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1991
Pollen analysis of the Sepphoris archaeological site, Beit Natofa Valley, Lower Galilee, Israel
Tristram Hussey Colby College
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Recommended Citation Hussey, Tristram, "Pollen analysis of the Sepphoris archaeological site, Beit Natofa Valley, Lower Galilee, Israel" (1991). Senior Scholar Papers. Paper 122. https://digitalcommons.colby.edu/seniorscholars/122
This Senior Scholars Paper (Open Access) is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Research at Digital Commons @ Colby. It has been accepted for inclusion in Senior Scholar Papers by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Colby. Pollen Analysis of the sepphoris Archaeological Site. Belt Natofa Valley, Lower Galilee. Israel
by
Tristram C. Hussey
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Senior Scholars' Program
Colby College 1991 APPROVED:
DR. ROBERT E. NELSON, TUTOR
DR. THOMAS R. , TUTOR
READER ANTHROPOLOGY
DR. PETER INDEPENDENT STUDY COMMITTEE Table of Contents
Abstract 1 Introduction ...... •...... 2 Figure 1. Eastern Mediterranean Region and Northern Israel .4 Background and previous work : 5 Methods ..•...... 1 History of Sepphoris ....•...... 10 Figure 2: General site plan of Sepphoris 11 Modern vegetation and climate ...... •••...... 14 Sedimentology and age of deposits 16 Table 1: Field locality data for samples analyzed from Field I 17 Table 2:Field locality data for samples analyzed from Field 11 1.8 Table 3: Field locality data for samples analyzed from Field IV 18 Palynology ...... •...... 18 Figure 3: Pollen diag~am of Field I 20 Figure 4: Pollen diagram of Field 11 21 Paleoenvironmental inferences .. - 22 Conclusion and discussion 25 Acknowledgements 27 References ...... ••...... 28 Appendices ...... •...... 29 Appendix 1: Percentages used for diagrams 30 Appendix 2: Data used for the study 32 Appendix 3: Percents for all taxa identified 35 Abstract This study has been the culmination of a year's work in archaeological palynology on the Sepphoris archaeological site, Beit Natofa Valley, Lower Galilee, Israel. The samples came from strata of Middle Roman to Byzantine periods (2~-7~ century C.E. (Common Era» and represents a time of nearly continuous occupation of Sepphoris. The goal of this study was to reconstruct the paleoenvironment and climate of this region for this particular window of time. Though the samples were of poor quality, and the amount of pollen preserved in them was sparse and degraded, tentative conclusions could be made. Further this study showed that archaeological palynology on terrestrial sediments can yield good results.
Sepphoris was once the capitol of Galilee, and was a major cultural center during Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine times (Longstaff, 1990). Its importance in the region makes this study central to establishing an understanding of the changes in the environment and economy of the region, and how the people of the region adapted to these changes.
The samples taken from this site were calcareous and alkaline; pollen was scant and poorly preserved. Using a modified version of the technique of Faegri and Iversen (1975), sufficient pollen was extracted to complete this study. During the analysis of the samples, little taxonomic diversity was found, but a significant amount of Poaceae (grass) and Asteraceae (composites) was found. Poaceae seems to be declining during this period suggesting that the region was becoming drier. In addition, the overall wealth of the region was declining. The decline in Poaceae and the increasing aridity may explain the increasing poverty explain the large amounts of composites in the samples. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 2
Introduction
An important question for archaeologists is what the environment was like during the period of occupation of a site.
Knowledge of the paleoenvironment assists the archaeologist in understanding how a Culture adapted to the environment around it.
Pollen analysis has become a standard technique to reconstruct paleoenvironments for archaeologists. For the most part, though, palynologists (scientists who study fossil and modern pollen) have limited their analyses to lacustrine cores, because of the high pollen concentrations and uncomplicated processing. This sampling technique yields excellent results, but often there is difficulty applying these analyses to archaeological sites. Few archaeological sites contain (or are) lacustrine basins, thus an analysis from lake or bog cores must be correlated to the site through 14C dating. Correlations between 14C dates from the cores and 14C dates (or ceramic periods) from the archaeological site can introduce error and lead to inaccurate conclusions.
If some of the 14C dates from a core are found to be inaccurate, then the correlation to the site is lost and the conclusions could be invalidated. The solution to this is to take sediment samples for pollen analysis directly from the site itself. If samples are taken carefully and the sediments are suitably organic, the analysis can yield results as reliable as lacustrine cores, that are directly applicable to the site. This assures that even if age determinations are inaccurate, the paleoenvironmental interpretations are still connected with the site and the cultural horizons where the samples where collected Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 3
This study attempted to establish a paleoenvironmental history for a site in a region where pollen analysis was especially difficult. The samples were taken from the Sepphoris archaeological site in the Beit Natofa Valley, Lower Galilee,
Israel (fig. 1). The goal was to reconstruct possible climate and climate change during the Middle Roman to Late Byzantine periods
(2na-7~ century C.E. (Common Era». The samples were collected by the staff and crew of the Sepphoris archaeological site under the direction of Dr. Thomas R. W. Longstaff during the 1985-1987 field seasons. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 4
35°E 35°E 35°N / Ni /
Sepphori Cyprus Nr " 0 • 40 • 80 , KM
,o 100, 200, 300,,400 500, KM
Fig. 1. Eastern Mediterranean Region (left) and Northern Israel (right). (Refer to fig. 2 for Sepphoris map.) Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 5
Background and previous work
Palynology in Israel is a difficult undertaking. The most soils and sediments in Israel are derived from the limestone bedrock of the region. Soil derived from limestone is highly alkaline by nature and does not preserve plant remains or pollen very well (Horowitz, 1979). This makes pollen analysis daunting, but still possible.
Pollen is one of the most resistant organic remains used for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. The pollen exine is made of sporopollenin, a complex, resistant, natural organic polymer, akin to plastic (MacDonald, 1990). Sporopollenin resists attack by many chemical agents, and is well preserved in wet, acid environments. However, pollen degrades readily in alkaline or oxidizing conditions (such as the region of Lower Galilee), but this degradation can be reduced in arid environments (Horowitz,
1979). In Israel even the lacustrine sediments do not preserve pollen well. The amount of pollen preserved in these environments is less than that with which what most palynologists work, and the possibility of differential preservation must be taken into account in the analysis.
The samples for this study are from terrestrial sediments in an alkaline and arid environment; thus the chance that large amounts of pollen would be preserved was slim. In spite of this, the study proceeded on the assumptio~ that some pollen was Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 6
preserved and a modified and cautious laboratory technique would
extract it.
Preliminary analysis of the sediments by Dr. Robert E. Nelson
showed that some pollen had was preserved in them. At the start
of this study it was unknown whether there would be pollen in
sufficient quantities for proper statistical analysis.
The first study of Israeli Quaternary pollen was completed by
Martine Rossignol in 1969 (Rossignol, 1969; Horowitz, 1979).
Rossignol used marine sediment cores for her pioneering work. She
found that pollen counts were generally low and often individual
samples did not contain enough pollen for the analysis to be
statistically valid (Horowitz, 1979). In spite of this, her work
was an excellent foundation for Israeli palynology and the
photographic plates included were used as one means of identifying
the taxa in the samples for this project.
Since 1969 increasing work has been done in Israel by a
number of Israeli palynologists adding to the knowledge of the
paleoenvironmental history of Israel (Horowitz, 1979). In spite
of this the Quaternary climate and vegetational history of Israel
is still under debate (Horowitz, 1979). Many palynologists note
that work done on terrestrial sediments can be untrustworthy and
must be corrected for differential preservation (Weinstein-Evron,
1986) .
This study is important because of the historical
significance of the Sepphoris site. The history of Sepphoris will Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 7
be discussed below in the section; History Sepphoris. The historical and cultural importance of Sepphoris may allow paleoenvironmental analyses to be cross-checked against historical records. Also, this study breaks ground for similar analyses in the future on other archaeological sites of similar age.
There has been some work done on archaeological sites that are much older than Sepphoris (Horowitz, 1979). The majority of pollen analyses on archaeological sites have been done on prehistoric sites, and thus cannot be cross-checked against historical documents (Horowitz, 1979; Weinstein-Evron, 1986;
Gallii and Weinstein-Evron, 1985). A likely reason for this gap in analysis is due to the poor quality of terrestrial sediments for pollen analysis. This study will show that pollen analysis from terrestrial sediments for historical period archaeological sites is possible and viable pictures of paleoenvironments can be drawn.
Methods
The method for extracting the fossil pollen for this study is based on standard techniques, with minor modifications to take into account the high pH and assumed low pollen content of the samples (Faegri and Iversen, 1975). The samples were processed six at a time, over a period of about a month.
Initially 20 gm weights (samples SPA and SPB) were processed, but the sample size was reduced to 5 gm to allow for swifter processing. Once each sample had been weighed, the samples were Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 8
then wet with 10% Hel, until a portion of the carbonates had been dissolved and reactions slowed. Then small amounts of concentrated Hel were added to dissolve the remaining carbonates from the sample. Once all the carbonates had been dissolved in an excess of Hel, the samples were screened through 250 ~ wire mesh.
The <250 ~ portion was transferred into 15 ml Nalgene® test tubes by centrifuging the samples and decanting and discarding the supernatant. The sediment left in the tubes was kept for pollen extraction. The >250 ~ portion was rinsed into beakers, then filtered through paper towels for drying and examination for plant and animal macrofossils.
Colloidal organics were dissolved by adding 1-2x the samples' volume of 5% KOH and put in a hot water bath for a maximum of 5 minutes. After 5 minutes the samples were immediately topped with cold distilled water (dH20) and centrifuged on high speed for at least 2 minutes. The supernatant was decanted and discarded, extreme care had to be taken because the supernatant was very viscous and difficult to decant. The samples were then washed with dH20, centrifuged and decanted again.
To dissolve any dolomitic limestone in the samples, the second water wash was followed with a hot 10% Hel bath for 10 minutes. After 10 minutes the samples were taken out and topped with cold 10% HCI, centrifuged and decanted. The samples were left acidic for the next part of the procedure. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 9
The silicates and clay minerals were dissolved with 48% hydrofluoric acid (HF). Two ml of HF was added to each sample, which was then put in a hot water bath for at least one hour. The samples were stirred every 10 minutes. After one hour, the samples were topped with cold 10% Hel, centrifuged and decanted.
This was followed by 2 10% Hel washes, and a wash in glacial acetic acid to prepare the samples for acetolysis.
The acetolysis solution used was the standard 9:1 acetic anhydride to sulfuric acid mixture (Faegri and Iversen, 1975).
The amount of acetolysis solution prepared allowed for 1.5-2 ml of solution per sample. The samples were put in a hot water bath for
3-5 minutes for acetolysis, and stirred several times during that time. Once the samples were removed they were topped with glacial acetic acid, stirred thoroughly, centrifuged and decanted. This was followed by one more wash with glacial acetic acid, and 2 washes with dH20. After each wash the samples were centrifuged and decanted.
Because the samples were expected to have low pollen concentrations, the residues were then screened over a 10 ~ mesh with dH20 to remove fine mineral matter and other debris that could hamper easy identification. The >10 ~ portion was kept for dewatering, and the <10 ~ fraction discarded.
For dewatering the samples were washed with 5 ml of 95% ETOH, centrifuged and decanted, followed by a wash with 5 ml of tert
Butyl alcohol (T.E.A.). The resultant residue was then mounted on Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 10
microscope slides in silicon oil (2000 c.s. viscosity) with 22 mm x 22 mm coverslips. Four slides were made for each sample, numbered 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4. Each set of slides were checked to assure that there was pollen on the slides. The slides were then stored until identification started after all samples had been processed.
History of Sepphoris
Sepphoris (fig. 2) was a city occupied from the Late Iron Age through Arab Conquest (1,000 B.C.E-649 C.E). It was a major trading and governmental center in the Beit Natofa Valley of Lower
Galilee (Longstaff, 1990). It is thought that Sepphoris was the capitol of Galilee during much of its history, and influenced the region in all spheres of life (Longstaff, 1990). Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 11
CI) :J 4> 0..) > 0 0 III ~ U 0'
CI) •.-j ~ ..c0 o CL a.
Sepphoris, though an important city in Galilee, was never mentioned in the Bible in spite of its proximity to the town of
Nazareth (Longstaff, 1990). The historian Josephus and later rabbinic writings refer to it often, suggesting was important to the region (Longstaff, 1990). The rabbinic writings suggest that
Sepphoris was built in the later Iron age (1,000-586 B.C.E. (Before
Common Era)), and archaeological evidence seems to confirm this claim. Sepphoris was built as a walled, fortified city with a heavy Hellenistic influence. It was not a rustic country outpost, as many picture the region of Galilee (Longstaff, 1990).
The record of Sepphoris fades during the Early Roman period after Roman annexation of Palestine in 63 B.C.E. • What is known is that in about 55 B.C.E., Aulus Gabinius, Proconsul of Syria, placed one of five Roman Councils of Judea, and the only one in
Galilee, in Sepphoris (Longstaff, 1990). Around 39-38 B.C.E.
Herod the Great conquered Sepphoris as part of the civil war in
Israel that brought him to power. Because of this and the-writings of Josephus it is thought that Sepphoris was made Herod's administrative center in the region during his reign (Longstaff,
1990) .
After Herod's death in 4 B.C.E., anti-Roman rebellions forced the Romans to reestablish control of Sepphoris. The Romans quelled the rebellions by razing the city. Soon after the destruction of Sepphoris, Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, rebuilt the city around the first century C.E. and made the city Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 13 his capital in Galilee (Longstaff, 1990). Josephus refers to
Sepphoris at this point as Autocratoris which is translated as capital.
It was from the reconstruction of Sepphoris in the first century C.E. to its destruction in the middle of the fourth century (351 C.E.), that the city was at its peak. This influential city became highly Roman in character. The city contained an Acropolis (see fig. 2) with major public buildings, temples, synagogues, a fortress (castra) , banks, and possibly the palace of Herod Antipas. The Acropolis represented the city center; the focus of business, government, and religion for entire region (Longstaff, 1990). In the excavation of Sepphoris by Dr.
James F. Strange and Dr. Thomas R. W. Longstaff this section of Sepphoris is designated as Field I in their five-field subdivision of the site.
A major structure at Sepphoris was the Amphitheater, designated Field II (fig. 2). The theater was estimated to have had a capacity of approximately 3,500-4000 persons. It was found and originally excavated by Leroy Waterman in 1931 (Waterman,
1931). The Amphitheater gives evidence to the cultural aspect and importance of Sepphoris. The city was large enough, and Roman enough, to need a theater of such proportions to satisfy the populace.
Though Sepphoris was generally pro-Roman, revolts occurred during this Golden Age of Sepphoris. In 66-70 C.E. there was a Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 14
major Jewish revolt against Roman rule, and peace subsequently restored. And again between 132-135 C.E. nationalistic Jews, who had fled from other parts of Israel, incited revolt in Sepphoris.
This time, however, the city was spared total destruction and relations with the Romans had been reestablished by the end of the second century C.E. (Longstaff, 1990). Also at this point the city was known as Diocaesarea, instead of Sepphoris. These good relations continued until 351 C.E., when Sepphoris was destroyed once again. The city was rebuilt during Byzantine times several centuries later.
Modern vegetation and climate
The climate and vegetation of this area is typical of the
Eastern Mediterranean, with short wet winters and long dry summers
(Horowitz, 1979; Zohary, 1962). The annual rainfall in the region of Sepphoris is 500-700 mm/year. Nearly all of the year's precipitation falls during the winter rainy season. The plants are thus adapted to periods of plentiful water and periods of drought.
vegetation zones fall into evergreen forests and maquis, bathas, and garigues. The forest and maquis are areas of sclerophyllous evergreen trees with leaves that are thick and resist transpiration (Zohary, 1962). The bathas and garigues are often grouped together and are areas bordering the forests of open shrub-grassland with aromatic and thorny taxa. Each zone is made up of taxa with similar ecological requirements, the differences Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 15
between vegetation zones are from differences in land use and the stage of vegetational development (Zohary, 1962).
The evergreen forests (sometimes called maquis) are areas dominated by sclerophyllous evergreen trees and shrubs up to about
4 meters in height (Zohary, 1962). The combinations of different trees are numerous, with each tree having a certain niche that it can fill. Below is a list from Horowitz (1979) of the major evergreen and deciduous trees found in Israeli maquis/evergreen forests:
Pinus halepensis, P. pinea, Larus nobilis, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentescus, P.saportae, P. palaestina, Phillyrea, Olea europea, Viburnum tinus, Myrtus communis, Rhamnus alaternus, Juniperus oxycedrus, J. phoenicea, Quercus calliprinos, Q. infectoria, Q. ithaburensis, Q. aegilops, Q. libani, Arbutus andrachne, Abies cilicica, Cupressus sempervirens, Crataegus azarolus, Cercis siliquas, and Styrax officinalis (Horowitz, 1979).
Bathas and garigues are shrubby landscapes containinq mostly low sclerophyllous shrubs between 0.5-1 meters in height (Zohary,
1962; Horowitz, 1979). Bathas and garigues are sometimes not differentiated from each other though bathas are usually considered to precede garigues in landscape evolution (Zohary,
1962). In general it is considered that both bathas and garigues are stages towards climax vegetational stands (namely, maquis)
At the edges of the Mediterranean zone however, bathas and garigues often represent the climax vegetation (Zohary, 1962) Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 16
Typical shrubs of the bathas and garigues are low, aromatic herbs that are drought resistant. Typical taxa are: Poterium spinosum, Thymus capitatus, Fumma arabica, F. thymifolia, Teucrium polium, T. divaricatum, Hyparrhenia hirta, Salvia graveolens, and
Ballota undulata (Horowitz, 1979; Zohary, 1962).
Presently the State of Israel is actively reforesting the region with various Pinus species. This has obvious effects on the ecology (e.g. acidity of the soil) and is in addition to the shrubby and thorny taxa that are indigenous to the region presently.
Se~entology and age of deposits
Since the soils are derived from limestones they are calcareous and have a high pH. This does not lend to excellent pollen preservation, but what pollen is preserved can be extracted if sufficient care is exercised in the laboratory. The deposits sampled are from Middle Roman to Late Byzantine in age, from two different parts of the excavation. Samples were separated by their respective fields and then ordered chronologically to be diagrammed.
Field I, the Acropolis, and Field II, the Amphitheater adjacent to Field I were where the majority of samples were taken for this study. The theater was filled with rubble in the early
Byzantine, when it was used as a staging ground for the castra
(fortress). Note that the samples were not taken from the rubble fill but from the strata comprising the foundation of the theater. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 17
Field III was not sampled for this project because it was found during the course of excavation that it represented twentieth century occupation. Fields IV-v had not been excavated to a depth sufficient for this study. Tables 1-3 (below) shows the chronological order and field locality data for the samples used in this study. Samples marked with an asterisk (*) were not diagrammed with the rest of the field.
Sample 10 Wield Square BucketLOCUS !ceramic lLocus ~ocus lPeriod :above Ibelow SPK I 4 ? 4033 Byz I 4002 4011 SPY I 4 ? 4014 Byz I 4003 4018 SPH I 6 41 6022 Byz I 6001 6003-5 SPX I 8 ? 8007 L. Rom 8006 8999 5.1 SPA I 17 21 17007 L. Rom. 1700-6 17008-10 SPM I 7 3 7004 M. Rom. 7000 7005 SPP I 8 17 8013 M. Rom. 8012 8016 SPW I 8 22 8015 M. Rom. 8014 8016 SPV I 9 17 9020 M. Rom 9020 9021 SPG I 13 36 13020 M. Rom. 13017 13021 SPE I 14 ? 14009 M. Rom 14007 14007 SPI* ? ? ? C.229 assoc. wI 1. 7 ? SPL* I 7 XX C.229 assoc. wI 1. 7 ? SPR'* I 9 12 90181 Byz I C219
Table 1: Field locality data for samples analyzed from Field I Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 18
Sample ID Field Square!BucketlLocus Ceramic LOCUS LOCUS Period above below SPS II 4 44 4003 Byz II 4002 4011, 4023 SPU II 6 ? 6018 Byz II N/A 6019 SPD II 3 46 3027 Byz I 3024 3011 C.1 II 8 76 8025 Transition 8010 unkn to L. Rom- 8029 Bvz I C.2* II 8 76 8025 Transition 8010 unkn to L. Rom- 8029 Byz I SPQ II 4 ? 4030 L. Rom. 4029 4031 SPF II 8 65 8018 L. Rom. 8010 8026 SPT II 4 43 4030 L. Rom. 4029 4031 SPJ II 4 54 4037 M .Rom. 4020 Bdrk SPN II 4 41 4021 M. Rom. 4019 N/A SPO II 4 ? 4036 M. Rom. 4021 Bdrk
Table 2:Field locality data for samples analyzed from Field II
Sample ID !Field SquarelBucketlLocus Ceramic lLocus ~ocus Period !above below SPB IV 2 11 2003 Byz II 2002 2005
Table 3: Field locality data for samples analyzed from Field IV
Palynology
The samples that were used did not contain large amounts of pollen, as can be noted from the count totals on the pollen diagrams (figures 3 and 4). For each sample the goal was to count and identify at least 200 grains. This goal was attained for better than half of the samples, although a small portion of the samples had totals below 100 grains. In all the samples the main components were Liguliflorae (composites, in part) and Poaceae
(grass family), minor components being Olea (olive sp.) and Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 19
Tubuliflorae (remaining composites). There were traces of Pinus
(pine sp.) and Ostyra (hophornbeam)throughout most samples, but these taxa were not found with enough regularity to allow one to draw any conclusions. In addition, the slides had large amounts of fine charcoal and plant matter interspersed throughout most of the samples.
The absence of spores from the diagrams and counts was intentional. The number of spores in the samples was often two to three times that of the pollen counts. Inaperturate spore taxa were difficult to identify and hampered progress on the project.
It was decided that not counting the spores, though a loss to the project, would be beneficial in the long run.
The pollen diagrams on the following pages are from Fields I and II (figures 3 and 4 respectively). Field IV was omitted, though the data from the single sample from the Field may be found in the Appendix. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 20
Pollen Diagram for Field I Indeterm.inale ...- • U • _.... Unknown - ·i .~. ..I ·I . ' OtherTaxa* ~ ~ ..!. ~ cG 4) 01 - ..., 1 • ChenOpodiacea«~ ,"""",",:----lI.~i.=---L--...;...;;.. • Liguliflorae
Tubu liflorae __•••••I' -.,..;r Anemisia --...... 1X'-Jl.-...... i--l.-...;.L I 1 -i • _ ••1 Asphodelus I ; X I I Brassicaceae X_X;. • _ _ Jl Ericales A. . ~ . .11. .. I Ephedra. • Xi X .i.x ,x,X • I 1 • Apiaceae Xi i. • I 1 I - Cyperaceae X I! • i X II 1 I Poaceae •• ,_L _1 .._..._...~~_...... - - m Cereals X L XXi[ Quercus _ • ~ .!. I Salix _; X I Osrrya _ .,...~x X I Olea L X. .,1 -1__ I Pinus __xi L _ 1 Grains counted V\ 8 ~ ! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ...~ ~- ... _ N N ·I ('l '" .r _ N 'C
Ceramic period .....~ 0 ~e '" . -~. Each division=25% * Other taxa: a=Pistaciq c=Tenninaliq e= Cupressaceae, f= Boraginaceae, g= X Pollen Diagram for Field II Indeterminate Fig. 4 Unknown -._." ..,. _ X - wi( I• 1I I Other Taxa* l~ ~i ~l 0 ~"'O Chenopodiaceae_ !t j ~ t t XI j • .I . I . I • I • Liguliflorae i · Ericales i i X i I ft t . 1'_' ) ..1.., , Ephedra. j ~x, ,!X, X[ Apiaceae ...;t:....-_--i--...... :. _ ...... __.....&.1 I I I I Cyperaceae ~j. -i ---J •__ , . . I I I Poaceae i·', Cereals t !XXl ! I : .1 Quercus Salix Ostrya Olea Pinus Grains counted Sample E e ~ ~ ..i ~ * Other taxa: a=Pistaciq c= Tenninali4 Each division=25% d= Cedrus, f= Boraginaceae X Paleoenvironmental inferences The small quantity of pollen identified in the samples and the limited number of taxa consistently found made analysis difficult, but not impossible. The amount of Asteraceae (composites) in the samples is likely in part to be a relic of preferential preservation of those taxa in the sediments. Composites have very thick exines and thus resist degradation. In spite of the thick exine, often only the thin ektexine and pore structures remained. This gives strong evidence that other taxa would have been better represented if there were better conditions for preservation. In spite of the preservation problem the data are still useful. If one looks at the Poaceae, a pattern emerges. There is a general drop in the amount of Poaceae in both fields diagrammed. This could indicate a transition between a warm and humid period to a warm and drier period. In earlier work by Horowitz (1971), cores from the Hula basin in Northern Israel, showed some interesting changes similar to changes that were found in this study. Horowitz made several cores in the Hula basin, and these cores yielded data from Late Pleistocene to Latest Holocene (Horowitz, 1971). He found in the Holocene several series of vegetational changes, the latest one starting at 5000 years B.P., was relevant to this study. Horowitz determined that medium amounts of Poaceae and Cyperaceae with low A.P. (arboreal pollen) Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 23 represented warm and dry conditions (Horowitz, 1971). Also in the pollen diagram of this core (K-JAM, Hula) there was a significant drop in the amount of Poaceae and Cyperaceae. In two other cores from Hula and another nearby lake (Lake Kinneret), the resolution was better for the Holocene period, giving a radiocarbon date near the top of the core of 2500 years B.P (Horowitz, 1971). Horowitz found in these cores Poaceae and Cyperaceae increasing during the late Holocene. He interpreted this as warm and somewhat humid, but with minor fluctuations from then to the present (Horowitz, 1971). The consistent drop in Poaceae found in this study could be a short term localized fluctuation of the humid trend. Although, in this study, Cyperaceae is not prevalent in most of the samples, this can be explained by factoring in the degradation of the taxa due to its thin exine. In Field I (the Acropolis) the samples had lower counts and less variety in the counts. Field I provides an interesting picture with a clear drop in Poaceae (except for one sample that had an unusually low total pollen count) and general stasis in Cyperaceae. At each of the boundaries of the ceramic periods, there is a slight jump in Poaceae. It is difficult to determine whether this is an artifact, statistical oddity, or an actual change in the importance of Poaceae that reflects a change in climate or, a change in the amount of grain grown. In field I the Composites show no change, together comprising about half of the pollen total (L). Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 24 There are some other peculiarities in the diagram. The sudden rise in Pinus in "Spy" defies the trend of low but stable Pinus in both fields, which can be attributed to the continued deforestation of the region. This spike in the graph could be the result of modern contamination, since Pinus is a major element in the reforestation of the region. Field II (the Amphitheater) has higher overall counts and more variety than Field I. Field II also has the trend of decreasing Poaceae content over time, including the same jumps at the transition between periods. Field II also offers a larger window of time (Middle Roman-Byzantine II) to establish whether the jumps in Poaceae are from environmental factors or error. In Field II the decreasing trend in Poaceae is well marked, especially in the Middle Roman period where a steady decline is evident. In the following three periods there is a general decline in the percentage of Poaceae, but there are "spikes" in the graph. These spikes are probably anomalies in the samples, not a real rise in the importance of Poaceae in the paleoenvironment. The spike in sample SPD is likely a result of contamination from decaying plaster in the sample. It was a common practice to use straw to bind plaster, and some pollen could have stayed on the straw within the plaster and then been released as the plaster decayed and when, during processing, the plaster was dissolved. The spike in SPS is likely from contamination by the modern atmosphere. This trend is not shown Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 25 in the Cereals column because of difficultly finding Poaceae taxa that were intact enough to make the positive identification of whether the grain was a cereal or not. As in Field I Cyperaceae is generally steady, except for a peak in one sample ("SPU") and the Composites comprise a major component of L. Conclusion and discussion From the analysis of the data and the resultant diagrams, certain tentative conclusions can be drawn. The drop in Poaceae in both Fields I and II suggests that the region was becoming drier and moving toward an environment of low shrubs and weedy taxa (i.e. batha-garigue). The spikes in both diagrams are likely to be a result of contamination, either from the modern environment or from extraneous Poaceae contained within decaying building materials. The archaeological evidence also suggests that Sepphoris was becoming a poorer region and the corpus of ceramic artifacts supports this conclusion (discussion with Thomas R.W. Longstaff, Associate Director of the Excavation at Sepphoris). If this local region was undergoing a period"of increasing aridity, it is likely that the general wealth of the area would decrease accordingly. It is likely that an increase in the aridity would lower the amount of crops brought in, and weeds would begin to grow in the place of the crops in unused fields. This increase of weeds and associated plants is a logical step during a period of short to long term drought. In this study the amount of Poaceae steadily decreases (once the anomalies are removed), and the amount of Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 26 Asteraceae (composites) is remains very high for the whole diagram in both Fields. Taking into account Horowitz's (1971) interpretations of cores from nearby Lake Hula and Lake Kinneret, the results of this study seem to show a short term fluctuation of the climate in the region. Short term fluctuations still have great effects on the ecology of the region. If arable land remains fallow for a growing season, weedy taxa begin to take over, and later shrubs and other open ground taxa move into the field. This change could cause large parts of the once arable land to go to batha or garigue environments. Both of these types of environments are known to develop on land disturbed by humans and then abandoned (Zohary, 1962). The decreasing wealth of the region strengthens this conclusion. It is seems that the region was becoming somewhat more arid, leading to fewer crops being grown. The land not used for planting would have been taken over by weeds and slowly become a baht or garigue. Continued investigation into historical documents could yield further information about" the economy and climate of the region during this time. This type of research would be the next step if this project were continued further. Beyond the paleoenvironmental implications of this work, it has potential influence on work to be done in the future. This project has shown that though sample quality is poor, solid data can be obtained from historical period archaeological sediments in Israel. This opens up a new area for palynologists in Israel. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 27 With the large number of archaeological sites in Israel, sites that have well-established chronological data, pollen analysis could relate changes in climate to changes in economy and culture in the region, giving archaeologists and historians more information about the earlier inhabitants of this region. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my mentors in this project, Dr. Robert E. Nelson, Dr. Thomas R. W. Longstaff, and Dr. David L. Nugent. Without the help of these professors I would not have been able to complete this project. I would also like to thank Dr. Mina Weinstein-Evron at the University of Haifa, Israel, who graciously sent me reference slides and reprints that aided me tremendously in this project. I would like to dedicate this work and project to my father, whose drive and pursuit of excellence are the cornerstones of this work, and my mother, whose support gave me the strength to carryon. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 28 References cited Faegri, K., and J. Iversen, 1975: Textbook of Po~~en Ana~ysis (3rd ed.). (New York: Hafner Press)i 295 p. Galili, E., and M. Weinstein-Evron, 1985: Prehistory and paleoenvironments of submerged sites along the Carmel coast of Israel. Paleorient. v. 11, no. 1, pp. 37-51. Horowitz, A. 1971: Climatic and and vegetational developments in northeastern Israel during the Upper Pleistocene-Holocene times. Pollen et Spores v. 13 no. 2, p.255-78. Horowitz, A., 1979: Quaternary of Israel. (New York, Academic Press); 394 p. Longstaff, T. R. W., 1990: Nazareth and Sepphoris: Insight into Christian origins, p. 8-15. in Christ and His Communities: Essays in honor of Reginald H. Fuller. CA. J. Hultgren and B. Hall, eds.). (Cincinnati, Forward Movement Publications) . MacDonald, G.M., 1990: Palynology, p. 37-52 in: Methods in Quaternary Ecology, Geoscience of Canada, reprint series; no. 5 (B.G. Warner, ed.). (St. John's, Newfoundland: Geological Association of Canada Publications) . Rossignol, M., 1969: Sedimentation palynologique dans Ie domaine marin quaternaire de Palestine: Etude de Paleo-environment. Notes et memoires sur Ie Moyen-Orient t. 10. (Paris, Museum National D'Historie Naturelle)i 270 p. Waterman, L., et. al., 1931: Preliminary report of the University of Michigan excavations at Sepphoris, Palestine, in 1931. (Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press) . Weinstein-Evron, M., 1986: Pollen spectra from the Achulean site of Mitzpeh Yrion, Israel: A cautionary tale. Pollen et Spores. v.28 no. 2, p.157-166. Zohary, M., 1962: Plant life of Palestine. (New York, Ronald Press CO.)i 262 p. Appendices Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 30 Appendix I: Pollen percentages used! for diagrams, in reveJise chronological order (see tables l~3) Field I Sample Artemisia Tubuliforae Liguliflorae Poaceae Quercus Salix Chenopods Olea Osrrya Pinus Apiaceae Cereals SPE 0.0 7.5 49.3 26.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 7.5 0.0 1.5 SPG 0.0 8.2 63.6 11.3 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.5 0.4 Spy 5.3 8.4 33.0 13.7 1.8 0.4 2.6 7.5 0.4 6.2 0.0 0.4 SPW 1.4 4.2 71.7 11.3 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.9 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 SP? 20.7 7.4 32.4 12.2 2.7 2.1 5.3 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 SPM 0.0 11.1 22.2 19.2 1.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 10.1 5.1 2.0 6.1 SPA 0.0 0.0 14.3 49.0 0.0 0.0 8.2 0.0 6.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 SPX 0.5 3.8 59.9 9.0 0.0 12.7 0.0 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 SPH 0.0 11.9 46.3 11.0 1.3 0.0 3.5 12.8 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 SPY 0.0 2.4 6.7 16.7 6.2 0.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 25.7 3.8 0.0 SPK 0.0 9.3 62.3 15.2 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.0 3.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Field n Sample Artemisia Tubuliforae Li~liflorae Poaceae Quercus Salix Chenopods Olea Osrrya Pinus Apiaceae Cereals spa 0.6 5.3 24.9 34.9 0.6 0.0 0.6 5.3 5.3 0.6 0.0 1.8 SPN 0.0 6.1 26.3 30.3 3.0 0.0 1.0 4.0 5.1 2.0 3.0 0.0 SP] 0.0 6.9 59.1 21.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 SPT 0.0 19.5 50.0 9.0 1.0 0.0 1.4 1.0 9.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 SPF 0.0 6.0 39.6 22.4 1.5 0.0 1.5 4.5 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 SPQ 2.8 16.6 48.3 19.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 SPC 0.8 7.7 30.9 18.3 0.0 0.0 4.1 8.9 7.7 1.2 0.0 0.4 SPD 0.0 9.4 23.2 34.8 2.2 0.0 1.4 1.4 5.1 0.7 0.0 0.7 SPU 0.0 4.4 26.5 6.4 0.0 0.5 2.5 2.5 4.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 SPS 3.3 8.7 27.9 29.0 0.0 0.0 4.9 7.1 1.1 0.5 1.6 1.1. Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 31 Appendix I (concluded) Sample EDhedra Cyperaceae Brassicaceae Ericales Asphodelus Tamarix Colchicum Unknown ~s Indetenninate SPE 0.0 1.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 1.5 26.9 SPG 0.0 4.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.0 2.6 16.0 SPY .9 0.9 9.3 0.0 0.9 3.5 lUJ 4.0 21.1 SPW .5 0.0 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 11.8 SPP .5 4.3 0.0 0.5 0.0 1.1 0.5 6.4 17.0 SPM 0.0 5.1 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.1 29.3 SPA 0.0 14.3 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 34.7 SPX 0.5 0.0 7.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 23.1 PH 0.4 1.8 0.4 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 4.4 11.0 py 0.0 0.5 7.1 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 22.9 11.9 PK 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.0 1.3 0.0 4.0 22.5 Sample I Ephedra Cyperaceae Brasslcaceae Ericales Asphodelus Tamarix Colchicum Unknown JUains Indetenninate SPO . 3.6 1.2 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 10.7 34.9 ~PN 4.0 3.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 7.1 25.3 ;PJ ,I 5.9 0.0 1.0 O. ) 1.5 O. 0.5 27.1 PT 0.5 1.0 <'0 .0 2.~ 0.0 O. 4.8 20.0 )PF 1.5 4.5 .7 .0 O. ) 7.5 O. 4.5 29.9 .iPQ 0.5 3.3 <'0 .5 0.9 0.9 0.0 7.1 16.6 PC O. 4.1 6.5 0.0 0.4 2.8 0.0 2.8 15.9 • PD O. 10.1 1.4 0.0 0.7 2.2 0.0 5.1 21.0 .PU 1. 27.5 4.9 0.0 0.5 2.0 0.0 14.2 19.1 SPS 0.0 1.1 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.8 35.0 Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 32 A dix IT fl s . . Sample Artemisia Tubulifora LillUIiflorae Poaceac IQuercUJ Salix Chenopods CaryophvUs Olea OstrYa Pinu.s COry/u.s ADiaceal Pisracia Punica SPA 7 24 4 3 SPB 15 60 63 I 1 6 30 2 I SPC 2 19 76 45 10 22 19 3 1 2 SPO 13 32 48 3 2 2 7 I I SPE 5 33 18 I 5 SPF 8 53 30 2 2 6 I 3 SPO 19 147 26 2 15 SPH 27 105 25 3 8 29 I I SPI 28 86 40 6 2 24 SPJ 14 120 44 I 5 SPK 14 94 23 1 3 5 I SPL 19 90 19 5 2 37 4 2 I 2 SPM 11 22 19 1 2 4 10 5 2 SPN 6 26 30 3 1 4 5 2 3 1 SPO 1 9 42 59 1 1 9 9 1 SPP 39 14 61 23 5 4 10 4 1 SPO 6 35 102 40 SPR 13 18 9 70 5 7 35 SPS 6 16 51 53 9 13 2 1 3 SPT 41 105 19 2 3 2 19 SPU 9 54 13 1 5 5 9 Spy 12 19 75 31 4 1 6 17 1 14 SPW 3 9 152 24 3 2 2 SPX 1 8 127 19 27 5 Spy 5 14 35 13 14 54 8 (cont. next page) Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 33 ADoendix IT ( - Sample Cereals Eohedra Terminalia Cedrus C Bcassicacca Ericalcs Cupressaceae Asphodelus Tamarix Bor Colchicum LYlhrum SPA 7 2 I SPB 2 10 10 4 13 SPC I 2 10 16 1 7 3 SPO I 14 2 1 3 1 SPE I 1 1 1 SPF 2 6 5 10 SPG 1 11 4 SPH 1 1 2 4 I 9 SPI 3 3 1 4 4 11 SPJ 1 12 2 3 SPK 1 1 2 SPL I I 2 3 1 18 SPM 6 5 I 1 SPN 4 3 I I 2 SPO 3 I 2 6 2 5 spp 1 2 8 1 2 1 SPO I 7 1 2 2 SPR 9 4 2 12 3 3 SPS 2 2 7 SPT I 2 6 SPU 2 56 10 1 4 Spy 1 2 2 21 2 8 2 SPW 1 10 sPX 1 15 Spy I 15 1 2 2 (conI. next page) Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 34 . II ( SamDie Unknown Krdins TOIaI Slides counted SPA 1 49 I - 4/4 SPB 1 219 I ·2/4 SPC 7 246 1 -2/4 SPO 7 138 1·4/4 SPE I 67 1·4/4 spp 6 134 1 -4/4 SPG 6 231 1·2/4 SPH 10 227 1-3/4 SPI 3 215 1·2/4 SPJ 1 203 1·2/5 SPK 6 151 1·4/4 SPL 9 216 t .3/4 SPM 10 99 1-5/5 SPN 7 99 1·4/4 SPO 18 169 1-4/4 spp 12 188 1-4/4 SPO 15 211 1/4 SPR 14 204 1/4 sPS 18 lB3 I ·4/4 SPT 10 210, 1 - 2/4 SPU 37 204 1/4 Spy 9 227 I ·2/4 SPW 6 212 1/4 SPX 9 212 1 ·3/4 Spy 48 210 1 4/4 Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 35 nl,n JPiniLC IAniaceaell P i.!:tada IlCereals 1 PA II' DiD II 0.0 I 14.3 I 49'.0 II 0.0 I 0.0 I 8.2 I 0.0 ~ ~., 0.0 (\ 1 I OJI oIf 0.0 I' II' 11 ~PB:J 00 I t\R I 27.4 I 28.8 II 0.5 1 0.0 1 0.5 1 0.0 I 2.7 ('.7 I 0.9 0.0 I' III '----1 ;PC I OJ( I 7.7 I 109 I IR1 II 00 I 00 I 4.1 I 0.0 I 8:9 "'.7 I 1.2 0.4 ,•• 111 4 ~PD 1 0.0 1 9.4 I 23.2 _ I 34.8 I 2.2, I 0.0 I 1.4 I 0.0 _I 1.4 .1 I 0.1 .7 1.7' ;PE 1 0.0 1 7'.5 I 49.3 1 26.9 II 0.0 1 0.0 1 0'.0 1 00 1 I.Oj to I 7.'i 10 .5 PF I 0.0 I 6.0 I 39.6 I 22.4 I 1.5 10KL_ 1.5 1_ 0.0 145 1.7 1.0 2. 1.0 ....pr, Inn 1 8.2 1 63.6 1 11.3 I 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.9 1 0.0 I 0.0 )i.() 4 I PI-I 1 n n 1 11.9 1 46.3 1 11.0 I 1.3 1 0.0 I 3.5 1 0.0 112 g 4 4 4-.J. ";PI I 0.0 I 11.0 I ~O'.O I 18.6 I 2.8 I 0.0 I 0.9 I 0.0 I II ., o ).0 II 4 I ~PJ I 0.0 I 6.9 I 59.1 I 21.7 I 0.0 I 0.0 I, 0.0 Inn I n I [ 1.0, I.l K I 0.0 I 9.3 I 62.3 I 15.2 I 0,0 Inn f 11 I I '"' I 'n '0 i.o 0.0 I 0.0 I '"PI 1 n n I IU 1 41.7 I 8.8 1 2.3 1 0.9 I: 0.0 1 0.0 10.1" .,.9 1.9 I I 0 M 1 0.0 1 11.1 1 22.2 I 19.2 I 1.0 I 0.0'12.0 I 0.0 I 4 10.1 I"li" N 1 0.0 1 6.1 I 26.3 I 30.3 I 3.0 I 0.0 II 1.0 I 0.0 I 4 1 I 1 ", ;PO I' 0.6 , 5.3 I 24.9 I 34.91 0.6 I 0.0 II 0.{1 I 0.0 I ,Ii :., I I I 'I On P~ I 20.7 I 7.4 I. 32.4 1 12.1 1 2.7 I 2.1 liU I 2.1 'I '0.0 o o ,0 1 2.8 1_16.6 I: 48.3 I 19.0 I 0.0 I 0.0 II 0.0 II 0.0 1 rO,c II" I 111 o " I gO I 4.4 L34.3_1_2.5 1 0.0 II 3A Ii 0.0 117.2 III I II II 4 ~ II 27.9 I 29.0 I 0.0 I 0.0 II 4.9 II 11 1 SPT 19.5 II 50:0---" 9::0 ITO I 0.0 I ~.4 II l: H 0.1 l.O PI 4.4 'II 26.5 II 6.4 I 0.0 I 0.5 II 2.5 II O. 2 1 4.4 l.O 1:>' . 8.4 'I 33.0 II 13.7 I 1.8 I 0.4 I 2.6 II I '4 4 PW I 1.4 4.2 ;1 7t7 ] n.3 L~6.o I 0.0 II 1.41 iDe ).9 l.O PX I 0.5 3.R II 9.0 I 0.0 I 12.7 I 0.0 II .n4 I,D ),0 Spy I 0.0 2.4 6.7 11116 ..1 I 6.2 I olflll 0.0 II 0.6 ,ft.7 0.0 iii" 0.0 3:Cll 0.0 0.01~ 0.0 (cont. next page) Hussey: Pollen analysis of Sepphoris 36 - - ---_. - -_ ...... ".. ~ ISamnle Enlu ira 1', IR ..... uicaceae En I I QJ r;r , IL·"·...' PA O. 1.0 0.0 14. 4 I 0.( I Ii 0.0 I I PB 4 1.0 0.0 4.ti 1.8 0.1 I " I I - - :~ 4 6.5 4 1'1 I PD I 14 I I ) I SPE 1.5 I I I ;PF • 7 ' , PG 4 ).0 0.1 I I I PH 4 1 4 O. 4 ' . 1 PI t 0.5 1.9 O. P 0.0 I SP: 0.7 " iPI 14 I PM 1.1 '.I 1.0 I I ) PN 1.1 '.( 4 3, I I I ;p() I.l l.t I I ;PI) 4 I I PO ) , I I :PR I. I I I P I I :P' ( I ~ I SP 4 I ;p1 9 "o! 4.7 ~ 7.1 I ~ AODl n<1Jx ill (concluCleo) II InlrftnWII ilI'ains Irnlins I 147 Ii 6J~ I ~5_9 P) I 'I , ~ I ~ 4 J 2.1 44 II 14 110 0, 4 I 4 1 1 .. , ~) I, " ) 17. , I I ;)' , " 'tI UJ~ P 4.2 2'U .py 22,9 1.9