature ______Coach featured: ______Coach featured: ______• Sport/blurb ______• Editorial/opinion ______Coach featured: ______Coach featured: ______• Feature ______• Sport/blurb ______Coach featured: ______Coach featured: ______• Editorial/opinion ______

65

APPENDIX 2.1

NFL HEAD COACHES AT THE START OF EACH SEASON INCLUDED IN THE STUDY

WHITE Norv Turner 6-10 Jimmy Johnson 10-6 Jim Mora 3-13 Bill Cowher 7-9 Wade Phillips 10-6 Bruce Coslet 3-13 Marty Schottenheimer 7-9 Chan Gailey 10-6 Dick Vermeil 4-12 Jon Gruden 8-8 Mike Holmgren 11-5 Dave Wannstedt 4-12 Jim Fassel 8-8 Tom Coughlin 11-5 Dom Capers 4-12 Dennis Erickson 8-8 Steve Mariucci 12-4 Kevin Gilbride 5-11 Jeff Fisher 8-8 Bill Parcells 12-4 Bobby Ross 5-11 Pete Carroll 9-7 Dan Reeves 14-2 Mike Ditka 6-10 Vince Tobin 9-7 Mike Shanahan 14-2 Ted Marchibroda 6-10

TOTAL 27 (90.0)

BLACK Ray Rhodes 3-13

Tony Dungy 8-8

Dennis Green 15-1 TOTAL 3 (10.0)

1 9

9

8

N

F L

S E A S 66 O N WHITE Chris Palmer 2-14 Brian Billick 8-8 Jimmy Johnson 9-7 Mike Ditka 3-13 Chan Gailey 8-8 Gunther Cunningham 9-7 Bruce Coslet 4-12 Bill Parcells 8-8 Norv Turner 10-6 Steve Mariucci 4-12 Jon Gruden 8-8 Wade Phillips 11-5 Andy Reid 5-11 Bobby Ross 8-8 Dick Vermeil 13-3 Dan Reeves 5-11 George Seifert 8-8 Jeff Fisher 13-3 Bill Cowher 6-10 Mike Riley 8-8 Jim Mora 13-3 Mike Shanahan 6-10 Dennis Erickson 8-8 Tom Coughlin 14-2 Vince Tobin 6-10 Pete Carroll 8-8 Jim Fassel 7-9 Mike Holmgren 9-7 TOTAL 28 (90.3)

BLACK Ray Rhodes 8-8 Dennis Green 10-6 Tony Dungy 11-5

1 9 9 TOTAL 3 (9.7) 9

N F L

S E A S O N

67

WHITE Mike Riley 1-15 George Seifert 7-9 Jim Haslett 10-6 Vince Tobin 3-13 Tom Coughlin 7-9 Mike Martz 10-6 Chris Palmer 3-13 Gunther Cunningham 7-9 Andy Reid 11-5 Dan Reeves 4-12 Wade Phillips 8-8 Mike Shanahan 11-5 Bruce Coslet 4-12 Norv Turner 8-8 Dave Wannstedt 11-5 Dick Jauron 5-11 Bobby Ross 9-7 Jim Fassel 12-4 Bill Belichick 5-11 Al Groh 9-7 Jon Gruden 12-4 Dave Campo 5-11 Bill Cowher 9-7 Brian Billick 12-4 Steve Mariucci 6-10 Mike Sherman 9-7 Jeff Fisher 13-3 Mike Holmgren 6-10 Jim Mora 10-6 TOTAL 29 (93.5)

BLACK Tony Dungy 10-6 Dennis Green 11-5

2 0 0

0 TOTAL 2 (6.5) N

F L

S E A

S O N 68

WHITE George Seifert 1-15 Butch Davis 7-9 Dave Wannstedt 11-5 Marty Mornhinweg 2-14 Jim Haslett 7-9 Andy Reid 11-5 Gregg Williams 3-13 Dave McGinnis 7-9 Steve Mariucci 12-4 Mike Riley 5-11 Jim Fassel 7-9 Mike Sherman 12-4 Dave Campo 5-11 Gunther Cunningham7-9 Bill Cowher 13-3 Tom Coughlin 6-10 Mike Shanahan 8-8 Dick Jauron 13-3 Jim Mora 6-10 Norv Turner 8-8 Dick LeBeau 6-10 Mike Holmgren 9-7 Dan Reeves 7-9 Jon Gruden 10-6 Jeff Fisher 7-9 Brian Billick 10-6 Mike Martz 14-2 Bill Belichick 11-5 TOTAL 28 (90.3)

BLACK Dennis Green 5-11 Tony Dungy 9-7 Herman Edwards 10-6

2 0 0 TOTAL 3 (9.7) 1

N F L

S E A S O N

69

WHITE Dick LeBeau 2-14 Mike Martz 7-9 Bill Belichick 9-7 Marty Mornhinweg 3-13 Steve Spurrier 7-9 Dave Wannstedt 9-7 Dom Capers 4-12 Mike Holmgren 7-9 Bill Cowher 10-5-1 Dick Jauron 4-12 Marty Schottenheimer 8-8 Steve Mariucci 10-6 Dave McGinnis 5-11 Dick Vermeil 8-8 Jim Fassel 10-6 Dave Campo 5-11 Gregg Williams 8-8 Bill Callahan 11-5 Tom Coughlin 6-10 Dan Reeves 9-6-1 Jeff Fisher 11-5 Mike Tice 6-10 Jim Haslett 9-7 Mike Sherman 12-4 John Fox 7-9 Butch Davis 9-7 Andy Reid 12-4 Brian Billick 7-9 Mike Shanahan 9- Jon Gruden 12-4

BLACK

Herman Edwards 9-7 TOTAL 30 (93.7)

Tony Dungy 10-6

2 0 0

2

N

F L

S TOTAL 2 (6.3) E A S O N

70

WHITE Marty Schottenheimer 4-12 Bill Cowher 6-10 Dave Wannstedt 10-6 Jim Fassel 4-12 Gregg Williams 6-10 Mike Sherman 10-6 Dave McGinnis 4-12 Jon Gruden 7-9 Brian Billick 10-6 Bill Callahan 4-12 Dennis Erickson 7-9 John Fox 11-5 Dan Reeves 5-11 Dick Jauron 7-9 Andy Reid 12-4 Steve Spurrier 5-11 Jim Haslett 8-8 Jeff Fisher 12-4 Steve Mariucci 5-11 Mike Tice 9-7 Mike Martz 12-4 Dom Capers 5-11 Bill Parcells 10-6 Dick Vermeil 13-3 Jack Del Rio 5-11 Mike Holmgren 10-6 Bill Belichick 14-2 Butch Davis 5-11 Mike Shanahan 10-6 TOTAL 29 (90.6)

BLACK Herman Edwards 6-10 Marvin Lewis 8-8 Tony Dungy 12-4 TOTAL 3 (9.4) 2 0 0 3

N F L

S E A S O N

71

WHITE Dennis Erickson 2-14 Tom Coughlin 6-10 Mike Mularkey 9-7 Butch Davis 4-12 Dick Vermeil 7-9 Mike Holmgren 9-7 Dave Wannstedt 4-12 Dom Capers 7-9 Mike Shanahan 10-6 Norv Turner 5-11 John Fox 7-9 Mike Sherman 10-6 Jeff Fisher 5-11 Jim Haslett 8-8 Jim Mora 11-5 Jon Gruden 5-11 Mike Martz 8-8 Marty Schottenheimer 12-4 Bill Parcells 6-10 Mike Tice 8-8 Andy Reid 13-3 Steve Mariucci 6-10 Jack Del Rio 9-7 Bill Belichick 14-2 Joe Gibbs 6-10 Brian Billick 9-7 Bill Cowher 15-1

TOTAL 27 (84.4)

BLACK Lovie Smith 5-11 Dennis Green 6-10 Marvin Lewis 8-8 Herman Edwards 10-6 Tony Dungy 12-4 2 0 TOTAL 5 (15.6) 0 4

N F L

S E A S O N 72

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