26 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 81 Number 1

Creating a Model Correctional Officer Training Academy: Implications from a National Survey

Alexander L. Burton, Jennifer L. Lux, Francis T. Cullen, William T. Miller University of Cincinnati Velmer S. Burton, Jr. University of Arkansas at Little Rock

THE MASS movement, officers in providing treatment is considered skills. For example, they must be able to work which eventually led to more than 2.4 million (see Toch & Klofas, 1982). with people from different cultures and eth- offenders being incarcerated on any given day The issue of training takes on impor- nic backgrounds, lead and supervise others, in the United States, has justifiably earned tance when it is realized that approximately and make quick decisions in a stressful envi- considerable policy analysis (Petersilia & 428,870 people hold the title of “correctional ronment (Office of Personnel Management, Cullen, 2015). With the increased inmate pop- officer/ guard” in America (Bureau of 2016). ulation, scholars have also focused in detail Labor Statistics, 2017). The number of cor- As a prelude to an assessment of training on the taxing conditions inside American rectional officers a state employs generally nationwide, this section will describe the vari- that negatively affect the health, safety, depends on the size of the inmate population ous duties and responsibilities that comprise and future criminality of the incarcerated housed in its jails and prisons. The states with the correctional officer role. This role can be (Cullen, Jonson, & Stohr, 2014; Simon, 2014). the greatest numbers of correctional officers categorized into four primary functions: (1) Equally important, however, is the plight include Texas, California, Florida, New York, the management of inmates, (2) how offi- of those who, day in and day out, must not and Pennsylvania (Bureau of Labor Statistics, cers maintain security and safety, (3) aiding only survive inside prison walls but engage 2016). For all states, there are minimum offender rehabilitation, and (4) managing in the daunting occupational task of manag- qualifications for education level and age. To special populations in prisons. ing this inmate nation—correctional officers. be qualified to become a correctional officer Although research on correctional officers at a state-level institution, an applicant must Inmate Management has expanded (see, e.g., Johnson, Rocheleau, have at minimum a high school diploma or Much of a correctional officer’s work is char- & Martin, 2017; Steiner & Meade, 2014), one its equivalent and be at least 18 years of age acterized by a caretaking role (Scott, 2006). area has received relatively little attention: (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). According to Scott (2006), the caretaking the extent and nature of the job training that role of a correctional officer involves a set of officers receive. By contrast, information on The Role of the routine, often tedious, tasks that must be car- police training is more common (see, e.g., Correctional Officer ried out daily. Such tasks include locking and Reaves, 2009). The primary role of a correctional officer in unlocking cell doors; checking the functional- In this context, this project was undertaken a jail or prison is to maintain security and ity of locks, bars, and cells; conducting security to assess the current status of correctional safety by monitoring and guarding inmates roll calls; taking requests from ; doing officer training through a national survey of (Osborne, 2014). This role, however, is multi- laundry; and sometimes making meals for state departments of correction. This assess- dimensional, encompassing much more than inmates. Correctional officers are also respon- ment is then used to suggest what a model managing inmates. Correctional officers must sible for assisting in the booking and receiving training program delivered by a Correctional complete daily custodial tasks (e.g., guard cell of new inmates, transporting inmates from Officer Training Academy might entail. The blocks), aid in offender programming, and court to jail or prison, and making sure their larger purpose of this study is to call atten- work with special populations (e.g., mentally respective cell block meets state-mandated tion to the need to take stock of the training ill offenders, drug offenders, elderly offenders) safety and security standards (Bureau of Labor prison guards receive and to develop ideas on (Johnson & Price, 1981; Scott, 2006). To meet Statistics, 2017). To maintain general security, how such training may be improved upon in these diverse job responsibilities, correctional correctional officers must pay careful attention the future. In particular, the potential role of officers must be equipped with a spectrum of to the whereabouts of all inmates within their June 2018 CREATING A CORRECTIONAL OFFICER ACADEMY 27 cell block. This responsibility involves tasks programs, and longer mandatory sentences individuals during inmates’ rehabilitation pro- such as taking head counts, watching surveil- for inmates. Regarding non-fatal injuries cess. By monitoring inmates’ behaviors daily lance camera footage, and conducting security experienced by correctional officers, Konda and using progressive sanctions and rewards, walkthroughs (Scott, 2006). and colleagues (2013) found that transpor- correctional officers could aid in offender tation, self-inflicted gunshot wounds, and behavioral change while outside the bounds Officer Safety and Security overexertion were responsible for most of the of treatment groups and counseling sessions. Correctional officers have the duty of keep- non-fatal injuries in their sample. Because correctional officers spend the bulk ing themselves, inmates, and other staff in Similar to Lahm (2009), Konda and col- of their time with inmates, opportunities the institution safe (Dvoskin & Spiers, 2004; leagues (2013) found that being a correctional emerge for the two groups to form relation- Ferdik, Smith, & Applegate, 2014; Osborne, officer remains a dangerous profession in the ships. Through these relationships, the officer 2014). To achieve safety, officers regularly United States. In 2011, work-related injuries/ may better understand the risks and needs of check cells for contraband (e.g., makeshift illness that required correctional officers to inmates and be in a position to advise inmates knives, drugs), ensure locks and cell bars miss at least one day of work occurred at a rate of the treatment and programs available to are not jammed or weakened, and maintain of 544 per 10,000 full-time employees. This them within their institution. sanitary living conditions for the inmates. ratio is more than four times greater than that In many states, correctional officers serve Further, officers regularly inspect mail com- of all other workers from other professions as liaisons between the institution and the ing in and out of the prison and check visitors who missed a day of work due to work-related community to help released inmates inte- for illegal substances or contraband (Bureau injuries/illness (117 per 10,000) (Konda et grate into treatment centers, halfway houses, of Labor Statistics, 2017; U.S. Department al., 2013). If we focus only on assaults and employment, and ultimately back into the of Justice, 2003). A study conducted by the violence, correctional officers are injured by community (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). U.S. Department of Justice (2003) found assaults and violent acts at a rate of 254 per In addition, officers may assist inmates with that inmates’ visitors and the mail were the 10,000 full-time employees. In contrast, the registering for GED or college courses, iden- primary ways in which drugs enter correc- average rate for all other occupations in the tifying employment opportunities, scheduling tional institutions. Thus, correctional officers United States is roughly 7 per 10,000 full-time counseling appointments, and/or matching must remain cognizant of visitors and the employees (Konda et al., 2013). The only them to appropriate treatment and services mail received by the institution to ensure profession with higher rates of violent assaults provided by their institution (Bureau of Labor safety and security. Additionally, officers are and on-the-job injuries is law enforcement Statistics, 2017). often required to practice responses to emer- (Gordon, Proulx, & Grant, 2013). In sum, officers may serve as important gency situations. For example, mock riots Officers must also confront the fears of figures in inmates’ lives. To some inmates, cor- and escapee scenarios are exercises that are victimization by inmates, which can have rectional officers may be seen as role models, regularly practiced to protect prison staff and adverse effects on officers (Gordon & Baker, helping them cope with many of the hard- inmates as well as maintain public safety (U.S. 2017). Fear of victimization has been found to ships of life behind bars. As Johnson and Price Department of Justice, 1992). increase job stress and to reduce both officers’ (1981) suggest, the correctional officer may In some situations, officers must confront organizational commitment and their overall shepherd inmates through periods of serious disruptive inmates who violate the institution’s job satisfaction (Cullen, Link, Wolfe, & Frank, and potentially disabling stress. rules. Officers must write reports and docu- 1985). Taxman and Gordon (2009) reported ment all details of these altercations. Officers that such fear is associated with the race of the Working with Special Populations have the authority to discipline inmates who officer and the security level of the institution The inmate population in U.S. prisons is het- commit infractions by transferring them to in which they are employed. Officers’ fear of erogeneous (Berg & DeLisi, 2006). Inmates other cells, suspending privileges, and/or victimization may also influence how they differ racially and ethnically, in age, in cogni- assigning disciplinary duties (U.S. Department work with inmates, leading them to interact tive abilities and challenges, and in risks and of Justice, 1992). When officers notice signifi- negatively with inmates and take a more needs. Accordingly, the U.S. prison population cant behavioral changes in inmates, they may defensive approach in non-confrontational is composed of large numbers of mentally ill, increase the level of supervision toward those encounters (Gordon & Baker, 2017). Fear elderly, and gang-affiliated inmates (Crawley, inmates and keep records of their behaviors. could also inhibit officers from meeting their 2006). In addition, some inmates enter prison This is done in an attempt to prevent more responsibilities related to human services, with serious and infectious diseases that serious events from occurring, such as an such as modeling prosocial behavior or being require special accommodations (Potter & assault on a staff member or other inmates a caretaker for inmates (Johnson & Price, Rosky, 2014). (U.S. Department of Justice, 1992). 1981; Scott, 2006). Correctional officers are confronted with Notably, an inherent risk of working in a the task of managing such special popula- correctional institution is the possibility of Correctional Officers’ Role tions. For example, according to Dvoskin and becoming a victim of assault or other in Rehabilitation Spiers (2004), officers use specific strategies to (Konda, Tiesman, Reichard, & Hartley, 2013). Correctional officers can potentially play work with mentally ill inmates, such as psy- Examining statistics of assaults on correctional a meaningful role in the rehabilitation of chotherapy. An officer may attend an inmate’s officers, Lahm (2009) found that most assaults inmates (Johnson et al., 2017; Schaefer, 2018). consultation with a mental health staff mem- on correctional officers are very personal (i.e., Teske and Williamson (1979), for exam- ber, identify special housing and behavioral not random), and that can ple, found that correctional officers tended programs to facilitate the inmate’s success be attributed to overcrowding, lack of inmate to believe they were the most important while in the institution, and/or submit reports 28 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 82 Number 1 to doctors to have psychotropic medications and heightened levels of work and life stress The Need for Training prescribed (see Dvoskin & Spiers, 2004). (Grossi, Keil, & Vito, 1996; Hepburn & The concerns and challenges mentioned Elderly inmates are another special pop- Albonetti, 1980; Lambert et al., 2009). above point to the growing importance of ulation that officers must manage, being Prison crowding is another factor asso- correctional officers’ need for comprehensive cognizant of age-specific needs and problems. ciated with correctional officer stress, a training programs. To help cope effectively Thus, the elderly have different nutritional relevant consideration given that many state with job demands, it is vital that training requirements than younger inmates and have prisons operate 200 percent to 300 percent programs prepare officers for what they will body temperatures that regulate and react above recommended maximum occupancies experience within the prison. Thus, correc- differently than those of younger inmates (Carson, 2014). Research has found that in tional officers should be trained and equipped (Cummings, 1999). They may also have dis- overcrowded institutions, correctional offi- with the necessary skill sets to manage inmates eases that could cause them to act out (e.g., cers report elevated levels of stress, concerns effectively, keep their institution safe and Alzheimer’s) and suffer from brittle bones, about their own safety, and an impaired orderly, deliver rehabilitation and treatment slower reaction times, and poor eyesight ability to perform their job the way that they services, and work with and manage special and hearing (Cummings, 1999). These issues would prefer (Martin, Lichtenstein, Jenkot, & inmate populations. Among the few studies take on added salience given that 10 percent Forde, 2012). Crowding may also negatively that exist, previous research suggests that of the state prison population is 55 years or affect officers’ ability to effectively manage the correctional officers who receive quality job older, a result of the 200 percent growth in inmates in their institution, a factor that could training tend to report higher levels of job this population’s incarceration between 1993 compromise their ability to maintain safety satisfaction and organizational commitment and 2013 (Carson & Sabol, 2016). Some and security—primary functions of their jobs (Armstrong, Atkin-Plunk, & Wells, 2015). estimates conclude that by the year 2030, (Steiner & Wooldredge, 2008). Quality job training has also been linked to one in three inmates will be 50 years or older Notably, job burnout has been linked officers having positive sentiments toward (Allen, Latessa, & Ponder, 2016). Thus, correc- to employment as a correctional officer. their jobs and less feelings of job burnout tional officers need to be trained to effectively Bourbonnais, Malenfant, Vézina, Jauvin, and (Lambert, Paoline, & Hogan, 2006). work with and manage larger elderly inmate Brisson (2005), for example, found burn- populations. out among correctional officers to be nearly Methods Prisons can also be breeding grounds twice as high as that of employees in other To develop a portrait of the training received for illnesses and infectious diseases, given professions. As noted, prison work in general by newly hired correctional officers in the inmates’ proximity to one another, shared can be dissatisfying (Cullen, Link, Cullen, United States, a national survey sponsored hygiene spaces (e.g., showers and restrooms), Wolfe, 1989; Leip & Stinchcomb, 2016). Some by the University of Cincinnati and the continuous influx of offenders into the research suggests that educational attainment Institute (UCCI) was administered between institution who may suffer from poor health may increase job dissatisfaction, because 2016 and 2017. Directors of departments of prior to incarceration (Massoglia, 2008). officers believe they are not afforded the corrections training academies from all 50 When managing inmates with infectious dis- opportunity to use the skills and knowledge states were contacted by email and asked to eases, correctional officers must ensure that acquired in their schooling (Grossi et al., 1996; participate in the study. The directors were all health and safety standards within their Lindquist & Whitehead, 1986). Other factors surveyed due to their knowledge about their institutions are met. In addition, officers are associated with increased job dissatisfaction state’s correctional officer training programs, required to submit health, safety, and sanita- include longevity of employment at a single including knowledge of the curricula and tion reports to the appropriate departments institution, low salaries, variable shift times procedures. Thus, given their positions, we on a regular basis (U.S. Department of Justice, and hours, and working during understaffed assumed that they would be best positioned to 1992). By doing so, diseases are less likely to shifts (Marshia, LaPlante, Allen, & Metcalf, serve as their state’s representative and able to spread, and inmates can receive the medica- 2005; Swenson, Waseleski, & Hartl, 2008). describe the training provided by their indi- tions they need to treat such diseases. Finally, correctional officers may experi- vidual states. The responses thus are presented ence heightened mental and physical health as data pertaining to states’ training activities. Coping with a Challenging Job risks. Research reports that the risk of suicide Potential respondents were provided with Working as a correctional officer not only among correctional officers is 39 percent a link to an online survey through Qualtrics, may be dangerous but also may elicit nega- higher than that of the general U.S. labor force a web-based survey tool used to conduct tive affective responses. Correctional officers (Stack & Tsoudis, 1997); in addition, officers survey research, evaluations, and other data- are regularly depicted as being in stressful experience high rates of depressive behav- collection activities. Respondents were also roles (Armstrong et al., 2015; Cullen et al., iors and symptoms (Obidoa, Reeves, Warren, given the option to complete the survey in 1985; Griffin, Hogan, Lambert, Tucker, & Reisine, & Cherniack, 2011) as well as the paper form or by telephone. Training academy Baker, 2010). Role ambiguity and conflict, likelihood of contracting physical illnesses, directors who failed to respond to the initial including the difficulty of balancing custo- including hypertension, stomach ulcers, and email were subsequently contacted by phone, dial and human services expectations, are alcoholism (Cheek & Miller, 1982). Recent twice if necessary. Altogether, 44 out of 50 linked to correctional officer stress (Cullen et research has documented that officers also state training academy directors responded al., 1985; Hepburn & Albonetti, 1980). Role have high levels of post-traumatic stress syn- to the survey, yielding a response rate of 88 conflict has been related to officers’ job dis- drome (Violanti, 2017). percent (32 by Qualtrics, 11 by paper, and one satisfaction, interpretion of their jobs as being by telephone). dangerous, alienation from the organization, June 2018 CREATING A CORRECTIONAL OFFICER ACADEMY 29

Survey departments were committed to the continu- and practical skills, asked respondents whether A 66-question survey was developed to iden- ous quality improvement of staff and training new correctional officers are trained on topics tify specific methods and topics that each protocols. To do this, we asked respondents to related to enforcing order in the facility in state incorporates into their training programs report the number of months that had passed order to protect themselves and the inmates. for newly hired correctional officers. The since their state had updated their training For instance, topic areas within this subject Correctional Officer Training Questionnaire curriculum. We also asked whether officers included use of force, riot control, and cell was divided into two general sections: (1) were required to attend annual in-service extractions (see Table 6). general information about characteristics training or booster sessions. If the respondent The third subject focused on the history of correctional officer training (e.g., facility answered yes, he or she was prompted to iden- and development of corrections, ethics, and characteristics, training characteristics, and tify how many days this training period lasted. professionalism. Respondents were instructed recruiting tactics) and (2) training content, Fifth, we assessed the process used to recruit to indicate whether new correctional officers including the topics and subject areas in which new officers. Recruitment refers to the meth- are trained on topics related, for example, new correctional officers receive training (e.g., ods state correctional departments use to fill to the history of laws and development of inmate management, officer safety, security, openings in correctional officer positions. The corrections, professionalism, and the role of and practical skills, history and development respondents were asked to select all of the correctional officers (see Table 7). of corrections, ethics, and professionalism, recruiting methods they use from a list provided The fourth subject, criminal justice sys- criminal justice systems, laws, rights, and in the questionnaire. Examples of recruiting tems, laws, rights, and investigation, included investigations, and special populations and strategies listed on the survey included job fairs, topic areas related to the constitutional and special topics). retired military personnel networks, and refer- civil rights of inmates and the role of the rals from current staff (see Table 4). criminal justice system. Additional topic areas Measures within this subject focused on the Training Content Elimination Act (PREA) and whether new General Training Characteristics Respondents were surveyed regarding correctional officers are trained in the prepa- We assessed five types of general training char- which subjects new correctional officers ration and presentation of testimony for and acteristics: (1) location of training, (2) training are trained in across five general areas: (1) against inmates (see Table 8). hours, (3) training methods, (4) continuing inmate management; (2) officer safety, secu- Finally, the fifth subject, special popula- in-service training, and (5) the recruitment rity, and practical skills; (3) the history and tions and special topics, focused on whether process. The measures used to probe these development of corrections, ethics, and pro- new correctional officers receive training areas are described below. When appropriate, fessionalism; (4) criminal justice systems, related to supervising and managing diverse reference is made to tables where response laws, rights, and investigations; and (5) special inmate groups (e.g., sex offenders, security categories are listed (though the tables are not populations and special topics. Under each threat groups, mentally ill offenders). The presented until the Results sections). subject area, several corresponding topics subject also included special topic areas to First, we asked directors whether their were listed. Respondents were thus prompted determine whether new correctional offi- state has a training academy to train newly to select yes or no to indicate whether new cers receive training in rehabilitation, hired correctional officers. Respondents were correctional officers receive training in one or cognitive-behavioral intervention, and/or the prompted to check yes or no. If no was more of those topics. Selecting yes confirmed risk-need-responsivity model (see Table 9). selected, respondents were directed to write that their state provides training on that topic To better assess training efforts within this in the location of the training and the agency area and selecting no confirmed their state subject, respondents were asked to report the responsible for conducting the training. does not provide training on that topic area. number of hours of training officers receive on Second, the survey measured the length of For the special topics and special population each topic area relevant to programming (i.e., correctional officer training through several subsection, respondents were requested to treatment) and the number of hours of train- questions. Directors were instructed to report indicate how many hours of training officers ing officers receive on each topic area relevant how many hours of training newly hired receive on that particular topic area if they to the management (i.e., control/supervision) correctional officers were required to attend. provide training on that topic. Respondents of each type of specialized population/topic They were asked to report the number of basic were also encouraged to identify any topic (see Table 10). training hours and the number of hours des- areas for which new correctional officers ignated for on-the-job training (see Table 1). received training that were not listed within Results Third, training methods refer to the tech- the five subjects. A brief description of each Based on the responses of training academy niques and materials used to instruct new subject matter and the topic areas within those directors, data are presented on the number correctional officers. The respondents were subjects is provided below. and percentage of states that provide training requested to report all the ways in which The first subject focused on inmate man- in the various topics and areas. The results are course materials are conveyed (e.g., instruc- agement and asked respondents to indicate divided into two areas: (1) the characteristics tional videos, role plays, PowerPoint lectures). whether new correctional officers are trained of where, how long, and by what method the They were also asked if correctional officers on topics related to tracking, processing, and training occurs and (2) the content of the were required to complete any job shadowing supervising inmates. Topic areas included, for training that is delivered. or pass written examinations prior to inde- example, booking/receiving, security and count pendent employment (see Table 2). procedures, and inmate transport (see Table 5). Fourth, the survey examined whether The second subject, officer safety, security, 30 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 82 Number 1

General Training Characteristics a current staff member and, if yes, the amount multimedia recruiting materials (e.g., online of time that shadow period lasted. Table 3 advertisements, video brochures), while Training Location reveals that a substantial number of states (n another 35 states indicated they recruit on Forty-one of the 44 four responding states = 36) reported that new officers must shadow college campuses. The majority of states also indicated they have training academies for a current staff member before they can begin indicated that they recruit retired military correctional officer training. Three states their job independently. The average length personnel and/or rely on their partnerships indicated that they do not have a separate cor- of time for that shadow period was reported with job services or other recruiting agencies rectional training academy. In these instances, to be 44 days. In addition, states were asked if to recruit new correctional officers (n = 32 new correctional officer training takes place officers were required to pass a written exam and n = 31, respectively). The least common at the institution to which new officers as at the conclusion of the training program. As recruiting method reported by states were initially assigned. shown in Table 3, all but one state surveyed advertisements in either out-of-state publica- (n = 43) had this requirement. Passing scores tions (n = 22) or local publications (n = 29). Training Hours and Methods ranged from 70 percent to 80 percent. The survey results also revealed that the total Training Content: Subjects number of required training hours for new Recruitment and Topic Areas correctional officers varies considerably across States reported that officers are recruited in a the United States (see Table 1). Specifically, variety of ways. Table 4 reveals, for example, Inmate Management one state indicated that it requires less than that all but one state (n = 43) use job fairs Correctional officers receive training for many 100 hours of basic training for new correc- to recruit new officers. Referrals from cur- duties that are involved with the management tional officers. A slightly larger group (11 rent staff members was another common of inmates. As seen in Table 5, every state in states) indicated that they require between 100 recruiting method, a practice found in 41 the sample reported that officers are trained and 199 hours of basic training, followed by 20 states. Additionally, 36 states reported using in security and count procedures and on the states that indicated they require between 200 topic of inmate discipline and grievances. and 299 hours of basic training. Twelve states TABLE 1. Additionally, a large number of states reported reported that they require over 300 hours of Hours of Basic Training at Academies basic training for new correctional officers. Training Hours Frequency TABLE 4. Too few states reported the number of hours ≤ 99 Hours 1 Methods used by states to in subsequent on-the-job training that they recruit new officers provide for newly hired correctional officers, 100 – 199 Hours 11 so we are unable report those results. 200 – 299 Hours 20 Recruitment Frequency Percentage Strategy Yes Yes The state directors were also asked about 300 + Hours 12 Retired military the methods used by academies to train offi- personnel 32 72.7 cers. As shown in Table 2, a large majority networks of states use a variety of training methods, TABLE 2. College campuses 35 79.5 including videos, study guides, lesson plans, Tools used for training newly PowerPoints, role playing, case studies, and hired correctional officers Multimedia materials 36 81.8 skill exercises. The partial exception was workbooks, but even here 29 of 44 states Frequency Percentage Advertisements Training Utilities Yes Yes in local 29 65.9 reported their use. publications Instructional 43 97.7 videos Advertisements Training Curriculum Details in out-of-state 22 50.0 Study guides 38 86.4 Training directors were asked to report the publications Lesson plans 42 95.5 number of months that had passed since their Partnerships PowerPoints 44 100 with job states’ training curriculum had been updated. services or 31 70.5 The answer was an average of 10 months. Role plays 42 95.5 other recruiting agencies Further, respondents were asked if officers Case studies 43 97.7 Referrals from are required to attend annual in-service train- Workbooks 29 65.9 current staff 41 93.2 ing or booster sessions. To this inquiry, 43 Skills Exercises 42 95.5 Job fairs 43 97.7 states reported that correctional officers were required to attend annual in-service training. TABLE 3. The average length of time reported for this Prerequisites to independent employment status training was 39 hours a year. This training had to be completed for officers to maintain good Pre-employment Frequency Percentage Mean days Mean score standing at their institution. requirements Yes Yes (SD) (SD) States were also queried about the require- Must job-shadow current staff* 36 83.7 43.91 days ments officers must satisfy prior to full (93.18) employment status. One question asked if Pass written exam 43 97.7 73.84 (4.48) officers in the state were required to “shadow” Note: * indicates that percentages were based on 43 cases June 2018 CREATING A CORRECTIONAL OFFICER ACADEMY 31 that they train officers in the areas of inmate practical skills. As seen in Table 6, for example, History and Development transport and inmate supervision (n = 41 and all states surveyed indicated that they train of Corrections, Ethics, and n = 43, respectively). Inmate hygiene and facil- officers in basic safety and security procedures, Professionalism ity sanitation concerns are addressed in the use of force, area, cell, and body searches, and Table 7 reveals that most states train cor- training programs of about two-thirds of the inmate discipline and grievances. In addi- rectional officers in the areas of ethics, states surveyed. Of the items in this training tion, 42 states provide training for addressing professionalism, and the role of being a cor- topic area, the topic in which the fewest num- contraband, and 39 states provide firearms rectional officer. Specifically, 42 states reported ber of states provide training is the booking training. The training area receiving the least that officers receive training in professional- and receiving of inmates. About one-third (n attention in this domain was peace officer ism, and 43 states train officers in ethics. = 16) of states reported that they train officers standards and training (POST); 34 states do Additionally, 36 states train officers on the in this job task. not provide training in this topic. Another role of a correctional officer’s job in the prison area of training that showed some inconsis- system. Also, Table 7 indicates that nearly one- Officer Safety, Security, and Practical tency was the task of cell extractions, with only third of the states surveyed (n = 16) do not Skills 30 states providing such training for newly train officers in the history of corrections and A substantial number of states reported that hired correctional officers. about law and administrative investigations they train officers in safety, security, and against staff and inmates (n = 15).

TABLE 5. TABLE 7. Criminal Justice Systems, Laws, Rights, Training in inmate management Training in the history and development of and Investigations Frequency Percentage corrections, ethics, and professionalism The current study reveals that states train cor- Training Area Yes Yes Frequency Percentage rectional officers in criminal justice systems, Booking/ Training Area Yes Yes receiving 16 36.4 laws, rights, and investigations. As seen in History of Table 8, all states surveyed reported that they Security laws and the 28 63.6 and court 42 95.5 development of are compliant and train officers in the aspects procedures corrections of the Prison Rape Elimination Act (PREA), Inmate Role of which is a federally mandated requirement for supervision 43 97.7 correctional 36 81.8 officers all correctional institutions. Additionally, 36 of Inmate hygiene the 44 states in the sample reported that offi- and facility 30 68.2 Professionalism 42 95.5 cers are trained in the following areas: the civil sanitation Ethics 43 97.7 and constitutional rights of inmates, and law Inmate Administrative programs and 37 84.1 investigations 29 65.9 enforcement, courts, and correctional depart- services ments’ roles and responsibilities. In addition, Inmate slightly more than one-third (n = 16) of the discipline and 44 100 TABLE 8. grievances Training in criminal justice systems, states reported that they do not train officers in the topics of inmate investigations, and Inmate transport 41 93.2 laws, rights, and investigations roughly half of the states surveyed (n = 19) Frequency Percentage TABLE 6. Training Area Yes Yes reported that they do not train correctional Training in officer security Law officers in the area of preparing testimony for and practical skills enforcement, and against inmates. courts, 36 81.8 Frequency Percentage corrections, Special Populations and Special Topics Skill Area Yes Yes and responsibilities Basic officer Importantly, substantial variation exists in safety and 44 100 Constitutional both the number of states that train officers security rights of 41 93.2 inmates in special populations and special topics and Use of force 44 100 Civil rights of in the number of hours that are reserved for Riot control 27 61.4 inmates 35 79.5 this type of training. Also, some topics and Contraband* 42 97.7 Prison Rape populations are included by some states’ train- Elimination Act 44 100 ing programs, whereas this does not occur in Area, cell, and (PREA) body searches 44 100 others. Investigation As shown in Table 9, 41 states reported Cell extractions 30 68.2 of inmates in 28 63.6 corrections that they train officers in how to work with Firearm training 39 88.6 Preparation mentally ill offenders. Two other areas that Peace officer and training 10 22.7 39 states designate training hours for include presentation security threat groups (i.e., gangs) and suicidal Note: * indicates that percentages were based of testimony 19 44.2 on 43 cases for and against inmates. Special populations and topics that inmates in court* received the least amount of training delega- tions were the overseeing of sex offenders (n Note: * indicates that percentages were based on 43 cases = 26 do not train in) and elderly offenders (n 32 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 82 Number 1

= 20 do not train in). Of further note, training a blueprint is prepared of what a model cor- the professionalization of corrections has been in the Risk-Need-Responsivity model occurs rectional officer training academy program a common theme in contemporary criminal in less than two-fifths of the states surveyed. might entail. The intent is to improve upon justice practices (Lutze, 2016). Likewise, most Table 10 depicts the average number of current correctional officer training and to cre- states train officers in the civil and constitu- training hours designated for training officers ate strong, evidence-based academies that will tional rights of inmates, most likely as a means in special populations and special topics. The equip officers with the skills needed to manage to lessen or avoid liability in state and federal special topic training receiving the most atten- (if not reform) the prisoners they supervise. litigation claims (Cornelius, 2001; Piehl & tion was rehabilitation in corrections, which Schlanger, 2004). received an average of 3.83 hours. The special The Current Status of In the special population and special top- population topic that received the least amount Training Across States ics domain of the survey, states primarily of training hours was managing elderly offend- The current study indicates that differences reported training officers in only a few of the ers, with an average of 1.67 hours. exist among state training programs for cor- special populations and topics that were listed This subsection of the survey had the most rectional officers. Thus, while training for in the survey. These were for security threat variation in the number of hours trained some topic areas was found in the majority of groups, mentally ill inmates, and suicidal in each topic area. For example, one state states, other training topics were found in only inmates. Security threat groups refer to gangs reported that it trains officers in the area of several states. Both common and uncommon or other groups of inmates that threaten the rehabilitation for 24 hours, whereas the aver- areas of training are discussed in this section. security of the institution; in-prison gangs can age number of training hours for all states in affect the safety of the institution, placing both this sample was 3.83 hours. Additionally, one Commonly Trained Topics staff and other inmates at risk of victimization. state reported that it trains officers in the use Training topics and content that were com- For example, Carlson (2001) estimated that 20 of cognitive-behavioral interventions for 20 monly reported by training directors were percent of assaults against correctional officers hours, while the average for all other respond- primarily in the areas of inmate manage- in prisons may be gang-related. Most of the ing states was 2.77 hours. ment, custodial tasks, and security skills. For states surveyed reported training in this topic example, all states generally train officers in area. These groups often require special meth- Discussion contraband, cell and body searches, use of ods and tactics of management. Additionally, Given the challenges and multidimensional force, and firearms basics. Also, nearly all these gang groups are large enough to cause facets of the correctional officer role, officers states train officers in the security counting concern for correctional staff, with nearly 25 would benefit from systematic training across procedures of inmates, inmate supervision percent of inmates in adult facilities admitting a variety of areas. To date, little research is practices, inmate discipline and grievances, to being in an in- (Knox, 2000). available on the training that officers receive and the prison programs and services offered Training provided for managing mentally once hired. To help fill the void in the lit- to inmates within their institution. ill inmates and suicidal inmates was com- erature, this investigation was undertaken to Much of the variation in training across mon across states. This finding may be due document existing training procedures for states appeared in content areas that do not to the large numbers of mentally ill inmates newly hired correctional officers across the directly deal with inmate management and found in U.S. prisons and the civil rights United States. security functions. However, the survey did protections provided for this population in Recommendations for state departments of uncover some content areas, other than those legislation (Human Rights Watch, 2016; Piehl corrections, including the content that should included in the inmate management and secu- be trained in, the duration of training proce- rity sections, for which most states provide TABLE 10. dures, and characteristics of training that may training. For example, professionalism was a Hours trained in special populations benefit programs across the United States, are topic that a majority of states train officers in. and special topics (if trained) presented below. Building on these findings, This finding is somewhat expected, given that Special Population/ Mean (SD) Hours Topic Trained in Area TABLE 9. Sex offenders 1.70 (0.81) Training in special populations and special topics LGBTQ offenders 2.15 (1.89) Special Population/Topic Frequency Yes Percentage Yes Security threat 3.61 (2.31) Sex offenders 17 39.5 groups (i.e., gangs) LGBTQ offenders 31 72.1 Mentally ill offenders 7.52 (8.88) Security threat groups (i.e., gangs) 39 90.7 Elderly offenders 1.67 (0.75) Mentally ill offenders* 41 95.3 Suicidal offenders 3.58 (3.58) Elderly offenders* 20 46.5 Domestic and sexual assault and stalking 2.90 (2.08) Suicidal offenders* 40 93.0 Rehabilitation in Domestic and sexual assault and stalking* 17 39.5 corrections 3.83 (5.78) Rehabilitation in corrections* 25 58.1 Cognitive behavioral interventions 2.77 (2.61) Cognitive behavioral interventions* 19 55.8 Risk-Needs- Risk-Needs-Responsivity (RNR) model* 16 37.2 Responsivity (RNR) 2.00 (1.15) Note: * indicates that percentages were based on 43 cases model June 2018 CREATING A CORRECTIONAL OFFICER ACADEMY 33

& Schlanger, 2004). Some researchers have many states do not train officers in the use of hours of basic training. To date, slightly less postulated that corrections institutions have cognitive-behavioral interventions. According than half of the states surveyed have training largely replaced mental hospitals in the United to the training directors surveyed, only about academy programs lasting between 200-299 States (Torrey, Kennard, Eslinger, Lamb, & half of the states train officers in the use basic training hours. In fact, only about one- Pavle, 2010), an idea that gains notoriety of cognitive-behavioral interventions. These quarter of states went beyond 300 training given that there are now three times as many types of interventions have consistently been hours. Training officers a minimum of 300 mentally ill persons housed in state prisons as shown to lower recidivism rates and effec- hours may better allow for all the topics and in mental hospitals. Accordingly, it is expected tively change antisocial behaviors (Bonta & content areas associated with correctional offi- that officers receive training in this area, Andrews, 2017). If officers were trained in cer work to be covered at the training academy. because the implications of mental illness in cognitive-behavioral interventions, perhaps prison may be fatal. For example, one study they would better understand mechanisms to Continuation of Training found those who are mentally ill are more change the negative behaviors of inmates into Similar to training in other professions (e.g., likely to commit suicide in prison (Torrey et prosocial behaviors. physicians, social workers), the continuation al., 2010) and pose greater threats to correc- Another area that lacks training in state of training should be required for all correc- tional officers’ safety (Galanek, 2015). departments is the management of special tional officers. Nearly all states in the sample Another training topic that is a part of all populations that are found within the prison reported that officers are required to attend state training programs is the Prison Rape population. For example, most states do not annual training. Such continuing education is Elimination Act (PREA). This act was passed train officers in how to manage and work with imperative, because research is ongoing and into law in 2003 to protect prison inmates elderly offenders. Studies have shown that the could serve to inform new and more effective from becoming the victims of sexual assaults number of elderly inmates incarcerated is at an training practices. Also, the completion of an while in prison (U.S. Department of Justice, all-time high (10 percent of the entire prison examination after training is essential to cer- 2012). The law requires that all staff members population) and is expected to dramatically tify whether trainees retained the knowledge in a correctional facility or agency who come increase in the future (Carson, 2016). from the initial training program. Another into contact with inmates be trained in PREA, Another special population that does not training program characteristic should be for which calls for employees working within cor- receive much attention in training programs cadets to “shadow” an experienced officer rectional agencies to be provided training in is sex offenders. Research has indicated that before starting shifts alone. Such shadowing topics such as rape detection protocols (U.S. sex offenders are often victimized at higher will allow the officers to learn from somebody Department of Justice, 2012). rates than other inmates and often need spe- who has experience working with inmates and cial accommodations (Labrecque, 2016). If working in the prison environment. Uncommonly Trained Areas officers received training in how to manage A correctional officer’s role extends beyond these special populations, they might better Inmate Custody and Management: his or her basic safety, security, and custodial understand the risks and challenges that these Skills and Expertise tasks (Schaefer, 2018). However, the roles that populations face in prison. It may be that Given that it is the primary function of do not fall under security and custodial roles states are using the mandated PREA training their job, correctional officers should receive are not always addressed by state training pro- in lieu of a formalized sex offender training. extensive training in maintaining safety and grams. Though statutes list one of the goals of The distinction between the two trainings is security through guarding inmates (Osborne, state correctional departments as achieving the that the PREA is focused on preventing sexual 2014). Thus, all officers should receive train- rehabilitation of inmates (Burton, Dunaway, & victimization, while training officers in how to ing in inmate management tasks and basic Kopache, 1993; Kelley, Mueller & Hemmens, manage sex offenders covers other topics such security and safety skills. As noted, this would 2004), topic and content areas associated with as how sex offenders think and act. involve institutional security procedures, use the human service and therapeutic roles of of force, searches, controlling contraband, cell correctional officers are largely absent in many A Model Training Academy extractions, firearms training, and so on. states’ training curricula. For example, about Based on the current national survey, it is Beyond such practical and often physical half of the training directors reported that possible to identify best practices that, if skills, officers need to be schooled in two areas their officers are not trained in rehabilitative combined, might provide a foundation for of softer knowledge. The first area is under- tasks, and two-thirds of states do not mention developing a “model” Correctional Officer standing the legal and constitutional rights of the Risk-Needs-Responsivity (RNR) model Training Academy. inmates and how these legal considerations in their training. The RNR model has been must guide correctional officer behavior. successful in the rehabilitation of offenders Expanding the Amount of Training The second area is learning how to manage in many settings (Bonta & Andrews, 2017). Correctional officers should graduate from inmates in a way that increases the officers’ Thus, this model surely has a place in correc- training academies with the skills and knowl- legitimacy and evokes inmate compliance tional officer training programs, and sufficient edge to perform their job in the safest and rather than opposition. Research suggests that statutory language in state legal codes exists most effective manner. With that in mind, inconsistent and gratuitously harsh treatment to support the training (Burton et al., 1993; training programs must account for the many of inmates can increase inmates’ miscon- Johnson, Dunaway, Burton, Marquart, & dimensions and roles of a correctional officer’s duct and erode institutional stability (Steiner Cuvelier, 1994; Kelley et al., 2004). work. Thus, to cover all of the content needed & Meade, 2014). Although research on the Given that the RNR model is not part of to perform the tasks for which an officer is effectiveness of managerial styles is far from their training curricula, it is unsurprising that responsible, we recommend a minimum of 300 definitive, scholars increasingly suggest that 34 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 82 Number 1 the use of procedural justice in interactions intervention in practice (Smith, Schweitzer, evidence-based practices and procedures. with offenders produces perceptions of legiti- Labrecque, & Latessa, 2012). The EPICS Achieving this goal, however, will face macy and compliance (Steiner & Meade, 2014; model trains community corrections officers a major challenge. At present, a knowledge Wooldredge & Steiner, 2016). Accordingly, to follow a structured approach in their inter- gap exists between training goals and how to training correctional officers in effective man- actions with offenders (Smith et al., 2012). achieve those goals. Two strategies might be agerial styles rooted in behavioral science Officers trained in EPICS are instructed to profitably employed to address this lack of research is essential. focus on higher-risk offenders, to address knowledge. First, correctional officers should offenders’ criminogenic needs, and to use be seen not only as recipients of training but Understanding Special Populations social learning and cognitive-behavioral tech- also as sources of insights about effective Correctional officers would benefit from niques in their interactions with offenders training. Officers should be interviewed ini- understanding the risks and needs of the dif- (Smith et al., 2012). tially and systematically to learn more about ferent populations of inmates that they guard. EPICS training could lead officers to inter- their perceived training needs and about their Thus, training officers in topics such as sex act more effectively with inmates. For example, ideas on best practices with inmates. Second, offenders, gangs, elderly inmates, suicidal in offender encounters, officers could seek to criminologists need to focus their research inmates, mentally ill inmates, and drug-abus- model prosocial behaviors. They could also not only on uncovering what is wrong with ing inmates would likely benefit both those use interactions with inmates as teaching prisons but also on how to develop practi- types of inmates and the officers. This training moments, correcting thinking errors and talk- cal programs, managerial approaches, and could help officers better accommodate the ing with wayward inmates about alternative training protocols to create safer and more needs of inmates and allow officers potentially options for handling emotionally charged sit- reformative institutions. This research should to play a role in the rehabilitation of these uations. As suggested, effective training might start by evaluating the effectiveness of cur- special populations. have the added benefit of improving inmates’ rent training approaches and then use this perceptions of officers’ legitimacy, thus reduc- information to develop principles of effective Guiding the Rehabilitative Role of ing conflict and increasing compliance (see training. Both the keepers and the kept merit Correctional Officers Steiner & Wooldredge, 2015). our ongoing efforts to equip correctional offi- Correctional officers are in a position to play cers with the understanding and expertise to prominent roles in offender rehabilitation Promoting Officer Wellness do their job well. (Johnson et al., 2017; Teske & Williamson, The most immediate need is to train officers 1979). Officers spend more time with offend- in the health risks posed by inmates, such as References ers than any other correctional staff. Previous dealing with threats and actual incidents of Allen, H. 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