Vol I Issue1 June 2015 ISSN 2395-7352

MIZORAM UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF & SOCIAL (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal)

MIZORAM UNIVERSITY NAAC Accredited Grade ‘A’ (2014) (A CENTRAL UNIVERSITY) TANHRIL, – 796004 MIZORAM,

i ii Vol I Issue1 June 2015 ISSN 2395-7352

MIZORAM UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal)

Chief Editor Prof. Margaret Ch. Zama

Editor Prof. Srinibas Pathi

iii Patron : Prof. R. Lalthantluanga, Vice Chancellor, Mizoram University Advisor : Prof. Lianzela, Dept. of Advisor : Mr. C. Zothankhuma, IDAS, Registrar, Mizoram University

Editorial Board Prof. Margaret Ch. Zama, Dept. of English, Chief Editor Prof. Srinibas Pathi, Dept. of Public Administration, Member Prof. NVR Jyoti Kumar, Dept. of Commerce, Member Prof. Lalhmasai Chuaungo, Dept. of , Member Prof. Sanjay Kumar, Dept. of , Member Dr. J. Doungel, Dept. of Political , Member Dr. V. Ratnamala, Dept. of Jour & Mass Communication, Member Dr. Hmingthanzuali, Dept. of & , Member Mr. Lalsangzuala, Dept. of Mizo, Member

National Advisory Board Prof. Sukadev Nanda, Former Vice Chancellor of FM University, Bhubaneswar Prof. K. Rama Mohana Rao, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Prof. K. C. Baral, Director, EFLU, Prof. Arun Hota, West Bengal State University, Barasat, West Bengal Dr. Sunil Behari Mohanty, Editor, Journal of AIAER, Puducherry Dr. Joy. L. Pachuau, JNU, New Delhi Prof. G. Ravindran, University of Madras, Chennai Prof. Ksh. Bimola Devi, University, Imphal

iv CONTENT

From the desk of the Chief Editor vii

Decentralization in Rural India: Gandhi’s Perspective, Constitutional Prescription and Emerging Trends 1 - Prabhat Kumar Datta

Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram 16 - Laishram Gyanendra Singh & N.V.R. Jyoti Kumar

Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram 30 - K.V. Reddy

Unemployment among Educated Youth in Mizoram: A Way Forward 42 - C. Devendiran

Creativity in English Language among B.Ed. Students in Puducherry Region 53 - T. Uvaraj

Judicial Law Making in India: A Critical Appraisal 60 - Chitta Ranjan Gogoi

‘From Romanticism to Eco-criticism’: A Reading of Select Songs by Vanlalbeli 71 - Rodi Lalrammawii Hmar

Good Governance Issues: Perspectives on Gender and Health Concerns 79 - Madhusmita Mishra

Child Welfare: An Historical Overview 87 - Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy

v Constructivism in the Primary School Curriculum 100 - Lokanath Mishra

Relevance of Knowledge and it’s Tools in Based Academic Libraries 111 - R.N. Mishra & R.K. Ngurtinkhuma

Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme in India: A Review 128 - Rajat Sharmacharjee & Momota Chakravorty

Tones in 136 - Lalrindiki T. Fanai

Book Review 145 - A. Muthulakshmi

List of Contributors 150

Guidelines for Contributors 152

Declaration 153

vi From the desk of the Chief Editor

The Editorial Board of the Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (MZUJHSS) published by Mizoram University takes great pride in bringing out its 1st bi-annual issue of June 2015. The mandate of the journal is to facilitate interdisciplinary research and knowledge sharing of disciplines that come within the scope of Humanities and the Social Sciences. It is hoped that this journal will not only be a facilitator, but grow to be a creditable conduit that expresses and contains various research works of high academic standard undertaken by departments and individuals from across the country and abroad. We welcome original research based papers as well as Review of Books.

The Editorial Board also wishes to put on record its appreciation for the encouragement and support received from its Patron Prof. R. Lalthantluanga, Vice Chancellor, and two Advisors Prof. Lianzela and Mr. C. Zothankhuma, IDAS, Registrar. It also wishes to thank Members of the National Advisory Board from across the country for consenting to be part of this venture.

Chief Editor

vii viii Invited Paper ISSN : 2395-7352

Decentralization in Rural India: Gandhi’s Perspective, Constitutional Prescription and Emerging Trends Prabhat Kumar Datta*

The term decentralization which has been used since the early 1950s for a wide range of institutional reform programmes all over the globe, has gradually gained considerable prominence in contemporary discourse on development and governance and practices A large majority of the third world countries are currently involved in some form of decentralisation, with varying degrees of commitment and success. These processes are fundamentally altering the institutional landscape in the developing countries. A number of push factors have contributed to this evolution. Mention may be made of the following: the erosion of the highly centralised ‘developmental state’ in the late 1980s; the rediscovery of the ‘local dimension’ of development and related recognition of local governments’ potential role and added-value in promoting local development and contributing to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); the quest for improved efficiency in the delivery of basic social services (health, education, water and sanitation, etc.), especially in reaching out to poor people; the global imperative for democratisation and good governance, which has fuelled societal demands for local democracy and accountable local governments; the rise of participatory development approaches that allow a wide range of new actors to express their voice and have a stake in policy processes with local governments, in particular, lobbying to be recognised as a dialogue partner (at all relevant levels) and as aid beneficiary; a wide range of other push factors, such as Agenda 21 (on sustainable development) and the concern to protect local economies against globalisation.

In modern India, decentralization as conditions on the ground. When India was an administrative contrivance began in the fighting for freedom the need for hands of the colonial rulers to promote decentralization was strongly felt by a colonial ends like regime expansion, dominant section of the nationalist regime consolidation and regime leadership. And Gandhi was the most entrenchment. As expected it did not work prominent among them. For Gandhi, on the ground effectively despite sincere decentralization is important because: efforts by the colonial rulers like Lord Ripon not only due to the lack of adequate a. It is necessary for enhancement of support of the colonial administration but quality of life, protection of also due to lack of necessary objective individual freedom and development.

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 1 Prabhat Kumar Datta b. It is the best antidote to centralized of India and emphasized on the ways and authority which is sustained and means of reforming them. Gandhi defended by physical force believed that the changes brought about by the colonial rule impaired the villages c. As decentralization insists on local by making them less creative and more resources it promotes self-sufficiency dependent on the outside world. at the local level Exploitation of the rural masses can end d. Decentralization promotes non- only when an average villager recognizes violence his own strength and becomes conscious that he is the maker of his own destiny. Gandhi’s perception about The real task is one of empowering the decentralization is rooted in his concept people which can be done through of Swadeshi. There are three basic decentralization –decentralised polity and components in his concept of Swadeshi: economy. the concept of self-sufficient village as the primary unit of production, distribution In the decentralized polity power and consumption of goods and services; does not flow to the people from the the use and reliance on native polity and central parliament but resides in the indigenous institutions and to help people. Panchayati raj is thus not a gift of rectification of defects, if any, in them, the all powerful state to its citizens. Thus and the nourishment of village industries it is a bottom up process. The objective of to make them grow more efficient and panchayati raj is to put a check on the self-sufficient. Gandhi is popularly known pyramidal authority structure and turn all as the ideologue of the village. He became authority structures into an oceanic circle. pre-occupied with Indian village right The government of the village will be from his days in South Africa and conducted by the panchayat of five remained so until the end of his life. In persons annually elected by the adult his letter to Nehru on August 23, 1944 villagers, male and female possessing Gandhi observes, “For me India begins minimum prescribed qualifications. Every and ends in the villages”. There are three panchayat shall form a unit.Gandhi’s different phases in which he used the idea panchayat is not a mere local government of the Indian village. First, he invoked it within the framework of representative to establish equivalence of the Indian government. It is a way of life, a mere civilization with the West. Second, he pattern for structuring society, the counterposed the village to the city and economy as well as polity. At the centre presented the village life as a critique of of the pattern lies the dream of the and alternative to, the modern Western individual freedom. Herein we find a culture and civilization. Third, he was Gandhi who is steeped in the Western concerned with the actual existing villages values.

2 Decentralization in Rural India

Gandhi had possibly realized that certainly an omission calling for panchayati raj system as he visualized it immediate attention, if independence was would not see the light of the day in to reflect the voice of the people. While independent India. It may be recalled that moving the resolution for the on October 2, 1945 Gandhi insisted upon consideration of the draft constitution a free and fair discussion with Nehru on Ambedkar remarked that villages were the question of the place of the village in “sinks of localism, ignorance, the Constitution of India. Gandhi felt that communalism and narrow-mindedness”. without truth and non-violence there could He observed that he was glad to see that be nothing but destruction of humanity. the draft Constitution had discarded the And this could be realised only in the village and adopted individual as its unit. simplicity of the village life. Nehru reacted His speech triggered a spate of serious by saying that the question before us was criticism. Some of the members became not one of truth vs. untruth or violence so upset that they fell back on God to save vs. non- violence He failed to understand the nation. Some of them observed that it why a village should normally embody had happened because many of us did not truth and non-violence. According to his take part in the freedom movement. After perception a village normally speaking a long discussion the Constitution was backward intellectually and culturally provided a place for the village panchayats and no progress could be made from in Article 40 in the Directive Principles backward environment. The objective of State Policy following the intervention resolution introduced by Nehru reflected by K.Santhanam. Article 40 says:The his preference for the western state model state shall take steps to organize village and did not visualize village as the basic panchayats and to endow them with such unit of the new political system. powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self In the resolutions on the aims and government. After India became objects of free India’s Constitution placed independent rural India received attention before the constituent assembly on of the policy makers. The community December 13, 1946 there was no mention development programme (CDP) was about the place of the villages. The initiated in 1950s on the advice of the Ford Provincial Constitution Committee set up Foundation to bring about speedy in pursuance of the CA resolution of April improvement in the social and economic 30, 1947 to decide on the principles of a life of the villagers. It was a programme model Provincial Constitution, did not with very limited involvement of the touch on panchayats in its report submitted people and it was basically bureaucracy – to the President of the CA. driven programme. When the attention of Gandhi was It was realized soon after the drawn to this he remarked that it was launching of the CDP that bureaucracy

3 Prabhat Kumar Datta alone could not deliver the goods in the second generation panchayats. It absence of democracy and a bureaucracy presented two-tier PRIs. The committee -led programme failed to evoke people’s felt that like national democracy it is both initiative. The need for active involvement an end and a means. As an end it is an of people’s representatives in the inevitable extension of democracy. As a development process was expressed in the means it is responsible for discharging Second Plan document. Following the obligations entrusted to it by the national budget speech of 1956-57, the National and state governments in spheres not Development Council appointed a transferred to its exclusive jurisdiction. Committee on Plan Projects under the However, the recommendations of the leadership of Balwantray Mehta. The Committee gave birth to what can be Committee stressed the need for called second generation panchayats. developing a network of three-tiered The LM Singhvi Committee elective institutions known as the appointed by the Rajiv Gandhi panchayati raj. The Mehta Committee Government examined the issue of the gave birth to what can be called the first strengths and weaknesses of PRI in India generation panchayati raj in India. and recommended the amendment of the Outlining the concept the report observes Constitution of India to constitutionalise that PRIs would be the single panchayats as the first step to strengthen representative and vigorous democratic the PRIs and focused on the gram swaraj institution to take charge of all aspects of as the starting point of village democracy. development work in the villages. The Constitution was amended in 1992. But the institutions failed to strike The Seventy Third Constitutional firm roots. There is an extreme view that Amendment is a great watershed mark in they were ‘killed before they were truly the history of local self government. born’. The first generation panchayats set Panchayats came to be defined as the up on the basis of the recommendations institutions of self government. This of the Balvantrai Mehta Committee had amendment gave birth to the third generation constitutionally mandated almost disappeared from the rural scene by the end of l950s. The fact however, panchayat system in India. The need for constitutional backing of the grassroots remains, that the institutions declined. The democratic structures was felt long back Asok Mehta Committee which examined but it came at a time when India opted for the issue in 1978, identified three phases liberalization which essentially means in the evolution of panchayati raj in India weakening role of the state. – the phase of ascendancy (1954-64), phase of stagnation (1965-69) and phase The Constitutional amendment seeks of decline (1969—.)The Asok Mehta to give panchayats a new meaning and a Committee, prepared a blue print of the fresh lease of life. The basic features of

4 Decentralization in Rural India the amendment are as follows: Article Under this scheme a sum of Rs. 1,580 243G defines panchayats as institutions crores per year is placed at the disposal of of self-government meaning they have the MPs. The MPs are allowed to spend autonomy and power to govern in an the money to undertake local area exclusive area of jurisdiction. The development schemes without consulting amendment defines the role of panchayats the panchayats In this way the as instruments of economic development constitutionally mandated local and social justice. Incidentally, earlier government institutions are bypassed. there was confusion about the role of Under the scheme each MP can suggest panchayats. Thus this clarification through to the District Collector works worth up constitutional amendment is significant. to Rs. 2 crores in a year. The Ministry The amendment requires the States to hold releases the funds directly to the panchayat elections through the State Collectors who get the works done on the Election Commission at regular intervals advice of the concerned MP. The Central of five years. If a State Government Government has given an illustrative list dissolves panchayats before the expiry of of 28 items. There is also a list of works their full term, it is mandatory on the part not permissible such as raising of of the State Government concerned to hold memorials, building of places of worship election within six months from the date and the like. of dissolution.The Act provides for reservation of one-third seats and posts of The Report of the Comptroller and chairpersons for women and weaker Auditor General (2001) showed that the sections, i.e., Scheduled Caste (SC) scheme was plagued not only by the Scheduled Tribe ( ST). According to the inadequacy of funds but also by the provisions of the Constitutional increasing underutilization, misuse and amendment the State Government shall diversion of money earmarked for the constitute State Finance Commission, project. The Report noted that 64 per cent which will review the financial position of the released amount could be spent. and recommend the principles for fund Similar have been the findings of the devolution on PRIs and the distribution sample study of audit in 106 of funds between the State Government constituencies where it was found, 31 per and the PRIs.But the third generation cent of the total money was, in fact, not panchayats are now at the cross-roads as spent at all. The guidelines seem to have they are facing a lot of challenges from been observed more in their breach. In within and without. In this paper I would , for example, the money was like to focus on these challenges. spent for building roads connecting the Church, in Orissa temples were built, in Mention may be made of the Madhya Pradesh money was spent for MPLAD which was launched immediately building housing complex for the police after the amendment of the Constitution. officials. The Centre for Budget and

5 Prabhat Kumar Datta

Governance (CBGA) reviewed the (ARC) in its successive reports have scheme in 2004 in seven constituencies recommended the abolition of the scheme. spread across six Indian states- Rajasthan, The matter was hotly debated in the floor Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, of the house. As most of the MPs openly Jharkhand and Orissa. The report holds expressed their unwillingness on the floor the members of both the houses of Indian of the Parliament to give up the scheme, Parliament responsible for the it was finally decided to continue the underutilization of funds. While the Lok scheme but with new and stringent Sabha members (till 2003) have used only safeguards.The main lacuna of the CAA, 77 per cent of their total entitlement, the however, is that instead of clearly amount used by the Rajya Sabha members specifying the powers and functions of the has not exceeded 50 per cent. panchayats, it has left it to the mercy of the state governments. It is clearly evident The overall picture that emerges is that in Article 243(G) which states that the a lion’s share of the MPLAD funds is spent state legislature may, by law, endow the in a top-down manner without taking into panchayats with such powers and consideration people’s actual needs. authority as may be necessary to enable Beneficiaries also alleged that they were them to function as institutions of self paid much less than the specified minimum government. The repeated usage of the wages in employment works under the word ‘may’ in the article fails to make it scheme and an overwhelming number mandatory on the part of the state (62%) agreed that the quality of assets government to implement these created was either bad or very bad. Some provisions, thus leaving power- sharing critics feel that most of the schemes being with the state government solely at the funded and executed form part of the 11th disposal of the political leadership at the and 12th schedules to the Constitution state level. which define the functional domain of the panchayats and municipalities. The There is another set of parallel bodies guidelines authorizing the MPs to exercise in some states where there exists their personal choice and decision in traditional panchayats with different funding and executing the scheme lead to legitimising sources. In Maharastra, for usurpation of the power and responsibilities example, there exist village “collectives” of the local bodies. It has been argued that called gavki. The gavki is constituted by in many instances the choice of schemes the upper caste elites, the rich and and amounts expected can significantly undoubtedly, only the patriachs of the alter or distort local priorities as may be village, excluding women. Before the decided or desired by the local bodies. amendment of the constitution these bodies functioned alongside the elected Having considered the problems the panchayats. Unfortunately, they continue Administrative Reforms Committee even today. Lele narrates an interesting

6 Decentralization in Rural India case of how a gavki defied the elected declared her second marriage illegal. The panchayat. The gavki decided to auction constitutional panchayat has nothing to the sand from the riverbed and the money do.The general reaction against the earned was to be a contribution to its own parallel bodies is that they represent fund. The GP raised objection to it leading processes external to the constitutionally to a conflictual situation. The persons who mandated role of panchayats and enable raised objection to this issue were the bureaucracies to override democratic more informed active villagers, some bodies. Thus they pose serious threats to dalits and women, associated with a local the effective functioning of local self- NGO who were in favour of the governing institutions. panchayats However, they do not have strength to go against the gavki. The gavki In a divided society like ours, has been found to be more effective in spontaneous consensus in the interest of areas where women or dalits are in power. a large section of people is a myth. If there Thus, as Lele rightly observes is at all any consensus, it is that of caste, “reservations which intended to empower religion etc. and basically class. It is a both these marginalised sections in rural veiled attempt to guide local democracy governance are being made ineffective by from the top and in the interest of the the established powers in the rural areas”. ruling classes. The Santhanam Committee (1963) examined the scope of unanimity Caste Panchayats in some states have in panchayat elections. The Committee outgrown their functions as local came across villages where the anxiety for dispensers of justice. Recently a caste unanimity and consensus meant the panchayat in Nauranjabad village in UP’s continuation of the traditional authorities Meerut district ruled that a young woman and suppression of the new spirit of the pregnant with the child of her second youth. It was felt that the securing of husband, return to her first husband who unanimity through cash incentives was not had reappeared after five years. The desirable. The silver lining is that the argument was that the first husband, people of Gujarat seem to have rejected though assumed dead, had never divorced the idea as is evident from the contests her. Married off at just 14 to soldier that characterised the elections in more Mohammed Arif, Gudiya had barely spent than 90 per cent of the GPs. a week with him when Arif was called to duty at Kargil War and declared a deserter Interestingly, what is happening in by the army. Soon after he was given up some states in the name of achieving for dead as time went by. After four years unanimity is a cause of serious concern. ‘widowed’ Gudiya’s parents with the During the panchayat elections in consent of the Community married her off Karnataka in 2000 some of the seats were to her cousin Toutiq. Gudiya became auctioned. The Election Commission pregnant. Now the caste panchayat could not interfere on the ground that if

7 Prabhat Kumar Datta the voters made an arrangement among Election Commission had to ban the themselves to ensure unanimous election entry of two ministers into their native it was beyond the legal competence of the blocks wherefrom their wives were Commission to intervene. In order to contesting. One contestant for the ZP augment the resources some of the seats Presidentship had 42 criminal cases were put to bidding in Andhra Pradesh in against him.There was large scale 2001.Even the reserved seats were not distribution of gifts and allurements spared. The highest amount for the post offered by the candidates in UP elections of the Sarpanch in Velpur village under held in 2005, some of them were financed Guntur district was 10.10 lakhs. Seats are by the non-resident Indian relatives. auctioned in Madhya Pradesh and There was a free flow of money and Rajasthan. In 2005, auctions were held for liquor in many villages. Hand pumps the post of Sarpanch in at least two gram were installed outside each house in one panchayats. In Madhya Pradesh it was a of the villages and voters in one of the case of trade off in - the post cost 1.80 villages received silver rings and glasses. lakh. In Rajasthan it was the caste factor A candidate in one village called which mattered most. The panchayat Pratapgarh promised gold rings to each dominated by the Gujjars was reserved for woman in the GP if he won. In several the SCs. Disturbed by the sudden loss of constituencies whisky bottles were power, some of the influential Gujjar distributed liberally. There was hardly leaders decided to extract a price for the any serious candidate who did not exceed post. An announcement for open sale was the expenditure ceiling fixed by the SEC. made at the village chaupal ( meeting The local newspapers were splashed with place) assuring unanimous election of the advertisements by the well-to-do highest bidder. The auction took place two candidates. weeks before the day of polling. The reserved price was fixed at Rs.50,000. One The Santhanam Committee (1963) person offered Rs.2.7 lakh and the seat examined the scope of unanimity in was allotted to him. But the effort proved panchayat elections. The Committee came to be abortive because of the intervention across villages where the anxiety for of the District Collector who got three of unanimity and consensus meant the them arrested . continuation of the traditional authorities and suppression of the new spirit of the The electoral processes have been youth. It was felt that the securing of criminalized in some of the states like unanimity through cash incentives was not Uttar Pradesh (UP) Bihar. In the desirable. The silver lining is that the intermediate panchayat elections in UP people of Gujarat seem to have rejected there was blood bath, which resulted in the idea as is evident from the contests the killing of 200 persons. Dalits were that characterised the elections in more threatened with dire consequences. The than 90 per cent of the GPs.

8 Decentralization in Rural India

The Eleventh Schedule does not list relationship. Thus panchayats cannot subjects or functions but only matters, as enjoy full autonomy as they are set within T.N. Srivastava points out. There is no the states and form part of the state list. constitutional mandate that rural local Nor can the states for that matter as they bodies would perform these functions or are placed within the Indian union. What these would be transferred to rural local the Seventy Third Amendment has done, bodies or the schemes related to them will as Mukerjee tells us, is to constitutionalise be entrusted to them for implementation. three strata of government. The legislature of a state is required to endow these bodies with such functions It is found that while the states like as may be necessary to enable them to Kerala, Karnataka and West Bengal have function as institutions of self government. carved out a clear path of devolution to Such law may contain provisions for PRIs, other states like Rajasthan, devolution of powers and responsibilities Maharastra, Gujarat and Bihar have subject to such conditions as may be different levels of momentum in their specified therein and for the initiatives in this regard. States like implementation of schemes for economic Haryana, Uttar Pradesh have still to make development and social justice as may be necessary progress. As per the information entrusted to them including those available in November 2006, only eight mentioned in the Eleventh Schedule. The states and one have state legislature is thus sole determinant formally transferred all the 29 functions of self-government The repeated usage of or subjects to the PRIs. The Working the word ‘may’ in the Article fails to make Group on the Decentralised Planning it mandatory on the part of the state observes, “...... items listed as government to implement these responsibilities in the states are couched provisions, thus leaving power- sharing in vague terms. A glance at the variety of with the state government solely at the these items reveals that they are shopping disposal of the political leadership at the list of sectors and sub-sectors, broad state level. Presumably the Parliament was activities in a sub-sector and activities, compelled to use the word ‘may’ because sub-activities/specific responsibilities some of the items come under the purview under a broad activity, with no role of the state list. It is also a clear indication clarity.... In some states the line that the Indian state lacks genuine will to departments still exercise the powers of create a vibrant third layer in the supervision and control over the scheme governance structures of the country. It is of subjects transferred to the panchayats”. also indicative of the fact that it is not The Parliamentary Committee in its 37th possible to strengthen the process of report submitted in 2003 expressed decentralization in India without concern at the pace at which the states are overhauling the existing centre-state working in this direction. The Report of

9 Prabhat Kumar Datta the Task Force on the Devolution of be attributed to the appropriate level of Powers and Functions to the PRIs brought panchayat so as to enable a more effective out by the Ministry of Rural delivery of public services and a better Development has admitted that the quality of life for the citizens. Devolution mandatory provisions of the 73rd of powers, (as declared in the First Round Amendment Act are yet to be Table of Ministers- in- Charge of implemented in letter and spirit by most Panchayati Raj, Kolkata, July 2004) was of the states/UTs even eight years after to be based on the principle of subsidiarity the said Act brought into force in April, which means that “any task that can be 1993. The conformity legislations of done at the lower level, should not move most of the States have not significantly to a higher level.” The progress of the altered the functional domain of gram states in this regard is, however, not panchayats. A close scrutiny of the Acts satisfactory. in different states tends to indicate that The transfer of functions without except in a few states clear functional corresponding transfer of funds does not mapping for the different tiers does not make sense. But this has happened. Mahi exist. There are states like UP where Pal rightly says that before listing the departmental heads at the district level functions to be performed by the could function independently of the PRIs. panchayats, the states have introduced The lack of clarity in functional certain qualifying clauses. In Andhra allocation and absence of desegregation Pradesh, Haryana and Tamil Nadu it is into detailed activities as Panchayati Raj “within the limits of its funds”. In Punjab Development Report 1995 mentions, has “it is to the extent its funds allow to led to considerable overlapping and perform”. In Madhya Pradesh and duality of control in most cases. It has been Himachal Pradesh, it is “as far as the gram argued in the report that the functional panchayat funds at its disposal”. A critical autonomy is rendered difficult because in review of the provisions in the Acts of the almost all the states, the state governments different states regarding tax assignments, retain the power to assign, amend or tax sharing, non- tax revenues makes it withhold functions which as per the 73rd very clear that the PRIs at the level of the Amendment of the Constitution, is a job samiti and parishad do not have only the state governments are authorized independent taxing powers. Most of the to do. The Indian state has decided in taxes are assigned at the GP levels. favour of undertaking activity mapping to Provisions for independent budgeting ensure effective devolution of functions by the three tiers is another prime requisite (as listed in the Schedule XI) to all the to ensure autonomy. In some states like three tiers of the PRIs. This is indeed a Andhra Pradesh and Odissa for PS, Punjab welcome move whereby every activity can for ZP, Rajasthan for PS and ZP, Tamil

10 Decentralization in Rural India

Nadu for all tiers, the preparation and Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Tamil presentation of budgets is left to the Nadu, Orissa, Punjab, Haryana, , executive authority rather than to elected reveals that where middle or top tiers representatives. The Constitution provides have been constituted, states have not for setting up of the State Finance endowed them with adequate functional Commission (SFCs). By mid –1990s the responsibility. Most states have granted a first SFCs had submitted their reports. plethora of functional responsibilities but Referring to the role of the SFCs the mid- no executive follow up of granting term appraisal of the Ninth Plan pointed adequate powers, staff and financial out, “more buoyant taxes like sales tax and resources. Significantly,a study of excise are kept out of the purview of the panchayats in 15 states done by National PRIs. All SFCs have put great emphasis Institute of Rural Development, shows on internal revenue mobilisation but none that the political parties are reluctant to has suggested any effective mechanism for devolve powers. PRIs to generate their revenue. The SFC reports have paid less attention to issues To function effectively as institutions of autonomy, financial management and of self government the PRIs need to have auditing proceedings. The state the power to recruit and control staff governments have also been slow and required for managing its functions. Staff hesitant in accepting the recommendations is a resource that an organization must where they are useful in terms of possess to perform its activities. Strangely, improving the revenue generation Part IX and IXA of the Indian Constitution capacity of the local bodies. Only two remain silent on this vital aspect of states – Karnataka and – have institutional autonomy. Viewed from this devolved funds to the panchayats for 29 perspective the state panchayat subjects. legislations too present an indeed gloomy picture. The state governments still have Balance sheets of panchayats reflect retained for themselves the power for either financial scarcity or helplessness to inspection, inquiring into the affairs of the have control over budgeted finance. panchayats, suspension of panchayat Except for a few states where the resolutions and issuing directions. Besides panchayats have access to some funds, the in most states the key functionaries, financial position of the PRIs is in a bad namely, the secretaries and executive shape. Except in MP, in most of the states, officers at all the three levels of panchayats the middle tier of the panchayat system are state government employees who are does not have any taxation powers. PRIs appointed, transferred and controlled by across the states do not have any control the state government. Being under the over their own physical and human direct control of the state administrative resources. A study of 15 select states, hierarchy they are often reluctant to work namely, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, under the administrative control of the

11 Prabhat Kumar Datta elected panchayats. Moreover, provisions Hardly any State Acts empower the for the deputation of officials from the GS to have control over the GP and to take state government to the panchayats have final decisions in matters of village been made in the state panchayat Acts development. Its role is only advisory. The without consultation with the panchayats. accountability of the GP to this body has The tenure, transfer and the promotion of also not been clearly spelt out in most of deputationists are also decided by the state the state legislations. In most of the states government without consulting the the functional domain of the GS is limited panchayats. to discussions of annual statement of accounts, administration report, and Gram Sabha did not figure selection of beneficiaries for poverty prominently in the scheme of the alleviation programmes. Only in a few panchayati raj introduced in most states states like Haryana, Punjab and Tamil in early 1960s.We find from the report of Nadu the GSs enjoy the powers to approve the Ashok Mehta that the sporadic efforts the budgets. The Gram Sabhas are yet to to revive the institution were not take off properly in almost all the states. successful due to “the lack of interest on Reports from the states indicate that the the part of the office bearers and the apathy Gram Sabha meetings are not being held on the part of the public, the gram sabha regularly. The Institute of Social Sciences has not been functioning satisfactorily.” team had found in a village in Madhya While the constitution makes it mandatory Pradesh that by December 1995, three to establish Gram Sabha at the village meetings were held as against the legal level, it does not stipulate any details requirement of six meetings. regarding the structure, powers, and functions of this institution. In terms of While the constitution makes it Article 243G these details are to be spelt mandatory to establish Gram Sabha at the out in the panchayati raj legislations village level, it does not stipulate any passed in each state in compliance with the details regarding the structure, powers, 73rd amendment of the Constitution. and functions of this institution. In terms Accordingly all the state governments have of Article 243G these details are to be spelt provided for the institution of Gram Sabha out in the panchayati raj legislations in their respective panchayat legislations. passed in each state in compliance with But the jurisdiction of the Gram Sabha (GS) the 73rd amendment of the Constitution. in state legislations is too big to facilitate Accordingly all the state governments effective participation of the people. In have provided for the institution of gram states like Kerala, West Bengal and Orissa sabha in their respective panchayat the problem has been resolved by creating legislations. There are variations across another body down the line at the electoral the states with regard to composition, constituency level to ensure effective functions and other matters. In Andhra participation of the people. Pradesh and Karnataka the Gram Sabha

12 Decentralization in Rural India has been defined in relation to revenue roles properly. The studies indicate that village, where as in Maharastra and many women members have failed to Rajasthan the unit is much larger and perceive their role properly particularly coterminous with the village panchayat. due to the inadequate and ill-conceived In Kerala there is Gram Sabha for every training, lack of time and required literacy. ward. None of the State Acts empowers Even when some of them are able to the GSs to have control over the GPs and perceive their role, they cannot perform to take final decisions in matters of village due to multiplicity of constraints. The development. Its role is only advisory. The social conditions are not conducive. The accountability of the GP to this body has domestic load and commitment continue also not been clearly spelt out in most of to remain the same. The party or the social the state legislations. In Kerala, however, leaders who have motivated them to it is obligatory on the part of the head of contest elections, do not extend necessary the GPs to explain to the GSs why a help and support after they get elected. On particular decision or a set of decisions the contrary, they want them to work as could not be implemented. The same is per their dictates and any attempt on their the case in West Bengal. In most of the part to develop independence causes states the functional domain of the GSs is displeasure of their leaders. As a good limited to discussions of annual statement number of them belong to the family of of accounts, administration report, and the leaders it generates problems in the selection of beneficiaries for anti-poverty family. Added to it is the lurking feeling programmes. Only in a few states like that they have been elected for one term Haryana, Punjab and Tamil Nadu the GSs only because the seats are reserved for the enjoy the powers to approve the budgets. women. They think that they would be replaced by the male members in the next In order to add a new dimension to elections. The officials do not attach the process of democratic importance to them. There have been decentralization, namely, gender justice, cases in states like UP where the officers the 73rd amendment of the Constitution have refused to talk to them. For the provides for reservation of seats and the women coming from the poor families the posts of chairpersons for women. problem gets compounded. They have to Conceptually it indicates a shift of attitude spend much of their time to meet both of the state towards women. Earlier ends. Even when they can manage some women were generally viewed as objects time they cannot attend meetings because of development. The amendment seeks to they do not have conveyance expenses for make women actors in development All traveling to the office. The small amount the state Acts have incorporated this of meeting allowance is not paid on time. provision and elections are being held accordingly. But the studies indicate that The Seventy Third Amendment women elected to PRIs are yet to play their defines panchayat institutions as

13 Prabhat Kumar Datta instruments of planning for economic shape during the days of the colonial rule development and social justice The because the inherent process was Seventy Fourth Constitutional centralisation which is the foundation Amendment requires the State stone of all colonial rule. Liberalisation Governments to constitute the District is limiting the functional domain of the Planning Committees (DPCs) to state. How would PRIs work as facilitate decentralised planning. The instruments of economic development State Governments have shown scant and social justice as conceived by the regard for constitutional provision in this amendment of the Constitution in a neo- regard. Many states are still to constitute liberal framework of governance and DPCs. In some states, the DPCs are development! chaired by the minister of the State Thus democratic decentralization in Government as in Madhya Pradesh, rural India today is facing a lot of where as in some other states, the challenges from within and without which officials head the DPC, as in Tamil Nadu are strong enough to derail the engine of where the collector is the chairman. All rural decentralization, if suitable steps are these practices are inconsistent with the not taken on time. Given this background very spirit of the constitutional one has reasons to express doubts about amendments on democratic the future of constitutionally ordained PR decentralisation. Globalisation is a bodies as institutions of self-government process which is based on centralization. and instruments of economic development Decentralisation did not take positive and social justice.

References 1. European Union, “Supporting Decentralisation and Local Government in Third Countries “, January, 2007 2. L.Wolf, Life of Ripon, London, 1921, for details, see, Prabhat Datta, The Second Generation Panchayati Raj in India, Calcutta Book House, 1992 See also, Hugh Tinker, The Foundations of Local Government in India, Burma and Pakisthan, Lalvani, Bombay, 1967 3. Association of Voluntary Agencies for Rural Development, Panchayati Raj as the Basis of Indian Polity, New Delhi, 1966 4. Debabrat Bandyopadhaya, et al Buddhadev Ghosh, “ Dependancy Versus Autonomy: Identity Crisis, in Panchayats, Economic and political Weekly, September 20, 2003 see also, LC Jain,Grass without Roots, Sage India, 1987

14 Decentralization in Rural India

5. Prabhat Datta, India’s Democracy: New Challenges, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 1997 6. T.N.Srivastava Local Self Government and the Constitution’ Economic and Political Weekly (hereinafter cited as EPW), July 27, 2002

*Prabhat Kumar Datta is a former Centenary Chair Professor of Public Administration, University of Calcutta, and currently Adjunct Professor, Institute of Development Studies, Kolkata, a Centre of Excellence in Social Sciences under the Government of West Bengal. He is also Honorary Advisor, State Institute of Panchayats and Rural Development, Government of West Bengal.

15 ISSN : 2395-7352

Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram

Laishram Gyanendra Singh NVR Jyoti Kumar

Abstract This study is based on a customer survey which was limited to the policyholders of the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) belonging to Mizoram, a small State of Northeast region in India. The main purpose of the study is to understand the perceptions and satisfactions of the LIC customers in respect of certain aspects such as the difficulties involved in obtaining personal loans from LIC, time required in completing a transaction in the branch office, employee behaviour, competitive products and complaining behaviour. LIC should continuously assess whether it possesses the right employee skills, motivation and customer oriented culture. This would enable the market leader in positioning its products in a right way so that customers get the value they are looking for. Key words: Agent, Customer Satisfaction, LIC, Premium

Introduction There is research evidence of In a service business customers have strategic links between the degree of certain expectations in mind prior to customer satisfaction and the overall consumption; they experience service performance of a firm. Fournier and Mick performance and compare it with their (1999) observed that satisfaction is an expectations, and then form satisfaction active and dynamic process that evolves judgement based on this comparison. If the over time and should not be construed service is worse than expected, the only from the perspective of a single judgement is called negative transaction. Customer satisfaction is not disconfirmation. If the service is better than an end itself, as noted by Lovelock (2003). expected, it would lead to positive In fact it is the means to achieving a disconfirmation (Oliver 1996). The research number of key business goals: evidence suggest that when there is a. Satisfaction is inextricably linked to substantial positive disconfirmation along customer loyalty and relationship with pleasure and an element of surprise, commitment; b. Highly satisfied then the customers are likely to be delighted. customers spread positive word of mouth,

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 16 Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram thus lowering the cost of attracting new policies, surrendering the policy, customers; c. Highly satisfied customers behaviour of employees, competitive may be more forgiving. High satisfaction products, complaining behaviour, etc. The acts like an insurance policy against the survey was conducted in 2009 which was impact of a single failure; d. Delighted confined to the policyholders of LIC in customers are less susceptible to Mizoram. A person who purchased at least competitive offerings. a single policy from LIC and who has a minimum five years of experience as a Customer satisfaction is the customer of LIC were the criteria used for individual’s perception of the performance drawing the sample of policyholders. The of the product or service in relation to his sample consisted of a total of 160 or her expectations (Schiffman and policyholders. The sample was drawn Kanuk, 2008). Today’s customers expect equally from eight districts of Mizoram viz. salespeople to have a deep product Aizawl, , , , knowledge, to add ideas to improve the , , Saiha and . Thus customer’s operations and to be efficient the sample consisted of 20 LIC and reliable (Kotler el al 2007). According policyholders of each of eight districts. The to Johri (2000), a dissatisfied customer respondents were selected by using shares his experience with at least 11 purposive sampling technique. For this persons, each of whom in turn conveys to purpose, the respondents were identified in another five persons. consultation with the only branch office of Objective and Methodology LIC located in Aizawl and its agents. This article is aimed at understanding Results and Discussion the perceptions and satisfactions of Difficulties faced due to agents customers of Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) in Mizoram, a small State Table 1 shows that 136 respondents (85 in India’s Northeast, in respect of certain per cent) have never faced any problem aspects namely difficulties involved in with the agents of LIC. 22 respondents obtaining personal loans, time required in (13.75 per cent), however, experienced completing a transaction, lapsation of some problem with the agents.

Table 1: Have you ever experienced any Problem due to LIC Agents? Response No. of Respondents Per cent 1. Yes 22 13.75 2. No 136 85 3. No response 2 1.25 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey n=160 respondents

17 Laishram Gyanendra Singh & NVR Jyoti Kumar

Table 2 shows three kinds of complained of misappropriation of problems confronted by the respondents premium. Some of the respondents from with regard to LIC agents. 15 out of 22 remote areas of Mizoram used to remit respondents faced problem in getting help their premiums through the agents. In of the agents in depositing premium. Three certain occasions dishonest agents created respondents faced problem relating to problems such as misappropriation and revival of policy and four respondents omission. Table 2: Nature of Problems with LIC Agents Type of Problems No. of Respondents 1. Not helping in deposit of premium 15 2. Not helping in revival of policy 3 3. Misappropriation of premium 4 Total 22 Source: Field survey n= 22 respondents In a land locked hilly state like to meet their short-term financial Mizoram decentralisation of premium requirements. The loan scheme enables collection is the need of the hour. For this the policyholders to establish a strong purpose, branches of the commercial bond with the LIC, which is also banks including rural banks in the interior advantageous to the LIC as it helps in parts of Mizoram may be authorised, if promoting its business prospects. possible, to collect premiums on behalf As shown in the Table 3, only 10.63 of LIC. The main problem in Mizoram is per cent (17 respondents) have availed road connectivity; transportation from one loan facility from LIC. 86.25 per cent of place to another is time consuming and the respondents never applied for any loan expensive. There is no rail transport in the from LIC. state. Further, the respondents were not timely informed regarding their due date The loan amount is calculated of premium. The Corporation can remind depending on the Surrender Value (SV). the policyholders of their dues through Approximately 85 per cent of the SV is SMS alerts or other means of given as loan. Presently, LIC is charging communication. nine per cent interest on policy loans. Personal loans Interest is payable half-yearly. If loan is not repaid during the term of the policy or Policyholders are eligible to take loan early claim, the amount of loan plus on their policies subject to certain terms interest, if any, will be deducted from the and conditions. The LIC advances loans claim money and the balance amount will to policyholders in times of their need. be paid to the claimant (Wings Ready Personal loans are offered to policyholders Reckoner 24th edition).

18 Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram

Table 3: Have you ever Received Loan from LIC against your Policy? Responses No. of Respondents Per cent 1. Yes 17 10.63 2. No 138 86.25 3. No response 5 3.13 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey. n= 160 respondents

As shown in Table 4, ten out of 17 show the majority respondents were very respondents were satisfied with the easy satisfied with LIC’s terms and conditions process of getting loan and two and the procedure involved in getting respondents each expressed concern about loans. Two respondents advocated the lengthy process of getting loan and continuing the present system of granting interest on loan amount. Overall results personal loans against their policies.

Table 4: Respondents’ Opinion about Loan from LIC

Opinions No. of Loan Applicants 1. Time consuming 1 2. Easy to get 10 3. Lengthy procedure 2 4. High interest 2 5. Continue the same system 2 Total 17 Source: Field survey. n=17 respondents.

Time required in completing a transaction remittance of premium in general the employees prefer to pay through the SSS. The respondents were asked to indicate the normal time required in 20 out of 160 (12.5 per cent) completing their transactions viz., respondents were satisfied as it took less payment of premium, receipt of loan and than 30 minutes time for premium receipt of maturity amount etc. In the field payment at the counter. 30 out of 160 survey it is observed that this particular (18.75 per cent) complained that it takes question was not applicable for most of half an hour to 1 hour and again 30 out of the respondents. Therefore, a high 160 (18.75 per cent) respondents said it percentage of ‘no response’ may be noted takes days together. Usually, the in the table. For example, in case of respondents from far areas remit their

19 Laishram Gyanendra Singh & NVR Jyoti Kumar premium through their agents and other of them were not in the habit of using IT intermediaries. Respondents particularly for getting required services from LIC. from remote areas other than Aizawl have However, regarding time consumption in experienced the difficulty in premium payment of premium, at present there is a payment, withdrawal of money back positive change and improvement in the amount, receipt of loan etc. It may be system. recalled that there is only one branch office of LIC in Mizoram. In this hilly State, Relating to the facility of online surface transport is time consuming, payment the LIC branch in Mizoram has expensive and often disrupted by to conduct customer awareness campaign landslides during the rainy season. The frequently in order to sensitise the Internet facility is neither available nor policyholders about the methods and functional in remote areas. Even if many advantages of using the facilities cited respondents were computer literate, most above. Table 5: What is the Normal time required by LIC in completing your Transaction? No. of Respondents Time Up to 30 Per 30-60 Per How Per No Per consumption Minutes cent Minutes cent Many cent Response cent relating to: Days? 1. Deposit of 20 Resp. 12.5 30 Resp. 18.75 30 Resp. 18.75 80 50 premium 2. To get ------12 7.5 ------money back 3. Receipt of ------10 6.25 ------loan 4. To get ------20 12.5 ------maturity payment Source: Field survey. n=160 respondents Note: As this question was not applicable to many respondents they did not respond. Resp.= Respondents. Lapsation of policies be beneficial to either of the parties in the contract. The erosion of numbers due to In general, lapse is the discontinuance natural reasons and for reasons contracted of the policy due to non-payment of against is inherently inevitable. However, premium due. Lapsation of life insurance erosion of numbers due to lapsation of life policies in normal circumstances will not insurance policies is not inevitable.

20 Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram

Lapsation of life insurance policies is the Lapsation of insurance policies is a global most disturbing feature of Indian life concern and impacts all stakeholders. In insurance business, which is very high by life insurance industry one of the most international standards. For example, over important factors affecting the health of 752,000 insurance policies of the LIC life insurance companies is lapsation of alone have lapsed. The sum assured policies. Combined experience of all involved in lapsed policies is in excess of Indian insurers suggests that “First Rs. 47,000 crores (Rs.470 billion). premium lapse rate” prior to Insurance regulator IRDA has nationalisation (1956) was about 27 to 36 recommended a uniform grace period of per cent. Since nationalisation of LIC, it 30 days for policyholders paying their was never be less than 14 per cent except premium every quarter, half-year or every the period 1969-70 where the first year. A 15-day grace period has been premium lapse was 13.92 per cent. On an suggested for policyholders paying average, 18 per cent of first premium lapse monthly premium (Kumar 2009). was common for LIC before opening up As shown in Table 6 out of 160 of insurance sector in the year 2000. LIC’s respondents only 14 respondents (8.75 per lapsation ratio was around 25 per cent, cent) have lapsed policies. This ratio is while it was around 40 per cent for private far better than the all India average. insurers (Kumar 2009).

Table 6: Have you ever had any Lapsed Policy? Responses No. of Respondents Per cent 1. Yes 14 8.75 2. No 120 75 3. No response 26 16.25 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey. n=160 respondents

Table 7 shows the reasons for respondents in the present study. In fact, it lapsation of policies. Six out of 14 was found that a few dishonest agents respondents said that their policies have misappropriated the policyholders’ lapsed due to agent’s failure to pay premium. Such customers happened to be premium in time. In Mizoram, there were from remote localities of Mizoram, came a few instances where some dishonest to know only after the policy was lapsed. agents misappropriated the premium Lapsation was also caused by financial amount given by the policyholders. constraint of the policyholders, lack of Interestingly, this is one of the reasons for interest on the part of policyholders, and lapsation of policies in case of some switching over to other investment options.

21 Laishram Gyanendra Singh & NVR Jyoti Kumar

Table 7: Reasons for Lapsation of Policy Reasons No. of Respondents 1. Agent’s misappropriation 6 2. Financial problem 3 3. Not interested 2 4. Availability of other investment options 2 5. Non-cooperation by the office staff 1 Total 14 Source: Field survey. n= 14 respondents. It is observed that aggressive selling of its surrender value to him. Surrender without disclosing all the facts, misselling value depends on the type of policy and by the agents and absence of follow-up number of premiums paid. A policy can action (like reminding the customers on be surrendered only when the premium is the part of the Corporation and agents) paid for a minimum period. Surrender of cause lapse of policies. Aggressive and policy is not recommended since the misselling involve forced selling by agents surrender value would always be to achieve their sales targets without proportionately low. taking customers’ financial affordability Table 8 shows the number of times and interest into account. the respondents have surrendered their Surrendering the policy policy so far. The respondents were asked to mention the number of policies they The lapsed policies may be have surrendered so far. Out of 160 surrendered or revived. The lapsed respondents, only 12 respondents policies can be revived on payment of surrendered their policies so far. Seven premiums in arrears. If the insured is respondents (4.38 per cent) surrendered unwilling or unable to pay the premium once; two respondents (1.25 per cent) of the policy, the policyholder can surrendered twice; three respondents (1.88 surrender the policy and ask for remittance per cent) surrendered thrice. Table 8: How Many Times have you Surrendered any Policy of yours so Far? Response No. of Respondents Per cent 1. Once 7 4.38 2. Twice 2 1.25 3. Thrice or more 3 1.88 4. Not at all 148 92.5 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey. n=160 respondents

22 Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram

Table 9 shows the reasons for switched over to other insurance products surrendering the policy. Eight out of 12 offered by private companies. The respondents surrendered policies due to remaining two policyholders had financial constraints, and two respondents diversified to other investment options.

Table 9: What are the Reasons for Surrendering the Policy? Reasons No. of Respondents Per cent Financial constraint 8 66.67 Switched over to other insurance product of 2 16.67 private companies Diversified to other investment options 2 16.67 Total 12 100 Source: Field survey n= 12 respondents

Perceptions about employee behaviour habitual characteristics on a five point The respondents were asked to scale ranging from poor to excellent. Table express their feelings about the behaviour 10 shows the weighted scores and mean of officers and staff of LIC. The behaviour scores relating to the five habitual is related to habitual characteristics of characteristics. The mean scores are: individual employees of LIC, namely Hospitality (2.71), Punctuality (2.69), hospitality, punctuality, courtesy, Courtesy (2.74), Answering queries (2.83) answering queries and their overall and Overall behaviour (2.93). The mean behaviour towards customers. The scores fall within the range of Fair to Good respondents were asked to rate these and none of the mean scores was above 3.

Table 10: Respondents’ Feelings about Employee Behaviour Very Poor Fair Good Excellent Weighted Mean Characteristics Good Total -1 (2) (3) (5) Score Score (4) 1. Hospitality 23 36 71 25 5 160 433 2.71 2. Punctuality 23 32 80 21 4 160 431 2.69 3. Courtesy 13 41 84 18 4 160 439 2.74 4. Answering querries 14 34 81 28 3 160 452 2.83 5. Overall behaviour 8 36 84 23 9 160 469 2.93 Source: Field survey. n=160 respondents.

Therefore, it is clear that there is a characteristics of employees in LIC. lot of scope to improve the behavioural Frontline managers like cashier in the

23 Laishram Gyanendra Singh & NVR Jyoti Kumar counter need to be customer friendly. In LIC’s service quality vis-à-vis other the case of LIC branch in Aizawl, it has competitors to serve customers who speak different languages. Further, the customers As shown in Table 11, 23.12 per cent belong to heterogeneous background in of the respondents felt services offered by terms of education, income etc. At times LIC are better than that of other life it is observed that customers find it insurance companies. 16.88 per cent of the difficult to understand the language of respondents didn’t agree with the the dealing staff. Such kind of statement. 60 per cent were undecided. In communication problem can be other words, an overwhelming 76.88 per addressed at the branch level by cent of the respondents did not perceive imparting required language skills and LIC’s services superior vis-à-vis through continuous intensive training competitor’s offerings. Whether the programmes on customer orientation. In Corporation takes care or not, this context, it is observed that there is policyholders would certainly evaluate a general feeling among the respondents service quality on their own way. In this that the private players pay utmost context the service firms like LIC should attention with appropriate behaviour to understand and follow the marketing their customers. advice provided by Zeithaml et al. (1990) relating to delivery of quality service.

Table 11: LIC’s Services are Superior to that of Other Private Insurers Response No. of Respondents Per cent 1. Yes 37 23.12 2. No 27 16.88 3. No idea 96 60 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey n=160 respondents

Zeithaml et al. (1990), in their focus- Communication (listening to customers group research identified 10 criteria used and keeping them informed in language by customers in evaluating service quality. they can understand); Understanding the According to them, the Generic customer (making the effort to know Dimensions used by customers to evaluate customers and their needs); Tangibles service quality were: Credibility (appearance of physical facilities, (trustworthiness, believability, honesty of equipment, personnel, and communication the service provider); Security (freedom materials); Reliability (ability to perform from danger, risk, or doubt); Access the promised service dependably and (approachability and ease of contact); accurately); Responsiveness (willingness

24 Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram to help customers and provide prompt Satisfaction about LIC products service); Competence (possession of the skills and knowledge required to perform Products are not immortal rather they the service); and Courtesy (politeness, are mortal. A product, which performed respect, consideration and friendliness of extremely well yesterday, may lose its contact personnel). charisma due to shifts in consumer tastes and increased competition (Biswasroy and In subsequent research, Zeithaml et al. Rao 2008). The insurers have to show (1990) consolidated these ten Generic sensitivity to the insurance needs of Dimensions into five broad dimensions customers on a continuous basis. namely: Tangibles (appearance of physical elements); Reliability (dependable, The respondents were asked to accurate performance); Responsiveness express their level of satisfaction (promptness and helpfulness); Assurance regarding LIC’s products on a five point (competence, courtesy, credibility, and rating scale ranging from poor to excellent security): and Empathy (easy access, good (Table 12). 54.38 per cent of the communications, and customer respondents rated LIC products as ‘Good,’ understanding). followed by ‘Fair’ (19.38 per cent) and ‘Very Good’ (13.13 per cent). Table 12: Respondents’ Level of Satisfaction about LIC Products Factors No. of Respondents Per cent 1. Poor 9 5.63 2. Fair 31 19.38 3. Good 87 54.38 4. Very Good 21 13.13 5. Excellent 7 4.38 6. No response 5 3.13 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey n=160 respondents

It can be observed from the table that innovative and competitive in developing about 72 per cent of the respondents were or modifying its product offerings in such quite satisfied with the LIC products. Only a way so as to suit the changing needs and 5.63 per cent of the respondents rated LIC aspirations of the customers. products as poor. At the same time, only The complaining behaviour 17.51 per cent of the respondents rated LIC products as either very good or It can be observed from Table13 that excellent. That means LIC has to be more only nine respondents (5.63 per cent)

25 Laishram Gyanendra Singh & NVR Jyoti Kumar lodged complaints and 45.63 per cent of complained against the agents, and rest the respondents never made any against the office staff of LIC. At the time complaint against the agent or office staff of field study no such vexed complaints of LIC. 48.75 per cent of the respondents were found pending in the Aizawl branch did not respond. Six out of nine of LIC.

Table 13: Have you ever made a Complaint against the Agent or Office Staff of LIC? Response No. of Respondents Per cent 1.Yes 9 5.63 2. No 73 45.63 3. No response 78 48.75 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey n=160 respondents Customer complaints give a firm the respondents prefer to maintain silence chance to correct the problems. Collecting instead of expressing their dissatisfaction customer feedback via complaints, with anyone (Table 14). 16.25 per cent of suggestions, and compliments provides a the respondents normally share their means of increasing customer satisfaction displeasure with the agent. 10.63 per cent (Lovelock 2003). A study (TARP, 1995), of the respondents don’t hesitate to meet based on the handling of consumer the branch manager to express their complaints in many countries conducted dissatisfaction. Other ways of expressing by the Technical Assistant Research their dissatisfaction are: sharing with the Programs Institute, found three reasons friends and other customers (8.75 per why dissatisfied customers do not cent), sharing with the concerned staff complain. In order of frequency, (6.88 per cent), and finally lodging a customers stated: they didn’t think it was written complaint (1.88 per cent). worth the time or effort; they decided no one would be concerned about their The study, conducted by the TARP problem or resolving it; they did not know (1995), found that the complaint rate where to go or what to do. among dissatisfied customers was only 40 per cent. The TARP studied consumer Sharing of dissatisfaction complaint handling in many countries. In In this context, an attempt is made to 1986 their research findings were widely know how the respondents ventilate their publicised, prompted many managers to feelings of dissatisfaction about the consider the impact of dissatisfied products and the services offered by LIC. customers especially those who never Interestingly nearly 56 per cent of the complained but simply defected to a

26 Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram competitor. TARP found that in the USA those experiencing a problem with goods customers experienced problems (Lovelock 2003). concerning manufactured consumer goods, only 25 to 30 percent of them Therefore, the prime focus of the LIC actually complained. A German study must be on dissatisfied customers who do showed that only a small fraction of not share but who may defect to other customers expressed dissatisfaction, but insurers. 89 out of 160 (55.63 per cent) among this group the complaint rates respondents do not prefer to share their ranged from 29 to 81 per cent. And finally, dissatisfaction with anyone. It is to be noted a Japanese study found complaint rates of that the respondents feel free in sharing their 17 per cent among those experiencing a dissatisfaction with the agent compared to problem with services and 36 per cent for the LIC staff and the branch manager.

Table 14: How would you Express your Dissatisfaction about LIC? Responses No. of Respondent Per cent 1. Sharing with the agent 26 16.25 2. Sharing with the concern staff 11 6.88 3. Sharing with branch manager 17 10.63 4. Sharing with friends and other customers 14 8.75 5. Written complaint 3 1.88 6. I will remain silent 89 55.63 Total 160 100 Source: Field survey. n=160 respondents

Conclusion along with pleasure and an element of surprise, then customers are likely to be In a service business customers have delighted. certain expectations in mind prior to consumption; they experience service There is research evidence of performance and compare it with their strategic links between the degree of expectations, and then form satisfaction customer satisfaction and the overall judgment based on this comparison. If the performance of a firm. Fournier and Mick service is worse than expected, the (1999) observed that satisfaction is an judgment is called negative active and dynamic process that evolves disconfirmation. If the service is better over time and should not be construed than expected it would lead to positive only from the perspective of a single disconfirmation (Oliver, 1996). The transaction. Customer satisfaction is not research evidence suggest that when there an end in itself, as noted by Lovelock is substantial positive disconfirmation (2003). In fact, it is the means to achieving

27 Laishram Gyanendra Singh & NVR Jyoti Kumar a number of key business goals: a. service concept. Particularly the human satisfaction is inextricably linked to skills of the frontline employees and their customer loyalty and relationship motivation will make the difference in commitment; b. highly satisfied customers terms of service quality. As evident from spread positive word of mouth, thus research studies, the employee contact lowering the cost of attracting new skills such as attitude, courtesy, and customers; c. highly satisfied customers helping nature are perceived as may be more forgiving. High satisfaction synonymous with quality in service. acts like an insurance policy against the Therefore, LIC should continuously assess impact of a single failure; d. delighted whether it possesses the right employee customers are less susceptible to skills, motivation and customer oriented competitive offerings. culture. This kind of customer oriented In the case of a service firm like LIC, strategic thinking would enable LIC in the significance of human resource positioning its products in a planned way management and existence of the right so that customers get the value they are customer oriented culture cannot be looking for, and the LIC leverages such overemphasised. In order to continue its value over the cost it incurs to create and leadership position in the market, LIC’s deliver the services, leading to superior HR practices as well as its culture and marketing and financial performance. organisational structure must fit the basic

References 1. Biswasroy, P.K and Bh. Venkateswara Rao, (2008), Marketing of Life Insurance Business, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi. 2. Fournier, Susan and Mick, David Glen (1999), “Rediscovering Satisfaction,” Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63, pp.5-23. 3. Johri, Govind, (2000), “Customer Satisfaction in Emerging Insurance Market in India,” The Insurance Times, October, p 21. 4. Kotler, Philip, K.L. Keller, A. Koshy and M.Jha, (2007), Marketing Management, Pearson Education, New Delhi. 5. Kumar, Jagendra (2009), “Lapsation of A Life Insurance Policy,” Bimaquest, Vol. IX , Issue II, p. 43. 6. Lovelock, Christopher, (2003), Services Marketing People, Technology and Strategy, 4th edition, Pearson Education, New Delhi. 7. Oliver, Richard L, (1996), Satisfaction: A Behavioral Perspective on the Customer, New York, Mc Grew Hill. 8. Schiffman, Leon G. and L.L. Kanuk, (2008), Consumer Behavior, Pearson Prentice Hall, Delhi.

28 Customer Satisfaction in Life Insurance Market in Mizoram

9. TARP Study (1995), SOCAP-TARP Study of Consumer Complaint Behaviour in Australia, Society of Consumer Affairs Professionals, Sydney. 10. Wings Ready Reckoner for LIC Premiums, 24th edition, Bangalore. www.insuranceinstituteofindia.com/InsuranceInst/...Jan-June-2010/ 11. Zeithaml, A. Valarie, A. Parasuraman, and Leonard L. Berry, (1990), “Delivering Quality Service: Balancing Customer Perceptions and Expectations,” The Free Press, New York.

29 ISSN : 2395-7352

Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram

K.V. Reddy

Abstract This paper is aimed at understanding the dynamics of state, government and civil society that keep public policies operational as part of the governance process in the NEI. Besides discussing a few responses of the state and its governmental agencies, the part that these non-state actors had played in the process of governance has been examined. In the NEI, the socio-political implications that entailed the process of governance deserve thoughtful attention. Also, an attempt is made to elucidate certain conceptual issues that had important bearing on the contextual notions of socio-political dynamics in the NEI. The paper is largely a theoretical exercise that was based on published works on the subject. As part of reading a few concepts that were defined in a general perspective, the paper endeavors to contextualize these issues in the NEI locale. Besides, certain empirical initiatives that were attempted by both the state and civil society agencies in the state of Mizoram have also been analyzed. Understandably, the study explores a few developmental challenges that emerged during the course of governance process in the state in recent years. And thus, the paper is set as a case study of Mizoram keeping in view of such changing contours in the socio-ethnic and political developments that prevailed in the region. Key Words: Governance, Developmental Challenges, Northeast Indian Setting, Mizoram Experience Anywhere, the state and governments areas. For, the traditional approach to state seem to be prime motivators in facilitating and governance has been based on the the processes of governance and premise that the government was solely development. While the role of the state responsible for formulating and is largely determined by its structural and effectingcertain public policies in India. functional evolution, various For long, the governmental institutions governmental agencies actually execute have been entrusted with the task of the public policies. Now, its role has been governing and managing public affairs. questioned due to fiasco of governments While governance becomes crucial in in promoting development in different ensuring sustainable development,

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 30 Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram developing deeper understanding of state an overdeveloped bureaucratic state and government settles governance hierarchy that reflected in certain process in any regional settings including governmental institutions like the that of the Northeast India (NEI). bureaucracy, the judiciary, the military and the police. Since there has been excessive State in the British India acquired an dependence on the bureaucratic ambiguous position on the relationship procedures and official hierarchy, citizens between state and society. Thus, its had become passive beneficiaries of response was found to be oscillating governmental services. In consequence, between a stance of non-interference in the very nature and course of governance the societal affairs of an unfamiliar society and development has been transformed, and a converse one of active reformism. more so in the NEI that witnessed a few Yet, it hardly intervened overtly in the developmental challenges in recent times. communal, casteist and tribal-ethnic structures. However, the post-Independent Incidentally, some of these challenges state did not maintain such an attitude of stem from the ethnic disputes, religious indifference. It had always tried to ensure apprehensions, regional political systems integration and assimilation of the and communitarian values that swayed the excluded societies with its mainstream. It governance process in theregion, which was committed to social reform as the remained discreet when globalization Constitution introduced large programs of process affected it invariably. Yet, state social and entrusted these to regimes, political parties and civil society the state as their principal agency. Thus, organizations (CSOs) hardly gauged the the state undertook several legislations in popular expectations and thus failed to favor of positive discrimination for the interpolate them accordingly during the benefit of marginalized communities in course of governance process. This the educational and employment sectors process has been obtainable to capture the and thereby it became a highly socio-political changes that were interventionist state1in India (Kohli, discernible at different levels in the NEI. 1997). And, the character of non-state actors like the church, communities and the CSOs as Meanwhile, in the wake of well as the non-governmental globalization process, state and its organizations (NGOs) during this process governmental agencies got weakened in was crucial. Following the formation of terms of their operational roles in several regional states, some of the NEI societies developing countries including India. like the Mizoram have witnessed social Thus, the state had become an harmony and political peace being unaccountable and ineffective political restored considerably. Yet, crucial issues institution in discharging developmental of governance and economic development activities. For, India inherited a legacy of still remain unaddressed.

31 K.V. Reddy

Main Objectives: This paper is mostly is set as a case study of Mizoram keeping aimed at understanding the dynamics of in view of such changing contours in the state, government and civil society that socio-ethnic and political developments keep public policies operational as part of that prevailed in the region. the governance process in the NEI. Besides discussing a few responses of the Conceptual Understanding state and its governmental agencies, the State and Government part that these non-state actors had played in the process of governance has been With increased social mobilization examined. Contrary to the role of that the and political contestation, there surfaced 2 CSOs/NGOs had played in the mainstream a ‘consociational state’ (Lijphart, 1989) India, their involvement in the NEI is that had undermined a stable polity as it noteworthy. Here, the socio-political was faced with the problem of governance implications that entailed the process of crisis. Besides, the developmental state governance deserve thoughtful attention. has failed to condense glaring economic Also, suffice it to elucidate certain and social inequalities and also to check conceptual issues that had significant inter-community conflicts in different 3 bearing on the contextual notions of socio- parts of the country. AtulKohli opined political dynamics in the NEI. that, ‘a democratic developing country is well-governed if its government can Methodology simultaneously sustain legitimacy, The paper is largely a theoretical promote socio-economic development exercise that was based on published and maintain order without coercion. The works by a couple of authors on the growing incapacity in India to perform these tasks is what has been subject. Besides, a few research studies conceptualized as a manifestation of a that were conducted in the Mizoram crisis of governability’. Thus, there University have also been accessed to persisted a feeling that over the last few during the course of its preparation. As decades, India’s institutional capacity to part of reading a few concepts that were deal with conflict and initiate solutions has defined in a general perspective, the paper almost declined. endeavors to contextualize these issues in the NEI locale. Besides, certain empirical Meanwhile, commenting on the initiatives that were attempted by both the changing role of government, Kettl state and civil society in the state of observed a different notion. According to Mizoram have also been scrutinized. Kettl (2001)4, ‘government refers to the Obviously, the study explores certain structure and function of public developmental challenges that emerged institutions. Governance is the way during the course of governance process government gets its job done. in the state in recent years. Thus, the paper Traditionally, government itself managed

32 Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram most service delivery. Towards the end Moreover, since motto of good of 20th century, however, government governance being, ‘maximum governance relied increasingly on non-governmental is possible with minimum government’, partners to do its work, through processes agencies of globalization were spreading that relied less on authority for control’. the classical liberal notion of ‘state is a In other words, the existent notion implies necessary evil’ (Thomas Paine). Thus, for greater participation by citizens in the instance, the corporate media has assumed governmental affairs so as to enhance the the duty of sponsoring privatization of quality and effectiveness of policy- public sector units whereby the ‘minimal making. Clearly, there is an increasing state’ would surface on the political appreciation that the state had assumed horizon. And, in lieu of governance, the vast powers, and thus to check its misuse, new public management has been efficiency needs to be brought into its proposed to play the ‘managerial role’ so governance structures and processes. In that the market race could be stimulated. consequence, the role of private sector, When such economic institutions entered market economy and civil society the realm of ‘governance’, socio-political organizations has been associated with the and cultural obligations of the state were notion of governance. given a go-bye. In consequence, some critiqued that the state and governance Viewed in this broad milieu, hardly created any congenial environment governance is generally understood as a for ensuring sustainable development in government action that was beyond the the Third World countries. scope of maintaining law and order in the society. Besides policing, there are several Governance Process other tasks with which the governments 6 are engrossed in. Moreover, the role of Although the concept of governance market forces and CSOs/NGOs in the was traced in the times of French regimes region and outside has been considered as in the 14th century, the term ‘governance’ vital part of the governance process. Also, has been used as an alternative concept, governance is conceived as multi- in lieu of ‘public administration’ for quite dimensional process that seeks out some time. Both these terms are participation of various stakeholders in the interchangeably referred to comprehend society. Thus, one can recognize why a system of coordination and certain global agencies5 offered generous implementation of the policymaking so as conditional loans/grants to the Third to bring in tangible changes in the World countries like India in the last two administrative actions. In the decades or so. It is only after fulfilling the contemporary context, Hye7 defined this major condition of ensuring ‘good concept as, ‘governance is governance’ that their financial services institutionalization of rule of law were extended to these countries indeed! including coercive measures required to

33 K.V. Reddy enforce laws and rules for protection of civil society in managing the socio- lives, and property and developmental economic and developmental affairs at activities of government for promotion of different levels. Thus, governance per se common welfare are the foundation and is not about a few government organs or superstructure of government, while their functions, rather it is concerned about spontaneous activities of people acting out the quality of their functioning as well. of their free will reinforce both when they are allowed to flourish’. Developmental Dimensions: In recent times, the process of governance Besides, Roseau8 (1992) made a has gained a transformative outlook due specific reference to certain non- to the changing notion of ‘development’ governmental institutions in the process or ‘sustainable development’. Acquiring of governance. He observed that a comprehensive connotation, the concept ‘governance is a more encompassing of sustainable development is not just phenomenon than government. It about growth in Gross National Product embraces governmental institutions, but (GNP) or increase in national income, per it also subsumes informal, non- capita or otherwise, as was the notion governmental mechanisms whereby those earlier. It is no longer determined by persons and organizations within its economic growth, but enabling purview move ahead, satisfy their needs development in all spheres of human life, and fulfill their wants. Governance is thus political, social, environmental and a system of rules that is as dependent on cultural. In 1990, the first Human inter-subjective meanings as on formally Development Report9 (HDR) included sanctioned constitution and Charter, and three distinct components viz., longevity, it is possible to conceive of governance education and income per head as without government of regulatory indicators of Human Development Index mechanisms in a sphere of activity, which (HDI). Thus, sustainable development is function effectively even though they are looked upon as a process of creating a not endowed with formal authority’. suitable environment for people to lead Meanwhile, concept of governance the long, healthy and resourceful life. assumed significance since early 1990s Alternatively, development is about when the concept had been considered expanding the choices people have in decisive to creating an environment that order to lead better human lives. fostered sustainable development. Since governance is associated with efficient and In expediting the sustainable effective administration it became an development, the governance process essential component in promoting needs to be effective and efficient. This sustainable development of a state. And, notion leads one to reflect on the crucial the process of governance involves certain aspect of governance that could be non-state actors like the market forces and possible with maximum governance,

34 Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram which ensures good governance in the processes enable one to understand long run. While governance deals with the various developmental challenges in the collaborative partnership among different NEI. stakeholders, which is essential for policy formulation and implementation, good Distinctive Locale: Despite being a governance attempts to make these hilly-terrain, the Northeast India is a activities not just efficient but also more reservoir of rich natural resources and a accountable and open to the public needs. striking join up of diverse peoples and Through various measures of good cultures. This region is also the most governance, an all-encompassing human resourceful region with rising relationship between the government and literacy levels in states like Mizoram. the governed has been established in the Unlike the mainstream India, the region Indian context. Evolving a citizen-centric has an added demographic advantage, due administration through citizen charters, to low density, in the sense that it occupies right to information and decentralization 7.8% of the country’s total land space but of powers and functions through the 73rd has a population of 3.8 crore, which makes and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts it nearly 3.73% of the national population. are a few cases in point. This is also an unexploited and emerging market, which could be of interest to large State and Civil Society in NEI domestic and international investors10. An interesting manifestation of the political Apparently, Indian society is a multi- process in this ethnic-dominated region is cultural entity, and thus different its division into seven political and dimensions of governance attract one’s administrative states, widely described as attention. As against the traditional ‘seven sisters’11. There are differences and approach of Constitutional institutions differentiations on the basis of ethnicity, that largely impacted the operational race, religion, language/dialect, and dynamics of governance, whole range of geographical features from ‘within’ and social institutions and political processes ‘without’ the region. Regardless of these seemed to be playing key role in affecting variances most of these states have the discourses of governance and fostered a sense of unity against some development at different levels. policies charted by the central government Particularly, governance at the state level at times. had become multidimensional as range of players, both state and non-state, were By the way, each ethnic community actively engaged in the process. Since its seems to have its world-view and have multiple implications impact the nature of tried to be free from the other public policies, study of political and communities. Sometimes, the local developmental processes is very communities urged for political autonomy significant. Thus the prevalent governance (within or outside the constitutional

35 K.V. Reddy framework), which led to formation of witnessed an upswing in agitations and numerous insurgent groups and thereby movements along political lines. witnessed insurgency and counter insurgency12. In response, the state Ethno-political concerns: Initially, agencies had resorted to certain coercive some pressure groups were set up as a means. In consequence, the local voice of the ethnic communities and tribes communities suffered major hardships for to protest against the discrimination and 13 decades on end. The people inhabiting in exploitation of customary Chiefs or their different regional settings had constantly colonial mastersin the region. entertained certain unalienable historical, Subsequently, these groups were socio-ethnic, cultural and geographical transformed into regional parties in identities. Evidently, there has been rapid different states. While some of them were growth of ethnic-based pressure groups established prior to Indian Independence, and political parties in this region, which the some others were formed thereafter. made the governance process very These parties had strong ethnic roots that problematic as each group had advocated became potential alternatives to the for the politicization of respective national parties like the Indian National identities. Congress. In any case, rise of regional parties is a country-wide phenomenon that Northeast India has always been had gradually undermined the importance faced with multitude of problems in the of national parties over the years. context of peace, governance and development. Thoughtful efforts were In fact, there was a need for the made towards assimilation and integration articulation of their respective ethnic and by some Delhi regimes, yet the NEI communitarian aspirations. Over the communities remained excluded from the years, their strong desire for political mainstream India. The marginalized autonomy and self-regulating existence people were deprived of rights to had led to the development of regional democratic governance and economic parties. It is believed that since the national development. In consequence, an unequal parties had miscarried the local needs and advancement in socio-economic aspirations of different ethnic transformation and thus feeling of communities, regional political parties had insecurity and under development is been favored desperately. Thus, ethnic evident today. Understandably, there dimension has been the most important prevailed a grave dissatisfaction due to the component of political process in NEI, as stagnating socio-economic conditions almost all regional parties and groups among their educated sections. Obviously, stand for preservation of their ethnic emerging developmental consciousness identities. Consequently, the regional among the local communities has upset political process since got mixed up with the political process. Thus, the region socio-ethnic considerations, altered view

36 Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram of state politics has been discoursed. governance and local autonomy for the Contrary to common governance forms in people of NEI have been provided and the mainstream India, there exists a continued, such as the Sixth Schedule, relatively distinct pattern in the NEI. The NEC and DONEAR. These are some phenomena of ethnic, communitarian and measures, as part of the supposed ‘Delhi regional specificities have far reaching Dialogue’, which aimed at setting the implications on the governmental and regional-national partnership that could be developmental processes in the region. fortified in the years ahead. In contrast to certain misconceptions Besides, religious organizations like that the regional parties in the NEI were the multiple denominations of church and ‘parochial and secessionist’, these parties the CSOs/NGOs, which are quite became reasonably practical towards the influential in the NEI, have also issues of national standing. And thus, these undertaken certain developmental parties were credited with a fact that they initiatives. To be more precise, the role of ‘provided political stability, efficient Christianity is very constructive and government and continuity’, as was encouraging in this region, as these argued by L S Gassah14. Further he religious communities lead a more observed that, ‘whatever may be their spiritual and communitarian life in the initial attitudes to win elections, it is states like Mizoram and Nagaland. wrong to say that they offended national Fellow-feeling among them is spectacular sentiment’. In other words, these regional and noteworthy. These communities have parties played a responsible role in internalized certain social and moral guarding both the local and national values in themselves. Thus, community concerns and thereby emerged durable initiatives have always been useful in its over the years in most of these states. inclusive development. Suffice it to study a case of Mizo society that was distressed Yet, bad governance has been a major on account of injustice done to it by problem in the NEI states. Besides, the dividing their homeland and declared region is caught in a vicious cycle of ‘excluded’ area during the British rule15. economic backwardness, militancy and And even after the independence, the the resultant violence further retarded exclusivist policy was followed by the economic growth. Thus, it is likely to find Assam government during when the the regional people entertaining a sense Mizos were subjected to socio-economic of alienation from the mainstream India hardships. However, when the Mizo and also feeling deserted. The local groups National Famine Front was formed to raise expected to be treated with tolerance and the demands of the Mizo society, of course involved in the implementation concerned governments in Assam and of Look East Policy (LEP), for instance. outside failed to respond positively and Accordingly, special provisions for self- there prevailed an atmosphere of volatility

37 K.V. Reddy in the Lushai Hills (district) that initiatives of social and religious nature, eventually became a Mizoram state in the role of 1987. (YMA)17 has been decisive. Notwithstanding some non-Mizo Evolving Challenges in Mizoram communities that seemed to be reticent Communitarian Society: Like the with the hegemony of YMA, bulk of the other societies in the NEI, Mizoram16 has Mizos is on the rolls of this organization. been marked by socio-ethnic, economic Its active association with communities and geographical settings that are unusual and people in the day to day affairs of and diverse, thus their implications are socio-economic and political nature is also of discrete nature. Their social quite significant. The organization has relations are apparently communitarian. played a leading character in ensuring Despite being predominantly tribal- political socialization and thereby oriented ethnic groups and communities encouraged larger political participation they are contented with their customary in the state. This sort of role that the CSOs/ and social institutions. And, these NGOs had played in the governance communities were developed in such a process is an emerging challenge to the way that their traditional and cultural state and polity in Mizoram. values were precisely preserved. Thus, Political Process attempts at motivating the civil society groups to engage in such eventualities Transformed itself into a political have been effective. Obviously, the civil party under the leadership of Laldenga on society groups and variety of ethnic and October 22, 1961, the tribal communities have been involved in (MNF) raised the demand of political the developmental strategies. Further, freedom and independence for the Mizos, certain NGOs like those of the women, who were living in different parts of Indian youth and student organizations in the subcontinent. In fact, the idea of region were involved in the developmental independence of Mizos, who existed in the activities. This sort of social attachment erstwhile Lusei Hills, Chittagong Hills, brings about popular awareness on , Cachar district of Assam, developmental initiatives in the state. Manipur and Chin Hills of Myanmar was conceived long before the Indian Civil SocietyOrganizations: Another Independence18. Along with the objective dimension of governance in Mizoram that of safeguarding the Christian religion that always influenced electoral outcome enrolled about 87% of total population, seems to be that of the CSOs/NGOs and the MNF promised to uplift and develop their social contributions in the political the Mizos in all respects once it attained and electoral processes. Even though there independence. Largely involved in the are several CSOs/NGOs that assumed

38 Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram socio-cultural and communitarian public policies seemed to have activities that characterized the ethnic and undermined the ethnic and religious religious interests of the major tribes in considerations to some extent in Mizoram. the state, the MNF mobilized the Mizo As in several others states in the community at the political level. mainstream India, the Mizoram too witnessed some populist trends in the Electoral Experience context of socio-economic development. Mizo society has been incredible in For instance, at one level, the politics of achieving peaceful elections. The state populist policies has been noticed in the witnessed the largest poll percentage of recent polls (2013). Despite religious over 82% in elections at different levels appeals that pointedly evoked the state in the country. Thanks to the role of electorate, the ruling Congress has Mizoram People’s Forum (MPF), as a benefitted in recent Assembly elections on voluntary watchdog, the Presbyterian- account of its flagship scheme of the New 20 oriented Civil Society Organization that Land Use Policy (NLUP) . Promised in implemented numerous electoral reforms the wake of 2008 elections, the NLUP got even in the remote parts of state in the financed by the Congress-led UPA Union 2008 elections and after. Since the political government quite liberally. parties are under the religious obligation Notwithstanding disapproval of its of fulfilling the Election Commission’s prejudiced implementation, the scheme norms and regulations, role played by the had given a crucial advantage to the ruling MPF became expedient in the elections. party in the last Assembly elections, as Due to its dynamic role, political parties was claimed by the state felt contented in conducting joint electoral soon after the election results were 21 campaigns that were more peaceful and announced . In other words, the politics less costly. Moreover, both the ruling and of development that was how the critics opposition parties were drawing the vocal described, has also posed a major support of religious groups and leaders, developmental challenge to the very yet, the various Church denominations19 process of governance in the state. maintained dispassionate position in the Conclusion 2013 elections. Perhaps, this sort of statewide campaign was not effective To conclude, the Northeastern states elsewhere in the country, and thus the have got specific makeup socially and MPF could be considered as a positive culturally. Although, the NEI challenge in the state. communities are economically backward, culturally and spiritually these are ahead Populist Policies of others in the country. More specifically, Of late, the governance process has ethnic concerns along with their tribal and been so transformed that the populist communitarian outlooks were raised as

39 K.V. Reddy part of identity movements for separate undertake some developmental initiatives. statehood as well as for more political Both these processes have had an impact autonomy in some of these states in the of substantial nature on state and region. Since the NEI is rich in several governance in the region. In the case of respects that could be developed Mizoram that is largely illustrative of the accordingly, governance process became NEI setting, implications of public crucial in undertaking any sort of policies of the national leadership or its developmental strategy. Interestingly, the very mindset towards these peripheral mainstream Indian vocabulary of national communities are far reaching as one could integration, assimilation and security witness differing scenario in recent perceptions has been understood decades. While the emerging challenges conspicuously in the context of localized in the context of governance and perspective. Thus, ethnicity-related tribal, developmental processes have been religious, communitarian and linguistic marked by ethnic concerns, religious concerns of the NEI deserve primacy if notions, regional apprehensions, their social harmony and lasting peace is to be developmental implications are quite realized in the region. alarming. It is time the state realize the need of revisiting these perceptions and Yet, the last two decades of respond to these accordingly through globalization and governance offered popular, if not populist, public policies so ample opportunities (LEP, for instance) that the governance process in the NEI is in the region at different levels so as to steered on effective lines.

Notes and References: 1Kohli, Atul 1997. ‘Crisis of Governability’, in SudiptaKaviraj (ed), Politics in India, OUP, Delhi. 2Lijphart, Arend, 1989. ‘Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration’, Popular Prakashan, Bombay. 3Kohli, Atul 1991, ‘Democracy and Discontent: India’s growing Crisis of Governability’, Cambridge university, London. 4Kettl, Donald F. 2002, ‘The Transformation of Governance: Public Administration in Twenty First Century America’, JHU Press, USA. 5 For instance, some of these included: OECD, UNDP, UNESCO besides the IMF and World Bank. 6The concept was used by Hartland Cleveland for the first time in 1972. 7Hye HA., 2000.Governance: South Asian Perspectives, Oxford University Press. 8Rosenau, James N, 1992. ‘Order and Change in World politics’, in James N.Rosenau and Ernest Otto Czempiel (eds), Governance without Government: Order and Change in World politics, Cambridge University Press, London.

40 Governance and Development in Northeast India: Evolving Challenges in Mizoram

9UNDP Human Development Report, 1990.‘Making New work for Human Development’, Oxford university, New York. 10Bhorali, D., 1988 ‘Economic Development of the North-Eastern Region’, Spectrum Publications, . 11 The seven states include: Assam, , Manipur, , Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Following the merger, Sikkim has also been considered as eighth state in the NEI. 12 According to the South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP), the number of insurgent outfits in NER is 109 in 2006. However, according to Home ministry estimate in 2011, there are 79 insurgent groups/splinter factions in the NER. 13 As part of the age-old Chieftain system that dominates the community life in the villages of Mizoram, the Chiefs as headmen and control the total land in the village areas. The Chiefs allot piece of land for the people for cultivation on a temporary basis. 14Gassah LS (ed). 1992 ‘Regional Political Parties in North East India’, Omsons publications, Guwahati. 15Rao, V.Venkat, Thansanga and Hazarika, Niru, 1987. A Century of government and Politics in North- East India, Vol.III, Mizoram, S.Chand and Co., New Delhi. 16Sangkima, 1992.Mizos: Society and social Change (1890-1947), Spectrum Publications, Delhi. 17The largest civil society organization in the state and well-connected to the people throughout the state.

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Unemployment among Educated Youth in Mizoram: A Way Forward

C. Devendiran

Abstract Every society is faced with serious social, economic and political problems, which need systemic, intelligent researching about their causes and also for finding out their remedies. The problem of unemployment is common to all the countries of the world, whether developed, underdeveloped or developing. According to Rajan Panel Report 2013, Mizoram has been ranked as a relatively developed state in north east India. At the same time, the problem of unemployment has been increasing over the years in the state particularly among the educated youth which will create big problem in future, if adequate steps are not taken. This paper makes an attempt to study the problems and challenges of unemployment among educated youth in the state of Mizoram by using secondary source. Therefore, in order to address the issue of unemployment, the author’s collectively put the ideas for initiatives revolve around three main platforms. They are providing need based education, providing self employment support and providing publicity for the various issues which can go a long way towards solving the problem. Finally, the paper tries to give suggestions in order to solve the above mentioned problem. Key Words: Unemployment, Educated youth, Policies, Programmes.

Introduction also produced the largest ever annual increase in the global growth Globally, there are many young unemployment rate from 11.9% to 13% people ever than before, 1.3 billion of economic crisis have doubled youth rates them living in developing countries. The in countries such as Greece and Spain. global financial crisis and economic down Around half of young potential labour turn which has resulted in the largest force entrants were unemployed in South cohort ever of unemployed young people Africa in 2011.However, the around the world, with 80.7 million young unemployment rate for youth aged 15 -24 people struggling to find work in 2009. In has risen substantially across many of the the period from 2007 to 2009, the crisis G20 countries such as France, Italy, Spain,

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 42 Unemployment among Educated Youth in Mizoram: A Way Forward

U.K and U.S. In the Middle East and unemployment. The unemployed rate is North Africa, the economic growth rate between age group 15- 29 years has been in 2013 proved too low to generate increased since 2009- 2010. According sufficient employment opportunities for a to the Global Employment Trends, 2014 fast growing population, and the unemployment rate has been raised unemployment remained the highest in the to 3.8%, last year it was 3.7%. The ILO world. In Sub – Sahara Africa, paid recent report estimated that India has employment opportunities are scarce and shown rise in the unemployment in the the vulnerable employment rate, at 77.4 last two years mainly due to more percent in 2013, remained the highest of population which is 1.20 billion next to all regions. China, which increases the unemployment rate day- by- day. According to ILO report, more than 200 million people were unemployed According to Labor Bureau of globally in which nearly 75 million young , a survey reported that one people are unemployed in the world today out of every three persons in the age group and the global youth unemployment rate from 15 to 29 years who have completed is 12.7% in 2012 and the ILO projects that their graduation has been found to be it is to rise to 12.9% by 2017. In its annual unemployed. The report on “Youth Global Employment Trends report, issued Employment –Unemployment scenario, recently, the ILO estimated that 201.8 2012-13 shows the unemployment rate million people were jobless in 2013; it among illiterate youth is lower than went up by nearly 5 million in a year. educated youth. Based on the survey, the Youth were the biggest causalities, with labour force participation rate was 74.5 million people aged 15- 24 estimated to be 31.2, 47.3 and 39.5 percent unemployed in 2013, an increase of more respectively among age groups 15-24,18- than 7, 00,000. There was a staggering 29 and unemployment rate in the age 37.1 million fewer young people in group of 15-29 years stood at 13.3 percent unemployment in 2013 than in 2007. in rural areas, the unemployment rate for International Monitory Fund forecasts of graduates and above the age group. global economic and growth increasing to The list below is compiled from 3.6 % in 2014, from 2.9 % in 2013, the th ILO said the unemployment toll would the NSS (66 round) Report from Ministry reach 215 million by 2018 should a of Statistics and Programme sustainable economic recovery fail to Implementation, GOI. Data is unavailable materialize once agai. However, that for NE and Smaller states. Among the number would rise to 220 million. Indian states employment for the youth in rural areas were highest in Kerala Our country is facing many problems followed by Assam and Odisha. In urban but one of the serious problems is India, the unemployment rate was highest

43 C. Devendiran in Kerala and followed by Bihar and Assam, India. (Higher ranks represents higher whereas Rajasthan and Gujarat have the least unemployment among the population). unemployment rate among major states of National average stands at 50. Table 1. List of Major States of India ranked according to Unemployment Unemployment Rates 2009 -10 (per 1000) Rank State Rural Urban Total 14 Kerala 75 73 148 13 Bihar 20 73 93 12 Assam 39 52 91 11 Punjab 26 48 74 10 Odisha 30 42 72 9 Himachal Pradesh 16 49 65 8 West Bengal 19 40 59 ** All India Average 16 34 50 7 Tamil Nadu 15 32 47 6 Andhra Pradesh 12 31 43 6 Haryana 18 25 43 5 Uttar Pradesh 10 29 39 4 Maharashtra 6 32 38 3 Madhya Pradesh 7 29 36 2 Karnataka 5 27 32 1 Rajasthan 4 22 26 1 Gujarat 8 18 26 Source: Socio-Economic Profiles and Inter –State Comparison of Some Major States of India (http;//India budget .nic.in/budget 2013-2014/es2012-13/echap-13.pdf).

India is essentially a rural economy remains unemployed for 5 to 6 months. based on agriculture which is their With the existing structure of Mizoram principal means of livelihood. Seasonal economy, precarious state of agriculture, Unemployment is primarily confined to slow growth of alternative employment agriculture. Agriculture does not provide avenues in rural areas, lack of industries, employment round the year. It is also poor communication facilities. There is known as perennial unemployment. low possibility of absorbing the fast Sowing and harvesting season ranges expanding labor force. The public sector between 5 and 7 months. For the rest of (government) and the private sector of the the period the cultivator has to remain idle. economy, which have so far absorbed a Experts believe that an Indian Cultivator large percentage of the working

44 Unemployment among Educated Youth in Mizoram: A Way Forward population, have already reached the likely to hold out encouraging job saturation limit, and therefore, are not prospects in the coming years. Table 2 Labour Force Participation and Employment Situation in Mizoram, 2009 Work Participation Rate Employment Rate Unemployment Rate District Male Female Total Male Femal Total Male Femal Total Aizawl 53.4 40 46.5 42.8 24 33.1 19.7 40.1 28.7 Champhai 55.4 44.8 50 50.4 32.6 41.3 9.1 27.3 17.5 Kolasib 61.7 31.8 45.9 58.3 28.7 42.6 5.6 9.7 7.1 Lawnglai 61.9 41.9 52.4 53.4 23.9 39.4 13.6 43.1 24.8 Lunglei 59.6 37.8 48.7 51.3 23.8 37.5 14 37 22.9 Mamit 55.1 39.4 47.5 51.8 35.6 44 6 9.6 7.5 Saiha 51.6 37.4 44.7 47.1 25.8 36.7 8.8 30.9 17.8 Serchhip 50.4 43.2 46.7 43.3 26.9 34.9 14.1 37.9 25.4 Mizoram 55.7 39.8 47.6 47.8 26.3 36.9 14.1 34.1 22.6 Source: Mizoram Human Development Report, 2013. The current employment situation, Aizawl. Unemployment is a serious according to 2009 field data survey problem in Mizoram, about 23 percent shows that the Work Participation Rate of the persons in the workforce are in the state is 55.7 percent for males and without any gainful employment. In the 39.8 percent for females, aggregating to Kolasib and Mamit districts, the rates are 47.6 percent in total. (Table 2) shows that close to or above 20 percent, with the the WPR is the highest in Lawngtlai and highest being in Aizawl (29%). The lowest in Saiha. Employment Rates unemployment rates are substantially (ERs), expressed as a percentage of the higher for females (34%) as compared to population are 37 percent, including 48 males (14%).In fact, for Aizawl and percent for males and 26 percent for Lawngtlai, the unemployment rates for females. The employment rate is the females are above 40 percent which is highest in Mamit and the lowest in an alarming situation indeed. Table 3 Gender and Age-wise Work Participation and Employment Situation in Mizoram, 2009 Age Group Work Participation Rate Employment Rate Unemployment Male Female Male Female Male Female 15-24 years 52.4 36.9 35.1 17.6 33.1 52.2 25-40 years 95.6 67.6 84.1 46.5 12 31.1 41-60 years 96.7 64.2 93 48.3 3.8 24.8 Above 60 years 5.3 7.4 2.4 NA 55.2 NA Source: Mizoram Human Development Report, 2013.

45 C. Devendiran

It has been observed that the work higher participation of women in the participation rate, when disaggregated labour force and in employment. across age groups and gender, is the Therefore, the participation of women in highest for the bottom two age groups- the labour market in Mizoram is wider 15-24 and 25-40 years. The Table 3 than in the country as a whole, which is reveals that the employment rates are the perhaps direct fallout of the social highest for the age group 41- 60 years. structure of the tribal population of the Hence, while the work participation rates state. are lower for the females, the employment rates are further lower. This Public Sector Employment is why the unemployment rates for From the Table 4, it is clear that as females are higher than for the males. per Census of Government Employees, From the table, it has been seen that the number of employees working under unemployment rates for female in the age the state government was 53,653 out of group 15- 24 are higher (52.2%) than the which 42,308 were regular employees and males. Of greater concern, however, is 8013 were Muster Roll and 1601 were the average, specifically because of the work – charged. Table 4 Group Wise Number of State Government Employees as on 31.3.2009 Sl.No Group Male Female Total 1 A 2334 839 3173 2 B’G’ 406 86 492 3 B’NG’ 5992 2826 8818 4 C 16862 4993 21855 5 D 6762 1208 7970 6 SUB-TOTAL 32356 9952 42308 Others 7 Contract 843 585 1428 8 Work Charge 1335 266 1601 9 Muster Roll 5641 2372 8013 10 Officiating 18 13 31 11 Co- Terminus 164 108 272 12 SUB-TOTAL 8001 3344 11345 13 Grand Total 40357 13296 53653 Source: Economic Survey, Mizoram 2012- 13, Planning and Programme Implementation Department, , Aizawl Table 4 shows that as per the last total of 1, 06,706 persons were employed i.e.5th Economics Census held in 2005, a in all the 47,730 enterprises enumerated

46 Unemployment among Educated Youth in Mizoram: A Way Forward in the state. Out of these 13,481 (12.6%) Exchange by the end of September-2012, were employed in agricultural enterprises how the fast growing population in and remaining 93,225(87.4%) were in Mizoram and the limited means of non–agricultural enterprises. Out of the supporting it has led to a large scale under total workers in the state, 33,314 (31.2%) employment and unemployment in of these workers were employed in rural Mizoram. While reducing unemployment areas whereas 73,392 (68.78%) were continued to be the major thrust of employed in urban areas. developmental planning, growing The Table 5 shows that on the job unemployment problem still remains an seekers registered in Aizawl Employment alarming feature of the state. Table 5 Number of Employments (All Enterprises)

Number of Employment ( All Enterprises) Particulars EC1980 EC1990 EC1998 EC2005 Rural 18484 20980 22981 33314 Urban 27371 51374 54476 73392 Combined 45835 72354 77457 106706 Sector -Wise Employment Particulars EC1980 EC1990 EC1998 EC2005 Agricultural N.A N.A 2991 13481 Non- Agricultural N.A N.A 74466 93225 All Enterprises 45835 72354 77457 106706 Source: Economic Survey, Mizoram 2012- 13, Planning and Programme Implementation Department, Government of Mizoram, Aizawl

From the below Table 6, it is very problem in Mizoram. So, we have to clear that job – seekers have been analyze the causes and consequences increasing over the years and there is a which can help us to make a prescription persistent problem of un-employment for its remedy. The incidence of especially among the educated youth. unemployment is much higher in urban The number of job seekers in the live areas than in rural areas. Unemployment register upto September, 2012 stood at rates for women are higher than those of 50,225 and the number of vacancies men. The incidence of unemployment notified at 2006 during 2010-2011 while among the educated is much higher than the number of applications registered for the overall unemployment. Unemployment self-employment assistance during 2010- is the main problem affecting the youth 2011 was 154. It is very clear that it is group in the age of 15- 29 years at all not easy to tackle the unemployment levels.

47 C. Devendiran

Table 6 Job-Seekers on the Live Register of Employment Exchange in Mizoram as on Sept 2012

Regn. For Month Live Register Sl.No Category Total Male Female Male Female 1 Unskilled 1 106 99 205 2 CL-VI to IX 34 17 6642 2238 8880 3 Matriculate/HSLC 241 207 6035 3583 9618 4 PUC/HSSLC 378 457 6575 5662 12237 5 BA(General) 81 100 3112 2802 5914 6 B.A(Hon) 41 60 888 906 1794 7 B.Com 9 11 276 161 437 8 B.Ed - - 10 14 24 9 B.Sc(General) 3 1 97 66 163 10 B.Sc.(Hon) - - 158 397 555 11 B.Pharm - 1 9 24 33 12 B.V.Sc - - 21 22 43 13 B.D.S. - - 14 23 37 14 B.Lib.Sc. - - - 1 1 15 BBA 13 2 33 26 59 16 BCA 18 7 230 128 358 17 B.D(Theology) - - 3 1 4 18 B.E 13 2 136 44 180 19 Lib(BL) - 1 8 11 19 20 M.A 30 29 784 936 1720 21 M.Com - 2 61 62 123 22 M.Ed - - 3 3 6 23 M.Sc 8 2 169 130 299 24 M.Tech - - - - - 25 MBA 3 - 26 17 43 26 M. Lib.Sc - 1 7 13 20 27 M.S.W. 2 3 18 15 33 28 M.Phil 1 - 10 19 29 29 MTA (Tourism& Admn) - - - 2 2 30 M.E - - - - - 31 M.V.Sc. - - 3 - 3 32 MBBS - - 32 28 60 33 PGJMC - - - - - 34 Ph.D - - - - -

48 Unemployment among Educated Youth in Mizoram: A Way Forward

35 Typist - - 1 17 18 36 Driver 3 - 161 - 161 37 Conductor - - 15 - 15 38 Hindi a) Matric 2 7 275 852 1127 39 Hindi b)PU 1 5 108 327 435 40 Hindi c )BA 1 6 127 500 627 41 Hindi d) MA - 1 1 3 4 42 Technical Trade(EXIT) 83 52 1482 2750 4232 43 Physically Handicapped 1 1 71 36 107 44 Non- Mizo 29 3 419 181 600 Source: Economic Survey, Mizoram 2012- 13, Planning and Programme Implementation Department ,Government of Mizoram, Aizawl

The Table 7 shows that number of problem of youth has not received the educated job seekers registered in the live necessary attention. India’s first National register of Aizawl, Champhai, Lunglei, Youth Policy that was formulated in 1988, and Saiha as on 31.1.2013. recognized that the most important component of a youth programme has to Table 7 Employment Service be elimination of unemployment. Employment Considering the limited achievement of District Registration the objective of the 1988 youth policy, a Aizawl 31,445 new National Youth Policy was Lunglei 5,748 announced in 2003 that was aimed at Saiha 7,117 galvanizing young people to rise up to new Champhai 4,270 challenges. The National Youth Policy, Total 48,580 2014 emphasizes on the employment and Source: Economic Survey, Mizoram 2012- 13 skill development of youth. National Council for Skill Development was set up Policy Initiatives for Generating in 2005 which targeted skills development Employment for Youth as a major national policy. The concerns of youth have also been The through at the centre of India’s policy formulation. planned investment in skills development, The Planning commission of India was helps to realize a democratic dividend: replaced by National Institution for Right to work: The Constitution of India, Transforming India(NITI Ayog) from 1st under Article 41, provides that the state January, 2015.It has stressed that the shall within the limits of its economic recognition of the role of youth is vital capacity and development, make effective for the society. However, unemployment provision for securing the right to work,

49 C. Devendiran to education and to public assistance in particularly in developing countries like cases of unemployment, old age, sickness India in order to tackle the problem of and disablement, and other cases of growing unemployment, the Government underserved wants. Article 38 states that of India has come with a number of the state shall strive to promote the welfare employment generation programmes by of the people. Article 43 states that state way of wage employment or self shall endeavor to secure a living wage and employment programmes. They are Prime a decent standard of living to all the Minister’s employment Generation workers. These promises are part of the Programme which has been created by Directive Principles of State Policy of merging two schemes - Prime Minister’s Constitution of India. Rojgar Yojana and Rural Employment Generation programme which were in Employment Exchanges operation till 31.3.2008. Swarnajayanti The Employment Exchange Gram Swarojgaar Yojana (SGSY) started Organizations operated by the federal on 1.4.1999 is a major on going Ministry of labour, runs more than 900 programme for self-employment for the individual employment exchanges in rural poor. The programme was developed order to better match demand and supply after reviewing and restructuring the with regard to work opportunities. Job erstwhile IRDP and allied programmes seekers register with these employment namely Training Rural Youth for Self exchanges and are notified as soon as any Employment , Development of Women vacancy in the government sector matches and Children in Rural Areas, Supply of their profile. According to the employment Toolkits in Rural Areas, Ganga Kalian exchanges (Compulsory Notification of Yojana, Million Wells Scheme, Vacancies) Act of 1959, in any state or area MGNREGS, and Hunar se Rozgaar Tak. thereof, the employer in every The Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar establishment in the public sector in the Yojana (SJSRY) is a scheme to provide state or area shall – before filling any gainful employment to the urban vacancy in any employment in that unemployed or under employed which has establishment- notify that vacancy to such five major components, namely Urban employment exchanges as may be Self-Employment Programme (USEP) , prescribed employment exchanges play a Urban Women Self Help Programme significant role in assisting young people (UWSP), Skill Training for Employment in finding employment. Promotion amongst Urban Poor Employment Generation Programmes (STEPUP), Urban Wage Employment Programme, Urban Community In recent years, employment Development Network, and Sampoorna generation programmes have emerged as Grameen Rozgaar Yojana. It provides an important employment policy tool, wage employment and food security in

50 Unemployment among Educated Youth in Mizoram: A Way Forward rural areas and also creates durable organizations need to put special emphasis economic and social assets. This on the problem of youth unemployment programme and its components have, to enhance employability and employment however, not been able to achieve the opportunities. desired results due to the deficiencies they Development of rural areas will stop suffered from. the migration of the rural people to the Conclusion urban cities and this will not put more pressure on the urban city jobs. So, The ever increasing size of the youth government should encourage and work force, both skilled and unskilled, in develop the agriculture based allied an environment of job scarcity means industries in rural areas. The higher more young people are faced with limited educational system of our country should opportunities, causing them to be either be made need based in order to increase underemployed or unemployed. Indian future employment. Policies should ensure youth, in the absence of any formal social that the educational systems should security, is thus faced with the challenge prepare young people for the skill of survival and limited growth prospects. demands of employers through outreach To check unemployment among the youth programmes, training, entrprenureship, in India, various measures have been and access to job-search assistance initiated. India has introduced a number measures. of employment generating schemes, including those under MGNREGS. Vocational education and training, Similar policy initiatives have been taken and entrepreneurship development for skilled workers. India has created programmes should be given greater measures to tackle the problems of importance in our educational system, so unemployment. Skill development is part that a student or a youth can get adequate of the major efforts and is receiving job opportunities. Population growth has assistance from various countries to be checked properly. Family planning including Germany with regard to programmes should be made more vocational training. popular. People should be educated about the importance of a small family norm. Hence, there is a need to learn about These may help us to solve the problem other’s experiences, their employment of unemployment. UN Secretary General guarantee programme and also their social has made working with and for young security programmes. In an increasingly people which is one of the top priorities integrated world where the causes of in his five year action agenda which unemployment are of a global nature, includes deepening the youth focus of national measures may prove inefficient existing programmes on employment and in overcoming the challenges. Global entrepreneurship.

51 C. Devendiran

Overcoming the problem of and effective operational strategies for unemployment in the state of Mizoram, creating employment opportunities and particularly that of the educated enhancing employability. A combined, unemployed, needs immediate, focused inclusive and holistic effort is required to and coordinated attention with new policy address the above mentioned problem in a initiatives, sound institutional arrangements principled manner.

References

Economic Survey (2013), Mizoram 2012-2013. Planning & Programme Implementation Department. Aizawl: Government of Mizoram.

Economic Survey 2012-13. Government of India. 2012-2013.p.276.Retrieved April, 21, 2014 http:// en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_states_ranked_by_ unemployment&oldid= 648431677

Global employment trends 2012-ILO. (2012). Geneva: ILO. Retrieved from www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/ groups/public/—.../wcms_171681.pdf

Global employment trends 2013: Recovering from a Second jobs dip, (2013). Geneva: ILO. Retrieved from www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—.../wcms_202326.pdf

Global employment trends for youth 2013: A generation at Risk, (2013) Geneva: ILO. Retrieved from www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—.../wcms_212423.pdf

Institute for Human Development. (2014). Mizoram Human Development Report 2013. Retrieved from www.ihdindia.org/Mizo-report-IHD.pdf

Mohdarshad and Shoiab Ahmed Bhat (2012). Youth and Unemployment: A Study of Baramulla District of Jammu and Kashmir. Indian Journal of Youth Affairs, 16 (2), 76-84.

National Youth Policy. (2014). Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports, GOI. Retrieved from yas.nic.in/ sites/default/files/National-Youth-Policy-Document%20.pdf.

Prasad R.N and Agarwal A.K (Eds). (2003). Modernisation of the Mizo Society. New Delhi: Mittal Publications.

Sachdeva, D.R. (2008). Social Welfare Administration in India. Allahabad: Kitab Mahal.

Socio-Economic Profiles and Inter –State Comparison of Some Major States of India. Retrieved from http://India budget .nic.in/budget 2013-2014/es2012-13/echap-13.pdf.

Visaria P, (2008). Employment and training Paper 36, Unemployment among youth in India: Level, Nature and Policy Implications, Employment and Training Department, Geneva: ILO.

52 ISSN : 2395-7352

Creativity in English Language among B.Ed. Students in Puducherry Region

T. Uvaraj

Abstract Creative activity could be described as a type of learning process where teacher and pupil are located in the same individual (Arthur Koestler, 1949). The above quote is expected to be witnessed among the modern teachers. Creativity in language refers to multi-dimensional attitude towards any language for expressing their thoughts and ideas uniquely. In this view, the present study investigated the language creativity of B.Ed. Student-Trainee Teachers. 300 samples were selected from B.Ed. student-trainee teachers from three Colleges of Education in Puducherry Region. The Language Creativity Tool was administered to trainee teachers and found out that there is a significant difference between male and female trainee teachers, urban and rural trainee teachers. In conclusion, the language creativity of the B.Ed. trainees was low when compared to the deviation from the mean scores. Therefore, the teacher educators play a pivotal role in enhancing the language creativity among the B.Ed. student- teacher trainees. Key Words: Language Creativity, Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, Vocabulary

Introduction: and elaboration. During past two decades, there was little research done on language Creativity in language is one among creativity. Guilford opened the research in the secrets of success for an effective creativity in the Presidential Address to teaching of the content in any discipline. the American Psychological Association Creativity is acquired as well as in 1950 where he insisted that developmental in nature; whatever the psychologists should conduct more case may be, whether acquired or research on creativity and its associated developmental, creativity in any nature has areas. The scientists, technicians, business to be practiced. Thus language creativity man, etc. all have creative talent in their may be defined as the multi-dimensional field of working knowledge. Similarly, attitude that is differently distributed one who teaches to a mass has variety of among the people and includes mainly the language styles and usages which is factors of fluency, flexibility, originality termed as language creativity. Thus

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 53 T. Uvaraj language creativity is very important to 3. To find out whether there is any present ideas effectively and clearly. significant difference between creativity in language of urban and In the contemporary period teachers rural B.Ed. students and are less creative in the usage of language in the teaching learning process. All the 4. To find out whether there is any teachers are more concerned about the significant difference between performances of the students in the creativity in language of Arts group examinations. Due to this reason, many and Science group B.Ed. students of the teachers fail to execute their Hypotheses: creativity and to inculcate the same to the learners. Hence creativity remains hidden The investigatorhas framed the within the teacher. Teachers should following hypotheses for testing and therefore know how to inculcate language accomplishing the above mentioned creativity during the teaching learning objectives: process. But the prime concern of the 1. The creativity in language of B.Ed. investigator is tocheck the level of the students is equal. English language creativity of the 2. There is no significant difference teachers. In this context the investigator between creativity in language of conducted a research to identify the level male and female B.Ed. students. of the creativity on English language among the teachers, especially B.Ed. 3. There is no significant difference Students. The investigator has framed the between creativity in language of statement of the problem as “A Study on urban and rural B.Ed. students. Creativity in English Language among 4. There is no significant difference B.Ed. students in Puducherry Region”. between creativity in language of Arts Teacher’s creativity is monitored in the group and Science Group B.Ed. training period. So, the investigator students. selected B.Ed. students as the sample for Delimitations of the Study: the study. Objectives of the Study: Though creativity is multi- dimensional, the investigator delimited his The following are the objectives of study only to measure language creativity. the study: The investigator used “Language 1. To find out the creativity in language Creativity Test” developed by Malhotra of B.Ed. students and Suchita Kumari to assess the level of 2. To find out whether there is any language creativity of B.Ed. students and significant difference between selected the B.Ed. colleges in Puducherry creativity in language of male and region affiliated to female B.Ed. Students as the area for investigation.

54 Creativity in English Language among B.Ed. Students in Puducherry Region

Insights gained from the Related Tools used for the study: Studies: The researcher used the ‘Language The Researcher gained insights from Creativity Test’ developed by Suchita and the related studies conducted in relation Malhotra to collect the data. It has five to creativity in language.From the insights sub-tests namely: gained, the investigator identified the research gap.The creativity in language (i) Plot Building was not incorporated properly in the (ii) Dialogue Writing teaching learning process in the (iii) Poetic Diction mainstream schools. Thus the research gap (iv) Descriptive Style and was identified here, i.e. whether the (v) Vocabulary Test. researcher acquired the creative process Altogether, all the sub tests will during the training or not. measure the level of language creativity Method of the study: of the B.Ed. student-trainee teachers. Normative survey method was Data Collection adopted by the investigator in the present The tool LCT is administered to the study. The investigator selected Three sample. Two hours and forty seven Colleges of Education out of seven minutes were given to the B.Ed. students Colleges in Puducherry Union Territory to finish the LCT. The collected data were Region. Purposive sampling technique evaluated with the guidance of the was employed to select the sample from language experts like Dr. Clement the selected colleges of Education. 300 Lourdes, Reader, Department of English, B.Ed. students from the Colleges of Pondicherry University and Dr. P. Raja, Education were selected for the (Retired). The hypotheses were tested at investigation i.e. to identify the level of 0.05% of significance level. language creativity. Analysis and Interpretations of Data: Table: Mean and S.D of B.Ed. Student-Trainee Teachers in relation to Gender, Locale, and Discipline on Language Creativity Test Sample: B.Ed. Students N M S.D t Level of significance Male 145 161.25 28.12 0.03 Significant at 0.05% level Female 155 145.22 33.51 Urban 142 163.56 31.25 Not significant at 0.05% level Rural 158 161.39 30.71 1.25 Arts Group 137 160.45 27.36 0.02 Significant at 0.05% level Science Group 163 151.24 34.51

55 T. Uvaraj

Table shows the Mean and S.D of language are 163.56 and 31.25, whereas B.Ed. student-trainee teachers in relation rural B.Ed. student-trainee teachers on to Gender, Locale, and Discipline on the creativity in language are 161.39 and scores obtained in Language Creativity 30.71. The calculated ‘t’ value is found to Test. From the mean and S.D value: It is be 1.25, which is greater than table value understood from the mean and SD of at 0.05% Level of Significance. Hence the urban and rural B.Ed. student-trainee null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, teachers on creativity in languagedid not there is no significant difference between differ. In case of gender and discipline urban and rural B.Ed. student-trainee there was difference in the performance teachers on creativity in language. of B.Ed. student-trainee teachers on creativity in language. The Mean and S.D of Arts group B.Ed. student-trainee teachers on Analysis and interpretation of data: creativity in language are 160.45 and 27.36, whereas the science group B.Ed. The highest score in the language student-trainee teachers on creativity in creativity test is 235 and the Mean score of language are 151.24 and 34.51. The B.Ed. student-trainee teachers on creativity calculated‘t’ value is found to be 0.02, in language is 153.71, which is low when which is lesser than the table value at comparing with the high score given in the 0.05% Level of Significance. Hence the norms. Therefore the language creativity null Hypothesis is rejected and alternative of Arts and Science college students is low. hypothesis is accepted. Therefore there is Hence the null hypothesis is accepted and a significant difference between Arts the language creativity of Arts and Science group and Science group B.Ed. student- college students is low. trainee teachers on creativity in language. The Mean and S.D of male B.Ed. The Mean difference table shows that student-trainee teachers on creativity in there is no significant difference between language are 161.25 and 28.12 whereas the scores of B.Ed. student-trainee teachers female are 145.22 and 33.51. The on creativity in languagein relation to: (i) calculated ‘t’ value is found to be 0.03, male and female (ii) Urban and Rural which is less than the table value at 0.05% Students (iii) Arts group and Science group of Level of Significance. Hence the null students. This table also shows that there hypothesis is rejected and alternative is a significant difference between male and hypothesis is accepted. Therefore there is female, and Arts and Science group B.Ed. significant difference between female and student-trainee teachers. This analysis and male students of B.Ed. student-trainee interpretation of data helps the researcher teachers on creativity in language. to proceed to the findings, recommendation The Mean and S.D of Urban B.Ed. and suggestion for further research on this student-trainee teachers on creativity in area.

56 Creativity in English Language among B.Ed. Students in Puducherry Region

Major Findings 151.24 and the mean score of the total sample is 153.71. The findings of the present study are discussed below: Recommendations and Educational  The language creativity of B.Ed. Implications student-trainee teachers is low The investigator suggests some because the highest score is 235 and implications to be considered for the the mean score of the total sample is development of the factors related to language 153.71 creativity and improvement in the achievement  The language creativity of male of B.Ed. Student-Trainee Teachers: B.Ed. student-trainee teachers is high  Opportunities should be given to the because the mean score is 161.25 and B.Ed. student-trainee teachers for the mean score of the total sample is expressing their thoughts, so that the 153.71. fluency in thoughts will enhance.  The language creativity of female  Teacher Educator may initiate new B.Ed. student-trainee teachers is low strategies of teaching which must because the mean score is 145.22 and provoke the creativity of the B.Ed. the mean score of the total sample is student-trainee teachers. 153.71.  Teacher Educator should create  The language creativity of urban curiosity and innovations among B.Ed. student-trainee teachers is high B.Ed. student-trainee teachers because the mean score is 163.56 and which make them to react creatively. the mean score of the total sample is  B.Ed. student-trainee teachers are 153.71. allowed to think and react critically  The language creativity of rural B.Ed. in the given situation to enhance student-trainee teachers is high originality. because the mean score is 116139 and  Stress on acquisition of the English the mean score of the total sample is language may be one of the important 153.71. tasks of B.Ed. student-trainee  The language creativity of Science teachers. group B.Ed. student-trainee teachers  Strange response to a given situation is high because the mean score is may be rewarded. This motivates the 160.45 and the mean score of the total B.Ed. student-trainee teachers to sample is 153.71. think critically.  The language creativity of Science  Curriculum should be reframed group B.Ed. student-trainee teachers accordingly to enhance the language is low because the mean score is creativity.

57 T. Uvaraj

Suggestions for Further Research: to thinking critically. The teacher Educator should play a major role in The following are the suggestion for bringing out the innate abilities of further research: student-trainee teachers. According to  Further research can be done by the results of the study, the investigator drawing a large sample of B.Ed. finds that the student-trainee teacher’s student-trainee teachers by covering creativity in language is low in respect different districts and different levels of female gender and rural teacher- of students. trainees. There is an average difference between the language creativity of urban  Further research can be done by and rural student-trainee teachers, and drawing a large sample from various male and female student-trainee other disciplines by covering teachers on language creativity.The different districts and different levels student-trainee teachers who scored of students. high marks in LCT have good achievement academic record too.  Language creativity may be studied Therefore it is high time and the need in association with other variables of the hour to make the student-trainee like intelligence, personality and teachers to be creative in all aspects of achievement. teaching behaviour. Hence, it is Conclusion recommended that necessary steps may be taken to enhance the language The Contemporary trends in creativity of the student-trainee teachers Language creativity focuses on the for the betterment of the effective development of student-trainee teachers teaching and learning processes.

References John, W. Best and V. Kahn James (1992) Research in Education New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. M.B. Buched. (1979) Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Survey of Research in Education, Baroda: Society for Educational Research and Development. Ronald Carter and Michael Mc Carthy (2004) Talking, Creating: Interactional Language, Creativity, and Context, Applied Linguistics University of Nottingham: Vol 25; No 1; Year 2004. 62-88 Henry.E. Garrett (2006) Statistics in and Education, Delhi. India: Surjeet Publication. J.P. Guilford(1965) Fundamental Statistic in Psychology and Education, New York: Mc-Graw-Hill Book Company. Victor Jones (1979) Creative Writing, London: St. Paul’s House Publication N. Parthasarathy (1987) Rural India and Creative Writing:Creative Writing: Writers Views (p-42). Gandhigram: Gandhigram Rural University.

58 Creativity in English Language among B.Ed. Students in Puducherry Region

N. Radhakrishnan ed. (1987) Creative Writing: Writers Views,Gandhigram: Gandhigram Rural Institute. A.R. Rather (1998) Creativity: Its Recognition and Development, New Delhi: Sarup& Sons. E.P.Torrance (1966) Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, Princeton, New Jersey: Personnel Press. Usha (2003) A Study on Language Creativity of College Students in Coimbatore District, University of Madras.

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Judicial Law Making in India: A Critical Appraisal

Chitta Ranjan Gogoi

Abstract Now a days, it has become the ultimate resort due to the malfunctioning of the other organs of the government namely legislature and executive. Through its articulation judiciary has been trying to prove that it is the real protector of the rights of the people and the constitution. However, judicial articulation has been subjected to severe criticism from various parts . The judicial articulation is not the result of one day; it is the transformation of several years. During the initial stage of its functioning, judiciary acted as mere adjudicator keeping in mind the letters of law and the social realities of the time was not looked into by the judiciary. In other words, there has been a transformation of judicial decision making from positivist to sociological approach. The transformation of judicial decision making from positivist approach to sociological approach has a great impact upon the socio-political conditions of the countries of the world. Key Words: Judiciary, Law, Law making, Decision making, Extraneous factors “The judge is the living oracle working in dry light of realism pouring life or force into the dry bones of law to articulate the felt necessities of the time...”- Justice K Ramaswamy1 Introduction severe criticism from various parts. The judicial articulation is not the result of one The role of the judiciary in the day; it is the transformation of several modern times has been immense. Now a years. During the initial stage of its day, it has become ultimate resort due to functioning, judiciary acted as mere the malfunctioning of the other organs of adjudicator keeping in mind the letters of the government namely legislature and law and the social realities of the time was executive. Through its articulation not looked into by the judiciary. In other judiciary has been trying to prove that it words, there has been a transformation of is the real protector of the rights of the judicial decision making from positivist people and the constitution. However, to sociological approach. The judicial articulation has been subjected to transformation of judicial decision making

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 60 Judicial Law Making in India: A Critical Appraisal from positivist approach to sociological Tamanaha has classified two types of approach has a great impact upon the formalism .i.e., “First, there was a socio-political conditions of the countries “formalist” theory of the nature of law (the of the world. During the course of common law, in particular)” according to interpretation, whether judiciary creates which “in new situations judges did not law or not has been a centre of debate make law (even when declaring new rules) among the schools of law. Here an attempt but merely discovered and applied has been made to analyze decision making preexisting law” (p. 13). Second, there process of the higher judiciary. In the first was a “formalist” theory about judicial part of the paper attempts have been made decision, about ‘how judge mechanically to outline the concept of decision making apply law (precedents and statutes) to the from the perspective of legal formalism. facts in particular cases’ “2 The opposite After this it has been endeavoured to thought of formalism grew in a pragmatic outline the outlook of the different schools way which is fashioned as realism. The of jurisprudence on judicial law making. realist school promoted by Wendell The factors influencing the decision Holmes, Roscoe Pound, and Benjamin making of the judiciary have also been Cardozo showed “that the law is filled discussed in brief detail. with gaps and contradictions, that the law is indeterminate, that there are exceptions Basics of Legal Formalism for almost every legal rule or principle, Formalism signifies the denial of the and that legal principles and precedents policy-political and ideological can support different results.”3 Judges, components of law. It treats law as if it is according to these realists, “decide a science or math. It further states that the according to their personal preferences” law consists of a body of rules and nothing and come up with post-hoc legal rationales more and judges should merely apply the for the decisions so reached. Perhaps the law. The judges have no authority to act best expression on formalism is found in outside it. The growth of formalism can the words of Guthrie, C.; Rachlinski, J. J be traced back to the 1870s and 1920s and Wistrich, A. J. According to them, America when theorists like Gilmore, “According to formalists, judges apply the Horwitz, and Kennedy “lawyers and governing law to the facts of a case in a judges saw law as autonomous logical, mechanical, and deliberative way. comprehensive, logically ordered, and For the formalists, the judicial system is a determinate and believed that judges “giant syllogism machine,” and the judge engaged in pure mechanical deduction acts like a “highly skilled mechanic.” from this body of law to produce single Legal realism, on the other hand, correct outcomes”. They termed it as represents a sharp contrast. ... For the heyday of legal formalism in United States realists, the judge “decides by feeling and of America. In contrast to this concept not by judgment; by ‘hunching’ and not

61 Chitta Ranjan Gogoi by ratiocination” and later uses “interprets” law, he may well be creating deliberative faculties “not only to justify it”5 James L. Houghteling, Jr. has lucidly that intuition to himself, but to make it expressed his idea on judicial decision pass muster “4 making or law making. In his words “they do so every time they decide as case that Judicial Law making: A Preliminary no existing rule quite fits. They make law Idea when, in order to determine what rule Traditionally, the legislature of a applies to case, they interpret a statute or country is assigned the task of formulating a constitutional provision. They also make legal rules governing the relation of its law when, in the absence of either an subjects with state or between subjects. applicable legislative rule by building on The task assigned to the judiciary has been precedents established in analogous to interpret law and to settle disputes cases.” In the common law tradition, between the parties. But often it happens judicial law making can be seen in some that the legislative enactment cannot cover of the important areas like contract. In all the aspects of human life. So, the these aspects of law, judiciary played a vacuum created by the legislature and vital role and the precedents evolved by it executive comes before the judiciary for are still in use. The history of judicial law adjudication. Sometimes, the letter of law making in England may be traced back to does not fit the changing circumstances the 11th century. When Normans of time and it needs renovation. In these conquered England in 11th century, there circumstances, the judiciary being a was absence of any systematic legal rules protector of the fundamental rights of the which compelled the Norman kings to people and constitution steps in and makes send Royal judges to decide the disputes. a judicial law. The world is governed by They decided the disputes based on the at least two legal systems, i.e., common customs, traditions, business usages and law system and civil law system. The oral standards of the people. The body of common law system of which Indian legal rules framed by these judges came to be system is a part and parcel is characterized known as ‘common law’ in due course of by active role of the judiciary. In common time. Although, judicial law making or law, the judiciary plays a vital role by creativity of the judges can be traced back formulating, developing and re-modeling to the post Norman Conquest of England the law. Commenting upon the role of the , yet in the modern sense it is related to common law judiciary it has been the concept of judicial review. Through commented by a learned author in the the power of judicial review, the judiciary following way “common law is exercises a commendable control upon the predominantly judge-made law. Under it lives of the people. Through the power of the judge is the creator, interpreter, and judicial review the American Supreme modifier of laws. Even when he merely Court in the case of Marbury v. Madison6

62 Judicial Law Making in India: A Critical Appraisal declared that “it is for the court to say what positivism in the modern sense of the term, the law is”. Perhaps the role of the defined law as “an assemblage of signs judiciary in law making can better declarative of a volition conceived or expressed in the words of Charles Evans adopted by the sovereign in a state, Hughes “ we are under a constitution, but concerning the conduct to be observed in the constitution is what judges say” 7 a certain caseby a certain person or class of persons, who in the case in question In contrast to the view expressed by are or are supposed to be subject to his the scholars, the Supreme Court of India power: such volition trusting for its recently expressed the view that court only accomplishment to the expectation of adjudicates and not legislates. The Supreme certain events which it is intended such Court through Justice Katju said that “Once declaration should upon occasion be a we depart from the literal rule, then any means of bringing to pass, and the number of interpretations can be put to a prospect of which it is intended should act statutory provision, each Judge having a as a motive upon whose conduct is in free play to put his own interpretation as question.”9 According to Austin, law is the he likes. This would be destructive of command of the sovereign, backed by a judicial discipline, and the basic principle threat of sanction in the event of non- in a democracy that it is not for the Judge compliance. Thus, the positivists lay stress to legislate as that is the task of the elected on the sovereign or state as the law maker. representatives of the people.”8 The historical school emphasizes on Schools of Jurisprudence and Judicial the organic process or organic Law making development of law. According to Various schools of jurisprudence Savigny, law develops like language, have expressed different views on role of manners and political organizations, law the judiciary on law making. Here an develops with the life of the people as attempt has been made to give a summary language. According to historical school, of the views expressed by the schools of law is not made, it is found. jurisprudence on law making. The philosophical school believes The natural law school symbolizes that law is the evolutionary products of physical law of nature based on moral reason. According to Hegal, both state and ideals which has universal applicability at law are evolutionary products of reason. all places and times. However, the phrase According to Immanual Kant, law is the natural law has different meanings in sum total of the conditions under which different stages of history. The analytical the personal wishes of man can be positivists lay stress on the role of the recognized with the personal wishes of sovereign in law making. Bentham who another man in accordance with a general is considered as the real founder of law of freedom.10

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The sociological school of law says should go by the plain words used by the that law should be to represent common constitutional makers.”13 Commenting interaction of individual in social groups. upon the positivist approach of the Indian According to Dean Roscoe Pound, “the judiciary one author has remarked in the sociological jurist look more for the following way. - “the Supreme Court working of law for its abstract consent” 11 adopted and developed its philosophy and postures trying to determine rigorously the The realist school attaches a great phrase ‘the procedure established by law’ emphasis on the judicial law making. One to mean two things. Negatively speaking of the exponents of this school Gray it was rejection of the American doctrine believed that law is what judges declare. of due process of law. Positively it meant According to Jerome Frank law is what an emphasis on legality- the enacted law the court has decided in respect of any of the legislature in its strict and logical particular set of facts prior to such a sense divorced from the social context. “14 decision. The opinion of the lawyers is not only a guess as to what the courts will The positivist approach of Indian decide and this cannot be treated as law judiciary may be highlighted by citing the unless the court decides by its judicial following cases- 12 pronouncement. The realist school lays 15 stress on the extralegal factors that have 1. A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras : influence on the decision making of the This case is a high watermark of legal court. positivism of Indian judiciary. The Supreme Court was asked to interpret Impact of Judicial law making in India Article 21 of the Constitution of India. The with reference to the schools court held that in respect of fundamental right to life and personal liberty, the In India, the judicial law making has persons have no remedy against the travelled from positivist approach to the legislative action. Giving a narrow sociological approach or from a literal interpretation to the phrase ‘the procedure interpretation to the liberal interpretation. established by law ’, the court held that it After the framing of the Constitution of meant ‘according to substantive and India, the approach of judiciary was procedural provisions of any enacted law.’ towards positivism. This traditional approach that judges do not create law but 2. State of Madras v. Smt. Champakam16: merely declares the law prevailed at that The Supreme Court of India struck down time. In Indian context, the response of government order regulating admission to the judiciary towards positivist approach an educational institution supported by the may be found in the words of Justice state. The court guided by legal positivism Mukherjea. In his words “in interpreting observed that since there was a conflict the provisions of our constitution, we between fundamental rights and directive

64 Judicial Law Making in India: A Critical Appraisal principles of state policy and since the bringing social order based on rule of law. latter were non-enforceable the order Some of the instances where the supreme should be declared void. The court refused court of India adopted sociological to give a sociological interpretation to the approach may be outlined in the following problem. ways- 3. Raja BahadurMotilal Poona Mills 1. Delhi Judicial Service Association v. Pvt. Ltd. V. TukaramPirajMusale17:- The Union of India19:- In this case the Court Supreme Court gave a narrow tilted a balance between the power of the interpretation to the term ‘strike’ and police to arrest the judicial officers and restrained itself from entering into the real judicial independence. The court in this problem which promoted the strike by case observed that “Before arrest the workers. The main issue before the court District Judge or High Court should be was whether the management of the mill intimated. If immediate arrest is called for could introduce any change in the running by the facts and circumstances, a technical of the looms without giving notice of such or formal arrest may be effected. The change to workers who were forced to go factum of arrest should immediately be on strike as a result of such alleged illegal communicated to the District Judge or the change. The court declared the strike as Chief Justice of the High Court. The Judge illegal without inquiring into the factors so arrested should not be taken to the that had promoted the strike. police station without the order or direction of the District and Sessions 4. Golak Nath v. State of Punjab18: Judge. Immediate facilities be provided to Chief justice Subba Rao in positivist tune the judicial officer for communication remarked that “ we declare that the with his family members, legal advisers parliament will have no power from the and judicial officers including the District date of this decision to amend any of the Judge. No statement of the Judge be provisions of part III of the constitution recorded, punchnama drawn up or medical so as to take away or abridge the tests conducted except in the presence of fundamental rights enshrined therein” his legal adviser or another judicial officer of equal/higher rank. No handcuffing of Due to the abandonment of positivist the judge be made. But if it was necessary approach, the Indian judiciary has diverted the same should immediately be intimated its attention to the sociological school. to the District Judge and the Chief Justice Keeping in mind the sociological of the High Court. The burden to the approach of law , the Indian judiciary has necessity of handcuffing would be with liberalized standing procedure and the police officer. If the same was found introduced the concept of public interest to be unjustified, the police officer would litigation. Relying on sociological school, be guilty of misconduct and would be Indian judiciary has been engaging in personally liable for compensation.

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2. In Unnikrishnan P. J. And Others v. the right to livelihood. The court observed State Of A. P. and Others20 the Supreme in the following way, “It does not mean Court of India held that the right to basic merely that life cannot be extinguished or education is implied by the fundamental taken away as, for example, by the right to life (Article 21) when read in imposition and execution of the death conjunction with the directive principle on sentence, except according to procedure education (Article 41). The Court held that established by law. That is but one aspect the parameters of the right must be of the right to life. An equally important understood in the context of the Directive facet of that right is the right to livelihood Principles of State Policy, including because; no person can live without the Article 45 which provides that the state is means of living, that is, the means of to endeavour to provide, within a period livelihood. If the right to livelihood is not of ten years from the commencement of treated as a part of the constitutional right the Constitution, for free and compulsory to life, the easiest way of depriving a education for all children under the age person of his right to life would be to of 14. deprive him of his means of livelihood to 3. The Supreme Court of India in the point of abrogation. Such deprivation paragraph no 12 of the judgement in would not only denude the life of its Mohini Jain v. Union of India21, observed effective content and meaningfulness but that “Right to life’ is the compendious it would make life impossible to live. And expression for all those rights which the yet, such deprivation would not have to courts must enforce because they are basic be in accordance with the procedure to the dignified enjoyment of life. It established by law, if the right to extends to the full range of conduct which livelihood is not regarded as a part of the the individual is free to pursue. The right right to life. That, which alone makes it to education flows directly from right to possible to live, leave aside what makes life. The right to life under Article 21 and like livable, must be deemed to be an the dignity of an individual cannot be Integral component of the right to life”. assured unless it is accompanied by the 5. Shatrughan Chauhan & Anr. vs. right to education. The State Government Union of India &Ors.23: The Supreme is under an obligation to make endeavour Court held that execution of sentence of to provide educational facility at all levels death on the accused notwithstanding the to its citizens” existence of supervening circumstances, 4. In Olga Tellis & Ors v Bombay is in violation of Article 21 of the Municipal Council22, the Supreme Court Constitution. One of the supervening of India examined the right to livelihood. circumstances sanctioned by this Court for The court held that the word life in Article commutation of death sentence into life 21 of the Constitution of India includes imprisonment is the undue, inordinate and

66 Judicial Law Making in India: A Critical Appraisal unreasonable delay in execution of death justice is entitled to relief ex-debitojustitia sentence as it attributes to torture. to seek a second review of the final order of the court. 6. Mohd. Ahmed Khan vs Shah Bano Begum And Ors24: The honourable court Basic Structure and Judicial Law in this case observed that, a wife who is making not maintained by her husband can approach the court under section 125 of The doctrine of basic structure can the criminal procedure code. The said be considered as a high watermark of section includes a divorced woman who judicial activism in India.. The concept of has not married again. Religion is not basic structure of the constitution has not at all a qualification for this section. The been precisely defined by the Supreme reason behind the exclusion of religion Court. The Supreme Court has only given from the section is that, the section some examples of basic structure of the forms a part of the criminal law and not constitution. Justice Shelat and Grover of the civil laws. Generally civil law have rightly pointed out that the basic deals with rights and obligation of structure or fundamental features of the parties belonging to a particular constitution cannot be catalogued but can religion, like the personal laws. The only be illustrated. The basic features of appellant in this case has built up his the constitution given in the Kesavananda argument on the basis of section 125 and Bharati case is not exhaustive and is 127 Criminal procedure code (exact determined by the court on the basis of texts of the two sections are given in the the facts and circumstances of the case. end of this article), but these two Starting from Kesavananda, the Indian sections are “too clear and precise to judiciary has evolved the basic structure admit of any doubt or refinement”. doctrine in numerous cases. Some of the Section 125(1) (b) includes divorced basic features of the constitution as held wife within the meaning of the word in various cases include sovereignty of “wife” and there is no justification for India, republican and democratic form of the exclusion of Muslim wife from its govt, supremacy of the constitution, scope. secular character of the constitution, preamble, judicial review, , parliamentary 7. Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok form of govt, principle of free and fir Hurra25 : In this case a five judge election, rule of law etc. In Kesavananda constitution bench of the Supreme court, Bharati case the Supreme Court inventing has unanimously held that in order to the basic structure theory made a good correct the gross miscarriage of justice in mixture between positivism, justice and its final judgment, which cannot be morality. While restricting the power of challenged, the court will allow curative parliament to amend the constitution petition by the victim of miscarriage of including Article 368 itself forewarned the

67 Chitta Ranjan Gogoi people of India that amending power can Indian context, the caste and religion have be abused by a political party with two also pervasive role in judicial decision third majority in parliament so as to debar making. One of the learned authors any other party from functioning, studying the composition of the Supreme establish totalitarianism, enslave the Court of India found the following results- people and after having affected the (1) The average age of appointment to the purposes makes the constitution Supreme Court of India has increased, unamendable or extremely rigid. The while the average age of appointment to doctrine of basic structure not only put the High Courts has decreased between some break and fetters on the process of 1985-2010, and consequently, Supreme the parliament to alter the basic Court judges on average have greater High foundation of the philosophy and Court experience but shorter Supreme principles of our democratic polity but Court tenures. (2) The High Courts of also open the gate of new horizon for the Bombay, Allahabad and Karnataka have Indian parliament to usher a society been amongst the most well represented according to the need and aspirations of on the Supreme Court. Andhra Pradesh the people from time to time to meet the and Madras have in more recent times had exigency of the situation. It may safely relatively fewer judges on the court when be concluded by citing the words of compared to the states of Bihar and Delhi. Professor Upendra Baxi,” Kesavananda (3) The overwhelming majority of judges Bharati generates many paradoxes. on the Supreme Court today have served Although it is in the ultimate analysis a as Chief Justice of at least one (if not more judicial decision, it is not just a reported than one) High Court. (4) There is case on some Articles of the Indian evidence of between 3-4 consistently non- Constitution …it is, in some sense, the Hindu seats on the court. (5) Indian Constitution of the future.” Educationally, the number of Supreme Judicial Decision making and Court judges who studied law abroad has Extraneous Factors fallen substantially.26 Legal formalism has asserted the The recent controversy of the way view that judges apply legal reasons to the registry allocates the cases in Supreme facts of a case in a rational, mechanical, Court adds another factor to the judicial and deliberative manner. On the other making process. The acceptance of the hand , the realists assert that making chief justice of India that the registry certain factors influence the judge which committed mistakes in the allocation of includes social, political and economic the cases shows the influence of the dimensions of the cases as well as the registry in the determination of the case idiosyncratic views on politics and by the court.27 It shows the existence of policies of the judges themselves. In realist schools in Indian context.

68 Judicial Law Making in India: A Critical Appraisal

Concluding Observation extralegal forces have influenced the judicial system of India to a great extent. Thus it is clear that the judiciary In fine it may be concluded in the words plays a vital role in the process of law of honourable justice B. Sudershan making by filling up the gaps created Reddy that “the independence of the by legislature and executive or when the judiciary is jeopardized when courts statute needs renovation due to the become embroiled in the passions of the changing time. The Indian judiciary by day and assume primary responsibility resorting to sociological jurisprudence to resolve the issues which are otherwise has been instrumental in bringing social not entrusted to it by adopting change. The existence of legal realism procedures which are otherwise not also can be seen in Indian context. The known.” 28

References 1Krishna Swamy V. Union of India, AIR 1993 SC 1407 2Brian Leiter, Legal Formalism and Legal Realism: What is the Issue? Available at http:// www.law.uchicago.edu/files/file/SSRN-id1646110.pdf 3Brian Z. Tamanaha, Beyond the Formalist-Realist Divide: The Role of Politics in Judging, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2009, p.1 4Guthrie, C.; Rachlinski, J. J.; Wistrich, A.J., “Blinking on the Bench: How Judges Decide Cases”, Cornell Law Review, Vol. 93 issue 2, 2007 5Henry J. Abraham, The Judicial Process, New York: Oxford University Press, 1962, p.13 6 2 L Ed 60 (1803) 7Milton Ridvas Konvitz, Torah and Constitution: Essays in American Jewish Thought, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1998, p. 8 8J. Venkatesan, “Court’s function is to expound laws, not legislate: Supreme Court” The Hindu Available at http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/courts-function-is-to-expound- laws-not-legislate-supreme-court/article1572656.ece 9N.V. Paranjape, Studies in Jurisprudence & Legal Theory, Allahabad: Central Law Agency, 2008 p. 16 10S. Dayal, R. R. Pandey, A text book of jurisprudence. (Allahabad: Central Law Agency, 1965) at 45 11Godefridus J.H. Hoof, Rethinking the Sources of International Law. Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1983 p.39 12Abhinav Misra, Jurisprudence, Agra: UpkarPrakashan, p. 13 13Chiranjeet Lal v. Union of India AIR 1951 SC at. 58 14 S.N. Dhyani, Fundamentals of Jurisprudence: The Indian Approach, Allahabad: Central Law Agency, 2007, p. 230

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15(1950) S.C.R 88 16AIR 1951 S.C.R 525 17AIR 1957 S.C. 73 18AIR 1967 SC 1643 19A.I.R. 1991 S.C. 2178 20AIR 1993 217 21(1992) 3 SCC 666 22 [1985] 2 Supp SCR 51 23[Writ Petition (Criminal) No. 55 of 2013 etc.] 24 AIR 1985 945 25 AIR 2002 SC 1771 26Abhinav Chandrachud, An Empirical Study of the Supreme Court’s Composition, Vol XLVI No. 1 Economic and Political Weekly. 27 CJI Admits to Supreme Court Registry’s Error Available at http://www.newindianexpress.com/ nation/CJI-Admits-to-Supreme-Court-Registrys-Error/2014/03/25/article2129106.ece 28Divine Retreat Centre v. State Of Kerala & Ors 2008 3 SCC 542

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‘From Romanticism to Eco-criticism’1: A Reading of Select Songs by Vanlalbeli

Rodi Lalrammawii Hmar

Abstract The article initially traces the development of Romanticism to Eco-criticism. Romantic writings are often rendered to be ‘nature writing’; however, it is revealed that nature is dealt with as a ‘sign’ within a signifying system. It acts as a motivation to present an ideal world. Eco-criticism takes Romanticism forward by dealing with the merit and value of nature, not only as a linguistic construct. It also deals with the co relation between the different forms of nature where they are all interlinked. The songs selected for study are composed by Vanlalbeli. These songs have element of romanticism and eco-criticism, more so of the latter. Through analysis and interpretations, it can be assumed that the environment and ecological musings are poignantly and practically revealed through these selected songs. Even though the cause of environmental awareness has been worked upon, it is often neglected by those who need this awareness the most. This awareness is attempted to be propagated through literary work, therefore, this paper presents an eco-critical reading of these select songs. Key words: Romanticism, Eco-criticism, Preservation, Nature.

It is a well known fact that of Man”, which is “My haunt, and the Romanticism is a literary movement main region of my song.”2 (Abrams 186) initiated by William Wordsworth. It can be assumed that, for Wordsworth However, there is always an assumption and his fellow Romantics, nature is merely that the literary outputs of the Romantics seen as a ‘sign’ to convey their personal are ‘nature writing’. As M. H. Abrams feelings and emotions. In other words, paradoxically denotes, “…the outer scene Man is prioritized when put in tandem [nature] is not presented for its own sake with nature. This, however, is denoted but as a stimulus for the poet to engage in with the acknowledgement of the the most characteristic human activity, that constructive contributions made by the of thinking.” (186)The validation of this Romantics in the field of literature. line of thinking can be perceived in Ecocriticism, not a move away, but rather Wordsworth’s saying, that ‘it is “the Mind a development of Romanticism “is a

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 71 Rodi Lalrammawii Hmar critique of binaries such as man/ nature disorder of the present [is an] or culture/ nature, viewed as mutually idealization… [which] served to exclusive oppositions.” (Abrams 83) cover and evade the actual and bitter According to Laurence Coupe, “One contradictions of the time. function of green studies must be to resist (Goodbody and Rigby 49) this disastrous error [that nature has “no intrinsic merit, no value and no rights.”]” The songs composed by Vanlalbeli (“Intro” 2) usually present a scenario where there is a romanticization of nature in the Other than what has been delivered, beginning, and ends with the confrontation the distinguishing feature of Romanticism of reality, sometimes providing remedies is the exaltation of the rural over the for the environmental cause. In the line of urban.The rural would often be presented what has been said, her songs are a blend as an idyllic place where there exists a kind of romanticism and ecocriticism, but more of pre- ordained relationship between so inclined to the ideals of ecocriticism. nature and man. Romantic writing usually In the song titled ‘KaLungkham’3, the offers a “vision of life so removed from composer initially presents a picture where the processes of labor and natural growth she is watching the ‘green horizon’ with that [the literary works] constitute a awe and admiration. The song begins: persistent mystification of human ecology.” (Goodbody and Rigby 49)With Ka hawi vela lenkawl eng noruai nature as the ‘signifier’, Imagination and hnuaiah. Fancy act as prime instruments for its A lang raltiangah lentupui cham duai, materialization. John Keats’ notion of ‘negative capability’- to be in a state of Suihlung min len mange raltiang ram ‘doubt’, or ‘Uncertainties’ without an sawn, ‘irritable reaching after fact and reason’, Tahchuan an leng e, ka lungkham ve is a continuance of the feature of kha. Romanticism. The ‘mystification of human ecology’, more or less, is a turn, The lines talk about the yearning for away from the harsh realities of life. something[s],which dwells beyond the Ecocriticism, at its best, tries to horizon covered in greenery as far as the ‘demystify’ the notions of Romanticism eyes can behold. Since the composer here by prioritizing reality and the many talks about ‘lentupui’ (most probably, a hazards and problems that the world faces forest) and the use of the plural ‘an’ to at any point of time. Raymond Williams denote an object (inanimate or animate), has once written: it can be assumed that she is perhaps talking about creatures (particularly birds) …the idea of an ordered and happier living in the ‘green horizon’. The first past set against the disturbance and stanza is followed by the chorus:

72 ‘From Romanticism to Eco-criticism’: A Reading of Select Songs by Vanlalbeli

Ka dawn vel zantlaiah engtin awm The delightful days are, however, maw? numbered. The lives of the creatures are Muang ten zanmu chhingin ka ring ‘inhumanly’ shortened by those who call mange, themselves ‘human’. Though the nature of the act is not mentioned, nevertheless, Duat ten tangah pawmin kawplai di it is a pre- conceived notion that ‘hunting’ nen animals and birds is often regarded as a Biahthu tinkim hlanin ka ring thin e. game by man. The song ends with the composer’s belief, that the creatures Here the speaker wonders how the would lend their ‘melodious voice’ and inhabitants of the forest spend their nights. their ‘precious lives’ to enchant man and She believes that their nights are spent in his land: “An nun hluleh an aw peace and tranquility, resting in the arms mawineihzawngte/ Hlan an nuamngeiang of their loved ones. The song initially Mizoram tan’. Truly, the birds and presents an imaginative romantic world animals, living in harmony with nature, where all the creatures are living a can be representatives of the beauty of peaceful and quiet life. In the last line of man’s land (specifically Mizoram- the the second stanza, the composer also adds ‘land’ of the Mizos).Also, the chorus, as that these living creatures never cease to a repetitive refrain presents the ideal sing praises of their creator- environment, where every creature lives “HlimlehlawmaSiamtufakanning lo ve”. in peace. Just so, the song ends with this The impetus here is that the song of praise delightful note. The purpose of ‘green is sung with joy and happiness. The first studies’4, as given by Coupe, will be apt hint of the contradiction between the first here because this study “sees planetary life creation (the creature- Man) and the other as being in a ‘critical’ condition; and it is creatures is highlighted in this line. While to this sense of ‘crisis’ that it offers a the others always sing praises of the response”. (“Intro” 4) creator (God- in the Mizo context), man is often found to be negligent and In the song titled ‘ThalFavang’5, there unconcerned. is an appeal for the co- existence of man and other creations. When the birds draw The beginning of the next stanza out a jubilant cry with the onset of autumn, abruptly halts the joyful rendition of the every creation, including human beings previous stanza. should join their song. As indicated in the Mahse hlimni rei lo hringmi leng chorus: vangin Hlimtakin i zaiang aw, …Lenlai kan ti tawi thin eng vang …Perhkhuang tingtang rimawi kher nge? zawng nen Dawn vetehVanglai nun a rei lo em. Zoramnuam i awiang u.

73 Rodi Lalrammawii Hmar

Khuanu malsawmna dil chungin and then take pride in its richness and Chutin nungcha nen kan hlim tlang beauty. Nature, as a whole, provides ang. numerous things to all living creatures including man. The harmony of man and The recurring mention of ‘Zoram’ other creatures should be maintained, so denotes the importance given to a land, that there is a peaceful co- existence. In which would lose its eminence if there is the meanwhile, the notion of sharing the a binary between nature and culture. In fruit of natural resources like water order to present the beauty of any land, presents a picture of ideal harmony. This every creation must come together and is clearly highlighted in the song: lend a voice in its favor. The song Siktuithiang kan dawn za nungchaleng continues to celebrate the harmonious co- nen, existence of ‘man’ and nature, as indicated in the third stanza: Hah chhawl dawiang min dawm kan hlim tlang e Zoram nuam zothlifim lenna ram hi Damten luang del del se kan ram Nang leh kei atan ram nuam a lo ni mawiah Thing leh mau leh nungchate Dawn tawi nunrawng leng I chang Duat takin i enkawl zel ang u. bik lawng aw. These lines also encourage human In the last line she says, “let us not beings to preserve and look after their be reckless”. Man should not destroy the surroundings. The composer is aware of natural resources and vegetation for his the ‘critical’ situation of the environment. own purpose. There have been instances In this situation, man seems to be the main of mass destruction, like using explosives threat; therefore, it is necessary to voice as baits to catch fish. Actions such as this the significance of co- relation, co- affect nature as a whole; it destroys the independence and finally, co- existence: purity of water, therefore making it impure “With no planet, there is no future, and so for animals and birds. Even though the no other battles to be fought.” (Coupe 5) aforementioned facts are well known, it has been highlighted to show how these The aforementioned ideals are further songs present an environmental noted in many of Vanlalbeli’s awareness. Also, such reckless acts would composition. In ‘Ka Ram Neihchhun’, she gradually have a bearing on the population presents the idea of patriotism which leans of animals and birds. As the line implies, towards the preservation of the resources “Thilsiamawmawizairi a rehhunchuan/ of one’s land. Since Mizoram is the only Hringnunhianawmzia a neibiklawng e.” land that we can call our own, it is (Life/ Living would be meaningless if the imperative that we preserve our resources creatures cease to lend their melodious

74 ‘From Romanticism to Eco-criticism’: A Reading of Select Songs by Vanlalbeli voices) The composer is continually active and effective opposition to hinting at an impending loss if human contemporary capitalism.” (Goodbody beings continue to treat nature as a and Rigby 45) Activists around the world separate entity. In “Landscape, Mimesis have dwelt on the issue of and Morality”, John Ruskin opines, “…we environmentalism for decades. This shall come to perceive that all true shows the relevance of ‘green studies’ at happiness and nobleness are near us, and many levels. yet neglected by us.” (Coupe 31) Even to this day, there are numerous In another song, Vanlalbeli presents families who live solely on farming and the importance of the conservation of cultivation. Since ‘jhum’ cultivation is water. In this song, titled‘TuiThianghlim’ commonly practiced in Mizoram, it entails (Pure/Clean Water), she talks about the the slashing and burning of trees and other water drawn from natural springs and vegetations for cultivation. This rivers. The song talks about its procedure, though with the well known importance, and how the natural sources fact of its method, is not yet found to be have provided means of living for our replaceable by any other method of ancestors. The second stanza talks of the farming. The reason may be because it has present time: been practiced by our ancestors for centuries, therefore rendering it Hmatiang sawnin Zonun a sang tual irreplaceable. The other reason may be tual, because of the hilly terrain of Mizoram. Zofaleng ten hma hun dawn lo rengin Even though other methods of farming have been introduced, like terrace farming, Thing leh maurua siktui thiang ‘jhum’ cultivation is still widely practiced. chawmtu This farming technique is one of the Senmeipui nen maw kan fam tir. means of deforestation; therefore, we see resonances of this in this particular song. In these lines, the composer says that The song conveys the message that even though ‘Zonun’ (the Mizo way of slashing and burning trees also have life) have developed, we are negligent of impact on the natural water resources, the future. Destruction of natural resources which in turn would affect the creatures, in the name of development has always as aforementioned. When these kinds of been an issue for environmentalists and facts are put into words, they act as a ecologists. During the early 1980’s, reminder for humanity- a reminder that the Raymond Williams at an International planetary life is co- related. Conference of Socialists have suggested that the new social movements like In the third stanza of the same song, ecology and anti nuclear propaganda may a hint of solution is revealed. Keeping in prove to be key components of “the most mind the importance of water, it goes:

75 Rodi Lalrammawii Hmar

Ram hmangaih ten biahthu min hlan e, Awi maw a tlang a mualmah dang si lo, Kan mamawh ber kan nun chhuahna Hmanah lentupui chawi hmun hring bulpui cham duai, Siktui thianghlim humhalh zel turin Tunah erawh nauang tahna min Thing phunin ramngaw I siam ang u. thlentu. These lines initiate the planting of Even though the landscape has not trees to maintain ecological balance. Even changed, the composer here sees that the though there may not be another technique view has changed. The beginning of this quite applicable like ‘jhum’ cultivation, song presents a contradictory tone to the the destruction inflicted on the song, ‘KaLungkham’.While the latter sees environment by this farming technique a lush of green in the horizon, this song can be compensated by planting trees. does not. However, it may be added that Through this compensation the future can both these songs present an idealization be assured to be ‘evergreen’. In the last charged by Romanticism. The present stanza of the song, the composer also song prompts the past when the encourages us to appreciate “Van landscapes were once covered by malsawmnaruahtui” (rain- “showers of “lentupui…hmunhringchamduai” (a blessing from up above”). There is also stretch of green landscape, or forest). What an implication that it is the purest form of was once a green space spread across the water, uncorrupted by “dawihlo” horizon has become an eyesore. In (chemicals), like all the other natural water “KaLungkham”, the composer sees scenic sources. Since that is the case, the stanza beauty across the horizon. There is no ends with the request to conserve rain- assurance, however, whether the scene is water individually- “Hrisel hmelthat real or is the workings of the imagination. damrei nun hlim nan/ I dawngkhawlang u Nevertheless, the impact that the Zofaleng ten.” The message propagated environment has on the composer can be in this song is the sustenance provided by clearly felt. nature, if only human beings have a close In continuance with the present song relationship with ecology. dealt with, the second and third stanzas In ‘Zoram Dung lehVang’, the initial present the importance of the preservation picture presented is bleak since there is a of trees, since they provide shelter for comparison between the ideal past and the different creatures. present. In the first stanza, there is a hint Nungcha lengte hrai leng awihna run of sadness to witness the decrease in the pui vegetation. … Zan khawrei reng dawnlo riahrun Zoram dung lehvang hi hanthlir vel teh, an remna

76 ‘From Romanticism to Eco-criticism’: A Reading of Select Songs by Vanlalbeli

…Kan Zoram nuam par ang tivul Mizo syllabus by the Mizoram Board of turin School Education (MBSE) since 2009. …Thing leh mau ruate i humhalh Her songs have also been recorded and ang u. stored in the Doordarshan (DDK) channel. She has composed more than twenty five The equality of all creations is aptly songs and has written numerous scripts brought out in these lines. The forest is for performance in All India Radio (AIR). the home of many creatures where they raise their young ones with ease and To conclude, the songs composed by contentment. The song requests us to take Vanlalbeli propagate a way of life, which good care of the trees and other resources, is built in an intimate relation with the so that we can also be at ease, in the environment. As indicated before, these likeness of the other creatures. The song songs are revelations of the already known seems to suggest that being the destroyer facts. When poetically and artistically put, of resources would not bring us peace, the message revealed becomes more even if the purpose of destruction may poignant. Even though human beings are seemingly be for our own benefit. Real confronted with the degradation of the happiness and ease of mind would be environment in many stances, there is the achieved when we do our best to provide tendency to ignore, or to be negligent for the creatures, by taking care of their about it. These songs act as reminders to habitat. This is a implication to plant preserve the environment through various more trees which would benefit the other means.The praxis initiated behind these creatures and in turn benefit us too. The songs present the ‘referential’ nature of cyclical nature of the ecological system, ecocriticism. Coupe says, as purported by several scientific texts Green studies does not challenge the and theories is compactly revealed in notion that human beings make sense these few lines. of the world through language, but Vanlalbeli has been an active rather the self- serving inference that participant in the propagation of nature is nothing more than a environmental awareness. One of the linguistic construct. (“Intro” 3) NGOs in Aizawl, ASEP (Association for The paper can be discreetly summed up Environmental Protection) has often with the quotation: provided a platform for activists to further this cause. Vanlalbeli’s songs have also “… Planetary life at long last takes been presented by artistes at seminars and its rightful place at the centre of that assemblies organized and conducted by discipline which we might still call, ASEP. One of her songs, ‘KaLungkham’, though with appropriate hesitation, has been included in the XIth standard the humanities.” (Coupe 7)

77 Rodi Lalrammawii Hmar

Notes: 1 This is a quotation from Laurence Coupe’s edited book- The Green Studies Reader: From Romanticism to Ecocriticism. A collection of works by different writers (poets, critics, linguists, socialists and so on), this book traces the development of literary works and its criticism, from romantic to ecocritical ideology. 2Taken from Wordsworth’s The Recluse- ‘Home at Grasmere’, Lines 793- 4. 3 To yearn for something 4Used interchangeably with the term ‘ecocriticism’. 5 Autumn

Works Cited Abrams, M. h. and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Handbook of Literary Terms. New Delhi: Cengage, 2009 Coupe, Laurence, Ed. The Green Studies Reader: From Romanticism to Ecocriticism. Oxon: Routledge, 2000. Goodbody, Axel and Kate Rigby. Eds. Ecocritical Theory: New European Approaches. London: University of Virginia P, 2011 Vanlalbeli.‘Ka Lungkham’. 23 Sep 2006. MS ——————, ‘Thal Favang’. 21 Sep 2006. MS ——————, ‘Zoram Dung lehVang’. 1 March 2011. MS ——————, ‘Kan Ram Neihchhun’. 9 Nov 2011. MS ——————, ‘Tui Thianghlim’. N. d. MS ——————, ‘Zoram Dung lehVang’. 1 March 2011. MS ——————, ‘Kan Ram Neihchhun’. 9 Nov 2011. MS ——————, ‘Tui Thianghlim’. N. d. MS

78 ISSN : 2395-7352

Good Governance Issues: Perspectives on Gender and Health Concerns

Madhusmita Mishra

Abstract Women’s ability to connect with the human capital resources is an undisputed fact in almost all the socio-political systems. Gender activists are of the view that women need to be provided with space and support to make optimum utilization of their potentials. Every society is expected to work towards removing the barriers that hinder women’s participation in the process of governance such as patriarchy, violence, money, cultural barriers, and religious taboos.It has been seen that wherever women are empowered, there is acceleration of development. Countries that are on top of the human development index such as the Scandinavian countriesare those that give premium to women issues. UN Women is the United Nations organization that is dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women. Practical gender needs are immediate needs such as water and healthcare, which fall within women’s socially defined roles. While the importance of these issues cannot be undermined, attention to the issues like women’s status in society, transformation of power and gender relations in the context of gender equity and social justice is required. Key words: Gender, governance, good governance, health, national goals

Governance has been defined by law’. Good governance is also gender UNESCAP (2006) as ‘the process of responsive governance. Good decision-making and the process by which governance1 involves enactment of decisions are implemented or not measures for positive discrimination in implemented’.Good governance has been favour of those groups, especially women2 defined comprehensively by UNESCAP that have been historically marginalized, (2006) as ‘a form of governance that in order to provide them with an equal embodies eight specific characteristics, platform so that they are Responsiveness and can be seen as an ideal of governance. to gender needs and interests can participatory, consensus oriented, definitely promote gender equality. accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and Development is achieved only when inclusive, and [which follow] the rule of the political system accepts citizens not

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 79 Madhusmita Mishra as passive recipients but as active developments in South Africa in the participants in the implementation of the spheres of village reconstruction, primary developmental programmes. In the education as well as health and sanitation present day context, development have proved to be progressive. And the administration aims at bringing about a comprehensive role played by the civil synergy between people’s empowerment society has supplemented these efforts. So and goal-attainment with rural-urban far as the health initiatives are concerned, synchronization and public-private the civil society has been able to serve partnership.Good-governance in the positive changes in laws and policies in context of new public management puts the spheres of maternal health, thrust on decentralization and people- contraception, termination of pregnancy, friendly and people-responsive cervical and breast cancer, gender based development concerns. violence, infertility, sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS. A country like Coming to the comparative view of South Africa inflicted by apartheid for so governance in the health sector in China, long has made its place worthy world- Brazil, South Africa and India, it is wide by consolidating reproductive rights interesting to note that for every nation, in particular and human rights in general. the first concern for development revolves around good health of its citizen. Health In Brazil, the Constitution has taken is needed for the personal hygiene of the into account most of the recommendations individual, for the societal needs as well of CAIRO Summit (International as for the overall developmental goals of Conference on Population & the nation concerned3. In China, a Co- Development, held at Cairo in 1994). As operative Medical Care System in rural a step forward towards the implementation areas has been established aiming at of the ICPD Programme of Action, the providing rural health network. As an National Commission on Population and essential feature of social insurance Development has been established in 1995 mechanism, the system also looks forward taking representatives from government to helping peasants to eliminate diseases bodies, NGOs and various universities. In and improve their health conditions. This order to promote universal access to basic again assists poor peasant families health care, the Brazilian National Health System has put emphasis on inflicted by poor economic conditions and decentralization, basic care innovation and diseases in order to strengthen the rural private sector regularization. By means of social economy. transferring resources and distributing The role of civil society in bringing responsibilities to the States and out legislative and policy changes is municipalities, the Ministry of Health has commendable since the advent of played a significant regulatory role in the democracy in South Africa in 1994. Major process of decentralization. The areas on

80 Good Governance Issues: Perspectives on Gender and Health Concerns which remarkable initiatives have been primary health care programs in each made include basic and family health care country, changes in reproductive health programmes and national vaccination policy, , including demographic profile, campaign etc. Through effective cultural and religious environment, participation of the civil society and employment, education, the status of government representatives in the state women. Men’s role in family planning as and municipal health councils, enhanced direct users of contraceptive methods and accountability mechanisms have been as partners of women using methods are established. taken into consideration while analyzing In industrialized countries women the impact of good governance in the have healthier life expectancy and longer health and gender concerns. Also many life expectancy i.e. about six years more other issues such as men’s autonomy than those of men. This is vividly visible regarding family planning, pregnancy in their childhood and girls have more termination, obstetric care, and other chances of survival in the first five years aspects of reproductive health, than the boys. Here comes the role of Government’s intervention in innovative behaviour which is an important health programs are taken as the baseline determining factor in the context of health indicators. disparity. For example, young men take In a comparative study of India, greater risks, leading to injury and Pakistan and Bangladesh5 it has been accidental death, and men smoke more. observed that family planning has been However, this female advantage hardly the most important concern of good exists in parts of the world i.e. in South governance. The Co-operative Medical Asia where gender discrimination exists. System in China is surrounded with In the South Asian countries, a number surmounting problems like lack of of socio-demographic variables have been qualified personnel, lack of stable and used in multivariate analysis to establish resource mobilizing mechanism and lack linkages between women education, of required health infrastructure etc. In awareness and income and alike indicators order to overcome all these hindrances, and reproductive health status of women the system has set up its long-term and in South Asia4. Efforts have been used to short-term objectives and the interests assess the extent to which autonomy shown in this regard by international mediates the association between organizations like WHO act as a booster education, income, awareness level and towards reaching the goal similar indicators and contraception use. It is viewed that women in Pakistan Focusing on the respective elements have less autonomy or control over their of the South Asian countries, various lives than do Indian women .More or less, factors like the family planning and cutting across religious lines, women in

81 Madhusmita Mishra general enjoy little autonomy over their When we come to have a glance at own lives in the sub-continent. Again it is the role of governance in the health sector revealed that in the gender—stratified and gender in Bangladesh, it is really structures determining the northern part noteworthy that the population program of the sub-continents, women’s control has made remarkable progress over more over their lives is more restrained than than three decades or during the last thirty their southern counterparts.In Pakistan6, seven years. The fertility transition is as a result of the governmental support for already well under progress which now family planning programme and due to the stands at 3.08 (2012) and the successful development over the last few decades, implementation of the immunization total fertility rate remains at 3.26 in 2012. program is also substantial. . The crude It is seen that Pakistan has lower birth rate has declined from 47 in 1973 to contraception use than most other Muslim 29.8 in 2006 and crude death rate has also Countries.Total Fertility Rate means the declined from 17.1 in 1973 to 8.27 in average number of children that would be 2006. The infant mortality rate has declined from 94 for the period 1989-93 born per woman if all women lived to the to 60.83 per 1000 live births in 2006 and end of their childbearing years and bore life expectancy at birth has gone up to children according to a given fertility rate about 62.46 years for both the sexes. at each age. The total fertility rate is a more direct measure of the level of fertility than Uninterrupted and strong political the crude birth rate, since it refers to births commitment, strategy based on maternal per woman. and child health plans and programmes, elaborate network of service providers and This indicator shows that worldwide, field workers, reaching the outreach by in developing countries, fertility and women, cafeteria contraceptive approach contraceptive use are related to various to services, decentralization of service socioeconomic indicators. Most important delivery mechanism, vibrant public- determinants are women’s literacy and private partnership are some of the factors lower income .The well -established link that has led to the remarkable success between female education and use of achieved by the Bangladesh Population contraception plays a significant role in Program despite widespread poverty and formulation and implementation of family underdevelopment. There are pro-active planning policies in lower income initiatives like Advocacy with religious countries.Women have a considerably and other community leaders, media, lower social status and autonomy than Inter-sectoral co-operation and extensive men in parts of South Asia and elsewhere. research on the gaps are reasons for Their lower fertility control and autonomy sustainable progress and logical basically are dependent on their low socio- consequence of the good governance in economic status. gender related health issues.7

82 Good Governance Issues: Perspectives on Gender and Health Concerns

In India, democratic decentralization the National Rural Health Mission has become a reality since the 73rd and Programme. 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992. Through these amendments, the local For the purpose of good governance, bodies ( Both rural Panchayati Raj successive governments at the Centre, Institutions and Urban Local Bodies) have have earmarked health as a special thrust been assigned their functional area. To reach out the outreach and with responsibilities and ascribed as the objective of providing basic health institutions of self-governance care delivery, the Government of India has Development administration depends on launched the National Rural Health the co-relation between the social Mission on 12th April, 2005. At present, development activities and their it covers almost the entire length and implementation through the functioning breadth of our country. The main objective of the local bodies. In the Indian context, of the Mission is to provide basic and development in the positive health effective quality health care to people of indicators could only be achieved with rural areas throughout the entire country tiered and structured intervention. This with special focus on eighteen states obviously demands the synergy between having either weak public health care political representatives on the one hand indicators or weak infrastructure. The and the health administration on the other. specially focused states are Arunachal Here comes the role of Panchayat Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhatisgarh, Representatives and women Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Jammu & representatives in specific to achieve the Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, holistic health goal in the post- Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Odisha, Independence era. India began its health Rajasthan, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and Uttar programmes with family planning in 1951 Pradesh. and was supplemented by various In corroboration with all the policies programmes including Family Welfare and programmes of the Central Programme, the Oral Rehydration Government, the provinces like Odisha Therapy Programme, the Universal have also started implementing various Immunization Programme and the Child health activities like Janani Surakhya Survival and Safe Motherhood Yojana, Navajyoti Scheme, Referral Programme. After participating in the Transport, Routine Immunization ICPD at Cairo in 1994, the Government Programme, Reproductive and Child of India launched the Reproductive and Health Programme, ASHA, Universal Child Health Programme throughout the Institutional Delivery, Increasing country. Having learnt from all the Obstetric Care under the broad umbrella previous experiences and feedbacks, the of National Rural Health Mission. Government of India has ventured upon Incidentally, health statistics reveal that

83 Madhusmita Mishra the province of Orissa is found to be orienting the women representatives for having the highest incidence of maternal good governance of quality health care and infant death in India. All these delivery as well as convergence of various aforesaid programmes and initiatives sector programmes at the grass root level. would attain their goal with the whole It was suggested by the respondents that hearted participation of the people at large for greater participatory involvement, at the grass-root level. As it has been accountability and empowerment of embodied in the National Policy for people including women representatives Women Empowerment-2000 of need to be ensured. Government of India8, there should be de- jure and de-facto enjoyment of human When we review the situation in rights and fundamental freedom of Maldives, it is found that in the areas of women9 on equal basis with men in all employment, decision-making and access spheres-political, economic, social, to higher education the empowerment of cultural and civil. The Policy also women is still in question.Because of the envisages equal access to participation and internal labour migration mostly the decision-making of women in social, husbands remain absent from their political and economic life of the nation. households. Due to the high divorce rate, women head one third of all households. In order to have an in depth The status of women in family and understanding of the role of women married life has more or less improved representatives in the good governance of after the implementation of the 2000 the health sector in India, we need to know family law. The national goal of Maldives the awareness level of the women is to improve the quality of life of the panchayat representatives, their role and Maldivian people through improved extent of involvement at the reproductive health status and the implementation level of the National empowerment of women. The third Rural Health Mission Programme. For the country programme has contributed to the purpose of the study at the micro level, national goal of Maldives and works in we have taken Odisha as the case study consonance with the Millennium as it has the highest number of maternal Development Goal.The country deaths and infant deaths in the country. programme also contributes to the United For the situational analysis, we have Nations Development Assistance selected Khurda and Kalahandi districts Framework (UNDAF) goal of balanced as the highest literate district and lowest and equitable development of the literate district of the province of Odisha Maldives. The equal participation of men respectively. and women in the social, political and The findings of the study reveal economic spheres are also included as greater degree of initiatives towards other subsidiary goals.

84 Good Governance Issues: Perspectives on Gender and Health Concerns

Studies in Nepal found that pregnancy- the medium term goal. Making men and related mortality but not infant mortality women aware, interested and involved in get reduced by vitamin A or ß-carotene the entire process, whether short term or supplementation termination. There is a long term, has remained the most great need for careful research and important mission of health strategy of application of Maternal multiple almost all the nations of the world. More micronutrient supplementation before it is emphasis on service provision in family used in large-scale programs. Despite planning & reproductive health is being Govt. effort for good governance in the concentrated on improving access to improvement of the health status of quality care and as well as holistic women, there is a high incidence of treatment. pregnancy-related mortality, night- 11 blindness and deficiency of vitamins and Despite the governmental initiatives nutrients in women. These in turn lead to lots need to be done to improve the gender overall retarded growth of women in balanced health status of women especially Nepal.10 in South Asian countries. Particularly the service delivery mechanism requires to After the aforesaid worldwide include certain strategies like linkage with analysis of the issue of good governance Institutional service delivery system, in the context of gender and health, it can logistic support for infrastructure be deduced that the Governmental efforts maintenance12, Strengthening and in almost all the countries are there . From upgrading the existing Family Welfare the Policy implementation angle more Centres, Public-Private Partnerships, inter- realistic, short term, medium term and sector and intra- sector coordination long term objectives have been drawn. As reaching the outreach through culture, for example, while one of the region and language specific advocacy and immediateobjectives has been to bring information education and communication family planning services into the fold of campaigns, application of social health outlets, ensuring quality in a wide development techniques like participatory range of family planning services has been learning approach.

References 1 Ramesh K. Arora , Sogani , Meena, eds, (2010), Governance in Indian Paradigms and Practices , Jaipur : Management development academy and Alekh Publishers 2Women Development Programmes in India (2012), a Report of the Workshop held at the India International Centre, New Delhi 3 B.B. Tondon,. Mehra, Rajneesh ( 2011), Towards health for all: Some suggestions to policy makers’, Indian Journal of Public Administration , New Delhi: IIPA, Vol.57(1), January-March, pp-66-81

85 Madhusmita Mishra

4Devaki Jain, ‘ Women and Development : 150 Years’, Yojana, New Delhi: DAVP, Govt of India, 51, August 2007, pp- 73-76 5 J. Cleland, Kamal N, Sloggett A (1996), ‘Links between fertility regulation and the schooling and autonomy of women in Bangladesh’ in Jeffrey R and Basu A eds. Girls schooling, Autonomy and Fertility Change in South Asia. New Delhi: Sage 6A. Moursund, Kravdal O, (2005), Individual and Community effects of women’s education and autonomy, education and contraception use in Pakistan: a national study Reproductive Health Centre, Federal Government Services Hospital, Islamabad, Pakistan 7Fariyal F. Fikree & Omrana Pasa, (2004), Role of Gender in Health Disparity: The South Asian Context, New Delhi: Prentice Hall 8 Government of India (1988), National Perspective Plan for Women, 1988-2000, Report of the Group set up by the Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human Resource Development 9 ADB (1998), Handbook on Resettlement: A Guide to Good Practice, Asian Development Bank, Manila. 10 ADB (2003), Gender Checklist: Resettlement, Asian Development Bank, Manila. 11 M. Asif, Mehta, L. and Mander, H. (2002), Engendering Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policies, New Delhi: Asian Pub. 12 N. Satpathy et al., (2002), Women’s Role and Participation in Struggles against Development- induced Displacement in Orissa and Jharkhand, Bhubaneswar: Institute for Socio-Economic Development (ISED).

86 ISSN : 2395-7352

Child Welfare: An Historical Overview

Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy

Abstract Children have begun to occupy an important place not only in academic discourse but also in policy formulation. This is because of the realization that investment in children ensures a brighter tomorrow. This enlightenment on the attention of children is not of recent origin but an offshoot of child protection in traditional societies. Though, children had little place in the past, there are evidences of mechanisms for child welfare across societies. It would not be wrong to say that traditional institutions and policies that catered to children’s’ needs created history in child rights. There was gradual improvement in the area of child welfare and after centuries of change, attention to children became a priority in all international and national conventions and agreements. This paper attempts to chronologically highlight the historical and empirical events on how societies perceived children and catered to their needs to create an atmosphere conducive for children .The object of this paper is to create an understanding on how child welfare developed in time and space paving way for a child rights perspective to develop across societies. Key words: Children, Child Welfare, Child Rights, Child Protection

Introduction Today, the conceptual dimension of The concept of children differs from a child has narrowed down with the help culture to culture. Children are understood of international efforts and conventions. and differentiated from the rest of the Though in many societies we still find population mainly by age. In traditional lacunae in the concept of children, the societies, children were initiated to most accepted and common adulthood very early. When they reached understanding of a child can be said to be puberty, they were expected to perform the one given by the Convention of Rights certain rituals to be considered real men or of the Child (CRC). It defined a child as women. Children were, therefore, subject one who has not completed the age of 18 to societal obligation and understanding of years of age.This Convention provides a a child was based upon society and culture. framework for addressing rights relating

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 87 Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy to children’s need for care, protection and homes, library facilities, recreational and adequate provisions to meet such needs hobby centres, school health services, of welfare services. school social work services, child guidance clinic, adoption services, Child Welfare: International Perspective financial aid to dependent children (Jha, With the development of the 2001). conceptual understanding of children, the According to Jenson & Fraser (2006), concept of child welfare evolved ‘The primary goal of child welfare gradually.The mission of child welfare has services is to protect children from harm, historically been to respond to theneeds the second is to preserve existing family of children reported to the public child units and the third goal is to promote protection agencies as having experienced children’s development into adults who any form of child abuse. At present, functions normally in their communities. communities have also become important The core goal for child welfare services agents in child care and protection and this is keeping children safe from child abuse strategy in the prevention of child abuse and neglect. This includes children living have increased (Jenson & Fraser, 2006). with their families and children from According to Davies (2000), ‘Child institutional and non-institutional care. welfare policy and practice includes Child welfare services must prevent provisions and services to assist children children from maltreatment and also keep and families who face major difficulty families safely together. After safety which affects the well-being, care or comes permanency, during the process of control of the child. Each country has its child protection from abuse or neglect, the own ways social policies and specific state must ensure the child’s need for legislations affecting children. However permanent and stable family ties. The with international standards defined State must also ensure the child’s through the UN Convention on the Rights wellbeing. Here, the must be safe from of the Child in 1989, policies and abuse or neglect. This requires that a legislations have been adjusted to meet the child’s basic needs are met and that the requirements’. child be able to grow and develop in an environment that provides consistent Child welfare services includes nurture, support and stimulation. Here, we institutional and non-institutional. include the need to develop a healthy Institutional services includes Children’s sense of identity, understanding their Homes, short stay homes, foster homes, ethnic heritage, and skill for coping with residential schools, night shelters, racism, sexism, homophobia and other treatment centres. Non-institutional forms of discrimination present in society. services includes crèches, pre-primary Child welfare services must also ensure schools, balwadis, Anganwadis, holiday the family’s well-being. It should

88 Child Welfare: An Historical Overview capacitate the family to care for their Rome. During Renaissance period, children and fulfill their basic abandonment of children continued as a development, health, educational, social, common practice. It was never openly cultural, spiritual and housing needs’. approved of but never officially outlawed. Church began to be involved and they Though child welfare as a concept is organized activities and havens for of recent origin, its focus was not absent unwanted children in their monasteries. In in traditional societies. Amidst evidences the early 13 century foundling homes were of the prevalence of all forms of abuses, established (Gupta, 2001). many societies in the past had functional traits to care and protect their children. During the 15th century, ‘children According to Beckett (2003), the were seen by many as important source perception on how children should be of help and comfort in old age. They were treated by adults, and about the seen as sources of psychological community’s responsibility towards satisfaction. Parents delighted in their children, has naturally changed in time, children, not primarily because of their although the vulnerability of children was good qualities but because they were very much evident in the past. theirs’. From various studies between 1500-1900 AD, the concept of childhood The Bible also show indications of existed, changed and developed during parent-child relations and how adults this period. Children were respected and should be like children It states that it is they were perceived as a mixture of good being like them that shall help one enter the Kingdom of Heaven. Further, it states and bad or of innocence and depravity. the obligations children have to parents and Adults showed concern to children and a also the parents to children (Bhakhry, sense of responsibility towards the. Death 2006). In Mesopotamia, parents expressed of a child created the same heartfelt the same sort of concern about their reactions throughout the centuries studied children as parents do today. ‘There are (Gupta, 2001). many incidents of parents expressing love The Massachusetts Body of and affection for their children before the Liberties, 1641 highlights restrictions on th 18 century. Socio-anthropological studies adults in treating their children in regard demonstrate considerable evidence of close to their social rights as well as abuse. child-adult emotional ties despite gross Incest was a crime punishable by death in material poverty and high rates of child Scotland from 1757 (Bhakhry, 2006). mortality’ (Gupta, 2001). Douglas and Philphot (2003) state that rehabilitation of Cohen (1992) conducted a research children in need of care and protection on the rehabilitation of children in need through adoption was also evident during of care and protection in the United States the early civilisation of ancient Greece and from the multi-cultural aspect. He states

89 Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy that the United States of America adopted and ill treated children. Other legislations early developments and legislations to and initiatives that followed to protect the protect and preserve the rights of the child. welfare of children were: It was only in the 19th century that 1. The Infant Life Protection Act 1872 children were first seen as needing special that addressed the problems of baby care and protection because of their farming. vulnerability (Gupta, 2001). According to 2. Registration of Birth and Death Act Bhakhry (2006), in the 19th century, the in 1874 that maintained records of Industrial Revolution led to child birth and death of children. exploitations in the new industries that were established. This further led to the 3. The London Society for the marginalization and abandonment of Prevention of cruelty to children children. As a result of this, child rights established in 1884, that focused on movement developed in terms of rescuing children from their homes legislations, institutional and non - institutional rehabilitation and 4. Emergence of the Church of England Children’s Society and the National reintegration for children in the West. Children’s Homes, philanthropic Attitudes to child welfare also organizations that involved in changed over the course of the nineteenth rescuing children who had fled from century in England too. The Government their homes or were abandoned by wants children and young people to have families. more opportunities to get involved in the 5. English Prevention of Cruelty to design, provision and evaluation of Children Act 1889 that created policies and services that affect them or opportunity to prosecute perpetrators which they use (Roberts-Holms, 2005). of cruelty to children. Here, provisions of the Factory Act, 1833 which was passed prohibited children 6. The Elementary Education Act 1870 under 9 years of age from working in and Elementary Education (Blind and factories and restricted the working hours Deaf Children) Act 1893 that of 9 to 13 year old children (Beckett, introduced education for various 2003). According to Jowitt and O’ groups of children. Loughlin (2005), the Health and Morals 7. Education (Provision of Meals) Act of Apprentices Act 1802 followed by the 1906 that provided provisions of food Factory act 1833 which were passed for children who were undernourished. focused on children in the workplace. Others included legislations involving 8. The Children Act 1908 that reformation of young offenders and the established Juvenile courts abolished Poor Law Guardians cared for neglected imprisonment for under 14 year olds

90 Child Welfare: An Historical Overview

and introduced registration of foster of decades of modernization and care givers /parents. urbanization. Child survival and development improved and parents have 9. The Incest Act 1908 that prohibited greater hope for them. Society has begun interfamilial sexual abuse or incest to invest more on the education and 10. The Adoption Act 1926, that training of their children. Roberts-Holms provided non-institutional service to (2005), states that the potentials of abandoned children and orphans. children are recognized through understanding their strengths and 11. The Children and Young Persons Act capacities. They are rich in potential, 1933 that gave local authorities child strong, powerful, and competent. True protection duties and the power to potentials of children are only seen if we remove children in an emergency. give them a chance. Therefore, children 12. The Children Act 1948 that have begun to occupy important place in introduced Children’s Department, the research process. Their participation expansion of foster care and adoption in the research process has been as alternatives to residential care. increasingly carried out. Their views are taken into account and such respect during By 1969, place of safety were research process has become widespread introduced for vulnerable children and this (Roberts-Holms 2005). enabled the court to restrict parents who were against such provisions. The children With these developments, collective Act 1989 was also passed with the effort to promote the welfare of children intention of concentrating on balancing was undertaken. The first International child protection with family support efforts to secure child’s rights as well as system emphasizing on parental to care and protect children from all form responsibility than rights. of child abuse can be said to have begun formally in 1919 with the setting up of From the above literature, we see the Save the Children’s Fund (SCF) to how families, communities and help children affected by the ravages of governments in traditional western war. It was then followed by the League societies cared and protected their of Nation’s Geneva Declaration on the children. Welfare in its traditional form Rights of the Child in 1924 which was very much evident and rehabilitation established ‘ means for material, moral measures were also undertaken. No doubt and spiritual development; special help these developments created milestones in when hungry, sick, disabled or orphaned; academic discourse as well as policy first call on relief when in distress; making related to children across the freedom from economic exploitation; and world. According to Wal (2006), attitudes an upbringing that instills a sense of social toward children have changed as a result responsibilities’(UNICEF, 2009).

91 Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy

The creation of the United Nations and set motion for a ‘working group to International Children’s Emergency Fund draft a legally binding Convention on the (ICEF) in 1946 also helped in responding Rights of the Child’. This commitment to the needs of children after World War culminated in the Declaration of the II. However, this initiative was seen to be Convention of the Rights of Children limited only to children affected by the (CRC) in 1989. Twenty State parties ravages of war taking into consideration ratified the Convention and by the time it millions of children in Africa, Asia and was opened for signatures, 61 countries Latin America who suffered from sickness signed the Convention. Currently, this and hunger because of poverty. To answer Convention is the ‘most widely endorsed to this, in 1953, the United Nations human rights treaty in history’ having 193 International Children Emergency Fund State parties ratifying the Convention. (UNICEF) was formed to be a part of the With this landmark, child care and UN system to expand services for children protection became no more optional for across the world (Wal, 2006). State parties but obligatory in nature (UNICEF, 2009). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 drew some attention to the According to Baruah (2003), the rights of children in article 25 which Convention on the Rights of the Child entitled childhood ‘to special care and recognizes the exceptional vulnerability assistance’. In 1966 the International of children and proclaims children as Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and needing special care and assistance. The the International Covenant on Economic, state must respect and ensure that they get Social and Cultural Rights were adopted. a fair and equitable deal in society. The These covenants insured the rights for Convention emphasizes the importance of children against exploitation and family and the need to create an promoted the rights of education for environment that is conducive to the children. Eventually in less than a decade healthy growth and development of the International Labour Organization children. It highlights on empowering adopted Convention No. 138 on the children and creating a world where all Minimum Age for Admission to children are able to live securely and Employment as 18 years ‘ for work that realize their full potential in life. Right to might be hazardous to an individual’s protection is one of the basic rights health, safety or morals’. The United included under the Convention. New Nations General Assembly then adopted commitments followed this development the Elimination of All Forms of where children became a priority to peace Discrimination against Women in 1979 and development. which included protection of rights for girls. The Assembly also declared the year As a result of these developments, the 1979 as the International year of the Child ‘rights and the needs based approach’ to

92 Child Welfare: An Historical Overview child welfare eventually developed and Movement, special attention was given to served to put children and young people the girl child who was deprived of her on the pedestal of political and social rights in terms of education and marriage. debate (Wal,2006). Initiatives were taken by the social reformers and children irrespective of sex Child Welfare in India were given education, residential places The history of child welfare in Indian and the age of marriage was eventually context dates back during the pre and post increased. After long agitation from the Vedic period where children were taught social reformers regulations prohibiting religion and ways of life by the gurus, infanticide was passed in 1802 and 1905. seers or Brahmins. Among the Hindus, the In 1851, JotibaPhule and his wife opened concept of child was also very important a girl’s school at Poona and soon many because the child especially the male child schools came up. In 1921 only 2 out of was considered to have spiritual value and 100 Indian women were able to read and carries success and respect of the family. write and in 1919, 490 girls were enrolled in the four top forms of high schools in According to Indian tradition, there Bengal Presidency. By 1880 modern were different stages of children from and child delivery techniques conception to the age of 16.This division were made available to Indian women. highlighted the importance given to the With regard to child labour,the first Indian bio-social development of children in Factory Act was passed in 1881. It laid traditional India. Each stage was followed down that children between 7 and 12 years with specific rituals. However, girls were of age would not work for more than 9 excluded from such rituals. Moreover, a hours a day. Children would get four mother was respected when a boy child is holidays in a month..In the second Factory born. The epic of Mahabharata and Act which was passed in 1891, daily hours Ramayana also shows the affections of for children was reduced to 7. The adults towards children and the nature of Brahmosamaj opposed caste system and how they were taught and educated. child marriage and supported the spread of However again this was confined only to modern education to men and women. The boys of the upper strata of the society. The Ramakrishna Mission founded by Swami Manu Laws also expressed the importance Vivekananda in 1896 also opposed caste of child protection and to girls specifically (Bhakhry, 2006). system. The AryaSamaj founded by Swami Dayanand worked towards the spread of During the pre-independence era in education, fought vehemently against India, Christian missionaries opened untouchability and caste system (Chandra, modern schools, colleges and hospitals 1990). The Guardianship and Wards Act which indirectly provided basic services (GAWA) 1890 was also passed during this to children. As part of the Social Reform period to rehabilitate children.

93 Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy

Child care services during the latter rights based. The transition to the rights part of the pre-independent India were based approach in the Government and confined to voluntary sectors that catered civil society is still evolving.’ Some of the to destitute, delinquents and abused safeguards for the protection of children children. During the 1920s organizations and promotion of wellbeing in the such as ‘the Indian Council for Child Constitution are as follows: Welfare, The Indian Red Cross Society, the All Indian Woman’s Conference, the 1. Article 14 states that the State shall Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial not deny to any person equality Trust, the Bankanji Bari and the before the law or the equal protection Children’s Aid Society’ organized of the laws. programmes for children in the areas of 2. Article 15 (3) empowers the State to health, nutrition and education (Wal, make special provisions to women 2006). Eventually, as a result of social and children to protect them from all reform, the Child Marriage Restraint Act forms of discrimination. was also passed in 1929. 3. Article 21 provides for the right to The above literature shows concrete protection of life and personal liberty. evidence of child care and protection in Indian history. Children held important 4. Article 23 provides protection against place in Indian culture and these practices human trafficking and forced labour. could be said to have helped in evolving 5. Article 24 prohibits employment of a more dynamic and complex form of children below the age of 14 in child welfare in India. This is true if we factories or mines or any other were to highlight some of the milestones hazardous jobs. that took place in India after independence. 6. Article 39(e) states that ‘the tender age of children should not be abused After Indian Independence, the and citizens should not be forced by Constitution was drafted and came into economic necessity to enter force. The Fundamental Rights ensured vocations unsuited to their age and rights to every individual including strength.’ children and the Directive Principles of State Policy also laid down provisions for 7. Article 39(f) states that ‘children children which every state should follow. should be given opportunities and According to GOI (2007), ‘While the facilities to develop in a healthy Constitution of India guarantees many manner and in conditions of freedom fundamental rights to the children, the and dignity so that childhood and approach to ensure the fulfillment of these youth are protected against rights was more needs based rather than exploitation.’

94 Child Welfare: An Historical Overview

8. Article 45 also states that ‘it shall be launched as pilot projects around India the duty of the State to provide free (NIPCCD, 1980). This Scheme provides and compulsory education for all integrated services to children below the children till the age of 14 years age of 6 years, expectant and nursing (Kashyap, 1994). mothers and women in the age group of 16-45 years. Its packages include These Articles were part of the supplement nutrition, immunization, Fundamental Rights and the Directive health check-up, referral services, Principles of State Policy. As such, from nutrition and health education and non- here, we see that the founding fathers did formal education (Wal, 2006). put children as important priority. Immunization Programme was also Few legislations related to children introduced by the Government in 1978 as were passed soon after independence such Expanded Progarmme of Immunization as the Hindu Adoption Maintenance (GOI, 2003). (HAMA) Act, 1950, The Immoral Traffic Following these developments, the (Prevention) Act, 1956 and The Ministry of Welfare, Government of India Orphanages and Other Charitable Homes launched a Scheme for Children in need (Supervision and Control) Act 1960. of care and protection in 1979-1985 to During the first and second phase of the provide basic needs to vulnerable children. Five Year Plan, the Indian Council of The Department of Women and Child Child Welfare and the Central Social Development (DWCD) was eventually set Welfare Board were set up to promote and up in 1985 under the Ministry of Human develop welfare services for women and children in the voluntary sector through Resource Development whose aim was to various grant-in-aid programmes. In the develop women and children. Different next phase, Applied and Supplementary bureau and boards were set up which Nutrition Programmes were launched to focused on nutrition and child combat malnutrition among children (Wal development, child welfare, girl child and 2006). vigilance and public cooperation and child welfare. The following year, the Juvenile It was not until 1974 that India had Justice Act 1986 and the Child its first National Policy for children Labour(Prohibition and Regulation) Act (NIPCCD, 1980). The National Policy for 1986 were passed. The former was to Children, 1974, declared children to be a provide rehabilitation and protection ‘supreme national asset’. It pledged services for children in conflict with law measures to secure and safeguard all their and the latter was to prohibit employment needs, declaring that this could be done of children below 14 years in hazardous by making wise use of available national occupations. In 1990, the Government set resources (GOI, 2007). With this up a Central Adoption Resource Agency development, the ICDS scheme was (CARA), an autonomous body to facilitate

95 Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy rehabilitative services to children through flagship programme was launched to child adoption. In 1992, India acceded to provide useful and relevant elementary the Convention of Rights of the Child ‘to education for all children between the ages reiterate its commitment to the cause of of 6-14 years (GOI, 2008). Soon after, as children.’ With this, a National Plan for per the 86th Amendment Act, 2002, the Children, 1992-2000 was launched to following provisions were inserted in the provide health and nutrition services, Fundamental Rights and Directive education, protection to children and the Principle of State Policy. girl child and adolescent girls and work 1. Article 21 A which states that ‘the towards public cooperation in child State shall provide free and protection. To prohibit female foeticide, compulsory education to all children the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques of the age of 6-14 years in such a (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) manner as the State may, by law, Act was passed in 1994. Various determine.’ programmes were also started which included amongst others Child Survival 2. Article 45: The erstwhile provision and Safe Motherhood Programme in under the Article was removed and 1992, Integrated Programme for Street changed to, ‘the State shall Children in 1992, District Primary endeavour to provide early childhood Education Programme (DPEP) in 1994, care and education for all children National Programme of Nutritional until they complete the age of 6 Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) years’ (Chowdhry, 2010). in 1995, National Child Award for Exceptional Achievement in 1996, Further, in 2005, a Scheme for Reproductive and Child Health Welfare of Working Children in need of Programme in 1997. In 1998, the National care and protection was launched with the Literacy Mission was set up to improve object of providing non-formal education literacy rate among the age group 15-35 and vocational training to working years (GOI, 2003). children and facilitate their entry into mainstream education system. In the same There was a lot of development in year, the National Rural Health Mission child welfare in India after the year 2000. was launched to improve access of people, The new millennia was met with the especially the poor women and children passing of the Juvenile Justice (Care and to quality primary health care services. Protection of Children) Act, 2000 to Priorities towards children developed in provide provisions and protection for leaps and bounds and keeping this in view, children-in-contact and in-conflict with the Department of Women and Child law and children in need of care and Development (DWCD) functioning under protection. In 2001, the Scheme of the Ministry of Human Resource SarvaShikshaAbhiyan (SSA), a national Development since 1985 was scrapped

96 Child Welfare: An Historical Overview and to look into matters relating to women pornography, while safeguarding the and children, a separate Ministry of interest of the child at every stage of the Women and Child Development was set judicial process by incorporating child- up in 2006. Henceforth, it became the sole friendly mechanisms for reporting, responsibility of the new Ministry to look recording of evidence, investigation and into matters relating to child welfare. With speedy trial of offences through this development, the Commission for the designated Special Courts’ (GOI, 2013). Protection of Child Rights Act, 2006 was passed to act as a mechanism for proper Another milestone that took place enforcement of children’s rights and after 2010 was the adoption of the new effective implementation of laws and National Policy for Children in 2103 to programmes relating to children. In the re-affirm the Government’s commitment same year, the Prohibition of Child to safeguard, inform, include, support and Marriage Act, 2006 was passed to prevent empower all children in India. The policy child marriage in India (GOI, 2008). aims ‘to promote and safeguard the rights of all children to live and grow with To ensure that the Fundamental Right dignity, security and freedom, especially to education was implemented, the Right those marginalized or disadvantaged, to of Children to Free and Compulsory ensure that all children have equal Education Act was passed in 2009 to opportunities and that no customs, provide for free and compulsory education tradition, cultural or religious practice is to all children of the age of 6-14 years. In allowed to violate or restrict or prevent the same year, to ensure that the Juvenile children from enjoying their rights’ ( GOI, Justice (Care and Protection of Children) 2013). Act was implemented, the Integrated Child Protection Scheme was launched to In India, as far as the trend of affirm the government’s commitment development in child welfare is towards adopting a right based approach concerned, care and protection of children to child care and protection. Since the is deeply engrained in religion, culture and launching of this programme, child society. These traits have helped in the protection mechanisms and infrastructure gradual proactive approach to child for child protection have been protection in India. The literatures show strengthened. us that numerous laws and programmes exist in India to protect children. In 2012, a special law, namely the Therefore, societal perceived attitude Protection of Children from Sexual towards child welfare is seen to be positive Offences (POCSO) Act was eventually in India. However, the ultimate task is to passed ‘to provide for the protection of see whether such perceived attitude is put children from the offences of sexual into practice to create a safe and secure assault, sexual harassment and haven for children in India.

97 Henry Zodinliana Pachuau & Kalpana Sarathy

Conclusion Today, children’s issues are integrated in all other major programmes of countries The above literatures show that as a result of international commitments. different societies including India had a Participation and freedom has become long history related to child welfare. the core focus. Surely, with the Earlier, child welfare was social welfare fundamental and functional aspects of oriented and it gradually developed to child welfare in the past and the recent become development and empowerment developments taking place at present in oriented. Child development was seen as the area of child care and protection, it is a responsibility and a need but now hoped that the future generations will children are accepted as important experience a more sustainable and secure players in human resource development. future.

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Bhakhry, S. (2006), Children in India and their Rights, New Delhi: National Human Rights Commission.

Becket, C. (2003), Child Protection: An Introduction, London: Sage Publication Ltd.

Chandra, B. (1990), Modern India, New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training.

Chowdhry, R. (2010), The Road Less Travelled: Article 21 A and the Fundamental Rights to Primary Education in India, 4 Indian Journal of Constitutional Law (2) 24. Retrieved on 13th May 2015 from www.commonlii.org/in/journal/INJIConLaw/2010/2.html.

Cohen, N. A. (1992), Child Welfare: A multi-cultural focus, USA : Allyn and Bacon.

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Douglas, A., Philphot T (2003), Changing families, Changing times,London :Taylor and Frances Group.

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Gupta, M. (2001), Child Abuse: A Social Work Perspective, Jaipur: Mangal Deep Publication.

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Jowitt, M., O’ Loughlin,S.edt. (2005), Social Work with Children and Families, Southernhay East: Learning Matters Ltd.

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Constructivism in the Primary School Curriculum

Lokanath Mishra

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine whether the 5th grade elementary school curricula of Oriya, English, , and (EVS) courses were congruent with the principles and standards of the constructivist education. Qualitative research methods were used in this small-scale case study which was conducted in an elementary school in oringabalisahi upper primary school, Orissa. The data were gathered through semi-structured interviews and document analyses in the academic year of 2009-2010. The population of interest consisted of 1 BEO, 1 Oriya teacher, 3 English teachers, 4 Mathematics teachers, and 3 Environmental science (EVS) teachers. The findings indicate that the performances of the curricula under investigation are congruent with the principles of the constructivist education. Similarly, the stated and unstated intents of the curricula are congruent with their performances and the standards of the constructivist education. Key words: Education, Primary school curricula, Constructivism, Constructivist approach.

Introduction activities the learner engages in, including the consequences of those activities, and Constructivism is an epistemology, or through reflection. People only deeply a theory, used to explain how student understand what they have constructed. know what they know. The basic idea is that problem solving is at the heart of A constructivist approach to learning learning, thinking, and development. As and instruction has been proposed as an people solve problems and discover the alternative to the objectivist model, which consequences of their actions - through is implicit in all behaviorist and some reflecting on past and immediate cognitive approaches to education. experiences - they construct their own Objectivism sees knowledge as a passive understanding. Learning is thus an active reflection of the external, objective reality. process that requires a change in the This implies a process of “instruction,” learner. This is achieved through the ensuring that the learner gets correct

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 100 Constructivism in the Primary School Curriculum information. The psychological roots of of learning has been greatly extended by constructivism began with the neo-Piagetian research. developmental work of Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980), who developed a theory (the The Russian psychologist Lev theory of genetic epistemology) that Vygotsky’s (1896 - 1934) relevance to analogized the development of the mind constructivism derives from his theories to evolutionary biological development about language, thought, and their and highlighted the adaptive function of mediation by society. Vygotsky held the cognition. Piaget proposed four stages in position that the child gradually human development: the sensor motor internalizes external and social activities, stage, the preoperational stage, the including communication, with more competent others. Although social speech concrete operational stage, and the formal is internalized in adulthood (it becomes operational stage. For Piaget, the thinking), in his experiments, Vygotsky development of human intellect proceeds studied the difference between the child’s through adaptation and organization. reasoning when working independently Adaptation is a process of assimilation and versus reasoning when working with a accommodation, where external events more competent person. He devised the are assimilated into existing notion of the zone of proximal understanding, but unfamiliar events, development to reflect on the potential of which don’t fit with existing knowledge, this difference. Vygotsky’s findings are accommodated into the mind, thereby suggested that learning environments changing its organization. Countless should involve guided interactions that studies have demonstrated - or tried to permit children to reflect on inconsistency discredit - Piaget’s developmental stages. and to change their conceptions through For example, it has become clear that most communication. It has since been adults use formal operations in only a few extended in the situated approach to domains where they have expertise. learning. Nonetheless, Piaget’s hypothesis that learning is a transformative rather than a Vygotsky and Piaget’s theories are cumulative process is still central. often contrasted to each other in terms of Children do not learn a bit at a time about individual cognitive constructivism some issue until it finally comes together (Piaget) and social constructivism; some as understanding. Instead, they make sense researchers have tried to develop a of whatever they know from the very synthesis of these approaches, though beginning. This understanding is some, such as Michael Cole and James progressively reformed as new knowledge Wertsch, argue that the individual versus is acquired, especially new knowledge that social orientation debate is over- is incompatible with their previous emphasized. To them, the real difference understanding. This transformative view rests on the contrast between the roles of

101 Lokanath Mishra cultural artifacts. For Vygotsky, such philosopher referred to as inert knowledge. artifacts play a central role, but they do Asking students what they already know not appear in Piaget’s theories. about a topic and what puzzles them affords an opportunity to assess children’s prior Constructivist Processes and Education knowledge and the processes by which they There are several competing will make sense of phenomena. constructivist views in education. Constructivist curriculum Constructivists tend to celebrate complexity and multiple perspectives, A constructively oriented curriculum though they do share at least a few presents an emerging agenda based on what educational prescriptions. children know, what they are puzzled by, and the teachers’ learning goals. Thus, an Prior knowledge important part of a constructivist-oriented Constructivists believe that prior curriculum should be the negotiation of knowledge impacts the learning process. meaning. A mathematics teacher, guides In trying to solve novel problems students to make sense of mathematics by perceptual or conceptual similarities comparing and resolving discrepancies between existing knowledge and a new between what they know and what seems problem can remind people of what they to be implied by new experience. In already know. This is often one’s first constructivist classrooms, curriculum is approach towards solving novel problems. generally a process of digging deeper and Information not connected with a learner’s deeper into big ideas, rather than presenting prior experiences will be quickly a breadth of coverage. For example, in the forgotten. In short, the learner must Fostering Communities of Learners project actively construct new information into where students learn how to learn, in his or her existing mental framework for knowledge-building classrooms where meaningful learning to occur. students seek to create new knowledge, or in Howard Gardner’s classrooms where the For example, Rosalind Driver has focus is on learning for deep understanding, found that children’s understanding of a students might study endangered species, phenomenon (interpretations that fit their island biogeography, or the principles of experiences and expectations) differ from gravity over several months. As students scientific explanations. This means that pursue questions, they derive new and more students distinguish school science from complex questions to be investigated. their “real world” explanations. Studies of Building useful knowledge structures adult scientific thinking reveal that many requires effortful and purposeful activity adults hold non-normative scientific over an extended period. This perception explanations, even though they have calls to mind several new approaches in studied science. This is what the education that share their basic assumptions

102 Constructivism in the Primary School Curriculum with constructivism. All these approaches courses are congruent with the principles are learner-centered and converge in the and standards of the constructivist view that each student should be actively education. In this framework, it examines engaged in learning activities, taking the congruence between 1) the account of individual differences. Some performances of the curricula under new approaches such as active learning and investigation and the Principles of the problem-based learning give the constructivist education, and 2) The stated impression that they are actual practices of and unstated intents of the curricula and the constructivist classroom. Similarly, the their performances and the standards of integrated approach, which mainly draws the constructivist education. 3) The on constructivism, seems to be a present study also aims to produce prerequisite for the constructivist classroom findings that would lay the foundations for practices. the subsequent studies. Educators may feel impressed by the Research Approach powerful influence that constructivist Qualitative research approach was thinking has exerted in a broad context, employed for the study. The population when they see that the above identified of the study was all the elementary school overlap and connection between new teachers of Bhuban block of Dhenkanal approaches to education is grounded in a district. The sample of the study consisted single source, which is the constructivist of 1 Block Education officer of background.. The field in which the Dhenkanal districts of Orissa and 11 teachers feel themselves the least teachers- 1 Oriya teacher, 3 English competent is Measurement and teachers, 4 Mathematics teachers and 3 evaluation. These results can be Environmental science (EVS) teachers. interpreted such that the constructivist Two semi-structured interview forms were approach is generally viewed positively developed for the BEO and the teachers by the stakeholders, whereas certain in line with the purpose of the study and practical problems need to be addressed. data derived from the literature review. In such a setting, this small scale study is Findings anticipated to contribute to the evaluation of the renewed curricula, as one of the This section outlines the findings preliminary studies to be followed by a obtained first from interviews and then series of comprehensive studies. from document analysis. Objectives Interviews This study aims to explore whether Firstly, views of the BEO, and then the 5th grade elementary school curricula those of the teachers were revealed. Where of English, Oriya, Mathematics and EVS teachers were quoted, they were assigned

103 Lokanath Mishra codes instead of identifying their names Processes, Assessment Strategies and for privacy reasons as follows: Oriya Instructional Resources. For each sub- Teacher (OT), English Teacher (ET), heading, teachers’ views are first outlined Mathematics Teacher (MT), EVS Teacher in two categories according to their being (EVT). Each code is used with a number. positive or negative, and this is followed by excerpts from the statements of them. Interviews with the District inspector of school 1. Acquisitions Interviews with the district inspector The Oriya Language Teacher did not of schools reveal that they think highly of comment on the issue. Other teachers did the constructivist approach and in not make negative comments, stating that particular, are happy with the results the new curricula help the students acquire obtained from the early stages of intellectual skills such as increased elementary education (grades up to 5th). awareness, ability to make inferences and As far as the later stages (grades 6th-7th) transfer the knowledge, to relate their are concerned, they mentioned the chaos learning to the real life situations, to think caused by parents’ lack of understanding critically, to classify, to read graphical about the Level Assessment Exam (LAE) information, and to expand on their ideas. and students’ increased tendency to go to Below are the excerpts from the government institutions to supplement statements made by six teachers. their formal courses and complained that “It is enormously important that the this created a tiresome burden, making the student is aware of his merits and things worse for everyone. They relied on limitations. This approach enables it.” the support from the ‘Measurement and ET1 Evaluation Unit’ Self-assessment checklists, attitude scales, rubrics, etc. “I think their awareness increased since developed by these School units in they learn by doing and experiencing. I am cooperation with the teachers were in use. happy with the new system.” ET2 Information regarding the students is “Prediction has a very important place in exchanged in the process of interaction this curriculum. If a student cannot predict between the teachers, though no system how long one meter is or how long this exists to keep regular records of room is, then what is the use of teaching acquisition of each student. him the units of measurements. This Interviews with the Teachers curriculum gives the student that skill. Take for example decameter or Teachers’ views on questions hectometer as units of measurement taught contained in the interview form are in the past. Who knows where exactly they classified in five sub-headings - are used? Decameter is used to measure Acquisitions, Content, Learning the area of a field, corresponding to acre.

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The new curriculum comes to the rescue 2. Content of the students in such things. It tries to create a visual picture in the student’s Below are the excerpts from the mind. The child gets it right away….but statements of four teachers: unable to transfer this knowledge to other “In particular, grammar points are areas. In the present curricula, ‘how can a ignored. They are implicit. But there is no child spend his money at the way a student can learn even English greengrocer’s’ is the kind of questions we without mastering the fundamental rules focus on. What is learnt in the classroom of grammar… In this age, you cannot is used in the real life situations. Believe approach the child with a poem on fires. me. Children are more successful now.” It is absurd to ask the students to write a MT1 poem on fires using such vocabulary as “Of course, I appreciate the new fire engine, fire brigade. That is no way to curriculum. Establishing relations and give Oriya language education.” critical thinking are its outstanding “…it gives the impression that the features. For instance, we used to work curriculum is relieved of excessive on tables only where the program so workload only to create a mass of prescribed, and finished with it once and activities with unnecessarily repetitive for all at the end of the class. However in task. This should be done with fewer and the present curriculum, almost all subjects better texts”. OT1 were explained with the help of cctivities or we have a models, charts and “No matter how often he repeats, a development tasks. These are really child of this age inevitably makes mistakes important. Children are getting used to this because he does not come across sufficient sort of thinking.” MT3 number of math problems. There are so many activities and we have little time to “Sir, what on earth is it for? Students spare for math problems. Then this puts abandoned this kind of questions. Now the children in a disadvantaged position teachers ask ‘where to use it in the daily in our system overloaded with life?’ The student then come to realize exams…Parents resent this situations. “what it is used for’ There is an increased “Our kids keep studying the same topics awareness.” EVT2 “In other words, we are they have already learnt in the 4th grade.” happy. We make them discover…we try they complain and ask when their kids will to elicit the answers from students. We start to make real progress. We have faced demand examples from them. In the old such problems.” MT3 Curriculum, you would directly present the information…The present one gives “…Teacher has other roles to play, th more room for elaborating on ideas.” like guiding the students. After the 5 EVT1 grade, things are never the same. It is a

105 Lokanath Mishra paradox to expose the kids to multiple grammatical points without involving choice tests when preparing them for student. That is to say we don’t simply Navodaya School. I think this is one of present the rules and ask the students to the acute problems in Orissa (MT4)” answer questions or form sentences on the basis of these rules… Our teaching is “Course topics are dealt with spontaneous. So we practice different superficially. Teaching points are very activities in different classes. There may general…Students have a good grasp of be significant gaps between the classes… the things, though. But when you get into Moreover individual work, pair or group details, then you see the gap, leaving many work is extremely important for us. Some things unanswered…” EVT1 students learn better when they work “The new curricula aim at urging individually, but others have a better grasp the students to think for themselves of the things when they find themselves anyway…It seems to be overloaded with in a teaching game…It is student- activities, but the learning environments centered, a process guided by the students are not suitable for that. It is not possible (manage the direction of activities). I to execute all tasks in the classroom. mean, our teaching practice is not based And the time spared for all these is on mere instruction, but we teach through limited”. activities and games. What is more, since this kind of teaching is achieved through 3. Learning Processes: letting the students learn by doing, we try Below are the excerpts from the to give them as much freedom as statements of three teachers. possible”. It is the student who decides what he will add to his portfolio. ‘I want “…Thus it gives the impression that to put this assignment in my portfolio. He the curriculum is relieved of excessive says…” ET1 workload only to create a mass of activities with unnecessarily repetitive “So many activities in a limited time tasks. Each text contains words frequently may be challenging. I guess it could better repeated and sentence formation tasks. A be achieved in a teaching environment that fifth grader will be fed up with using every provides opportunities for working with word in a sentence. Activities should not the students on individual basis. This be so tedious. What will a clever teacher creates much more meaningful learning do? I am proud to say he will become environments for us.”EVT3 eclectic, merging the new and old methods and will make the things work.” OT1 4. Assessment Strategies “In fact, we have been using the Teachers’ Views on the Evaluation constructivist approach for the last five Methods in the Curricula Below are the years… We never introduce the excerpts from the statements of four

106 Constructivism in the Primary School Curriculum teachers on the subject. Parents have When each activity involves evaluation, biases towards the new system. They then these results in an enormous loss of simply have yet to adapt to the curriculum. time and the students give us the same So this curriculum imposes on us the task feedback. They say ‘Sir, let’s do it quicker’ of educating both the students and the or ‘let’s skip it’ they just want to ignore it parents. In my opinion, there should be a and go on. They are fed up with the tasks meeting to brief the parents every being repeated over and over again. I wish weekend.” OT1. we could find a midway to engage the students in learning and evaluation tasks “As Environmental science teachers, together, without making them bored.” we are really enthusiastic about EVT 3. performance evaluation tools. In the past, all the students cared about was to get a 5. Instructional Resources full mark. Nowadays this is not so much The Oriya language Teacher, English of a concern. They are now more in control Teachers and Environmental Science and aware of their learning. We really Teachers did not make comments on the want to have measurement tool. They supplementary reference materials. really help the students a lot.” EVT1. Mathematics teacher stated that use of “We’ve had problems with supplementary resources other than the performance or project assignments that course books is inadequate. Here is the require the involvement of parents. As I excerpt from the statements of the three said, I think parents are not fully aware of teachers on the subject. “We may have the consequences of their attitudes. They problems about resource books. Of course, interfere with the progress of the textbooks provided by the Sarva Sikhya assignment too much, in order to make Aviyan (SSA) contain a great number of sure that their kids get a high mark. But activities. But where they fall short of our goal is to equip students with meeting the needs, we have to supplement analytical thinking skills. That is why we them with additional material.” MT2. constantly remind the parents to step back. “I wish I could get assistance on the They should be convinced about it.” EVT2 projects. We face difficulties in developing “The problem is that we have to cope projects. we have no computer to internet with too many evaluation materials and access, we have no time for that. I wish as I said, we have limited time. On the there were more resources and materials other hand, there is a mass of knowledge available to us.” MT3. we have to get across to students. So we Document Analysis have to find a midway. During the term, we engage students in evaluation activities Document analysis was confined to so that they can get used to such methods. teacher’s handbooks for four courses and

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Guide on the Renewed Elementary School as content is concerned, three problems - Curricula Sarva Sikhya Aviyan (SSA superficial treatment of learning subjects, Findings relating to the congruence dynamism /flexibility of the curricula. between the performances and principles How to best achieve incremental of the constructivist education are as repetition of knowledge and skills in a follows: spiral model congruent with the constructivist education principles and 1. The acquisitions of the curriculum are information processing modes of the congruent with the principles of the human mind? This question seems to be constructivist education. unresolved in the case of the former two 2. Care has been taken to ensure that problems. Being dynamic and flexible is lesson contents based on the spiral model one of the essential principles of the and the different courses are appropriately constructivist approach. This may entail inter-related. to go where the students’ questions take the teacher to. In such a case, the question 3. Learning processes and the methods of is how far can a teacher venture to measurement-evaluation are congruent proceed? The teachers interviewed with the other components of the expressed their concern over leaving the curriculum. students’ questions unanswered relating to 4. Curricula fail to support students to an teaching points treated superficially only adequate degree in terms of to get back to and expand on them when supplementary teaching materials / the curriculum demands so. It is another recommended resources. uncertainty how such a course of action will result in later. Another matter that is Discussion and Conclusion shrouded in mystery is how the implicit In view of the findings obtained from teaching method adopted for every the interviews and document analysis, and concept and all students and amid a vast after making sure those evaluations that number of activities will affect the deep ,the following judgment was made . The learning throughout the process.. The findings of the research demonstrate the curricula lose its continuity and congruence between the intents and effectiveness when students start to study performance of the curricula and the at private education institutions after the standards of the constructivist education. 5th grade. Though entrance test conducted by Navodaya Vidyalaya is an examination However, a more penetrating look that tests the analytical thinking in into the results obtained brings onto congruence with the renewed curricula, surface some ambiguities with regard to parents are concerned over the individual content, learning processes, evaluation competition. The fact that this exam processes and the use of resources. As far assumes that the constructivist approach

108 Constructivism in the Primary School Curriculum is implemented uniformly all over Orissa are not concerning about the adpotation creates another question mark in respect of constructive method . The learning of the basic principles of the constructivist processes and evaluation processes approach. How this will affect the learning overloaded with activities cause loss of processes through which each student is time in actual practice. Another problem expected to proceed to his target and at that may impede the implementation of his own pace is a matter that requires the curricula is that parents intervene too attention. Most of the teachers are busy much in the performance assignments in with the official paper work of SSA they pursuit of higher marks for their kids.

References Austin, A. & Baldwin, R. (1991), Faculty collaboration: enhancing the quality of scholarship and teaching, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 7, Washington, D. C.. the George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development. http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-2/ faculty.htm Bitner, N. & Bitner, J. (2002), ‘Integrating technology into the classroom: eight keys to success’ Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 10 (1): 95-100. Black, J. & McClintock, R. (1996), An interpretation construction approach to constructivist design. In B. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist Learning Brooks, Jacqueline G., and Brooks, Martin G. (1993), In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Bulut, M. (2007), “Curriculum reform in Turkey: a case of primary school mathematics Curriculum” Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science &Technology Education, 3 (3). http://www.ejmste.com/ v3n3/EJMSTE_v3n3_Bulut.pdf Dewey, John. (1916), Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of education Flores, M. A. (2005), ‘Teachers’ views on recent curriculum changes: tensions and challenges’ The Curriculum Journal, 16 (3): 401-413. Fogarty, R. (1991), The mindful school: how to integrate the curricula, Palatine, IL: Skylight Publishing, Inc. Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. (2001), Guidelines and checklist for constructivist (a.k.a. fourth generation) valuation.http://www.wmich.edu/evalctr/checklists/constructivisteval. pdf Kotulak R.(1996), Learning how to use the brain, http://www.newhorizons.org/neuro/kotulak.htm Pourdavood, R., Lawrence V. S. & Cowen, L. M. (2005), Social constructivism in practice: case study of an elementary school’s mathematics program. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/ mi_m0NVC/is_1-2_27/ai_n15389278/pg_1 Rogan, J. M. & Grayson, D. J. (2003), ‘Towards a theory of curriculum implementation with particular reference to science education in developing countries’, International Journal of Science Education, 25 (10): 1171-1204.

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Saunders, W. (1992), ‘The constructivist perspective: implications and teaching strategies for science’, School Science and Mathematics, 92 (3): 136-141. Vannatta, R. (2000), ‘Evaluation to planning: technology integration in a school of Education’, Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 8 (3): 231-246. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978), Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Watts, M. & Bentley, D. (1991), ‘Constructivism in the classroom: can we close the gap between the strong theoretical version and the weak version of theory in practice?’, Curriculum Journal, 2 (2): 171-182 ..

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Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries

R N Mishra R K Ngurtinkhuma

Abstract Adoption of Information and Communication Technology in library domain not only exemplified the services but also opened up scintillating avenues for document management which, however, with the proliferation of information on web resulted in the propagation of the term information management and subsequently to knowledge management. Explicit, Embedded and Tacit, the three panoptic group of knowledge have predominant impact in libraries. Arriving to the massive missions like, accumulation, systematic organisations, preservations and effective disseminations of knowledge, the libraries require adequate professional competencies along with infrastructures. Preservation of knowledge and its management from valuable records of culture connect to succeeding generations and the Libraries through out the ages have proved to be essential intermediary in establishing communication among past, present, and future. Further, it adopts multiple knowledge management tools to ensure preservation of knowledge both in print or electronic. The paper discusses various dimensions and activities involved in information management and knowledge management including its creation, impetus on library services and technological issues including various knowledge management tools for effective organization of knowledge and its dissemination including enhancement of skills. Key words: Knowledge Management, Models of Knowledge Management, Knowledge Application Management sustainable development of the society in 1. Significance of Knowledge multiple ways needs channelization to Refined product of information using reach the researchers for further data in the relevant field through human development in the given field of research intellect recorded both in print and and the society as a whole to bring electronic form connotes to the term transformation. Such knowledge is knowledge which is channelized through assigned for action on a specific plan. It certain process from the creator to the user. is like kinetic and potential energy where, The diligence of such knowledge for a the former moves things and the latter is

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 111 R N Mishra & R K Ngurtinkhuma recorded and acts as the reservoir. is based on direct experience and it is Application of such knowledge not only fundamental and needs no justification, surmounts the deficiencies but also brings which is otherwise known as “Knowledge reform in the unorganized, unscientific by acquaintance.” The information that is information which infrequently leads to not based on direct experience is known disillusion and improper decision in as “Knowledge by description.” The decision which thereby, bring serious Darwin Magazine in 2001 has viewed threat to the various developmental plans. knowledge is the right information put into Hence, its’ importance as a resource has use in the right way at the right time, been recognized for centuries. Knowledge whereas information is merely the has multiple dimensions and has been amalgamation of various data sets within identified in many ways by different a specific context (http://km.brint.com/ authors. Knowledge created through CBK/WorkingKnowledge3.pdf). prolonged research establishes facts and 2. Knowledge Generation reveals the truth which needs to be conveyed through a systematized body of Essence of knowledge lies in the ideas. scientific management of information. Application of Information Thus, knowledge may be defined as Communication Technology (ICT) an organized body of information or revolutionized the information world and understanding of facts that by thorough not only created new course for its assimilation can be achieved which creation, assimilation, combination but further, helps in the generation of new also opened avenues for acceleration and knowledge. Moreover, knowledge in true channelization. The knowledge thus sense of the term acts as an effective tool gained through filtration of information to solve the routine problems of the and its use strengthened the economic society. Knowledge has been signified in growth and development to the extent that many ways by scientists. To mention a it is becoming the leading factor for adding few, Lumberton viewed information and value and for wealth creation in the market knowledge revolution as having far economy. Knowledge is the aggregation reaching consequences on economic, of approximations that are conceived from social and political systems. Bertrand human mind at different stages. It also Russell through theory of descriptions, emanates from the interactions with however, has categorized knowledge in individuals in different directions and two ways i.e, (a) Knowledge by there is no specific or identified boundary acquaintances and (b) Knowledge by of its structure. description. In the present state, both information and knowledge have Modern information system dominance over the literary world. prevailing in libraries is considered as vital Further, Russell argued that information and strong knowledge resource centre

112 Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries which capitulate, generate and organize became crucial in the highly competitive knowledge. Further, it not only provides service environments including business rapid and high-ended resolution access to surroundings which rather became more the conglomerated information of various responsive, innovative, and competitive organisations, corporations, databases etc. including efficiency. The capturing of but also adds new efficiency to the retrieve distributed knowledge available from organizational information including multiple and diversified sources and its dissemination of recorded information. organization through powerful electronic Information services in the present medias like, CD-ROM, DVD, Web, Pen technological age provide massive Drive, Hard Disk signify to knowledge opportunities to locate documents management. Further, Knowledge instantaneously. Further, digital storage Management can be specified as a technologies make it also economical and strategy, process through technology viable for personal possession of the application for identification, selection, collections similar to the holdings of the organization and dissemination of quality libraries. information services in the libraries. It embodies synergistic integration of 3. Knowledge Management- The information processing capacity and Concept creative capacity of human beings in order to maximize the responsiveness and Knowledge has been extensively flexibility of organization (Siau & Tian documented as a powerful intellectual 2005, 117-23). wealth which, however can be well implemented for both in profit and non- It may not be out of place to mention profit oriented organisations. The that, many of the consortiums have transformed form of information yields to organized the knowledge in such an knowledge concept and its flow does not effective way that, the users in any type confine to one direction,it rather stretches of libraries can have a seamless access to to multiple directions and resources. The use the recorded knowledge which reaches optimal use of the resources through to the desktop through networking. The computers, multidisciplinary research UGC Infonet Digital Library Consortium outputs coupled with personal knowledge equally facilitates the services to the precipitated generation of abundant academic communities in the university knowledge in versatile fields and its level provided they are the member scientific management for dissemination organization of the UGC-INFLIBNET. and preservation became indispensable. Like wise other agencies such as The irresistible growth of knowledge from UNESCO and other open source wide array of resources especially in organizations like commercial and libraries and information centers with the academic such as, infolibrarian.com. help of the modern technological devices bubl.ac.uk, doaj.com etc. The Darwin

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Magazine in 2001 opined that knowledge  Increasing search mechanism management is fundamentally active and through multiple search techniques people need to have access to the right information at the right time. Knowledge Absence of literacy causes management needs to be proactive, tightly bottlenecks in finding relevant integrated with business processes and information in a given period of time integrally related to day-to-day operational causing thereby, discontentment among activities. (http://km.brint.com/CBK/ the users in the libraries. Hence, multiple Working Knowledge3.pdf) and different methods need to be oriented to the users to improve skill power to 3.1 Value of Knowledge Management retrieve the knowledge which will Data is an entity which contributes substantiate the requirements with value to facts and its relevance in the context of added knowledge. an organization like library, generates  Leveraging the Knowledge through value oriented results required by the various channels information seekers whether researcher, faculty or student and its relation with Inconsistency of knowledge other related areas contributes to dissemination causes irritation among the information. According to Bellinger users. Therefore, the libraries require (2004), the patterns of relations of data extending the services through multiple and information including other patterns channels so as to facilitate the users in have the capacity to represent knowledge. accessing knowledge. Rigidity in adoption For the utility of information, it needs to of multiple channels by the libraries for be clearly understood and its application knowledge dissemination leads to in the relevant area of study results to insufficient research output. The users knowledge. He further remarked that, the requires to access knowledge through e- value of Knowledge Management relates mail, web-based, personal contact, directly to the effectiveness with which document delivery etc. consistently so as the managed knowledge enables the to enhance the knowledge capturing members of the organization to deal with capacity and use. present situation judiciously. On-demand access to managed knowledge accelerates  Leveraging the knowledge base for research value in a given field of study revenue and compliance and leads to sustainable knowledge which Knowledge base in service can be applied by others to enhance the organization like library excels the capability of understand in future. potency and efficiency of user service. It Subramaniam (2013) has credited the not only amplifies potential gain to the following best practices for maximizing libraries in terms of users’ satisfaction but the knowledge management practices. also generates substantial revenue for the

114 Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries library through online membership and scientific way so as to retrieve the same access of statistical databases etc. on in a seamless way. It further associates to payment. the analysis of knowledge so as to make an advantage over their competitors.  Fostering sourcing with quality Knowledge Management Practitioners control identify the knowledge for capturing, Invariably the enlightened customer apply the altering form i.e, codification visiting the library possess worthy from paper to systems by way of different knowledge and expertise as well who formats ranging from limited fields to express their willingness to apportion to hypertext, validate the knowledge, the aspirants through both in persons and contextualizing and re-contextualizing the online communities and social networks. knowledge (Raman; 2003; p.21) including The libraries thus, gains potential and adopting the advances in groupware tools value oriented knowledge and recognize for facilitating the exchange of the accomplishments through knowledge organizational information. Knowledge base which needs to be quality controlled management systems often rely on for dissemination which however, requires groupware technologies such as Lotus. comprehensive workflow capabilities of The knowledge management model knowledge management system. regards the sum of all knowledge within the organization as its intellectual assets  Implementing workflows for adaptive and provides tools for managing those content management assets. As a management tool, knowledge Content management is one of the management systems require technology indispensable components of knowledge as well as consultants who not only advise management system which not only excels the procedure to handle knowledge audits, the use of the knowledge exorbitantly but analysis and flow but also counsel the also adds substantially to value added rapid adoption of new technology. Over knowledge. Content effectiveness such as, the past few years, just as groupware content usage frequency, explicit and applications shifted from proprietary implicit content assessment trigger client/server models to a platform- content creation and maintenance tasks, agnostic Web model, knowledge and assign them to individuals with management’s embrace of Web service levels attached to them to ensure technologies has extended its usefulness timely refinement and enhancement. and cut costs. Web-based knowledge management systems require no (or 3.2 Models of Knowledge Management minimal) change to users’ desktops and The knowledge management model can be simpler to install and administer. applies to the technique of accumulations, More recently, knowledge management organization, storing, and indexing in a systems started using XML to identify

115 R N Mishra & R K Ngurtinkhuma relevant data elements and extract tactical changes are actuated by the knowledge from them both in and out of demands of the consumers based on the organization. XML offers document market demands, the strategic changes are schemas and tags, allowing readers to activated by shift in macro-environment. collect meta-information about each piece In this model, both the types of changes of information(http://www. computerworld. contribute to knowledge-based assets com/s/article/64911/Knowledge giving the shape to knowledge _Management? taxonomy). repositories. Knowledge Management tools have 3.2.2 Knowledge Management Matrix been defined by the scientists/ intellectuals in multifarious ways. To be specific, Allan The Knowledge Matrix model was Frost has described three various models conceptualized by Gamble and Blackwell of knowledge management such as, (i) in 2001 where they submitted a general KM Process Framework by Bukowitz and theoretical outline with guidelines for Williams described in 1999; (ii) KM execution and principally they stressed upon Matrix by Gamble and Blackwell in 2001 managerial initiatives of the organisation. and (iii) Knowledge Management Process The authors fragmented the knowledge Model by Botha et al in 2008. (http:// domain into four components such as, www.knowledge-management-tools.net/ a. Determination of knowledge source, knowledge-management.html). b. Organization of knowledge to measure 3.2.1 KM Process Framework the strengths and weakness including Bukowitz and Williams in 1999 have its relevance and reusability, visualized knowledge management as a c. Socialization of knowledge, and process heightening knowledge assets. The model was developed by him where d. Internalization of knowledge. he emphasized on knowledge initiatives The Knowledge Management Matrix which are the outcome of tactical and Model as devised by Gamble and strategic changes and need. While, the Blackwell is depicted below.

Type Embodied Represented Embedded Approach

Sense Observe Gather Hypothesis Organise Contextualize Categorise Map Socialise Share Disseminate Simulate Internalize Application, Decision, and Action Source: http://www.knowledge-management-tools.net/knowledge-management.html (27.9.13)

116 Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries

In this model, source determination 3.2.3 Knowledge Management Process of knowledge is one of the primary mechanisms of knowledge management This is another achievement in which after acquiring subject to knowledge model where Botha and others copyright is distilled and split into in 2008 developed a model known as different categories with specific Knowledge Management Process Model standard so as to disseminate the users and this model happens to be a realistic in a convenient channel which otherwise approach in knowledge management. This known as socialization. Ultimately, the model, however, does not emphasize on knowledge is internalized as creation of new knowledge as a specific institutional property under the knowledge management initiatives rather, copyright provision. has sharpened the idea on user point of view. The model propounded by the authors has been depicted below for clear understanding.

Source: http://www.knowledge-management-tools.net/knowledge-management.html (27.9.13)

4. Knowledge Management Repository Management’ (http://www.openjgate. com/Search/Search Results.aspx?). Many repositories both open source and consortium in both national and Likewise, UGC Infonent Digital international field have accumulated Library Consortium developed and information pertaining to multifarious maintained by UGC-INFLIBNET areas including knowledge management provides information on current as well through articles from versatile peer- as archival access to more than 5500+ peer reviewed journals. To project some of reviewed electronic journals and nine them, Informatics through Open J-Gate bibliographic databases covering a wide provides 7642 open access journals out range of e-resources on Arts, Humanities, of which 4578 are peer-reviewed journals Social Sciences, Physical Sciences, and 5821 terms matched to ‘Knowledge Chemical Sciences, Life Sciences,

117 R N Mishra & R K Ngurtinkhuma

Computer Sciences, Management, It may not be out of place to Mathematics and Statistics etc. However, mention that, INSPEC (http:// these e-resources are made available to the www.iee.org/publish/inspec), which is a member libraries of the institute. Further, bibliographic database, provides access INFLIBNET maintains knowledge to the world wide literature on , databases through IndCat, an on-line Electrical Engineering and Electronics, union catalogue of Indian Universities for Control Theory and Technology and more than 11.8 million bibliographic Computers. INSPEC which accumulates records from 123 university libraries with more than 7,503,985 citations, covers around 58.3 lakhs unique records, 4000 journals including the fields in 2,14,898 doctoral theses submitted to 238 Communications, Computer Indian Universities/ Institutes, 50,164 Applications, Computer Hardware and holding information of the serials of the Software, Information Technology and participating libraries including 16,843 Office Automation. From 1980 to 2005, unique records, 22,471 journal titles it has indexed 1789 articles on currently subscribed by the participating Knowledge Management (Zhuang; university libraries including journals 2006). from the UGC-infonent Digital Library Consortium (INFLIBNET;2010) Proper Further, web analysis of repositories knowledge management through creation of articles by different publishers on of database allows the academicians to knowledge management on various browse multiple resources for research perspectives available on Scirus has been and development and institute like placed below in Table-1 for last five years INFLIBNET has taken a pioneer step in commencing from 2009-10 to 2013-14 higher education to achieve the goal. (Till 29.09.2013). Table1: Articles on Knowledge Management in Scirus from 2009-2013 (Till 29.9.13) Sl. Publisher 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 Total No. 1 Science Direct 60679 67193 77649 85748 46022 337291 2 Pubmed Central 11490 16726 22533 14623 1825 67197 3 BioMed Central 5134 6414 7490 7040 3212 29290 4 Springer 3989 4571 5689 6680 3539 24468 5 Wiley-Blackwell 3699 4008 4809 5312 2697 20525 6 SAGE Pub 1001 1543 2130 2303 1148 8125 7 BMJ Group 940 1060 1439 1665 812 5916 8 Hindawi Pub. Cor. 890 1548 2965 3804 1869 11076 9 IOP Pub. 511 423 545 565 235 2279

118 Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries

Royal Society 307 321 373 332 122 1455 10 Publishing 11 Nature Pub. Group 125 62 25 2 0 214 12 Scitation 69 79 91 93 37 369 Oxford University 62 58 78 81 38 317 13 Press Cambridge 37 26 27 26 19 135 14 University Press 15 Maney Publishing 37 37 34 22 7 137 Lippincott Williams 18 22 23 15 6 84 16 & Wilkins Crystallography 15 16 11 7 3 52 17 Journals Online 18 RSC Publishing 6 9 5 200 202 422 American Physical 3 0 0 0 0 3 19 Society 20 Project Euclid 1 0 0 0 0 1 Total 89013 104116 125916 128518 61793 509354 Source: http://www.scirus.com/ (Accessed on 29.9.13)

Analysis of the Table-1 visualizes the potentiality of knowledge solved many that, Science Direct predominantly important issues and problems in business occupies in the first rank having been organizations through Knowledge based contributed 337291 articles on knowledge Computer System i.e, ‘Expert System’. management in Scirus during followed by Subsequently, however it emerged an Pubmed Central with 67197 number of indispensable tool in the field of Libraries, articles in the second rank and in the third Information Service and in other service rank the BioMed Central who has oriented sectors. contributed 29290 number of articles. This shows the consciousness of the Mention may be made that, extensive intellectuals, organisations, authors, knowledge in business and service researchers who are intensively engaged activities are evolved from a number of in the research in knowledge management. management authorities including practitioners as visualized by Amidon in 5. Impetus of Knowledge Management 1997 (Skhrme, 2004). This throws light Knowledge Management, as a upon the evolution and convergence of strategic lever came into existence accepted wisdom and scripts about especially during 1970s and 1980s where knowledge as a strategic parameter along

119 R N Mishra & R K Ngurtinkhuma with other initiatives such as responsive Knowledge and (ii) Tacit Knowledge. manufacturing, innovations and the However, the conversion processes of learning organization. knowledge can be categorized into The types of knowledge can be following four types (Raman; 2003; broadly categorized into (i) Explicit p.124), Tacit-to-Tacit - Socialization : Individuals irrespective of the types acquire new knowledge directly from others;  Tacit-to-Explicit - Externalization : It concerns with the articulation of knowledge into tangible form through dialogue;  Explicit-to-Explicit - Combination : It resembles to combining different forms of explicit knowledge found in the printed documents and or in databases.  Explicit-to-Tacit - Internalization : It is related to learning by capturing internalize knowledge from documents into their own body of experience

6. Knowledge Management In Libraries developed by the concerned institutions and organizations. According to Shanhong, the contents of Knowledge Management broadly can This includes three primary aspects, be grouped as follows which can be such as, (i) Theoretical Innovation applied for innovative outputs in the Management of Knowledge, (ii) Technical Library and Information Centres Innovation Management and (iii) (www.ifla.org) Organizational Innovation Management. 6.1 Knowledge Innovation Management The Theoretical Innovation Management is concerned with to Knowledge Innovation Management augment and broaden the theoretical and in Libraries and Information Centres is practical research fields in library and associated with the management of the by way of production, diffusion and repositioning of implementing the most recent knowledge both inside and outside the development trends in the field whereas, libraries through network systems Technical Innovation Management

120 Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries manages the network systems of technical restricting the knowledge within them or innovations. In the changing scenario of close group sharing. It is evident from library and information services including various instances that, even some of high technology alterations, the Libraries and dignitaries and experts brains reserve their Information Centers need to espouse the knowledge within themselves and do not Knowledge Management through disseminate or share knowledge as they technical expertise. The Organizational consider knowledge is a power dictum. As Innovation Management opens a set of there are a massive amount of knowledge windows for effective organizational users, it is very difficult to acquire management systems adaptable to the knowledge that already exists in the minds requirements in a digital library era for of knowledge creators restricted by them supporting and strengthening different due to various constraints. Therefore, activities of knowledge management by Libraries and Information Centres play a optimizing the functional departments and very crucial role with the knowledge operation procedures of libraries and creator by using diversified medias and information centers. Formulation of channels and techniques to get hold of management plans, Coordination of innovative knowledge in varied areas. The Knowledge Management activities, Internet, flooded with un-paralleled and Establishment of leading groups of unevaluated information adds Knowledge Flow, Evaluation of considerable knowledge for a wide range information to shape knowledge, Creation of user communities irrespective of the of knowledge through electronic resources areas and subjects. Library and are some of the important accomplishing Information Centers at this moment act as tasks for application of Knowledge positive bodies to explore information on Management activities in Libraries and a wide range of subjects, consolidate, Information Centers (Sheng;1999; 29-32). organize and disseminate the information with the help of new technological devices 6.2 Knowledge Sharing Management to the user communities. Here, the Libraries and Information Centers act as One more important segment of a filtering body and scale the information to Knowledge Management and Knowledge suit to the need of the users and as well as Dissemination Management is manage the information for effective Knowledge Sharing Management. The dissemination. In such cases, it becomes vital strategy for utilizing a Knowledge to reinforce Knowledge Dissemination Management System involves the management in libraries which can be procedure to capture, accumulate, carried out in the following ways. organize and share out the knowledge where, the subject experts, scientists etc. Library requires to create document contribute their knowledge to a system for resources in multifarious areas with the use by unknown persons, instead of addition of new knowledge in the

121 R N Mishra & R K Ngurtinkhuma concerned field from internet and practice of through knowledge in the area disseminate the information in house and and it also involves huge financial burden. aboard through network. However, Libraries can take an effort to create virtual libraries system or  Imparting continuous new technology information centers for dissemination skills to the library staffs to acquire knowledge to the users’ communities the information, consolidate and according to their respective information repackaging information. requirements by using abundant  Creating an environment of expert information resources through high-speed system in proper dissemination of information networks. knowledge. Setting up digitized knowledge  Use of medias to ensure security of services is actually a development trend operation of networks, and prevent of libraries in the 21st century which online criminal activities and online presupposes creating step by step the dissemination of inappropriate users-oriented information service information (Sheng; 1999; 29-32). systems such as information dissemination, information search and  Proliferation of knowledge through special supply of information; quickening all available channels. the creation of digitized libraries; studying 6.3 Knowledge Application Management the methods, means and techniques of information distribution and search with Library and Information Centers in the Internet as the base and WEB st the domain of Internet era during 21 technique as the core entity including century essentially requires to keep abreast digitizing libraries’ resources. The with the latest services opportunities for electronic libraries or digitized libraries its clienteles so as to built a need-based are the technical modes and development collection by way of collecting, trends of libraries in the knowledge amalgamating exhaustive information economy era. The knowledge services of with due filtration irrespective of the areas. libraries in the future will start with The information thus collected by the creation of databases comprising libraries requires to be transmitted to the electronic journals and books in different users with high bandwidth networks languages that have discipline features and which are the demand of the day. can operate on high-speed information With the present trend of the demands networks. Great efforts should be made of the user communities in Libraries and to transform all existing large non- other service organizations, it has electronic information resources into practically complicated to organize electronic information and integrate them knowledge coherently which involves the into electronic libraries.

122 Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries

6.4 Human Resources Management center. Hence, the foremost train of thought in realizing knowledge Human resources management is management of libraries is a rational another important component of the design of the organizational structure and knowledge management which basically procedures of libraries, and cultural begins with quality training in consonance fostering, as well as modernized with new information technology. It information support, thus creating an further requires a specialized training so environment and incentive mechanism for as to produce a spell bound information innovation, exchange, study and resources for the academic world. In application of the knowledge. Though it practice, attention is required to be agreed is tough job to apply all technological to diversity and variation of library staffs’ applications and compile, regrouping, requirements, strengthening management organize and disseminate the right of different library staffs by applying information to the right users at right time contingency management approach. still, it is necessary for the Library and 7. Technologies For Realizing Information Centers to adapt to the Knowledge Management In Libraries changing environment and make knowledge processing value chain. The primary focal point of While, Data Mining, Web Mining, knowledge management in libraries and Information Products, various Sources of information centers concerns to the Information etc. act as some of the prime generation, accumulation, organization components of input processes and and proper dissemination of knowledge. through viable tools create Knowledge To build a proper knowledge center it is Database, Internet, Intranets, Groupware, required to strengthen innovation Document Delivery Services, Decision consciousness and abilities among the Support, are yield process which are library staffs with proper technological disseminated to the users mostly through training and to make knowledge ICT applications. This has been depicted applicable most effectively in the libraries in Figure- 1 for better clarification and so as make library a viable knowledge understanding.

Figure 1 - Computer support for Knowledge Processes

123 R N Mishra & R K Ngurtinkhuma

8. Role of Librarian Managing knowledge in 21st century has become a challenging issue for the Librarians of irrespective of the types librarian in view of the globalization of of libraries whether academic, special or information through ICT and public are in the process of transferring accumulation of proliferated e-resources of knowledge from one form to the other. in the libraries in multiple ways. In true The history of transfer of intellectual sense of the term, library and information resources by the librarians can be traced th professionals who constitute the human back to the first 20 century in Europe and resources need to develop their America where, Paul Otlet in Europe had professional competencies in this a vision of collecting, codifying, and automated and networked environment organizing the global knowledge, Henri (Rath; 2006; p.31). The skills that the LaFontaine who primarily concentrated present and future librarianship are to for bibliographical studies formed the inculcate comprise; Brussels Institute in 1890 which later on was known as International Institute of  Expertise in using innovative Bibliography and thus with their efforts, emerging technologies to design and International Federation of develop web-based applications, Documentation (FID) came in to existence programs to render services; (Raman; 2003). In the present century consequent upon the upcoming of ICT and  Bestowing with periodic conduct of its applications in the libraries, the information literacy programs to keep horizons of the responsibility of the abreast with the users and the staffs librarians increased with regard to as well to tune to the latest accumulation, organization, management developments in the library; and service. There is need for a paradigm  Imparting continuing education and shift in libraries and information centers training programs for users and staff that require undergoing change in their regularly; attitude and concentrate on professional commitment. Orna viewed the shifting  Drawing consensus between the responsibility of the professionals from administrator and the librarian in guardian of information to source of materializing the policies for knowledge and innovation through augmentation of library services; commuting information to intelligence  Developing willpower and change in service by means of expert filtering, the mind setup to accept the editing, archiving, and researching challenges being imposed due to (Shahid). The author annotated that the advancement of ICT; skills and focus of librarians and information workers will change  Assurance of Quality Services and radically. sound communication skills;

124 Relevance of Knowledge Management and it’s Tools in Technology Based Academic Libraries

 Having knowledge of designing, technologies are the essential a tools in developing, launching and materializing the mission of the library maintaining of digital content where, the dedicated professionals not management and assess, evaluate, only built the user-centric collections but recommend and test various also accumulate, distill, organize and methodologies, policies, and disseminate the knowledge with standards standards for utilizing computer and copyright. The transformed software in the process of creating knowledge, thus, in the preferred structure and preserving digital process of accomplish the multifarious objectives of creating and preserving digital the users. Information Technology not collections and resources; only provides a well defined and guided structure through various proprietary and Hence, in this technological age, the open access softwares where explicit only issue of accumulation does not count knowledge could be exploited and which rather, needs a proper mechanism organized through databases but also, to organize with the help of technology contributes significantly in Knowledge for accelerating service and seamless Management. Knowledge Management access on web by the end-users. though a complex and multifaceted term Emergence, growth and development, by nature practically acts as the foremost popularity of internet in an information information in the systems and processes society has an immediate effect for with the application of incentives to transformation to a knowledge society motivate employees and forging alliances which have posed a number of challenges to infuse business with knowledge. for the library professionals to change their Effective Knowledge Management requires management operations and service delivery. Further, it has become more a culmination of many organizational challenging for the library professionals elements such as, technology, human to adopt the knowledge management in resources practices, organizational structure the libraries to meet the growing demands and culture in order to ensure that the right of the users. knowledge is brought to bear at the right time. Knowledge sharing happens to be 9. Conclusion another important segment in knowledge management for sharing information among The Libraries and Information the employees, departments, users etc. Centers in the present technology scenario act as intermediary agency and From the foregoing discussions it termination points to transmit the could be inferred that, it is the need of the consequences of knowledge innovation hour for the library professionals to through realistic techniques by employing enhance skills not only to meet the their skills and competencies to the users demands of the users with resource irrespective of their location. Innovative management in the library but also

125 R N Mishra & R K Ngurtinkhuma sustainable economic development which, knowledge implementation adds immense however, requires to be materialized with value in knowledge management for the framework of copyright. A successful effective library and information services.

References Bellinger, Gene. (2004), Knowledge Management—Emerging Perspectives, Retrieved from http:// www.systems-thinking.org/kmgmt/kmgmt.htm#bel97a (Accessed on 16.8.13.) Encyclopedia Britannica CD (2001). Frost, Alan. (2012), Three Knowledge Management Models, Retrieved from http://www.knowledge- management-tools.net/knowledge-management.html (Accessed on 27.9.13) Inflibnet. (2010), INFLIBNET@ A Glance; INFLIBNET Centre; Ahmedabad. Keary, Mal. (1997), Information Management as an instrument of change. Managing Information. 4 (3), 35-7. Knowledge Management. Retrieved from http://www.kmworld.com/Articles/Editorial/ ViewPoints/ Unleash- Knowledge-Value-Add-%28KVA%29-in-the-Customer-Engagement-Center- 91677.aspx (Accessed on 29.9.14) Mishra, R. N. (2005), ‘Web based tools for Knowledge Management’, LIS Profession in India: Vision for 2010 (pp. 179-182). Kolkata: IASLIC. Mishra, R N. (2011), ‘Magnitude and Activities of Knowledge Management and It’s relevance in 21st century Libraries’, Open Learning Society (Ed.), International Conference on e-learning and Knowledge Management (pp. 1-15), Kuala Lumpur. Mishra, R N. (2012), ‘Significance of Knowledge Management in Digital Library Scenario’, C R Karisidappa, P. Padhi (Eds.), Information Control and Management in Digital Environment, New Delhi: Atlantic Publisher (P) Ltd., pp.12-22 Mishra, R N and Ngurtinkhuma, R K, (2015), ‘Perspectives of Prototype Library System: Issues and Challenges’ K P Singh and others (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on 2nd Tecnia SRFLISindia Summit 2015 New Delhi: Enriched Pub. Pvt.Ltd, pp.399-412 Raman, A. Thothathri. (2003), Knowledge Management: A resource book, New Delhi: Excel, p.121. Rath, Pravakar. (2006), ‘Human Resources Development in Library Automated and Networked and Digital Environment’, Souvenir- Fourth Convention PLANNER, 2006. Aizawl: Mizoram University. Ravichandra Rao, I K. (2002), ‘Issues and Challenges in Information Management in the context of fast emerging electronic sources, Proceedings of Information Management in e-libraries, Kharagpur : IIT Shahid, Syed Md. Knowledge Economy in India and the Growth of Knowledge Management : Role of Library and Information Professionals, Retrieved from crl.du.ac.in/ical09/papers/index_files/ ical-22_210_446_1_RV.pdf (Accessed on 4.9.13) Sheng, Xiaoping. (1999), ‘Knowledge Management of Libraries in the 21st Century’, Library Magazine, 8, 29-32

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Siau, N F & Tian, Y. ‘Knowledge Management mechanisms of financial service sites’ Communications of the ACM. 48(6), 117-23. Skhrme, D J. (2004), ‘From Information Management to Knowledge Management: Are you prepared?’ On line Information. Subramaniam, Anand. (2013), Unleash Knowledge Value Add (KVA) in the Customer Engagement Center, available at http://www.kmworld.com/Articles/Editorial/ViewPoints/ Unleash- Knowledge-Value-Add-%28KVA%29-in-the-Customer-Engagement-Center-91677.aspx (Accessed on 29.9.14) Taylor, Allan and Farrell. Stephen (1992), ‘Information Management in context’ Aslib Proceedings. 44(9), 319-22. WK-3, Available at http://km.brint.com/CBK/WorkingKnowledge3.pdf (Accessed on 10.9.13) www.computerworld.com/s/article/64911/ Knowledge_Management? taxonomy www.ifla.org, (Accessed on 8.11.2013.) www.knowledge-management-tools.net/knowledge-management.html, (Accessed on 27.9.14) Zhaung, Dongsong (2006), ‘Knowledge Management in Organization’, Journal of Database Management. January-March.

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Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme in India: A Review

Rajat Sharmacharjee Momota Chakravorty

Abstract ICDS is a centrally sponsored flagship scheme for holistic development of children.Indian children have underprivileged childhoods starting from birth. The infant mortality rate of Indian children is 44 and the under-five mortality rate is 93 and 25% of newborn children are underweight among other nutritional, immunization and educational deficiencies of children in India (UNICEF, 2011). India is lagging behind the other developing countries of the world in this respect. Given such a daunting challenge, ICDS was first launched in 1975 in accordance to the National Policy for Children in India (Kapil, 2002).It is implemented through the concerned States/UTs with the funding by the Government in the ratio of 50:50 for supplementary nutrition (90:10 in NER) and 90:10 for other operational components between the Centre and the States. The Scheme provides a variety of services for the development of child and women such as immunization, supplementary nutrition, health check-up, referral services, pre-school non-formal education and nutrition and health information.ICDS today is the world’s largest community based outreach program for early child development, reaching out to over 9.65 crorebeneficiaries of which 7.82 crore is children under 6 and 1.83 crore is lactating mothers. The objective of this paper is to highlight the working of ICDS and the need of convergence of services under ICDS with schemes of other departments. Key words: ICDS, Women development, AWC, CAG Report, Convergence.

Introduction democracy. Article 39(f) of the Constitution states that ‘Children are Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru said, ‘you can given opportunities and facilities to tell the condition of a nation by looking at develop in a healthy manner and in the status of its women’. The Constitution conditions of freedom and dignity and that of India recognized the importance of childhood and youth are protected against secured childhood and protection of moral and material abandonment.’ children’s rights as crucial components for Integrated child development services laying the foundations of India’s (ICDS)scheme is one of such community

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 128 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme in India: A Review development programme in response to the Line (BPL) as criteria for delivery of challenge of meeting the holistic needs of services. Out of the various services, the the women and children (NIPCCD, non-formal pre-school education and 1992).The Integrated Child Development supplementary nutrition are provided by Services (ICDS) Scheme was initiated in the Anganwadi Worker (AWW) and India on 2nd October 1975 with the Anganwadi Helper (AWH). The other objectives toimprove the nutritional and services such as immunization, health health status of children in the age-group check-up, referral services and nuitrition 0-6 years, lay the foundation for proper and health education are provided with psychological, physical and social the help of medical personnels mainly development of the child, reduce the with ANM (Nurse cum Midwife). The incidence of mortality, morbidity, ICDS scheme consists of the Anganwadi malnutrition and school dropout, achieve Workers, Anganwadi Helpers, effective co-ordination of policy and Supervisors, Child Development Project implementation amongst the various Officers (CDPOs) and District departments to promote child development, Programme Officers (DPOs). Anganwadi enhance the capability of the mother to look Worker, a lady selected from the local after the normal health and nutritional community, is a community based needs of the child through proper nutrition frontline honorary worker of the ICDS and health education. It is a comprehensive program. Besides, the medical officers, program designed to ensure the holistic Auxilary Nurse Midwife (ANM) and development of children. It is one of the Accredited Social Health Activist largest childcare programs in the world and (ASHA) form a team with the ICDS has been in operation for more than three functionaries to achieve convergence of decades. The ICDS scheme integrates different services. several aspects of early childhood This programme finally has reached development and provides supplementary out to 15 million expectant and nursing nutrition, immunization, health check-ups, mothers and 70 million children under 6 and referral services to children below six years of age with over 1.2 million AWCs years of age as well as expecting and (UNICEF, 2011).The scheme aims to nursing mothers. Additionally, it offers non- improve the nutritional and health status formal pre-school education to children in of vulnerable groups including pre-school the age group of 3-6 years and health and children, pregnant women and nursing nutrition education to women in the age mothers. A key element of this programme group of 15-45 years. is that all the services are provided under one roof i.e the anganwadi centre (AWC). Functioning of ICDS Scheme The Ministry of Women and Child In India, ICDS was initiated in 1975 Development is the nodal department for in 33 blocks and used Below Poverty UNICEF, which has provided essential

129 Rajat Sharmacharjee & Momota Chakravorty supplies to the ICDS Scheme since 1975. inconvenient timing of classes(Barman, In India, following a Supreme Court Nibha Rani ,2001). Although a higher order, ICDS was expanded in 2005 to percentage of women were aware about cover the entire country. Further, in 2008, the need of this program, but they were the Government of India adopted the ignored about the various activities that World Health Organization (WHO) were carried out at AWCs and extent of standards for measuring and monitoring their participation was woefully the child growth and development, both inadequate (Dutta , 2012). The ICDS has for the ICDS and the NRHM. However, a huge potential as a platform to provide various studies on ICDS revealed that the comprehensive maternal and child working of ICDS in India was far from services. Although there is a wide expectation. While the scheme has been coverage under the ICDS blocks, many revised since 2005, in 2009 the United of them are not functioning optimally. Nations Development Programme and Infrastructure and basic amenities and the PlanningCommission stated that training components need to be India had made insufficient progress strengthened (Gupta. A et al, 2013). inimproving nutritional status of children. Despite the fact that ICDS has been in operation for more than three decades, Community participation was not states have made limited progress in significant because of various reasons tackling under nutrition. There is a large such as low awareness level of the inter-state variation with the phenomenon benefits and facilities provided to being concentrated in a few states; Bihar, pregnant women and children, irregular Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, visit by the AWW, low quality of food Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh account for provided etc. (Banerjee,1999).Activities more than 80 percent of the cases of child based on community participation and malnutrition. In 2005, Bihar, Madhya maintaining liaison with other Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh institutions were given medium level of accounted for 43 percent of all under- priority by the AWWs. It was found that weight children in India. Table 1 depicts the NHE program was irregular and the present status of number of operational teaching was not satisfactory because of projects, AWCs, nutrition & education poor contents of classes and beneficiaries.

130 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme in India: A Review

Table 1: Present Status of number of operational projects/AWCs/Nutrition & Education Beneficiaries No. of No. of pre- No. of Supplementary school Year ending No. of operational operational nutrition education on March 31 projects AWCs beneficiaries beneficiaries (Lakhs) (Lakhs) 2002 4608 545714 375.1 166.56 2003 4903 600391 387.84 188.02 2004 5267 649307 415.08 204.38 2005 5422 706872 484.42 218.41 2006 5659 748229 562.18 244.92 2007 5829 844743 705.43 300.81 2008 6070 1013337 843.26 339.11 2009 6120 1044269 873.43 340.6 2010 6509 1142029 884.34 354.93 CAGR 4.41 9.67 11.32 9.92 Source: Planning Commission, Evaluation Report on Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) released in March 2011. Table 1 shows the increase in Table 2 indicates that the overall thenumber of operational projects, performance of ICDS Scheme was higher AWCs, nutrition & education in Karnataka (PI 0.728) followed by beneficiaries at a CAGR of 4.41, 9.67, Maharashtra (PI 0.716) and Andhra 11.32 and 9.92 percent respectively. Pradesh (PI 0.689). Table 2: State-wise Performance of ICDS Scheme State Performance Index (PI) Rank Karnataka 0.728 1 Maharashtra 0.716 2 Andhra Pradesh 0.689 3 West Bengal 0.682 4 Jharkhand 0.68 5 Tamil Nadu 0.671 6 Orissa 0.635 7 Kerala 0.612 8 Madhya Pradesh 0.572 9 Haryana 0.57 10 Gujarat 0.563 11

131 Rajat Sharmacharjee & Momota Chakravorty

Himachal Pradesh 0.54 12 Chhattisgarh 0.53 13 Jammu and Kashmir 0.494 14 Punjab 0.402 15 Uttaranchal 0.372 16 Rajasthan 0.317 17 Uttar Pradesh 0.295 18 Assam 0.253 19 Bihar 0.248 20 Source: Planning Commission, Evaluation Report on Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) released in March 2011

CAG Report on ICDS Scheme functioning under the ICDS scheme did not have their own building and 25 per The Comptroller and Auditor General cent were functioning in semi-pucca/ of India’s performance audit of the kachcha buildings, or open/partially Integrated Child Development Services covered space. Worse, poor hygiene and (ICDS) Scheme contain results of sanitation was noticed due to the absence performance audit conducted between of toilets in 52 per cent of the 2006-07 and 2010-11. The CAG audit anganwadis.Further, kits were not reveals lapses in ICDS implementation. available in 33 to 49 per cent of the It is reported that India has registered anganwadis due to failure of the State higher infant and child mortality rates than governments in spending funds released to Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. Further the them by the Centre. Also functional country’s position on the measure of the weighing machines for babies and adults percentage of underweight and severely were not available in 26 per cent and 58 underweight children during the period per cent of the centers respectively. The 2006-10 was more than twice than that in essential utensils required for providing the Sub-Saharan African region.On supplementary nutrition to the beneficiaries diversion of money meant for ICDS, the were also not available in many audit report notes that Rs. 57.82 crore was places.(Source: Performance Audit of diverted to activities not permitted under ICDS Scheme, Report No. 22 of 2012-13) the scheme in five of the test-checked States and Rs. 70.11 crore was parked in Challenges of ICDS Scheme civil deposits and personal ledger The ICDS Scheme has been suffering accounts/bank accounts/treasury, resulting from the following bottlenecks: in the blocking of funds.Pointing out the shortage of staff and key functionaries at  Prior to 2005, ICDS assigned too all levels, the audit notes that 61 per cent much focus to children aged 4-6 years at of the test-checked anganwadis the cost of younger children (0-3 years)

132 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme in India: A Review who are at a more vulnerable stage in their ranging from one to seven months, and development and where nutrition insufficient. Ready-to-eat supplements supplements have the most effect. provided to pregnant and lactating Moreover states with the highest incidence mothers were less than the norm. Some of child under nutrition and malnutrition AWWs reported that the number of were the ones that received the least funds children fully immunized was less than and coverage under ICDS. anticipated because of stiff resistance from certain sections of communities resulting  More than 60 percent of the angawadi from inadequate awareness about the centres (AWCs) had no toilet facilities. advantages of immunization. Inadequate Lack of space within the premises for infrastructure, including shortage of conducting outdoor and indoor activities such as games and songs adversely affects AWCs and staff, also affected the delivery of non-formal pre-school immunization rates (CAG, 2005). education. Approximately 49 percent of the Conclusion AWCs had inadequate space for outdoor and indoor activities and 50 percent had ICDS Scheme is a flagship no separate space for storage of materials. programme of the Ministry of Women and Similarly, the number of cooking and Child Development. In order to achieve serving utensils was considered inadequate its objectives in full, an integrated in 42 percent and 37 percent of AWCs approach along with appropriate actions respectively (CAG, 2005). becomes the need of the hour. ICDS should target children in the age group of  Approximately 44 percent of the 0-3 years, instead of focusing primarily AWCs lacked pre-school education kits on children in the 4-6 year age group, and about 37 percent reported non when malnutrition may have already set availability of materials/aids for nutrition in.Involving local communities in the and health education (CAG, 2005). delivery and monitoring of the scheme is Between 1999 and 2005 only Rs.1.79 widely held to be the best way to improve crore was spent on procuring medicines its performance. For instance, getting for treatment of dysentry, diarrhea, women from local Self Help Groups to respiratory tract diseases, and skin and eye cook for children and pregnant and infections compared to Rs.10.4 crore that lactating mothers may ensure that the was allocated for these purposes. beneficiaries are provided nutrients as Similarly, with respect to funding for de- prescribed within the programme.The worming medicines only Rs.0.27 crore success of ICDS rests largely on was spent of the available Rs. 7.02 crore communities accepting the services (CAG, 2005). provided. Community uptake of ICDS  The supply of nutrition supplements services can be improved through was irregular, with gaps in delivery awareness drives to raise consciousness

133 Rajat Sharmacharjee & Momota Chakravorty of the community on issues related to improving the quality of better women and children. In particular, services.Sufficient training should be given discrimination against girl children, to ICDS functionaries from time to time. female foeticide, and infanticide is a problem that is prevalent in large parts of ICDS scheme envisages an integrated the country. To counter this, ICDS could delivery of a multiplicity of services which incorporate awareness campaigns to are handled by different departments at encourage people to care for girls as well different levels. Three of the six services as boys.In order to fulfill the objectives under ICDS viz. immunization, health of the scheme the level of co-ordination check up and referral services are between the welfare, health and other delivered through public health related departments should be infrastructure under the Ministry of Health enhanced.Emphasis should be given to and Family Welfare. involve ICDS functionaries in the The convergence among departments planning of the programmes at all stages. and programmes for the delivery of ICDS, Also a system of providing incentives to constitution of co-ordination committees ICDS functionaries needs to be at the Central, State , Block and village developed.The Government agencies are level to review the progress of the ICDS responsible for the implementation of the scheme under State Level Co-ordination programme and, therefore, required to Committee (SLCC), joint meeting of the organize some publicity campaign to create State Nodal department with NRHM awareness and carried out a sense of functionaries is required to be held in confidence and zeal in the minds of the every quarter to discuss about different target group to come forward and reap the health aspects of ICDS and to gather benefits of the programme. There is need inputs on and other health concerns of the to strengthen the system of supervision for ICDS from state on regular basis .

References: Sharma, A et al., (1992), National Evaluation of ICDS, NIPCCD, New Delhi. Banerjee, Sangita (1999), A Study on Community Participation in ICDS at North Calcutta, VidyaSagar School of Social Work. Barman, Nibha Rani (2001), Functioning of AWCs under ICDS Scheme- An Evaluative Study, Assam Agricultural University, Department of Child Development and Family Relations. CAG Report on ICDS, 2005 and 2011 Dutta, Swapna (2012), Participation of rural women in ICDS programme in Assam. Asian J. Home Science, 7 (2): 354-35). Gupta A et al ( 2013), ICDS:A Journey of 37 Years, Indian Journal of Community Health, vol.25.

134 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme in India: A Review

Kapil, U (2002), ICDS : A Programme for Holistic Development of Children in India, Indian Journal of Pediatrics , P. 597-601. L.S.N Murthy and Sunita, M (1988), A Study on ICDS Project, NIPCCD, New Delhi. Ministry of Women & Child Development, Government of India, Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme, Retrieved March 2015. UNICEF (2011), Respecting the Rights of the Indian Child, Retrieved March 2015. World Health Organization, The WHO Child Growth Standards, Retrieved March 2015.

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Tones in Mizo Language

Lalrindiki T. Fanai

Abstract The paper on “ Tones in Mizo Language” deals with the identification of lexical (root) tones in Mizo. In the midst of various assumptions about differing opinions on the number of tones present in the language, the paper establishes that there are only four lexical tones in Mizo viz High tone,Low tone,Rising tone and Falling tone. It also highlights the fact that since Mizo, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of tone languages the phonology of tones in Mizo is closer to the Asian typology. Key words: Tones, Inventory, Lexical, Homophones, Non-derived Contour

I. Introduction terms. In these cases, the contour tones are Pike (1961) defines a tone language not, phonologically or lexically distinct as a language in which a pitch of a syllable from level tones. On the other hand, there determines the lexical meaning of words. are tone languages in which both level tones Pitch variation which is ‘segmented’ into and contour tones are lexically distinct. units of ‘tonemes’ or ‘tones’ (not in the Most Asian tone languages are supposed sense of a phonetic tone group) is realized to be of this type. The typological as high, low, mid or as a glide from one differences among tone languages are distinct pitch level to another distinct pitch discussed in detail in Pike (1961), Fromkin level. Pike also says that tone languages (1978), Yip (1980), etc. Since Mizo may use different tonal systems to belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of distinguish the meaning of words. Some tone languages the phonology of tones in tone languages make use of only level Mizo is closer to the Asian typology. tones as in most African tone languages. 2. Description of the Tones of Mizo The presence of a glide or a contour tone in this type of languages, as Pike observes, The different pitch levels in Mizo may be non-significant. That is, contour have been classified mainly into four basic tones are created when there is a transition tonal melodies. In Weidert (1975) they from one distinct level tone to another or are described as High level, High-falling, through the association of floating tones Low-rising and Low level. In L. Chhangte to tone-bearing units in auto-segmental (1986), they are High, Rising, Falling and

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 136 Tones in Mizo Language

Mid-Low. Bright (1957) has the contrastive. The Mid-Low tone, which is following: High (level), Falling (high to the only contour tone in the language will low), Rising and allophonic Mid-level and be shown to behave like a unitary toneme Mid-to-Low falling tones. The phonologically and hence will be classification of Mizo tones in this paper represented as a Low tone. Examples of conforms more or less to that of L. the four tonal melodies which are Chhangte (1986) except for one additional contrastive and lexically significant are tone, an Extra-low tone which is non- given below.

3. Tonal Melodies a. (i) lei - ‘slanting’ - High tone (ii) lei - ‘to buy’ - Rising tone (iii) lei - ‘a bridge’ - Low tone b. (i) pa - ‘father’ - Falling tone (ii) pa - ‘male’ - Low tone (iii) pa - ‘mushroom’ - Rising tone c. (i) sam - ‘easy’ - High tone (ii) sam - ‘hair’ - Rising tone d. (i) man - ‘to arrest/catch - High tone (ii) man - ‘cost of’ - Low tone e. (i) man - ‘dream’ - Rising tone (short form) (ii) man - ‘to become - Falling tone extinct’ f. (i) tawng - ‘a measurement - Low tone (ii) tawng - ‘to reach up to’ - Falling tone (e.g. roof/ceiling) From the above examples, we arrive at the following inventory of contrastive tones in Mizo as given below. 4. Mizo tone Inventory a. lei - ‘slanting’ - High tone b. lei - ‘a bridge’ - Low tone c. pa - ‘mushroom’ - Rising tone d. pa - ‘father’ - Falling tone

137 Lalrindiki T. Fanai

Following the general convention of diacritic tone markings, the tones in (4) can be represented as in (5). 5. Tone Markings a. H - / ( High tone) b. L - \ ( Low tone ) c. LH - v ( Rising tone ) d. HL - ^ ( Falling tone ) 6. A Note on Homophonous Tones It has been illustrated that Mizo has four basic distinctive tone melodies. It is also seen that a single lexical item can have two different meanings through distinct tonal specifications. There are also cases of tonal homophony; homophonous lexical items with distinct meanings. The meanings of these words are interpretable in contexts only. 7. Contextual Meanings a. (i) mu = H tone - ‘to sleep’ (ii) mu = H tone - ‘an eagle’ (iii) tui = H tone - ‘be tasty’ (iv) tui = H tone - ‘an egg’ b. (i) la = L tone - ‘to take’ (ii) la = L tone - ‘thread’ (iii) dai = L tone - ‘be cool’ (iv) dai = L tone - ‘dew’ c. (i) lei = Rising tone -‘to buy’ (ii) lei = Rising tone -‘earth’ (iii) suan = Rising tone -‘to take off (e.g. from the fire) (iv) suan = Rising tone -‘silver’ d. (i) mek = Falling tone - ‘to emit sparks’ (ii) mek = Falling tone - ‘thunderbolt’ (iii) tawk = Falling tone - ‘to meet/encounter (iv) tawk = Falling tone - ‘to be enough’ 8. Tones in Non-derived Words The following examples illustrate tonal specifications in non-derived monosyllabic and polysyllabic words.

138 Tones in Mizo Language

9. Syllables a. Monosyllables (i) High tone (ii) Low tone a. u - ‘elder brother/sister’ a. e - ‘to defecate’ b. ang - ‘to open the mouth’ b. em - ‘cane basket’ c. ar - ‘chicken’ c. mu - ‘to be lumpy’ d. sawn - ‘illegitimate child’ d. hang - ‘dark- complexioned’ e. dil - ‘to ask’ e. dar - ‘the shoulder’ f. khu - ‘one’s hometown’ f. pua - ‘to carry on the back’ g. piang - ‘to be born’ g. lian - ‘be big’ h. sual - ‘to rape’ h. hmuar - ‘ mildewed’ i. lai - ‘navel’ i. lai - ‘to dig’ j. khap - ‘to blink’ j. khap - ‘to prohibit’ k. kal - ‘to go’ k. dul - ‘belly’ (iii) Rising tone (iv)Falling tone a. u - ‘to howl’ a. at - ‘to cut’ (eg. grass) b. haw - ‘to go home’ b. awng - ‘a hole’ c. awl - ‘to be unoccupied free c. mu - ‘seed’ d. fun - ‘to wrap’ d. phung - ‘a ghost’ e. hua - ‘to hate’ e. kil - ‘to sit around for a meal/ to surround’ f. fiak - ‘to be high pitched’ f. puak - ‘to explode’ g. puan - ‘a cloth’ g. hual - ‘to be betrothed’ h. hnial - ‘to argue’ h. hung - ‘to fence’ i. sam - ‘hair’ i. khel - ‘to gnaw’ j. kal - ‘kidney’ j. lut - ‘to go in’ k. fei - ‘a spear’ k. phiat - ‘to sweep’ b. Disyllables (i) H H (ii) L L a. thlangdar - ‘name of a beetle’ a. vangvat - ‘a leech’ b. paikawng - ‘basket made of bamboo’ b. pheikhawk - ‘shoe’ c. vaimim - ‘maize’ c. bungrua - ‘luggage’ (iii) L H (iv) H L a. fanghma - ‘cucumber’ a. phenglawng - ‘a flute’ b. kaikuang - ‘prawn’ b. hmelma - ‘an enemy’ c. pawvawng - ‘name of a large fly’ c. mingmang - ‘guitar’

139 Lalrindiki T. Fanai

(v) L LH (vi) L HL a. chengkawl - ‘water snail’ a. chepa - ‘a type of a squirrel’ b. sephung - ‘dung-beetle’ b. chukchu - cockroach’ c. depde - ‘be dishonest’ c. thawmhnaw - ‘clothes’ (e.g. dresses) (vii) H LH (viii) HL L a. faifuk - ‘to whistle’ a. huaihawt - ‘to organize’ (ix) LH LH a. zauthau - ‘to be excited’ b. mumal - ‘to be definite’ c. Trisyllables (i) L L L (ii) L H H a. rangkachak - ‘gold’ a. tawtawrawt - ‘a bugle’ The distribution of tones in non-derived words is schematized below. High tone is represented as H, Low tone as L, Rising tone as LH and Falling tone as HL. 10. a. Monosyllables b. Disyllables (i) L (ii) H (i) L L (ii) H H (iii) L H (iv) H L (iii) L H (iv) H L (v) L LH (vi) H LH (vii) L HL (viii)* H HL (ix) * LH H (x) * LH L (xiii) LH LH (xiv) * HL HL c. Trisyllables (i) L L L (ii) L H H

Pitch variations recorded on the Visi- being mapped on to the same syllable or pitch meter reveal some interesting to different syllables. correlations between surface L and H The Low tone in Mizo, as mentioned sequences in monosyllabic and disyllabic before, is a unitary level tone underlyingly. words. The sequences of L tones and the Its complete contour specification i.e. the sequences of H tones in disyllables glide from a mid to a low pitch is obtained correlate well with L and H tones melodies during the course of the derivation. respectively in monosyllables. But the phonetic realization of the sequences of The tones of syllables with a glottal stop LH and HL melodies is dependent on their in the Coda in derived environments is

140 Tones in Mizo Language uniformly Low. But this Low tone is Mizo is a tone depressor. In non-derived different from the normal low tone. words, syllables with a glottal stop in the Instrumental experiment shows a steep, Coda can have tonal specifications rapid fall wherever there is a glottal stop different from the extra-low tone as in the Coda therefore, the glottal stop in exemplified below.

11. a Monosyllables (i) bauh ( High) - ‘to bark’ (ii) pheuh ( High ) - ‘at long intervals’ (iii) chheih (High) - ‘an exclamation’ (iv) seih (High) - ‘to smile’ b. Reduplicated adverbs/expressions (i) nelh nelh ( High High ) - ‘suggests something small and light’ (e.g.to carry)

(ii) thauh thau - ‘suggests the big steps taken by a big person’ (e.g. walking)

Contour Tones occur in this system are to be considered Differences in the function and non-phonemic glides. In a contour behavior of tones among tone languages system, the glides are basic. Therefore, have made it difficult to arrive at a uniform they are to be treated as lexically system of phonological representation of significant pitch units. The arguments tones. The representation of tones with given by Pike (1961) in support of unitary respect to distinct pitch levels of high, mid contour features are reproduced below: or low is non-controversial. But the a. “The basic toneme is gliding instead representation of Contour tones is still a of level. point of contention. There are two conflicting representations that are being b. The unitary contour glides cannot be proposed for contour tones. Whereas a interrupted by morpheme boundaries contour tone is claimed to be represented as as can the non-phonemic compounded a sequence of level tones according to one types of a register system. theory, the other theory regards a contour c. The beginning and ending points of tones as an independent phonemic unit, the glide of a contour system cannot distinct from level tones (Cf. Pike (1961), be equated with level tonemes in the Wang (1967), Fromkin (1978), Yip (1980). same system, whereas all glides of Pike (1961) distinguishes tone the register system are to be languages into register and contour interpreted phonemically in terms of systems. A register tone system utilizes their end points.” only level tones and contour tones that (Pike (1961): p.8)

141 Lalrindiki T. Fanai

In the subsequent literature, contour undergoing tone rules. If contour tones tones in African languages have been are treated as unitary features, reference analyzed as sequences of level tones (Cf. cannot be made to their end-points when Goldsmith (1976), William (1970), Leben required by linguistic processes. (1978), Clements (1981), Pulleyblank However, Yip (1989) observes that (1986)). In spite of the different behavior contour tones sometimes behave like of contour tones in African tone languages affricates. They associate as units and in and Asian tone languages, arguments in some tone languages, they also exhibit favour of contour tones as sequences of ‘edge-effect’ i.e. one of the components level tones in the latter have also been of a branching tone can spread (Cf. Yip motivated. For instance, Yip (1980) argues (1989)). According to her, this behavior that the decomposition of contour tones of tones can be explained if tonal features into sequences of level tones allows a hang off a tonal root node, and the tonal simpler statement of the distribution of root node is allowed to branch. She tonal melodies in these languages. She proposes two kinds of contour structures further argues that contour tones which differentiate between a contour tone sometimes behave like level tones that and a complex tone cluster. These match their end points in conditioning and structures are given below: 8.

(8 a) treats contour tones as branching melodic units dominated by a tonal node (Register) and (8b) as a tone cluster. Yip points out that this does not contradict her earlier theory of a level analysis of contour tones but simply proposes a level at which contour tones may be recognized as units.The analysis of contour tones would have to take into consideration either of the two representation above. This is yet beyond the scope of the paper. In sum, there are four lexical tones in Mizo. Any other tonal variation in the language is the result of individual pitch difference and tonal changes that take place in phonological, morphological and syntactic changes in derived environments.

142 Tones in Mizo Language

References Bogers, Koen, van der Hulst, Harry and Mous, Maarten (eds.). (1986), The Phonological Representation of Supra-segmentals., Dordrecht- Holland: Foris Publications. Bright, William (1957), “Singing in Lushai”. Indian Linguistics 17: 24-28. - (1957), “Alternation in Lushai”. Indian Linguistics 18: 101-110. Buchhawna, Khiangte R. (1975), Lusei Grammar. Burling, Robbins (1957), “Lushai Phonemics”, Indian Linguistics ,17: 148-155. Cassimjee, Farida (1983), “An Autosegmental Analysis of Venda Nominal Tonology”. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, 13:43-72. Chhangte, L. (1986), A Preliminary Grammar of the Mizo Language, M.A. Thesis, Arlington: University of Texas. Choe, Hyon-Sook (1986), “Some Tonal Phenomena of Verbal Elements in Middle Korean and Floating Tones”. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics No. 8: 47-84. Chomsky, Noam (1965), Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge: Mass.: The MIT Press. Clark, Marry Morris (1978), A Dynamic Treatment of Tone with Special Attention to the Tonal System of Igbo. University of New Hampshire:IUCL. Clements, George N. (1979), “The Description of Terraced-level Tone Languages”, Language 55: 536-558. - (1981), “Akan Vowel Harmony: A Non-linear analysis”. In Clements, George N. (ed.). Harvard Studies in Phonology, Vol 2. IUCL. - (1985), “The Geometry of Phonological Features”, Phonology Yearbook, 2: 225-252. - (1988), “Towards a Substantive Theory of Feature Specification”. NELS 18: 79-93. Clements, George N. and Keyser, Samuel Jay (1983), CV Phonology: A Generative Theory of the Syllable , Cambridge. Mass.: The MIT Press. Clements, George N. and Ford, Devin C. (1979), “Kikuyu Tone Shift and its Synchronic Consequences”. LI 10:179-210. - (1981), “On the Phonological Status of Downstep in Kikuyu”, Goyvaerts, D.L. (eds.). Phonology in the 1980’s, Bilgium: Scientific Publishers. - (1981), “Akan Vowel Harmony: A Non-linear analysis”, Clements, George N. (ed.). Harvard Studies in Phonology, Vol 2. IUCL. Fromkin, Victoria A. , ed. (1978), Tone: A Linguistic Survey , New York:Academic Press. Goldsmith, John (1976), Autosegmental Phonology. Ph.D. dissertation. MIT: IUCL. - (1976), “An Overview of Autosegmental Phonology”. LA 2: 23-68. - (1981), “English as a Tone Language”, Goyvaerts, D.L. (ed.). Phonology in the 1980’s, Belgium: Scientific Publishers. - (1990), Autosegmental and Metrical Phonology. Basil Blackwell

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Pike, K.L. (1961), Tone Languages, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Leben, William R. (1976), “The Tones in English Intonation”, LA 2: 69-107. Pulleyblank, Douglas (1983), “A Lexical Treatment of Tone in Tiv”.NELS 13: 211-242. - (1986), Tone in Lexical ;Phonology. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company. Wang, W. (1967), “Phonological Features of Tone”, IJAL 33: 93-105. Weidert, Alfons (1975), ‘ Componential Analysis of Lushai Phonology’, Koerner, E.F.K. (ed.). Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science IV: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, Vol. 2. Amsterdam,: John Benamins B.V. Williams, Edwin (1976), “Underlying Tones in Margi and Igbo”, LI 7: 463- 484. Yip, Moira (1980), The Tonal Phonology of Chinese, Ph.D. dissertation, MIT. - (1989), “The Obligatory Contour Principle and Phonological Rules: A Loss of Identity’, LI 19: 65-100.

144 ISSN : 2395-7352

Book Review

Bahujan Politics in India: Beyond Reservations KalmekolanVidyasagar Reddy (2015)New Delhi : Trans-Knowledge Book Company, pp. 221, Rs.790/- ISBN: 978-81-90293-10-5

The book under review is one of the most important contributions to the study of Dr. B.R. Ambedkarand the Bahujan Politics. It has been associated with the issues and concerns of the marginalized communities like the SCs, STs, OBCs and religious minorities which were subjected to the violent forms of casteism in India. As the cover page itself shows that it was Dr. B.R.Ambedkar and his slogan of ‘political power is the master key’, which had become the main inspiration for the rise of Bahujan Politics in India. That is why Bahujan Politics beyond the casteist politics gives scope for all castes and communities to play their due role in the political process. Here, bahujan politics is not about reservations, nor is it about politics any more. No doubt, it deals with politics of the majority society which is the most marginalized in India. When the author has interpreting the bahujan politics in India, an attempt was made to explore the issues and concerns of these groups, which became politically conscious for the past two decades or more than that.

On account of the role of caste in manuwadi politics rather than to Indian politics, people belonging to strengthen the bahujan samaj. various castes and communities were so Besides, the marginalized groups politicized as much as their politics was such as SCs/STs were deprived of subjected to casteist influences. For a long educational rights from times time, the upper strata of society which immemorial. Later on, they availed the comprises of the three upper castes had constitutional facilities through participated in the political process only reservation policy in the fields of to monopolize it for themselves. Almost education, employment and politics. all democratic institutions of socio- Despite many obstacles, the marginalized political nature were converted into their communities had shown keen interest in private ones in which the entry of the educating their wards in order to get them marginalized was almost restricted. Even employed in the public sector.Some of if some of the marginalized communities them had also ocupied key positions in the were there entrapped into the political existing political process, which ensured system, it was more to legitimize the them certain representative

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 145 A. Muthulakshmi responsibilities. In a way, some of these an attempt to study the factors that led to castes and tribes have had the opportunity the rise and growth of bahujansamaj of serving their respective communities movement and party after Independence. to a certain extent. The fourth chapter “bahujan politics beyond reservations”, has focused on how Becauseof Dr.B.R. Ambedkar, the the process of bahujanisation had offered father of Indian Constitution, the a long term political alternative for the marginalized groups and communities had bahujansamaj within and without UP. The started utilizing the reservation facilities final chapter summarizes all other in terms of employment, economic and chapters which give an idea of the way politics. In the meantime, the state and forward for the bahujansamaj to traverse globalization had come in the way of in a political, if not reservation, direction implementing the schemes of reservation once for all. for the benefit of bahujan samaj. While the concept of reservation has always been The author of the book is an associated with SCs/STs and their academician, teaching in the Department economic development, its scope and of political science as well as a proactive reach is enclosed because of the emerging social activist. He has combined his challenges in the wake of globalization in knowledge of both the fields, experience the country. Hence, this book makes an of teaching and research well for doingthis attempt to examine all such issues and study. The main aim of the book is to concerns of the marginalized which can analyze the major socio-political help one to realize the significance of developments which dealt with the bahujan politics in India. bahujansamaj movement and politics for over three decades in India. While the The book is arranged into five study is focused on the issue of chapters. The introductory chapter reservations, relevance or otherwise of it, provides the conceptual understanding of the bahujan politics that was centered in the casteist hierarchy, social exclusion, Uttar Pradesh has been given primacy. The marginalized communities and historical bahujan politics has got a nation-wide background of the study, methodology and appeal and scope, because of its political plan of the study. The second chapter spread is confined to a very few states in “politics of reservations and beyond”, has North India. As part of the bahujan dealt with the reservations for different politics, the BahujanSamaj Movement marginalized groups and communities in (BSM) and its party, the BahujanSamaj the context of globalization. This chapter Party(BSP) that largely represented the is also focused on the relevance or numerical majority, in terms of social base, otherwise of reservations for the has emerged as the third largest party, bahujansamaj. The third chapter within a couple of decades of its “bahujansamaj movement and party”, is foundation, in India.

146 Book Review

Unlike the other political movements and Mayawati, as part of her strategy of social parties, the author has argued, the BSM/ engineering, on the eve of 2007 Assembly BSP seeks to defend the marginalized elections in the UP, albeit ensured communities in letter and spirit. It is clear landslide victory for the bahujansamaj, that the book seeks to clarify and elucidate became a point of utter confusion among the conceptual understanding of the very the marginalized communities. The issue language and vocabulary that the bahujan was so blown out of proportions by its politics had been associated with this political adversaries that a section of the study. Based on the ideological ground of bahujansamaj was misled and thereby it Phule-Ambedkar struggles and works, became quite controversial. As usual the Kanshiram was instrumental in leading the role of manuwadi media which was bahujansamaj movement and party till it showing the rise of Brahmin Samaj in the became the ruling regime in the largest bahujan politics in a big way whereby the state of Uttar Pradesh in India. Thereafter, vulnerable sections among the Mayawati had inherited the political bahujansamaj got petrified and moved in legacy of Kanshiram which continued to a negative direction. lead the movement and party, notwithstanding any sort of pressures from By the way, there was some impact ‘within and without’ the bahujan politics. on the deviation of a section of OBCs as well as the Muslims in the last assembly The bahujan politics is primarily Lok Sabha elections in the aimed at ‘capturing politics power’, as it state.Interestingly, this issue has upset the was considered as the ‘master key’, the poll prospects of the BSP in two ways. politics of reservations that had been One, it had alienated a small section of played on in since independence by the the bahujansamaj like the most backward ‘manuwadi regimes’, has thus been castes as well as the Muslims from exposed. Obviously, the study examines continuing with their support to the the process of ‘bahujanisation’that been Mayawati regime. Second, on the same undertaken within the purview of bahujan pretext, systematic media campaign was politics. Moreover, the book tries to give conducted whereby the emerging bond an insider view on the main concerns and between the Brahmins and Dalits gone contours of bahujan politics that received astray which has had its toll in defeating certain electoral setbacks in the recent the bahujansamaj. Otherwise, there was polls in UP and elsewhere in India. Thus, hardly any scope for misapprehension the book is an objective appraisal of the between these communities, at a time prevalent developments in the context of when Mayawati was harping on the theme bahujan politics in the country. of sarvjansamaj day in and day out. According to the author, the issue of The theme of sarvjansamaj was not sarvajansamaj which was popularized by to be considered as just an electoral

147 A. Muthulakshmi strategy.Instead, as the author had argued Constitution of India. When we look into it had tried to bridge the wide gap between the many cases of reservation, it is very the two poles, Dalits and Brahmins in the clearly revealed how those Constitutional casteist social hierarchy in India. In the objectives were implemented more in year 2007, there was certain amount of breach than in practice. Hence, the social harmony and political friendship political regimes used to resort to the that had been prevalent during the time politics of reservations that had caused when election campaigns were undertaken further humiliation to the marginalized in the state. Besides fetching crucial groups and communities, rather than electoral benefits, theme of sarvajansamaj raising their dignity of life in the society. had raised awareness level among both the In view of this backdrop, the author has contending castes. In a way, this was an felt that the bahujan politics had to expose unusual attempt to promoting goodwill the hollow claims of such regimes and and harmony among different offer an alternative politics which could communities within and without the state. raise their standards of living as well as There was a possibility of reading some empowering them in all spheres of life long-term message on account of social over a long period of time. engineering of diverse castes and Methodologically speaking, the study communities in the state. In other words, is based on limited secondary sources like bahujan politics was trying to take away books and articles etc.There is scarcity of the society towards the direction of social relevant material on this particular subject transformation and economic in English. Thus, he has taken so many emancipation over a period of time. efforts to collect the primary sources such Apart from that, the bahujan politics as the authors’ interactive meetings with which was aimed at creating a favorable several scholars, leaders, activists and environment in the state and society,so supporters of the bahujansamaj movement that, a healthy political process was at various levels. undertaken at all levels. As a part of In conclusion, the book provides deepening democracy and decentralizing deep insights into the issues and problems the governance, bahujansamaj was of various marginalized groups and encouraged to take active participation in communities in India. The author has the administration. After that only, the exposed his intimate association with both Constitutional objectives were realized leaders and activists of such movements and implemented in letter and spirit. In and politics, which enabled him to write the name of ideology, manuwadi parties extensively particularly on the subject of and status quoits regimes had always tried bahujan politics. The book is an attempt to undermine the social and legal at refreshing his insightful thoughts on the objectives which were enshrined in the very subject which was hardly

148 Book Review documented in any serious way in the to the extent possible. No doubt, this book country. Even though, the book is focused is useful for those who are interested to on the state of Uttar Pradesh, as it is the study the Indian political process from the stronghold of the bahujansamaj movement perspective of marginalized groups and and politics,the author has tried to givean communities and even in the country in all India dimension of the bahujan politics recent times.

A. Muthulakshmi

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List of Contributors

A. Muthulakshmi, Associate Professor, Department of Public Administration, Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004. email : [email protected] Chitta Ranjan Gogoi, Guest Lecturer, Department of Law, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong-22. email : [email protected] C. Devendiran, Associate Professor, Department of Social Work, Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004. email : [email protected] Henry Zodinliana Pachuau, Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004. email : [email protected] Kalpana Sarathy, Professor, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Guwahati. email : [email protected] K.V. Reddy, Associate Professor, Dept. of Political Science, MZU, Aizawl - 796004. email: [email protected] Laishram Gyanendra Singh, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Govt. Aizawl College, Aizawl, Mizoram - 796001. email: [email protected] Lalrindiki T. Fanai , Associate Professor, Department of English, Mizoram University, Aizawl. email : [email protected] Lokanath Mishra, Associate Professor ,Department of Education Mizoram University, Aizawl. email :[email protected] Madhusmita Mishra, Former Professor of Management and Director, PantheonHR, Bhubaneswar, India. email : [email protected] Momota Chakravorty, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce Nehru College, Pailapool, Assam NVR Jyoti Kumar, Professor, Department of Commerce, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram - 796004. email: [email protected] Prabhat Kumar Datta, former Centenary Chair Professor of Public Administration, University of Calcutta, and currently Adjunct Professor, Institute of Development Studies, Kolkata, a Centre of Excellence in Social Sciences under the Government of West Bengal. He is also Honorary Advisor, State Institute of Panchayats and Rural Development, Government of West Bengal. email : [email protected]

Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol I Issue 1 June 2015 150 List of Contributors

Rajat Sharmacharjee, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce , Silchar. email : [email protected] R.K. Ngurtinkhuma, Professor, Dept. of Lib. & Inf. Science Mizoram University, Aizawl. email :[email protected] R.N. Mishra, Associate Professor, Dept. of Lib. & Inf. Science Mizoram University, Aizawl. email : [email protected] Rodi Lalrammawii Hmar, Research Scholar, Department of English, Mizoram University. email: [email protected] T. Uvaraj, Assistant Professor ,St. Anne’s College of Education & Research Centre, Kattukuppam, Puducherry–607 402. email: [email protected]

151 Guidelines for Contributors

1. Paper size A4 (margin 1" on all four sides) 2. Full title of the paper in MSWord Times New Roman, 14, Bold 3. Main body of the paper in MSWord Times New Roman, 12, Justified, 1.15 line space 4. Length of paper : minimum of 3000 and maximum of 5000 words to be accompanied by Endnotes if any, and the actual Works Cited List / Reference List 5. APA and MLA documentation format are both accepted 6. Papers are processed through a blind referral system by experts in the subject area. Anonymity of the writer is assured. 7. The Editorial Board reserves the right to accept or reject a paper. 8. Book Reviews are to contain full name of author/editor, and book title, its place of publication, year, number of pages and price. 9. The paper is to be accompanied with : - An abstract of not more than 200 words along with 4 to 5 keywords - A declaration that it is an original research work and has not been published anywhere else / or sent for publication anywhere. - Name of author(s), designation and institutional affiliation along with postal address, Pin code, mobile number and email address. - The paper must adhere to strict academic ethics and be free of plagiarism. 10. Rate of Journal per issue: ` 300/- Rate of Journal annual subscription: ` 500/- Payment can be made in cash or Demand Draft in favour of Chief Editor, MZUJHSS, Mizoram University, Aizawl.

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152 Declaration

Name of Journal : Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences.

Nature of Journal : A National Refereed Bi-Annual journal

Priodicity : June & December

ISSN : 2395-7352

Publisher : Registrar, Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram

Chief Editor : Prof. Margaret Ch. Zama

Address for Communication : Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram

Email : [email protected]

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