History and Discoveries Volume III, N-Z

Edited by Tim Murray

ABCSCLIO Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado OxFord, England The first Portuguese contacts with the Stone Age came through the navigators who reached the coasts of Africa, South America, and Asia in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. By A.D. 1500 these contacts had already resulted in the production of the first reports on such peoples as the Guanche of the Canary Islands, the San (Bushmen) of Southern Africa, and the hdians A TLANTIC OCEAN of BRAZIL, including accurate descriptions of garded as untrustworthy. It was the fluvial de- polished stone axes and other tools. However, posits of the Somme Valley that played a key role these descriptions failed to pdueany impact in the establishment of the remote antiquity of on sixteenth- and seventeenth-century - humane. They, in turn, were used to validate ists and scholars who studied ~omiand pre- some of the associations between artifacts and Roman antiquities. extinct fauna found in various cwes of Ger- By the end of the eighteenth century archae- many, England, , and BUGIUM. Sevd ology had become an established discipline. The objections had been raised against such evi- first scientific excavations in Portugal were un- dence. Some argued that deposits of very differ- dertaken at the time by Friar Manuel do ent ages could easily be intermixed during the Cdculo, in the Iron Age settlement of Cola flding to which caves are often submitted; (Alentejo). Several descriptions and inventwies others contended that the use of aves by peo- were published of dolmens, whicb were wr- ple to bury their dead may have caused the oc- rectly interpreted as pm-Roman monuments currence of human bone in apparent asadation but generally thought to k altars, not burial with extinct faunas; and still others suggested chambers. And, as elsewhere in Europe, it was that although the deposits might have been orig- not until the mid-1800s that the concept of the inally unu,mixing could ark from remote antiquity of humanity was finally ac- careless investigation. cepted, mainly as a result of developments in Since his work was wholly based on the m- the geologid sciences. ploration of caves, Delgado had to deal with Beginning in l 848 several organizations were these objections, which probably explains the created to survey the geology of the country, most remarkable characteristic of his mono- and prominent members of their staffs, such as graph: the fact that it represents an integratd Carlos Ribeiro and Joaquim Filipe Nery Del- geo-archaeologid approach to site-formation gado, became interested in the problem of hu- processes. Moreover, the great detail with man origins. Ribeiro's work on the eolith prob- which he recorded stratigraphic observations lem and the possible existence of people in (the correctnes~and precision of which have Europe in the Tertiary era is well known. It led since been demonstrated by reexcavation of the &&a of the time-to agree to convene the residual deposits at Casa-da Moura) was in- 1 880 session of the CO@ International #An- tended to avoid any objections that his conclu- thropologie et d'Archk01ogie Prihlstoriques in aions were based on careless excavation. Lisbon in order to be able to inspect his sites His most important find was a carefully de- and hds. scribed and measured human skull and Delgadob work is not as well known but is of mandible, which were enveloped in a matrix of greater general methodological relevance. He concreted red sands just like the ones that mm- was appinted to the Geological Survey in Au- posed the in situ lower deposit of the site. This gust 1857 at the age of twenty-two, but his first crania material was clearly of Pleistwene age independent work was the geological mapping and should therefore be counted, alongside bet- of the Penicbe area. 'lhis project eventually led ter-known fossils such as the Lpadult slrull hhn to the excavation of the Casa da Moura cave and the Red Lady of Paviland, as one of &ox site, which he began on January 19, 1865. The early findings of Upper human fossil results obtained after initial testing led to the d- remains that took place before the 1868 discov- most immediate publication of an extensive ery of the Cm-Magnon burials. However,unli%e bhgual (Portuguese and French) monograph the material at Paviland and Engis, the Casa da whose title, The Existence ofMan on Our So9 in by Moura material's age was correctly recognized Reme Times Proved by the Study $Caves, Leaves no and established by the discoverer. doubt as to the research design that drove him in Later revision of the Paleolithic artifacts this early stage of his scientific career. from the cave identified Gravettian and So- At that time the evidence from avm was re- lutrean components. At that time, however, in- vestigations in France had only lust begun to ad- that the absence of pottery could be used as an dress the question of the periodization of Qua- indicator of an earth 'not yet modern in form" ternary human artdam. Bath &OUAIID ~T'Swas demonstrated by &C Fmhgof shards in the chronology, bawd oo fauna, and CABFUEL OE lacwtrme kto which one of the small MORMLET'S, basd VIY lib F, were ye- rivers oF rbe plateau had cut its bed. wnted to the first meeting d heCongrca h- TD mmplrte hu geohgic~lrcsomg, Del- ternational d1hhP1opr et d ' Arcbo~ogie gado also resoried 10 mmpuhrive analysis of Pr&storiques, which was held in Paris in 1867, the archaeolvgid materials found in the lower the year in which Delpdo published his results. deposit. In this costefl he noted that the prim- In this theoretical context, tht refore, the only i~vecharacter of tht artifacts and the absence of question that made sense was whether the pottery indicated $at they should reda ate the lower deposit (and the skull derived from it), Danish kjohmaddi~~s(lutchen middens). At now known to date to the , the time, these were thought to be of late-Qua- could be considered of Quaternary age. ternary age. The resemblance of some of the The criteria used at the tirnc to assess such an flaked flints to sinilar materials reported by antiquity were twof~ld: paleontological, or the Cxlos Ribeiro frgm dduvid deposits of the secure association ofhuman remains ar vtifacts Tagus Valley furthm redorced this argument. with extinct fa-, and ge~lopcal,or seare But Delgado aLo compared a rhomboidal bone u&&wr mth &posits idcative of am tuJ\ Fragment thought to be inetnuanally pointed, not yet "modern ~TI forma-that ia,udtion with the rhomboidal bne sagaie points found with the "extensive and general deposlts of loam by Lartel at Auripa~.Although thls last parallel and gravel" for which WILW BUCKLANDmined is cerdy dill founded, Deigado's suggestions the term diluvium. Later, after the abandonment proved to be generally correct. The lower de- of the equation between such deposits and the posit ofCasa da Mow&does belong to the same great deluge, loam and gravtl deposits also be- (Upper Paleolithic) period as Aurignac and does came known as &ft. Drift was unequivocally pedate the Epipdeolihc shell middens. recopzed as a distinctive stratigraphic unit, re- The fact that and archaeological gardless of the debate that animated mid-nine- reasonings could be combined to produce teenth-century geolog). over whether it awed chronological ase~mentswas clearly depend- its genesis to flooding or glaciation. However, ent on the assumption af the integrity of the in this unit was gendty considered to be associ- situ 1-er deposit. Unless the integrity of these ated with the extinct faunas; hence 'antcr~orto red m&could be demonstrated, the statement &c \earth's) -Ern nssumlng iu present farm" ttut &K artifam ad the 3Pdunents that con- then meant borh modification of the earth's to- tained hem were contemporary and undis- pography and fauna1 extinctions. turbed by subsequent events could come under Since Delgado was unable ro identify any attack on the g~vulldsor Buckland's theories. representatives ofclearly extina species among Therefore, del gad^ had to address the question the animal banes recovered in the lower deposit of how the red smds were laid down. The &S- at Casa da Moura, he ww obliged to resort cussion of this problem, embedded in an expo- mainly to geological arguments in order to by sition of current howledge on how caves were to establish its chronology, Noting that the ma- themselves formed, is a major and most inter- Wix of this deposit was very s~rnilarto the dilu- esting section of the monograph. vial sands that covered the surrounding plateau He determined that the lower deposit in and filled its karstic frsrures, be thought that the Casa da Moura had not been washed in by sedunents in Cau da Moura had been derived floodwaters became the unh, bones, and from these sur ficul deposits md were therefore charcoal it contlintd were not present in simi- mow recent. Yet they were alder than the last lar "dud"degositA found autside the cave, geomorpholog~ralchanges that had fleck d the from whch the interior deposlt~were presum- area, since they conhrd no pottery The fad ably derived. Moreover, such a fldngprocess wuld not have produced the sorting of the dif- manchbles, and ribs were almost completely h- ferent parts of the skeletons of the animals stnt.The minimum number of , based on whose remains were found in the lower deposit. the counting of rnanhbles, was over 1,000. As Other possible agents of accumulation, such as for the larger , Delgado observed that wmimres, could not account for the presence spongy bones were generally lacking and that of charcoal and &d flint in the deposit. the bones richest in marrow were the most frac- Given tbese factors, Delgado concluded that tured. But unlike the herbivore bones, the m- there was no hornnatural cause that could ac- nivore bones were generdy intact and did not mu~tIbr the mixed accumulation inside the show any signs of having been transported by cave of sands, iboulis, bones, and artifacts. He water, whch was another argument wt the therefore developed his own alternative expla- flooding hypothesis as an explanation for the de- nation. He viewed the formation of the deposit posit's origin. Carnivores were dso mostly rep- as a gradual and slow process, not as the result resented by mandibles, and the majority al the of one ar sweral camphic flhgevenb. animals found were young hdviduals. Delgado Ochewse, he thought, it would be impossible interpreted these observations as confwrning his to explain either the presence of bone at all conclusion that were the agents respon- depths or the vertical and horizontal disconti- sible for the bone accumulation. At that time nuitite in the conaetion of the sands at all lev- there was no known natural cause that could ac- els. He therefore thought that the remains of count for the apparent sorting of the different human dwellings suggested by the association of skeletal parts and the differential preservation the animal bones, charcoal, and artifacts had of herbivore and arnivore bones. gradudy been incorporated into the deposit as With the benefit of hindsi~ht,., we now it built up. The provenience of the sandy matrix hown that DeIgado's conclusions are not com- wa~thwght to be the dduvial deposits outside pletely mrrect.The variety of large, mehum, the ave. Since no natural process was identified and small carnivores (especially wolves) identi- by authorities at the time as a possi- fied from the deposits suggests that the cave was ble cause for such a pdud filling of a cave by also a carnivore lair. The important point here, ex tw nal sedirnents, Delgado attributed this however, is that in order to substantiate h be- process to human action: the sands were thrown havioral interpretation, Delgado took what in to elevate the floor of the mve and thus facil- would now be considered the correct sciendc itate human access through it9 verticd enmce. approach. He tried to derive from the charac- Although this explanation is certainly wrong in teristics of the bone assemblage itself objective terms of the specific agency invoked, it is cer- criteria that might lead to the identification of tady much closer to mdetn ideas regarding the agent or agents responsible for its deposi- the of the process described than the the- tion and mdfication. What was laclung at the ories menrin his time. time was a set of aachlahstic reference studits Anothe~ remarkable feame of Delgado's that might provide the patterns agarist wbch it monograph is the attention given to the discus- would be possible to validate such identifica- sion of taphonomic (site formation) issues. tions.This and Delgado's predisposition to kor Taphonomic observations were instrumental in human action as the explanation for the site's rejecting the action of flooding waters as an ex- characteristics (an understandable inclination, planation for the origin of the lower deposit, given the research design that drove h)pmb- and they dso played an imprtmt rde in sus- ably biased his diagnosis. taining Delgado's evaluation of its fadcon- Delgado reported on the Neolitluc human tent. For instance, rabbits and birds were repre- bone remains frDm the cave's upper deposit sented mainly by man&bles (jawbones) and with a similar taphonomic approach. Their gteat broken long bones.There were far fewer verte- hpentation, the sorting of the different parts brae and pelvises than could be expected given of the skeleton, and the fact that some bre what the number of individuals represented by the he thought to be marks of cutting by tooh led him to conclude that the action of carnivores cave, not eaten there. Similar ~henomenahad alone could not explain this set of characteristics been observed in dolrnen burials and could be and that they were evidence of cannibalism. In easily amounted for by the action of carnivores his era this behavior was commonly atkibuted or the practice of successive burial, which to the "Celtic" peoples who mhabited Europe in would di'sturb and damage the bones from pre- pre-Roman times, as Delgado pointed out by vious interments. However, the point to note extensively quoting such rewgnkd authorities once more is that, right or wonk Delgado had as JACQUES BOUCHER DE PERTHES, Laying, or pushed observation beyond the practices cur- Huxley and Spring, whose excavations at Chau- rent in his time. This was recognized by the vaux had led to similar conclusions. committee itself, which recorded in its pm- He would develop this argument further ceedings a unanimous appreciation of the rigor- based on the results of his later excavations at ous methodology of his work and of the statisti- the Middle Paleolithic and Neolithlc mve site of cal treatment of his data that it allowed, in an Gruta da , whch he reported to the attempt to establish specific characteristics of 1880 Lisbon conference. Applying a tapho- bone assemblages htcould be correlated with nornic approach to the issue of cannibalism, he specific or human behaviors. Coupled compleGly excavated the deposit, wefully with experimentation and extended to ethno- sieving all the sehents and taking note of the archaeological contexts, this is what archaeozo- spatial distribution of the bones inside the cave. ologists and taphonomists still do today. Del- %is enabled him to present quantified observa- gad0 therefore deserves to be more widely tions and to substantiate hs arguments on dif- recognized not only as one of the earliest exca- ferential body part representation with a statis- vators of Upper Paleolithic sites and first hders tical table of the counts for each skeletal part of Upper Paleolithic human fossils but also as a from each of the loci discriminated during the pioneer in the geo-archaeological study of cave excavation.These showed, for instance, not only deposits and in those related fields that play that several bones were not represented in the such an important part in contemporary PALEO- proportions they have in the human skeleton LJTHIC ARCHAEOLOGY. but also that such differential preservation was The tradition begun by Ribeiro and Delgado txue for the distal and proximal parts of the of doing Paleolithic research within the frame- same bone. Delgado conceded that there could work d the normal mapping activities of the be sample bias in the mse of the smaller skeletal Geological Survey was not continued until the elements and that the low representation of middle of the twentieth century. The onset of spongy bones could be due to their greater per- World War took HENRI BREUIL to Portugal, ishability. However, he thought the other fea- where, accompanied by Zbyszewski, a geologist tures of the assemblage, together with the of Polish origin who would settle in the coun- breaks, burns, and supposed cut marks on the try, he undertook a systematic survey of the bones, could only be explained by human ac- Quaternary deposits along the coast and the tion. He therefore concluded that the deposit main river valleys. As a result they produced a comprised the remains of cannibal meals. detailed cultural stratigraphic scheme of the ithough hsconclusion was accepted by Portuguese Paleolithic. some of the authorities present at the congress This scheme contained several weaknesses. and subsequently proven true through chemical On the one hand it was based on a strictly alt- analyses showing that the bones had indeed me~cinterpretation of both the raised bkaches been burned, the majority of the committee ap- and the river terraces. On the other hand it was pointed by the congress to settle the issue did largely based on the type fossil system of inter- not agree with Delgado. Among his opponents preting certain kinds of artifacts as representa- were de Mortillet and EMLE CARTAILHAC. The tive of whole industries. Furthermore, almost latter rightly objected that the evidence instead all of the sites studied consisted of surface scat- suggested that people had been buried in the ters or mixed colluvial deposits in which differ- ent assemblages were distinguished, dependent cause of University of Oporto anthropologist A. upon the amount of patina the artifacts had de- Mcndes CorrCa's suggestion of a common back- veloped. Artifacts with similar patina were ground between the peoples of the Capsian and thought to have been deposited at the same time those of the Muge shell middens, where hun- and were sorted as kinds of stratigraphlc units of dreds of Mesolithic burials had been excavated a physicochemical nature. The assemblages thus from the mid-nineteenth century onward. Cor- hstinguished were organized in a chr~nolo~cal &a's concept of a ofer taganus as the origin sequence, the oldest being those presenting the of the Portuguese also had significant political most-developed surface weathering. In the implications during World War 11, given the pos- decades that followed, the few new accidental sibility of a German invasion and occupation of fmds that were made were accommodated to Iberia. In hscontext the identification of sup- h scheme, whose rnethodoIogical foundations posedly diagnostic liduc types among the assem - were not questioned until quite recently As a blages recovered allawed Helcno to statc that result, Quaternary geology and Paleolithic X- Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, and Mag- chaeology in Portugal d~dnot participate in the dalenian were indeed dl represented in the enormous progress that was made elsewhere in country. %S was enough to establish the Euro- Europe in the postwar period. pean ;tffiIiation of the Upper Paleolithic of For- Breuil and Zbyszewski's scheme dealt mainly tugal, as he had hoped, mhgit unnecessary, with the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. The Up- from the point of view of his research design, to per Paleolithic was largely ignored because of publish extensively on the sites he had excavated. the dearth and poverty of cave assemblages, in- Paleolithic research in Portugal gained a new cluding the new sites excavated and studied by momentum only after 1975. The major Jean Roche and 0. da Veiga Ferreira in the and economic changes experienced by the 1950s and 1960s, such as Gruta das Salemas. country since that time have helped to trans- Roche attributed this poverty to the fact that in form what was until then a field iargely domi- the coastal areas of Portugal, the climate was nated by amateurs and a few university profes- temperate and humid during the Upper Pale- sors into an almost exclusively professional olithic.This concept has been proven false by re- activity, most of whose practitioners are now in cent paleoenvimnmental research, but it led private consulting and in the heritage depart- Roche to believe that people lived mainly in the ments of the central and municipal administra- open and would only have used caves in excep- tions. With regard to the Paleolithic, this tional circumstances. He may have been influ- progress was mostly the result of the develop- enced by the fact that Manuel Heleno, then di- ment of the careers of professionals who or@- rector of the National Museum of Archaeology, nally came together as a group of university stu- had discovered and excavated in the late 1930s dents-the Grup para o Estudo do Paleolitico and the early f 950s numerous open-air Upper Portup& (GEPPF~~~of the establishment of Paleolihc sites in the Rio Maior and Tomes Ve- collaborative projects with different French and dras areas. U.S. colleagues. The work of a new generation Hawever, these discoveries were never pub- fully integrated with the international main- lished, except via very short notices. HeIeno stream of the discipline rapidly bore fruit. was not an archaeologist in the modern sense of Among the recent and most spectacular prod- the word but a historian who wanted to estab- ucts of this collaboration were, in 1994, the dis- lish the background of the "Portuguese nation." covery of the C6a Valley complex of open-air Therefore, he was mainly interested in estab- Paleolithic rock-art and habitation sites, in- Iishing, using the equation cluded in the World Heritage List in 1998, and the pivotal role played by Portuguese sites (es- type fossiI = Paleolithic industry = Paleolithic people pecially the Lagar Velho chlld burial) in the de- that such a background was European, not bates about extinction and modern African. This question had become relevant be- human origins in Europe. In spite of the fact that, currently, these Pale- settlement sites are commonplace in current olithic finds have become Portugal's interna- Neolithic research. hdigenist views of the de- tionally best-hawn archaeological sites, most velopment of megalithic phenomenon as part of archaeology ~racticedin the country since 1800 the increasing complexky of the first agncul- has dealt principally with the later prehistoric tural societies of Europe have also been com- periods and the era of Roman rule. Extensive pletely removed from the debate. These com- excavations were carried out beginning in the prised interpretations, common until the mid-nineteenthcentury in the numerous costros 1970s, that related it to oriental influences. But (Iron Age hill-forts) of northern Portugal, the the issue of colonization is far from being set- pioneer work of Martins Sarmento in the CiG- tled, especially with regard to the Iarge Copper nia de Briteiros being of paramount importance Age hill-forts that sprd through cenbal and in this regard. Other approaches tried to bring southern Portugal in the third millennium B.C. together archaeology, ethnography, and linguis- Until quite recently in Portuguese archaeol- tics to procure a better understandmg of the ogy, hawever, most efforts and resources were pre-Roman peoples of Portugal, and it was un- dedicated to the study of Roman antiquities. der the influence of such a program that the Na- The most consistent archaeological project tional Museum of Archaeology was founded, in throughout the twentieth century was the exm- the late 1 800s, by J. kite de Vasconoelos. Sev- vation of the city of Co~rnbri~a,and this was eral fortified sites from the Copper and Bronze largely due to the mmmiiment of the Institute Ages were also extensively excavated in the of Archaeology of the University of Coimbra. twentieth century in central and southern Por- Other sites, major by Portuguese standards but tugal. A good example is the site of Zambujal, of relatively minor importance by international first excavated by H. Schubart in the 19603, standards, have also been investigated, albeit to which also well illustrates the role played by a lesser extent. Trhia, one of the largest indus- German archaeologists in this research (a dele- trial complexes connected to the processing of gation of the DEUTSCHES ARCHAOLOGISCHES INSTI- 6sh in the Roman world, is still largely m- TUT existed in bbon for some thirty years, un- known after 150 years of very discontinuous re- til 19981, in the wake of the megalithic search. Since 1980 the development of salvage inventories made by Georg and Vera Leisner in archaeology in urban environments has led to a war and postwar times. The most important major broadening of our knowledge of the Ro- methodological innovation of the postwar pe- man cities of Portugal, and this is especially the riod, however, the introduction of SIR MOR~MER case with Braga (Bmcura Augusta), but most of WHEELER'S grid method, is due to E. Cunha Ser- this work remains unpublished. Largely as a re- r50, an active amateur who eventually would sult of the sarne phenomenon, medieval archae- become the president of the hssocia~ddos Ar- ology and especially the archaeology of the pe- que610gos Portugueses, founded in 1863. riod of Islamic rule are currently undergoing an Given the richness of the empirical record, explosion in terms of hds and resources de- including some of the largest dolmens huwn voted to their study. The sarne is true with ur- (such as the Anta Grande do Zambujeiro), derwater archaeology, and the fact that prh- megalithic research has been pursued by many nary surveys have become mandatory in harbor Portuguese archaeologists and has become a works and humid areas has led to signrfcant clis- popular research topic since 1970. As a result coveries. These comprise, in continental Portu- and although the clarification of chronological gal as well as in the Azores, fifteenth-century issues is still a major concern, attention has pro- vessels and their cargo; as a result, for the first gressively shifted toward issues of spatialFand time, the physical documentation of the con- landscape archaeology. Attempts at integrating sb-uction of the caravels that pioneered Euro- the study of the funerary and other ritual mon- pan overseas expansion has been possible. uments (menhirs and cromlechs) with the sur- Several universities offer training in archae- vey for and investigation of the contemporary ology within the framework of their depart- mats of hisbo ry, and &E depgiven at tb independent mearch units mpecifldy devoted endofstdy~ye~mbinwMstoryd~-tothextdyof-~~~hnmenee~l~gy. M*. htqption with geopphy mud h The growingndofpmkionnls, hot~awr, nnhlrala&msisdllveryd,butmamtd- ~dl~ttameet&~&mlnd fmbbythcoanttalabidmtioaatedesltgned far~aadm~&.h&uarc fo~~~ontkoqhthe~a€&ofthZI,&emdn&mof~cat archaeology these days is that scientific publica- tions are seriously ]aggmg behind. Yet the fact that the pressing needs of dealing with the ma- terial record on the ground fully occupy most professionals also has a positive side effect. Postprocessualisrn has not really had an impact, and, theoretically, wadi tional cultural-historical and processual approaches continue to domi- nate a field in which the main concern for many years to come should continue to be pursuing a thorough, high-quality documentation of a rap- idIy disappearing empirical record. Jo50 Zilhiia R~~~I~RCCS Choffat, Paul. 1908. 'Notice &oIogique sur J. F. Nery Delgado (1 835-1 908). Jornal & Srirncias Muthcmdcus Physicm e Naturm, 2nd series, 7, 8: 1-14. Correia, A. A. M. 1 947."Histoire dea &ches +-historiques en PortugalP Trobalhos dc bpologia c EmoIog~o9, 1-2: 115-1 70. Delgado, 1. F. N, 1867. Da uustbria do horn cm tcrupap mw remows proda p10 mudo das cam- nas, vol. 1, Noricia dcerca das gum da Ccrowda. Lisbon: ComiGo Geolhgica de Portugal. , 1884. "La grotte de Furninha A Peniche." In latunationd d'anthropolagic n d'&irgie pdhhoriqua: Comp-rmdu dc 10 mvih&on h Ldwnne (1 880), 207-279. Lisbon: AcadCmie Royale des Sciences. F-, C. 1997. *Percursos da arqueologb dissica em Portugal: Da Sociedade Archeologjca hi- tana (18491857) ao moderno project0 de Conimbriga ( 1964-1 97 1). In h CT~~~~~IHUU~U del pado: Cmcsls y daarrollo del marw ~mtitu- donal de Ia atqwlqia m m(I-Acms dd 11 &grew ds Hiaoriqraju & L Arqutrrbla en Espaio (siglw X Vlll a XX), 27 d 29 dc no~1.cmbrc de 1995 (Modrid), 105-1 24. Ed. G.Mora and M. Diaz-Andreu. MPaga: Universidad de Mdaga. Rib,C. 1873. "Sur la position des silex taillh dhuverh dans les terrains Miodne et Plidedu Portugal." In Crmgrk international d'Anthropol~~eet d'Arch&Iqq~e Pi-t!hirtvriqtt~s. Compte-hdu dc Ia bidme session, BrurrIler 1872, 95-1 00. Zilkio, J. 1 993. *As origens da arqueologia pale- oUtica em Portugal e a obra metodologlca- mente precursara de J. F. Nery DelgadoP ArqueoIqto e Hisrdrja, series 10, 3: 1 l 1-1 25.