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CITIZENS • DEFENSE • • METROPOLITAN • AREA

LEGEND

CINCINNATI METROPOLITAN AREA Citizens Defense Corps

AREA COORDINATOR AND STAFF

AREA CONTROL CENTER DISTRICT WARNING CENTER

Hamilton County, Kenton County, Campbell County, Kentucky

ZONE I. ZONE II. ZONE IV. ZONE V. ZONE VI.

: COORDINATOR ZONE COORDINATOR AND S ZONE COORDINATOR AND STAFF

ZONE CONTROL CENTER ZONE CONTROL CENTER ZONE CONTROL CENTER ZONE CONTROL CENTER ZONE CONTROL CENTER ZONE CONTROL CENTER ZONE CONTROL CENTER

Ambeiley Arlington Addyston Elmwood Place District 6 - Alexandria De Couicey Anderson Glendale Bridgetown Norwood Bellevue Forrest Hills Dayton Columbia Green Hills Cheviot St. Bernard Lalonia Lakes Ft. Thomas Deei Park Lockland Cloves Pye Hill Crescent Springs Winston Hill Highland Heights Indian Hill Ml. Healthy Covedale-Wesl Ludlow Winston Park Newport New Burlington Crosby Twp. Silver Grove Madeira Notlh College Hill Delhi District 7 - Fort Wright Independence DenI Reading Lookout Heights Nicholson Miiford Shaionville Elixabelhlown Park Hills Richardson South Hills Montgomery Woodlawn Groesbeck Sanfordtown Wyoming Harrison North Union Total - 11 Hooven E. Ft. Mitchell Rossmoyne Mack Ft. Mitchell Lakeside Park S. Ft. Mitchell TOTAL REPORT CENTERS:

District 5 — Total — Ohio Creslview Hills Total — Kentucky Edgewood District 9 - Elsmere Erlanger (Boone County]

'arious Citizens Defense Corps Report Cenle Winter 1991 The That Never Came The War That Never Came: Civilian Defense in Cincinnati, Ohio During World War II

Robert Earnest Miller protective programs in "emergency" child care, nutrition and consumer information, recreation, and health. These volunteer activities designed to do three things: give During World War II the Office of Civilian participants a stake in the war effort; encourage wartime unity; Defense (OCD), a federal agency, encouraged more than ten and improve and uplift the community. The Office of Civilian million Americans to volunteer their time and effort for all Defense also encouraged state and local authorities to types of defense-related activities that provided psychological coordinate morale-building events such as scrap drives and and material benefits for the . The agency's top war bond rallies until June 30, 1945, when President Harry priority was civilian protection. By the summer of 1941, air S. Truman disbanded the agency.2 raid precautions modeled after Great Britain's during the blitz Precedents for organized federal civil defense had been developed in the . Treated solemnly reach back to the months preceding American entry into by many, especially in the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, civilian . The Council of National Defense, which had protection was seen as America's last line of defense.1 been created by statute on August 29,1916, encouraged states By the summer of 1942, however, the Allied to form defense councils to help insure civilian compliance situation had improved dramatically. The threat of with the federal government's preparedness measures. At a further enemy air raids diminished and the OCD restructured gathering of state governors in 1917, Secretary of War Newton its programs. It gradually phased out civilian protection plans Baker announced: and placed new emphasis on civilian war services, non- Under modern conditions, the whole nation is at

To coordinate civilian protec- Robert Earnest Miller received Created in August 1916, the tion activities in the Greater his Ph.D. in American history Council of National Defense Cincinnati area, Dana T. Mer- from the University of Cincin- encouraged states to form rill, regional coordinator, nati and served as a research defense councils during World divided the metropolitan historian for the Society's War I. A local council directed region into seven zones. exhibit, "Cincinnati Goes to numerous activities on the (Map, CHS Manuscript Collec- War: A Community Responds Cincinnati home front. (CHS tion #516) to World War II." Photograph Collection) 1

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war . . . as much in the home and in the factory and on the farm- those fears when he created the Office of Civilian Defense by as it is on the fighting front.3 Executive Order 8757 on May 21,1941. The OCD was divided In Ohio, a state defense council, formed on into two main divisions. The Board for Civilian Protection, , 1917, directed a variety of activities on the home headed by OCD director and City Mayor Fiorello front. In conjunction with Ohio State University's agriculture H. LaGuardia formulated "civil defense programs... designed college, the defense council assisted in the increase of food to afford adequate protection of life and property in the event production. It also coordinated a speaker's bureau that of emergency." The Volunteer Participation Committee, whipped up patriotic support for the war. By 1918 similar which was led by Eleanor Roosevelt, promoted non-protective defense councils existed in several states.4 activities "designed to sustain the national morale and to During the postwar reconversion process, provide opportunities for constructive civilian participation in civilian defense activities were disbanded. Yet, as early as 1936, the defense program " Despite the broad mandate outlined long before the United States entered into World War II, in Executive Order 8757, LaGuardia focused exclusively on officials in the War Department began to revive and modify developing auxiliary fire and police forces and emergency civilian defense plans. Some military experts worried that medical services.6 technological improvements might someday enable German The OCD was strictly an informational and planes to launch air raids on industrial and metropolitan advisory agency. Civilian defense policies were formulated in centers in the United States. In the fall of 1940, when the Washington by a small staff of civilian and military officials Germans dropped incendiary bombs on British cities, many and implemented by state and local defense councils. In July Americans wondered if their cities were just as vulnerable to 1941, nearly every state and more than 1,000 cities had formed enemy attack.5 defense councils. LaGuardia created nine regional OCD President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded to offices to act as conduits between Washington and this

In World War I local civilian clothing drives. (CHS organizations, such as the Photograph Collection) Thimble Fund Committee, helped the war effort through a variety of activities: collec- ting scrap metal, making and rolling bandages, and holding Winter 1991 The War That Never Came growing network of state and local defense councils. The Fifth Cincinnati defense officials mapped out a Regional Office in , for example, monitored and comprehensive civilian defense program, including air raid coordinated civil defense activities in Ohio, Michigan, precautions, based on the British experience. Even though , Kentucky, and West Virginia. In Ohio, the state Cincinnati—which was about 500 miles away from the legislature had formed the Ohio State Council of Defense on Atlantic seaboard—was presumably less vulnerable to enemy August 20, 1941. Governor John W. Bricker became its attack, civilian protection plans were formulated. Civilian honorary chairman, but the day to day administrative duties defense planners asserted: "the citizens of every community fell upon executive director Courtney Burton, a and have a right to assume that their representative officials have shipping magnate from Cleveland.7 considered every possible provision for their protection and Civil defense began to take organizational safety against sabotage or any act of war."11 shape even earlier in Cincinnati. City council member Charles By fall 1941, every state and more than 6,000 P. Taft wired Governor Bricker in , that he and cities had formed defense councils; sometimes even Mayor James G. Stewart had asked Philip O. Geier, a local neighborhoods formed local defense councils. Women's industrialist and president of the Chamber of Commerce, to organizations cooperated with local Red Cross officials to serve as chairman of Cincinnati's defense council.8 In offer "home defense" courses in filing, shorthand, and typing Cincinnati, and in several other cities, a pattern of as as sewing, knitting, and home nursing. During a two corporate leadership in local defense councils arose. The day "mass registration" for civilian defense jobs more than federal government had forged strong links with business 2,500 area residents volunteered for semi-military fields of fire leaders, especially where defense plants existed. Since factories fighting, communications, , and similar activities, represented obvious potential targets for enemy bombers, More often than not male recruits were funneled into the corporate leaders were encouraged to assist municipal officials civilian protection fields. By this time, local defense leaders with civilian defense planning.9 recognized the need for a county-wide agency that could coordinate defense activities of Hamilton County's thirty three municipalities (including Cincinnati) and twelve townships.12 On November 15, 1941, the state officially certified the Hamilton County National Defense Council (HCNDC) as part of Ohio's defense program. The HCNDC's certification coincided with "Civilian Protection Day," capping off a week long observation of "Civilian Defense Week," sponsored by federal and state defense authorities.13 But before the HCNDC could call its first meeting, the nation was jolted by the news of 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7,1941. OCD head LaGuardia recalled: that raid demonstrated. . . that we live a new kind of war. The customs and rules of civilized belligerents are ignored, and civilian populations no longer enjoy any immunity whatsoever.1* The nation's entry into the war unleashed a tidal wave of patriotism and community voluntarism. Ohio Governor Bricker issued a call for wartime unity and In , as he created the OCD, President encouraged everyone to participate in the war effort without Roosevelt urged "loyal" state and municipal officials to thought of "race, creed, political conviction, or personal cooperate with the new agency to assure "our internal security profit." In Cincinnati, for the thousands of residents who were against foreign-directed subversion and to put every unable to enlist in the armed forces, civilian defense community in order for maximum productive effort . . . represented an alternative means of supporting the war. minimum waste and unnecessary friction."10 Not surprisingly, community organizations

Women's organizations cooperated with local Red Cross officials to offer a variety of "home defense" courses. (CHS Photograph Collection) Queen City Heritage and individuals who had previously demonstrated little coordinate civilian protection activities in Greater Cincinnati, interest in organized civil defense activities offered their including Hamilton County, as well as Campbell and Kenton services to the HCNDC. The number of civil defense counties in northern Kentucky. A veteran of two , Merrill volunteers soared from approximately 4,000 in was an experienced administrator. During the mid-1930's, he to more than 62,000 in .15 had served as the commandant at Fort Thomas, in northern Just after Pearl Harbor, the OCD issued over Kentucky, where he was living in retirement in 1942.19 fifty-seven million copies of "What To Do In An Air Raid," Merrill encouraged local defense councils to a tersely worded, eight page pamphlet that warned many adopt a uniform blackout ordinance as well as "mutual aid Americans about the dangers of total war. The pamphlet agreements that would allow communities to share their urged people to learn the appropriate air raid signals to lessen protective equipment in the event of an emergency."20 Merrill confusion during blackouts and air raid drills. In general a strengthened his ties with local defense leaders by dividing the series of short blasts or rising and falling tones from a metropolitan region into seven zones, five in Hamilton or whistle signaled a warning. During these tests everyone County, and two in northern Kentucky. In Hamilton County, except air raid wardens and other authorized personnel had Cincinnati comprised one zone, while the outlying suburban to take cover (and extinguish lights during blackouts) until communities of Cheviot, Wyoming, and Mariemont made up the all-clear signal—a steady tone for two minutes—could be three more. Two other municipalities, St. Bernard and heard. Most cities lacked sirens that were powerful enough Norwood, made up the final zone. In the event of an to be heard and were forced to improvise. For example, local emergency, Merrill hoped to be able to transmit news quickly defense councils in Hamilton County used church bells and through the zone coordinators to the local defense councils. factory whistles.16 During December 1941 the HCNDC naturally looked to state defense officials in Columbus, Ohio, for leadership. Overwhelmed by the rush of events, state defense V: *"

• •..•..-•• officials issued some dubious advice. "Under [air] raid flMHH conditions," the Ohio State Council of Defense [OSCD] warned, " a bathtub and buckets full of water for the in case water mains are broken." The OSCD added: "if bombs start to fall near you, lie down. The safest B place is under a good stout table."17 Enemy bombers never threatened the safety of Cincinnati—or any other American city—but during the early weeks of the war some local defense heads briefly gave in to wartime hysteria. Few cities, including Cincinnati, were prepared to deal with the sudden influx of volunteers who were eager to do their part for the war effort. Civilian defense volunteers were assigned to guard bridges, defense plants, and public utilities against the threat of sabotage. The HCNDC also encouraged civilian pilots to organize for the purpose of guarding pipelines, railroads, and civilian transportation. City Manager Clarence O. Sherrill, Cincinnati's civilian defense coordinator, even entertained the notion of transforming the abandoned underground transit in Cincinnati into a JOHN W. bomb shelter.18 State and county defense officials agreed that a metropolitan area, like greater Cincinnati, needed "one BRISKER recognized coordinating body" to administer vital disaster and relief services. Upon Sherrill's recommendation, the HCNDC hired retired Brigadier General Dana T. Merrill to

Republican Governor John W. Bricker served as honorary chairman of the Ohio State Council on Defense. (CHS Photograph Collection, portraits) Winter 1991 The War That Never Came The HCNDC conducted several registration drives in neighborhoods and ran ads in Cincinnati newspapers 21 Here's Your Chance To Serve! for civilian defense work. The OCD recommended that AIR RAID WARDEN'S VOLUNTEER REGISTRATION FORM communities enlist sixty-three volunteers per 1,000 civilians (or a little more than six per cent of the total population) to Col. CO. Bhernll, Commander, Citizens' Defense Corps, provide adequate personnel for air raid precautions. Based on 102 Union Central Annex, that ratio, Hamilton County's population of about 622,000 Cincinnati, Ohio. would have required about 39,000 air raid wardens.22 I offer my services as AIR RAID WARDEN ti tap Citizens- Defense Bettor In which my home Is located. Clearly, in retrospect, the threat of an enemy I am able-bodied, between 40 and 65 years old. possess normal sight air raid in Cincinnati, seems remote and unrealistic. Not all and hearing, -and am willing to take the training required. If accepted, I agree to aerve if and when an emergency should develop. Pledging Cincinnatians were convinced that elaborate air raid my devotion, to my country, the Utited States of America, I agree to precautions were necessary. For example, Bleeker Marquette, place myself under orders—to pertorm the tasks assigned me—and to serve «A long Ju- my services are needed. the executive secretary for the Better Housing League, argued (Mr. ) that social and economic problems should take precedence Name (Mn.). over civilian defense since "there is little danger of air raids (Miss; in Cincinnati " City Manager Sherrill agreed, noting that Address. Cincinnati's chances of being bombed by the enemy were "one Telephone. in a million." However, in , a fireman DO NOT (end Ln tbli form if Ton hiva Tolnntecred u » Fire visiting Cincinnati said that persons who did not believe that Cincinnati could be bombed should be called "Fifth Columnists."23 FIRE WATCHER'S VOLUNTEER REGISTRATION FORM CoL C. O. SherrTll, Commander, Federal authorities helped to insure the public's Citizens' Defense Corps, support for civilian defense measures by exaggerating the !lO2 Union Central Annex, Cincinnati, Ohio. danger of further enemy attacks. In , OCD Head Possessing the qualifications stipulated, I effer my services as Fiorello LaGuardia—well known for his hyperbolic FIRE WATCHER in the Citizens' Defense Sector ln which my home Is located. If accepted, I agree to serve when and if an emergency tendencies—warned that "the war will come right to our cities jshould arise. and residential districts." At a February 1942 press conference, Pledging my devotion to my country, the United States of America, J agree to place myself under orders—to perform the tasks assigned me— President Roosevelt told the public to take the threat of enemy juid to serve as Jorig as my. services are needed. invasion seriously. The Germans, FDR remarked, "can come (Mr. ) in and shell New York tomorrow night . . . ." It probably iName (Mrs.). (Mlsi) alarmed Cincinnatians more when the President said that —an inland city like Cincinnati—could also be Addreu. 24 bombed "under certain conditions." Telephone- A local radio station (WLW) aired a program sponsored by the county defense council that reinforced the NOT scad la thU form U yo« hart YolunUsrei »• Va Air E»ld Warden. President's warning. The radio announcer instructed listeners: Do you have a world map there handy, . . ? Spread it out on the floor in front of you. See—there's Lake Erie. . . there's The message did not go unnoticed in Cincin- Detroit at the end of it. There's Ohio, and down at the southwest nati. Many if not most public and private organizations corner, Cincinnati and Hamilton County. Distances aren't very influenced by national and local defense activities and by the great when you look at it on a world map .... They aren't very press, radio, and newsreels demonstrated their support for air great, either, as the modern bomber flies. raid precautions. For example, most of Cincinnati's public and The announcer referred to Cincinnati as the private schools and universities made important contributions machine tool capital which was vital to the nation's productive to the civilian defense effort. capability, adding that "the loss of one single great source of High school teachers practiced air raid drills supply—Cincinnati Milling Machine, LeBlond, Wright, a with students. The nuns at Saint Ursula Academy, a parochial dozen others—would be a knock-out blow more disastrous girls' school, devised air raid precautions for the school. They than Pearl Harbor . . . and the enemy knows it!"25 divided themselves into three groups: "watchers" kept a

The HCNDC ran ads in local newspapers requesting volun- teers for civilian defense work particularly air raid wardens and . (CHS Newspa- per Scrapbook Collection) Queen City Heritage as potential "emergency hospitals" and "casualty stations," Silverton's Sand Bags Ready storing bandages and medical supplies. In addition, the HCNDC secured space in twenty-six public and parochial schools in Cincinnati to train volunteers as air raid wardens and fire watchers.27 Norman P. Auburn, Dean of the 's Evening College, agreed to head the civilian defense training program. For five weeks, on Tuesday and Thursday evenings, trainees attended classes dealing with: organizational principles of civil defense, fire and gas defense, blackout techniques, and first aid instruction. Federal and state documentary and training films often supplemented lecture formats. Some of the films were produced by Great Britain's Ministry of Information, and depicted "civil defence" procedures during the blitz. The HCNDC also showed a variety of technically-oriented War Department training films, ranging from "Handling Incendiaries" to the "The Adjustment of the ."28 Cincinnati's universities made other contribu- tions to the war effort. Dr. Leon Goldman, Assistant Professor of Dermatology at the University of Cincinnati's College of Medicine, directed a course for physicians from several states, »One of the first Hamilton County communities to display explaining the potential effects of on civilian visible evidence of defense preparedness is Silverton, which already populations. also assisted the HCNDC by has distributed bags of sand for use in case of attack by in- hosting "commencement" ceremonies for over 6,000 air raid 29 cendiary bombs. The sand, packed in old cement sacks, has been wardens in May 1942. placed at seven street intersections in various parts of the village. Other sectors of the community prepared for The pile of sand-filled sacks in the above protograph is stacked war. For example, the Cincinnati Zoo devised a special at the corner of Ohio Avenue and South Berkley Circle. Grouped lighting and communication system to enable its personnel around the sacks (left to right) are Police Chief John Ballbach, Councilman William O'Brien and Mayor Harry Mueller. Chief to react quickly in the event of a blackout. were Ballbach said there v?ks enough sand in each sack to control an placed strategically to protect the animals (and people). The incendiary bomb. The sacks will be kept covered with waterproof zoo superintendent also announced that in the event of an paper to protect them against rain. Howard Newman, one of emergency, "the Zoo force is prepared to destroy animals that Silverton's volunteer firemen, took this picture. would be a menace if they should get loose."30 These preparations seemed justified when the OCD designated Cincinnati as a "target area" in . lookout for falling incendiaries; "sanders" kept full buckets Based on the vulnerability of area industries, its contribution of sand to douse the bombs; and "runners" stood ready to to national defense, and the likelihood of attack, Cincinnati alert nearby defense officials. The student editor of the was one of thirty-three "strategic cities." As a result, the OCD Woodward (High School) Bulldog solemnly noted that gave Cincinnati priority status for future allocations of fire "Cincinnati would be a favorite target for enemy planes fighting equipment, air raid sirens, and medical supplies— because of its large production of machine tools so vital to enough to equip forty-six "casualty stations "31 the defense program." He added that "this news should add Even though Cincinnati was a "target area," the an incentive to pupils of the school when performing their OCD provided only limited material support, mostly in the air raid drills . . . ." Teachers also directed extracurricular form of literature, films, and some protective equipment, But activities towards the war effort. Students cut up old sheets the ultimate responsibility for training volunteers and and rolled them into bandages, participated in salvage drives, implementing civilian defense policies fell upon state and local and purchased war stamps and bonds.26 Many schools served officials. Ideally, the OCD envisioned each community

Hamilton County communi- ties, such as Silverton, distri- buted sand bags to fight incendiary bombs. (CHS New- spaper Scrapbook Collection) IF AIR RAIDS COME

— AIR RAID RULES * * * YOU WILL BE WARNED that no lights can be seen from the outside. Keep your black- When enemy planes are spot- IF YOU ARE AT HOME ... Get your family together in the out material ready for instant ted moving in your direction, safest room in the house, and stay there. Turn off your gas stove but not use. watchers, many miles away will the pilot Sight. Turn out the lights in rooms not blacked out. Stay away set in motion the machinery of THINGS TO CHECK: from windows. Don't go outdoors and don't use your telephone. protection. You will hear the Have you removed inflammable warning signal. When danger is • • • material from your attic? past, the "all clear" will be IF YOU ARE ON THE STREET . . . Obey the orders of the Have you followed your war- signaled. dens* advice about equipment Air Raid Wardens. Go home if you can walk there in a few minutes. Other- YOUR BIGGEST JOB for fire protection? wise, get off the street and into the best shelter you can find. Get into Have you selected the refuge There are many things you can room for your family? do to protect your family if an or close to a large building. Avoid large windows, particularly show, win- Are blankets available for air raid comes. Nothing is so dows. Don't join crowd. If it is dark, don't light matches and don't smoke. first aid? important as to keep calm. Do you have simple first aid Make certain every member of • • • supplies on hand? your family knows the air raid IF YOU ARE AT SCHOOL ... Do exactly what your teacher Has a member of your family rules. tells you to do. had first aid training? KNOW YOUR • * * IN GENERAL AIR RAID WARDENS IF YOU ARE IN A STREET CAR OR BUS... The oper- Use your Common Sense. Keep You should know by sight and Calm. Locate a safe place ator will try to stop near a good shelter; go into it and stay there until by name the Air Raid Wardens wherever your daily routine in your block at home, and in the all clear sounds. takes you. Remember that the building where you work. • • • direct hits are few. The greatest Every member of your family danger is from shattered glass, should be prepared to carry IF YOU ARE IN AN AUTOMOBILE ... Drive to curb and flying debris and fire. out your warden's instructions. park immediately. Shut off lights and ignition and seek shelter. He has been trained to help you protect your family. • •* * IF YOU ARE IN A CHURCH, THEATER OR OTHER BLACKOUTS YOUR A J R RAID PUBLIC GATHERING . . . Stay seated, remain calm, obey orders. Select the safest place in your WARDEN IS house for general air raid and Panic can be as dangerous as bombs. blackout purposes. Be prepared to blanket the windows or • • • cover the glass with opaque IF YOU ARE NOT NEAR SHELTER AND HEAR BOMBS protective material. Be sure FALLING . . . Get off the street and lie face down on the ground, preferably in a low spot.

KEEP CALM DONT FOLLOW DON'T FOLLOW Panic hurts more make telephone colls these rules of conduct shut off main gas sup. your warden's advice people than during a raid. All lines for yourself and family. ply unless house is for protection bombs. are needed for vital They are based on damaged or gas against fire. messages. experience. supply fails.

CONTROLLING INCENDIARY BOMBS If an incendiary bomb comes through your roof, if is your fob to control it. Check carefully for smoldering first. Prompt action on your port will control the fire. CONSULT YOUR AIR RAID WARDEN for detailed advice Bring your fire fighting equipment to the scene at once. Shoot a jet of water directly at the bomb without delay, to put it out of action COOPERATE WITH TOUR AIR «AID WARDEN. quickly. CINCINNATI METROPOLITAJsMtEOION any fires that might have been started. CTIZSNS DEFENH^etMPS V Be absolutely sure the fire is out before you leave the scene. Use a coarse spray only where scattering of metal must be avoided. Use land only if a bomb falls where it is not likely to start s fire, or if T. Merrill, Brig. Gen., U. S. A., Ret. water is not available. REGIONAL COORDINATOR

Posters placed in schools, churches, and public buildings instructed citizens on what to do "if enemy planes and bombs come." (Poster, CHS Manuscript Collection #51 6) 10 Queen City Heritage separately recruiting and training its volunteers. A fully equalizer—a leveler of distinctions based on class, race, or trained air raid warden, one on each block, would be gender. In actuality long established patterns of discrimina- knowledgeable of his neighbors needs, and could provide tion in Cincinnati persisted after Pearl Harbor and information about civilian defense. Moreover, in the event of undermined a basic premise of civilian defense, that is, to an enemy attack, he could take charge of the neighborhood, promote national morale and wartime unity. and assist members of the local police and fire departments. The county defense council tried to include a Hamilton County's smaller suburban villages, like Wyoming, cross section of municipal and county government represen- were better able to adapt OCD programs. However, for tatives, as well as persons from business, labor, religious, and metropolitan areas, like Cincinnati, with a large industrial civic organizations. Yet, when the HCNDC first met just after base and an heterogeneous population, the process of Pearl Harbor, no Black representative had been appointed by implementing OCD plans took much longer.32 Edwards, even though Blacks comprised twelve per cent of All types of men and women engaged in the city5 s population and eight per cent of the county's.33 defense activities, but leadership in the county and city civilian The experience of Blacks in Cincinnati during defense program tended to be dominated by middle class the early months of the war illustrated some of the prejudices white males. Morris Edwards, executive vice president of the they encountered in other northern industrial cities. In its 1941 Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, was named executive annual report the Division of Negro Welfare (DNW), the director of the HCNDC, and local bankers and industrialists local affiliate of the National Urban League, had noted that held many of the key leadership positions on that council. Cincinnati was "geographically a northern city, [but] its Likewise, many small businessmen and elected officials proximity to the southern boundary exposes it to many dominated the smaller defense councils. Edwards realized that traditions of Negro-white relations of the South."34 The the HCNDC needed the support of every community in absence of Blacks from HCNDC activities, whether Greater Cincinnati in order to implement OCD programs. accidental or intentional, reinforced the DNWs depiction of However, many people, particularly Blacks and Cincinnati as a racially divided city. It also contradicted women, felt that opportunities to participate fully in civilian Governor Bricker's call for wartime unity and racial amity, and defense programs were limited, In theory total war was a great hindered Black morale. During the war, the Division of Negro

The Cincinnati zoo devised a special lighting and communi- cation system so its personnel could react quickly in a black- out. (CHS Photograph Collec- tion, Special Collection #156) Winter 1991 The War That Never Came 11 of a bigger problem . . . Blacks were not being regarded as an essential part of the war effort or given an opportunity to play their role."38 Both McClain and the Cincinnati Independent, a local Black weekly, felt that Berry should be appointed to the HCNDC. However, Berry's local and national commitments to Black organizations, as well as his professional duties as assistant county prosecutor, prevented such an appointment.39 Despite Edwards' assurances to deal with the matter at the "earliest opportunity," an OCD field representative reported in late January 1942 that "Cincinnati authorities are not including Negroes in the essential organization of Civilian Defense and . . . representative community leaders are not being utilized . . . ." Before the month ended the HCNDC had designated William N. Lovelace, a Hamilton County probation officer as its Black representative.40 Welfare focused primarily on improving employment and educational opportunities, substandard housing and , and race relations. But some area Black leaders demonstrated an interest in civil defense preparations, seeing them as a means of involving the Black community in the war effort. William W. B. Conrad, a Cincinnati attorney, complained first to Governor Bricker and then to OCD head Fiorello LaGuardia about the HCNDC's failure to appoint a Black representative. Conrad contended: "If we are to secure national unity we shall have to adopt different tactics." Stanley Roberts, a National Youth Administration field worker, added that "the protection of the Negro communities, their homes, and perhaps their very lives," were at stake.35 Roberts feared that long range civilian protection plans would not include Black communities. Other Blacks, who had little personal interest in the civilian defense movement, still resented their exclusion from the HCNDC. Cincinnati NAACP president William A. McClain and his law partner, Theodore M. Berry, viewed the Women were also restricted in their opportu- war as an opportunity to elevate Blacks into decision making nities to participate in civilian defense, however, they were roles. Ten days after Pearl Harbor McClain warned the included in civilian defense work more than Blacks had been. HCNDC that no organization could be "representative of the Women's organizations like the Cincinnati Woman's City American people unless it has a Negro member acting in an Club, the Republican Women's Club, and the Business advisory capacity and coordinating the activities of the Women's Club that had a reputation for community service Negroes in the defense of our democracy."36 Likewise, Berry participated indirectly in civilian defense activities. These had written Mayor Stewart six days earlier and urged him to organizations formed ad hoc "defense committees" that were appoint a Black representative to "this important public in close contact with county and city defense officials.41 body." Stewart, threw the problem into Morris Edwards' lap, However, few Cincinnati women participated adding that "Mr. Berry is right in this matter."37 directly in civilian protection, according to a University of While Berry was not chiefly concerned with survey conducted in early 1942. A team of pollsters HCNDC activities, he realized that "civilian defense was part from its Bureau of Public Administration examined civilian

In the event of an attack a The zoo superintendent trained air raid warden would announced that in an emer- be in charge of the gency the zoo was prepared to neighborhood, knowledgeable destroy animals "that would of his neighbors needs, and be a menace if they should able to provide information get loose." (CHS Photograph about civilian defense. (CHS Collection) Photograph Collection) 12 Queen City Heritage

Certificate of Snstructton

Because Cincinnati was designated as a "target area," the OCD gave Cincinnati pri- ority status for allocations of fire fighting equipment. (CHS Photograph Collection) defense organizations in cities with populations greater than The HCNDC's emphasis on developing air 10,000. The survey, which included Cincinnati, considered six raid training, instead of other non-protective activities, left different fields of civilian defense services: air raid warden; many women only marginally involved in the civilian defense auxiliary police and firemen; fire watchers; medical corps; program. Likewise, William Lovelace, the Black representa- squads; and nurses' aides and found that opportunities tive on the county defense council conceded that practically for women in most of these fields were limited, Men no consideration had been given to Black participation in dominated the ranks of the civilian protection army in every civilian defense just after Pearl Harbor. Yet, by , field except nurses' aides. There were six times as many male Lovelace felt that Blacks had become more active in county air raid wardens, the most highly visible and most sought after defense programs. Lovelace noted that over forty Blacks had position in civilian protection work. Hamilton County become instructors of the air raid warden courses. In the defense officials suggested that fewer women had become air twenty-six schools for air raid wardens Lovelace indicated that raid wardens because applicants had to declare their age on there was "no semblance of segregation."43 registration forms. While the federal government encouraged County, municipal, village, and township women to assume a non-traditional role in the defense plants, authorities were responsible for funding civilian defense volunteer civilian defense work seemed to reinforce traditional schools as well as other measures, yet, local officials were sex roles. In Cincinnati and elsewhere women were usually reluctant to allocate funds necessary for the HCNDC to cast in supporting rather than leading roles in civilian defense operate. Governor Bricker alleviated most of the HCNDC's 42 work. financial woes, when in April 1942, he announced that over

Although the federal govern- at USO centers. (CHS ment encouraged women to Photograph Collection) assume non-traditional roles in defense plants, civilian defense reinforced the tradi- tional sex roles for women, for example, serving as hostesses 14 Queen City Heritage i

$2,000,000 in "excess poor relief would be channeled towards to donate large amounts of scrap iron that would ostensibly county and local defense efforts.44 From to be converted into vital material for the war effort. For example, state appropriations for Hamilton County totaled nearly an RKO theater donated a steel tower, that weighed over $290,000.45 100,000 pounds. Likewise, Woodward High School contri- Ironically, just when the newly trained air raid buted the iron fence that surrounded its campus, "believed wardens began to conduct blackout tests in Cincinnati on a to be the heaviest in the city." Nichols' ability to coordinate regular basis, the OCD shifted its emphasis away from civilian county-wide salvage drives won the praise of OCD Fifth protection. By the summer of 1942, the Allies' military Region Director Dan T. Moore. In , the state situation had improved dramatically and the threat of enemy defense council honored Nichols, who later became state air raids diminished.46 Although civilian protection units salvage coordinator for Ohio. Civilian defense volunteers in remained intact in Cincinnati, and elsewhere, state and local Cincinnati collected more scrap iron—twenty-nine million defense councils began to focus on non-protective programs.47 pounds—than any other city in the nation. Nichols directed A state defense official hinted at the new over 7,000 Boy Scouts in a six day house-to-house scrap drive. direction of Ohio's defense program in June 1942 and The proceeds went to the USO to help meet the expenses of challenged its volunteers to prove that: send-off parties for new recruits at Cincinnati's Union 49 Ohio is truly showing her colors in a thousand ways Terminal. every hour of every day by her civilian protection and , While the HCNDC became increasingly her war production, her salvage collection, her purchase of war bonds preoccupied with salvage drives, rationing, and other morale- and stamps, conservation of rubber, . . ,by rationing, price control, building programs, civilian protection units continued to and so forth.** practice air raid drills. By November 1942, there were three Harold W. Nichols, the chairman of "victory sirens" were placed on Cincinnati rooftops. HCNDC's Waste Materials Conservation Committee, Cincinnati civilian defense officials attempted to maximize the responded to the challenge by coaxing schools and businesses authenticity of an air raid drill on November 8. Planes were

Women volunteers partici- pated in child care, nutrition and consumer information, recreation, and health. (CHS Photograph Collection) Winter 1991 The War That Never Came IS

The Paramount Theater at the corner of Gilbert Avenue and McMillan Street contributed a steel tower, which weighed 1,000 pounds, to the war effort. (CHS Photograph Collection) 16 Queen City Heritage scheduled to fly over the city and drop "simulated bombs," organized effort during the flood to the "greater sense of civic small cardboard cylinders with red crepe paper streamers. responsibilities that have grown out of civil defense , . . ."52 Each "bomb" contained a message, rolled up inside the Apart from this brief moment during the war, local civilian cylinder, that described its destructive capability. They were defense workers had little opportunity to put some of their also numbered so they could easily be reported to defense training to the test. officials. Unfortunately, inclement weather on the day of the In a subtler and less dramatic fashion, drill grounded air traffic, but the bombs still "fell." They were thousands of civil defense volunteers engaged in a variety of thrown from automobiles.50 "non-protective" programs in health, recreation, nutrition, In retrospect, these events appear both child care, and race relations. Women tended to be more humorous and unnecessary. Nevertheless, preparations for the involved in these activities that reinforced rather than war that never came paid off when a real emergency challenged traditional sex roles.53 confronted Greater Cincinnati in late 1942. When the Ohio During the summer of 1943, the HCNDC River surpassed flood stages in Pittsburgh, the American Red coordinated a morale-building program that was targeted Cross appealed to state defense authorities for assistance. In specifically at involving housewives in the war effort. The eastern Ohio, civilian defense workers cooperated with the HCNDC awarded "V[ictory] Home" window stickers to Red Cross in evacuating hundreds of families. Similarly, in home owners who cooperated with air raid wardens, complied Hamilton County civilian defense officials and workers with government rationing programs, purchased war bonds, mobilized relief forces in the "onerous responsibilities that and "refused to spread rumors designed to divide our nation." follow in the wake of a flood." Others served as "auxiliary Air raid wardens inspected homes in their communities and policemen [and] acted as guards at shelter points and assisted were encouraged to be generous in issuing stickers. State city police in patrol duty in flood areas."51 OCD Regional defense officials relaxed the criteria and stated that if "the Director Moore praised the efforts of Hamilton County housewife indicates that her family is doing its best for the civilian defense workers, and the Enquirer attributed the well- war effort," then she was entitled to a "V Home" sticker.54

'<-:•• -s/.'. r\ -.'• if J .-'.. -:^2S<

Proceeds from scrap drives went to the USO to help meet the expenses of send-off par- ties for Cincinnati soldiers and sailors. (CHS Photograph Collection) Winter 1991

The HCNDC, like every other county council parents relied on relatives or friends to look after their children in Ohio, acted as a clearing house of war-related information. or left them unattended.57 It also mobilized volunteer support for other federal agencies. The HCNDC continued to promote the As a result, civil defense volunteers often assisted Office of purchase of war bonds, coordinate scrap drives, and it Price Administration and Selective Service boards in encouraged community organizations, schools, and area Cincinnati.55 Other community agencies and organizations industries to cultivate "victory gardens" to supplement food that predated the war also took advantage of the extensive production for the home front. Not all gardens successfully network of state and local defense councils to promote their produced food, but few defense activities were judged solely own interests. For example, shortly after the race riot in by their end result. The fact that the program involved Detroit, in the summer of 1943, the National Urban League thousands of men, women, and children in the war effort made issued an "anti-riot directive" to the Division of Negro it a success.58 Welfare (and its other affiliates) encouraging it to promote The HCNDC coordinated a variety of activities better race relations through local religious, business, and that offered both psychological and material benefits to the fraternal organizations. Significantly, the Urban League also home front. However, these efforts rarely if ever received the felt it could make use of local defense councils. It hoped that same amount of attention in the media that civilian protection local defense officials could serve as a conduit to promote attracted. Nevertheless, the efforts of a child care worker with positive ideas about race relations in white communities.56 real children were arguably more important than those of an Likewise, neighborhood child care centers and air raid warden, dealing with "paper" bombs thrown from day nurseries benefited from the civilian defense program automobiles. Both activities enabled the participants to feel when the HCNDC established an Emergency Child Care involved in the war effort. Office. By the end of 1943, the HCNDC had helped Civilian defense preparations before Pearl coordinate the activities of twenty-seven nurseries that cared Harbor—based largely on the British experience during the for 1,067 children. While only a fraction of the area's working blitz—stressed the need for elaborate air raid precautions in mothers made use of these facilities, the enrollment figures American cities. During the war federal, state, and local were "in line with the state and national trend." Most working defense officials periodically exaggerated the threat of enemy

Civilian defense volunteers held clothing drives and par- ticipated in salvage and scrap metal drives. (CHS Photo- graph Collection, Marsh Collection) 18 Queen City Heritage

1. Fiorello H. LaGuardia, Report of the Director of the Office of Civilian Defense, February 1942, p.l, in William H. McReynolds Papers, Box 7 OCD File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library (FDRL), Hyde Park, New York. Several general studies of the World War II home front provide useful overviews of civil defense activities. See Phillip J. Funiegello, The Challenge to Urban Liberalism: Federal-City Relations during World War II (Knoxville, 1978); Lee Kennett, For the Duration: The United States Goes to War—Pearl Harbor—1942 (New York, 1985); Richard R, Lingeman, Don't You Know There's a War On?: The American Home Front, 1941-1945 (New York, 1976); and Allan M. Winkler, Home Front U.S.A.: America during World War II (Arlington Heights, Illinois, 1986). For a fuller treatment see Robert Earnest Miller, "The War That Never Came: Civilian Defense, Mobilization, and Morale during World War II" (Ph. D. dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1991). 2. Executive Order 9562 provided for the termination of the Office of Civilian Defense. See Elwyn A. Mauck, Civilian Defense in the United States, 1940-1945 (unpublished, 1946), Ch. 16, p. 16, Office of Civilian Defense Papers (OCDP), Record Group 171, Washington National Records Center (WNRC), Suitland, . For examples of the OCD's civilian war services see Thomas Devine, memorandum, "Food Fights for Freedom, September 18,1943, OCDP, RG 171, Entry 32 Box 2 and Thomas Devine, attacks to combat public complacency and apathy. The air raid memorandum, "The Use of Day Care Facilities," ,1944, OCDP, warden became an important symbol that reminded many RG 171, Entry 32 Box 1 (WNRC). For Cincinnati see Report of the Americans that they were still at war.59 When it became clear Emergency Child Care Director, December 3,1942 to January 1,1944, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 4, Cincinnati Historical Society (CHS), that sustained enemy attacks against the North American Cincinnati, Ohio. continent were no longer a threat, the OCD encouraged state 3. Newton D. Baker, memorandum, c. April 1917, OCDP, RG 171, Entry and local defense officials to participate in non-protective 10 Box 20, (WNRC). See also The United States at War: Development and Administration of the War Program by the Federal Government activities that promoted wartime unity. (Washington, D.C., 1946), pp.21-25 and Mauck, Civilian Defense in the On November 1, 1943, War Department United States, RG 171, Ch.2 p.l (WNRC). officials recommended the complete cessation of air raid drills. 4. William J. Breen, Uncle Sam at Home: Civilian Mobilization, Wartime Federalism, and the Council of National Defense, 1917-1919 (Westport, While they conceded that "token air raid raids are always a Connecticut, 1984). The standard account of Ohio's state defense council 60 possibility,... the present degree of danger..." was minimal. is offered in How Ohio Mobilized Her Resources for the War: A History of the The Ohio state legislature responded to this news by slashing Activities of the Ohio Branch, Council of National Defense, 1917-1919 appropriations for local defense activities to a bare minimum. (Columbus, 1919), in the Papers of the Ohio Branch, Council of National Defense, Series 1135, Box 1, Folder 1, Ohio Historical Society (OHS), By early 1944, the HCNDC was unable to meet its Columbus, Ohio. administrative expenses. In addition, the Cincinnati Chamber 5. Stetson Conn, Rose C. Engleman, and Byron Fairchild, eds., United States of Commerce withdrew the use of its facilities. The HCNDC did not officially disband until , but during its final months, it existed mainly on paper.61 Over 60,000 residents of Hamilton County volunteered for some type of civilian defense work, whether as air raid wardens, child care workers, clericals, bandage rollers, or salvage collectors. The experience of the volunteers in Cincinnati reflected the activities of the millions of Americans who participated in civilian defense during World War II. These activities were vital to wartime morale and, in some cases, the community activism behind civilian defense carried into the postwar years.62

More than ten million Ameri- The Office of Civilian Defense cans volunteered for all types encouraged state and local of defense-related activities authorities to coordinate that provided benefits for the morale building events such home front. (CHS Photograph as scrap drives and war bond Collection) rallies. (CHS Photograph Collection) Winter 1991 The War That Never Came 19

Army in World War II: The Western Hemisphere: Guarding the United States9. Robert Earnest Miller, "Preparing for Armageddon: The Role of the City and Its Outposts (Washington, D.C., 1964), pp.45-79 and B. Franklin in Civilian Defense Planning, during World War II," in Joseph Rishel, ed., Cooling, "U.S. Army Support of Civil Defense: The Formative Years, 1935- American Cities and Towns: Historical Perspectives (Pittsburgh, PA., 1942," Military Affairs (February 1971):7-8. forthcoming). See also Ralph D. Henderson to Chamber of Commerce 6. "The Office of Civilian Defense Is Established. Executive Order 8757. Secretaries, , 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 May 20, 1941," Samuel I. Rosenman, ed., The Public Papers and Addresses(CHS), and Morris Edwards, "Before and Since Pearl Harbor," American of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1941, pp. 162-172; Mauck, Civilian Defense in City,the 57 (May 1942):75. State defense officials, like Henderson, encouraged United States, Ch.3,p.ll andCh. 4, pp.4-5; and Wayne Coy, William Bullitt, chamber of commerce secretaries to help organize local defense councils and Harold Smith, "Memorandum to the President on the Office of Home in several other cities, including , , Syracuse, and Defense," , 1941, Wayne Coy Papers, Box 2 (FDRL). Mayor Toledo. See "Defense Council for City and Council," American City, 56 LaGuardia headed the OCD from May 1941 to January 1942. Eleanor ():87; John Naegle to Fiorello H. LaGuardia, May 21, 1941, Roosevelt served as assistant director, and chaired the Volunteer Fiorello H. LaGuardia Papers (FHLP), Municipal Archives, New York, Participation Committee, from to February 1942. New York (NYC); "The Toledo Chamber of Commerce: An Interim and 7. "State and Local Cooperation," Defense (a government-sponsored weekly Varied Program," Toledo Business, 19 no. 10 (October 1941), Ohio State publication), Vol.1 no. 17 (,1941):22. For Ohio see Senate Bill 178, Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box 1, Folder 19 (OHS). Ohio General Assembly, (effective August 20,1941). This statute required 10. "The City's Part in National Defense," American City, 56 (June local defense councils to submit personnel lists to the state defense council 1941):cover page. President Roosevelt linked the goals of civilian defense— for official certification by the Governor. protection against foreign-directed subversion with war production, the 8. Charles P. Taft to Governor John W. Bricker, ,1941, Civil Defense nation's top priority in . Collection, Box 2, Folder 8, (CHS) and Memorandum on the Mayor's 11. Cincinnati Bureau of Governmental Research, "Memorandum to the Committee on National Defense, May 7, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Committee on Coordination and Cooperation in Hamilton County," June Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS). 12. 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS). Coastal cities

Local manufacturers, such as and bomb fighting equipment. Procter & Gamble, held prac- (CHS Photograph Collection) tice air raid drills. Employees had special assignments or reported to specific areas where there were lockers stocked with first aid supplies 20 Queen City Heritage

initially displayed the most interest in developing air raid precautions. (Washington, D.C., 1941) in FHLP, Box 3767, Folder 4, (); However, after Pearl Harbor many inland areas, including Cincinnati, "Civilian Defense Week," November 11-16, Designed to Stimulate developed civilian defense measures comparable to those coastal Awareness of Need, Defense vol.2 no.43 (October 28, 1941):22; and communities. See Stephen J. Leonard, "Denver at War: The Home Front Cincinnati Times-Star (clipping), November 16, 1941, WW II Scrapbook, in World War II," Colorado Heritage, 4 (1987):35-36; Eugene P. Moehring, v. 1 (CHS). "Las Vegas and the Second World War," Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, 14. LaGuardia, "Report of the Director," p. 1. 29 (1986):2-6; and Mary Watters, Illinois in the Second World War: Operation 15. Governor John W. Bricker to the People of Ohio, December 9, 1941, Home Front, vol. 1 (Springfield, Illinois, 1951). Even rural areas Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS). A Cincinnati radio station demonstrated an interest in civilian protection. See Robert Karolevitz, "Life (WCPO) offered its services to the HCNDC "under any circumstances." on the Home Front: South Dakota in World War II," South Dakota History H.M. Kranz, City Engineer for Cincinnati, also offered the services of the vol. 19 (Fall 1989): 393-423 and Charles William Sloan, Jr., ed., "The Division of Public Works for civilian protection purposes. See Mortimer Newelletters: E. Gail Carpenter Describes Life on the Home Front, C. Watters to Morris Edwards, December 9,1941, and H.M. Kranz to CO. Part I" History, 11 (Spring 1988):54-72. Sherrill, December 9, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 12. "Tally of Local Defense Councils Reveals 5935 Organized in Nation," (CHS). On the increase in civil defense volunteers see Post, December 17, Defense vol.2, no. 47, (November 25, 1941):31. Ohio had 150 local defense 1941 and Status Report of the Hamilton County National Defense Council councils compared to Texas, the largest state in the Union, which had 890. to OCD, July 2, 1942, Civil Defense Collection (CHS). Nationally, the See also Cincinnati Enquirer (clipping), September 28, 1941, WW II increase in the number of civilian defense workers was just as impressive. Scrapbook, v. 1 (CHS); Cincinnati Post, November 4,24,1941; and Morris In November 1941 approximately 750,000 men and women had been Edwards to James G. Stewart, September 29, 1941, Civil Defense recruited by state and local defense councils; in just six months there were Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS). nearly eight million volunteers. See "LaGuardia Calls for More Volunteers 13. Civilian Defense Week: Plans and Suggestions for Defense Councils, in All Phases of Civilian Defense," Defense vol. 2, no. 47 (November 25,

,

Community activism behind federal government's alloca- civilian defense carried into tions. (CHS Photograph the postwar years. Volunteer Collection) fire departments later emerged in communities that had received fire-fighting and protective equipment from the Winter 1991 The War That Never Came 21

32. James M. Landis, "Block by Block," Victory vol.3 (December 22,1942):3 16. What To Do In An Air Raid (Washington, D.C., 1941), pp.1,5 and Past, and Post, January 7, 1942. March 6, 1942. 33. Memorandum from CO. Sherrill to Morris Edwards, December 10, 17. Press Release, December 15, 1941, Ohio State Council of Defense 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS) and Charles P. Taft Papers, Series 2246, Box 7 (OHS). to Morris Edwards, December 1, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, 18. Post, December 17, 1941, and Memorandum from CO. Sherrill to Folder 8 (CHS). Population figures are based on the 1940 Census. 55,593 Morris Edwards, December 10, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Blacks resided in Cincinnati (total pop. 455,610); fewer Blacks (55,313) Folder 2 (CHS). Cincinnati's reaction to the onset of war was typical of resided in other parts of Hamilton County (total pop. 621,987). many metropolitan areas. For other examples see G. Thomas Edwards, "The 34. See Horace R. Cayton, "Negro Morale," Opportunity 19 (December Oregon Coast and Three of Its Guerilla Organizations, 1942," Journal of 1941):371-375 and Franklin O. Nichols, "Six Industrial Cities and the Negro the West, 25 no. 3 (July 1986):20-34; Lingeman, Don't You Know There's a in Defense," Opportunity 19 ():235-37. In order to maintain the War Going On?, pp.25-62; Geoffrey Perrett, Days of Sadness. Tears of morale of the larger (majority) group, Cayton bitterly noted that "all forms Triumph: The American People, 1939-1945 (Madison, Wisconsin, 1973), of segregation and the subordination of the Negro must be continued, so pp.205-206; and Studs Terkel, The "Good War": An Oral History of World that undivided attention can be directed toward the outside enemy. The War Two (New York, 1984), p.25. Negro is asked to forgo [sic] any change in the status for the duration." 19. Courtney Burton to Phillip O. Geier, January 9, 1942, Civil Defense Also see Fourth Annual Report (19401941), May 21, 1941, Division of Collection, Box 1, Folder 2, (CHS); Morris Edwards to Courtney Burton, Negro Welfare, Urban League Papers (ULP), Box 1, Folder 4 (CHS). December 24, 1941, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS); and Post, December 23,1941. 35. George W. B. Conrad to John Bricker, November 29,1941, and Conrad 20. W.D. Anderson to Dana Merrill, January 9, 1942; Russell Oelsner to to Fiorello LaGuardia, December 10,1941, OCDP, RG 171, Entry 11, Box Merrill, January 31,1942; J. J. Greenleaf to Merrill, ,1942, Civil 47 (WNRC) and Stanley Roberts to J. Harvey Kearns, December 16,1941, Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS). ULP, Box 6, Folder 9 (CHS). 21. Times-Star (clipping), , 1942, WW II Scrapbook, vol. 2 (CHS). 36. William A. McClain to Morris Edwards, December 17, 1941, Civil 22. Enquirer, , 1942. Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS). At roughly the same time, 23. Post, January 27, 1942, and , 17, 1942. After the fall of McClain and Berry, as members of the civil rights committee of Cincinnati's on , 1942, Sherrill modified his position and noted NAACP, led a successful protest movement against downtown movie that the odds of an enemy attack had increased. Sherrill noted that "our theaters to admit Blacks. Theater owners had organized, (it should be protection from Japan depends greatly on the Navy." noted) with the support of the Chamber of Commerce, but the NAACP 24. LaGuardia cited in New York Times, January 2,1942. See also "The Eight prevailed, See William A. McClain "Cincinnati's Theatre Doors Opened," Hundred and Sixth Press Conference," , 1942, Rosenman, ed., The Crisis 48 (December 1941):382-383, 389. Papers of FDR, 1942, p.105. 37. Theodore M. Berry to James G. Stewart, December 11, 1941, Civil 25. WLW Radio, "Defense Council," c. February 1942, Ohio State Council Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS). Before Franklin Roosevelt of Defense Papers, Series 2250, Box 4, Folder 13 (OHS). created the Fair Employment Practices Committee by Executive Order 8802 26. Post, December 18, 1941, and January 16, 1942; "Woodward and War," in June 1941, Berry served as coordinator of the National Committee for Woodward Bulldog, March 13, 1942 (CHS); and Virginia Berten, "The the Participation of Negroes in the National Defense Program. The Sisters of St. Ursula," Queen City Heritage, 43 (Fall 1985):42-43. committee was essentially a pressure group with affiliates in fifteen states, 27. Post, January 16, 1942. including Ohio, that monitored hiring practices of defense contractors. 28 Enquirer, March 1, 20, 1942; Post, March 10, 1942; and Harry Gilligan Berry also served as legal council for the Division of Negro Welfare. See to CO. Sherrill, March 20, 1942, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder Adeline Harris interview of Theodore Berry, Tape I (CHS) and ULP, Box 2 (CHS). For the use of films in civil defense training see Enquirer, , Folder 4 (CHS). 26, 1942; OSCD Communique No. 55, , 1942, Civil Defense 38. Interview with Theodore M. Berry, , 1987. Collection, Box 39, Folder 344 (CHS); and Ralph Stone to [All] Mayors, 39. McClain to Edwards, December 17,1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box Chairmen, Directors, County and Local Defense Councils, October 5, 2, Folder 8 (CHS) and Cincinnati Independent, n. d., Civil Defense 1942, Ohio State Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box 4 (OHS). Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS). County and local defense councils regularly borrowed films from the 40. Morris Edwards to Theodore Berry, December 20, 1941, Civil Defense OSCD's vast collection of British and American defense-related films. The Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS); James Leslie Hubbell, to James G. extant films are available at OHS. Stewart, January 26,1942, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS); 29. "Chemical Warfare Course: Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare and Enquirer, , 1942. Agents," Science 95 (April 17, 1942):400-401 and Lee J. Bennish, S. J., 41. Post, November 4, 24, 1941. Continuity and Change: Xavier University, 1831-1981 (Chicago, 1981), p.16142. . Russell Barthell and Robert Ward, "Wartime Organization of Cities," 30. For the Zoo quote, see Enquirer, , 1942. Also see Enquirer, in Clarence E. Ridley and Orin F. Nolting, eds., The Municipal Yearbook, and March 1, 1942. 1942 (Chicago, 1943), pp.317-323. According to an HCNDC status report 31. Post, March 7, 1942; Harry Gilligan to CO. Sherrill, March 13, 1942, sent to the OCD in July 1942, only 15.4% of all volunteers engaged in civilian Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS); and "Civilian Defense protection work were women. See also Monthly Report on Status of . . . First Allocation of Protective Equipment Under the $100,000,000 Civilian Defense Activities in Local Areas, Submitted By the Hamilton Appropriation Will Go Mainly to Coastal Target Areas," Victory (formerly County National Defense Council, July 2, 1942, Civil Defense Collection called Defense) vol.3 (March 10,1942):30. William McReynolds, an Assistant (CHS) and Post, March 4, 1942. to the President, referred to a list of 39 "target areas." Significantly, fifteen 43. Ethel A. Irving to E. Eppinger, March 31,1942, and William N. Lovelace cities were located in inland rather than coastal states. Five of the fifteen to P.L. Prattis, April 18,1942, ULP, Box 6, Folder 9 (CHS). Also see Times- inland "target cities" were in Ohio, including: Akron; Cincinnati; Star (clipping), , 1942, ULP, Box 6, Folder 9 and Enquirer, April Cleveland; Columbus; and Toledo. See William McReynolds, c. April 1942, 10, 1942. memorandum, "Plans for Training Civilian Protection Workers," William 44. Post April 18,1942, During the first four months of the war, the Chamber McReynolds Papers, Box 7 OCD File (FDRL). of Commerce provided the HCNDC with free office space, heat, Queen City Heritage telephones, and met all other operating expenses. Between April and July Period of January 1,1943 to January 4,1943, Ohio State Council of Defense 1942, when state funds were appropriated, the HCNDC relied on the War Collection, Series 2246, Box 4 (OHS); "Flood Tests CD in Many States," Chest for support. See Executive and Financial Committee Papers, Box 2, OCD Newsletter no.27 (January 25, 1943), in Official File 4422, Office of Folder 6, Civil Defense Collection (CHS). Civilian Defense, 1943-1945, Box 2 (FDRL); and Landis, COHP, p.326. 45. Finance Committee Papers, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 7 53. Earlier in the war Boy Scouts had been recruited as messengers to assist (CHS) and Enquirer, June 8, 29, July 20, 1942. air raid wardens, whereas, the state coordinator for civilian war services 46. James M. Landis, Harvard law school dean and LaGuardia's successor encouraged local defense councils to include Ohio's 53,000 girl scouts in at OCD recalled that after the Battle of Midway "the danger of bombing non-protective volunteer programs in recreation, child care, consumer was gone." Landis headed the OCD from February 1942 to . interest, and victory gardens. See Delbert L. Pugh, memorandum, October See James M. Landis, Columbia Oral History Project, 1963-1964, p.324 9, 1942, Ohio State Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box 7, Folder (microfiche copy) and Donald A. Ritchie, Landis: Dean of the Regulators 93 (OHS). (Cambridge, 198O), pp.103-119. The likelihood of enemy air raids had 54. Harry Graff to Ford Worthing, , 1943, Ohio State Council of lessened by summer 1942, however, later in the war the Japanese armed Defense Collection, Series 2246, Box 3, Folder 13 (OHS). high-altitude balloons with explosives and incendiaries that traveled as far 55. Ralph Stone to Morris Edwards, March 24, 1943, Civil Defense inland as Iowa. These "bombs" caused a few fatalities and injuries, but failed Collection, Box 2, Folder 4 (CHS). Tire rationing and car pool programs, to weaken America's wartime morale as Japan had hoped. See Lawrence formulated by the OPA, were implemented by state and local defense H. Larsen, "War Balloons over the Prairie: The Japanese Invasion of South councils. Dakota," South Dakota History, 9 no. 2 (1979):104-115; Bert Webber, Silent 56. Mayor James Garfield Stewart, Memorandum, July 8,1943, ULP Papers, Siege: Japanese Attacks Against in World War II (Fairfield, Box 24, Folder 5. Washington, 1983) and Leonard, "Denver at War," pp.30-39. 57. Report of the Director of the Emergency Child Care Office, December 47. Mauck, Civil Defense, Ch. 3, pp. 13-14. 3,1942-January 1, 1944, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 4 (CHS). 48. OSCD Communique No. 136, June 12,1942, Civil Defense Collection, At its peak the nationwide child care program serviced over 130,000 in more Box 39, Folder 344 (CHS). than 3,000 centers. See Susan M. Hartmann, American Women in the Forties: 49. Enquirer, May 1, 23, June 12, and December 24, 1942; Times-Star The Home Front and Beyond (, 1982), pp.58-59 and Richard (clipping), August 14, 1942, WW II Scrapbook, vol. 2 (CHS); Harold Polenberg, War and Society: The United States, 1941-1945 (Philadelphia, Pa., Nichols to Charles P. Taft, n. d., Charles Taft Papers, Box 33, Folder 6 1972), pp. 148-49. (CHS); and OCD Newsletter no.20 (September 24, 1942) in Ohio State 58. Ruth Joseph Fischer, ed., Ohio War History Commission, vol.2, no.10, Council of Defense Papers, Series 2250, Box 1, Folder 1 (OHS). See also (April 1944), pp.2-4 (CHS). Courtney Burton to All Local Defense Councils, February 17, 1942, Ohio 59. Interview with Harry Graff, October 10, 1986, (transcripts available at State Defense Council Papers, Series 2246, Box 1, Folder 16 and Boy Scouts CHS). of America 1942 Series, Bulletin no.l, "We, Too, Have A Job To Do," 60. Elwyn A. Mauck, "Civilian Defense in the United States, 1941-45," The January 7,1942, in Ohio State Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box Bulletin of Atomic Scientists 6 (August/September 1950):267. 1, Folder 16 (OHS). 61. Executive Committee Papers, March 29,1944, Civil Defense Collection, 50. Enquirer, November 4,9,1942; and Sherrill, Memorandum to the Press, Box 2, Folder 6 (CHS); Nichols to Edwards, November 17, 1943, Civil November 9, 1942, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 3 (CHS). Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 4 (CHS); and Enquirer, September 23, 51. Enquirer, December 31, 1942, and The American National Red Cross, 1944. The Bxd Cross—A Brief Story (Washington, 1944). 62. For example, volunteer fire departments emerged in communities that 52. Post, January 4, 1943; Enquirer, January 5, 6, 1943; Gilligan to Sherrill, had profited from the federal government's allocations of fire-fighting and January 12, 1943, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 6 (CHS); protective equipment. See The Pride of Park Hills (Kentucky), c.1947. Patterson Report on Activities in the Cincinnati Area During the Flood

Many cities lacked sirens that whistles. (CHS Photograph were powerful enough to be Collection) heard. In Hamilton County civilian defense councils sup- plemented the sirens with church bells and factory