ANCIENT INDIA 2021

Table Of Content Title Page No

Stone Age 1

The Harappan Culture 2

Vedic Period 14

Aryans and Rigveda 17

The later Vedic phase 24

Iron and later Vedic Aryans 26

Gods, rituals and philosophy 31

Jainism and Buddhism 35

Mauryan empire 47

Indo - Greeks 66

Impact of central Asian contacts 68

Gautmiputra satakarni 72

Post-Maurya age 76

Sangam age 80

Gupta period 86

Buddhism and Bhagvatism 93

Harsha 99

Revise and test yourself 101

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STONE AGE Tools: PALEOLITHIC AGE( Old Stone Age) • Blades which were sharp on both edges Sites: • Crescent • Sohan Valley/ Soan Valley – • Trapezes Punjab (Pakistan) • Arrow • Narmada Valley Life Style: • Krishna Valley • Chotanagpur plateau • Life style was similar to Paleolithic man except one major change – Bori Valley in Maharashtra has the domestication ofanimals started. earliest evidence of human existence in Indian Subcontinent. • The economy of early period of Mesolithic age was based on hunting, Tools: fishing and foodgathering. Slowly • Borers domesticating crops and animals made • Chopper their way into human life. • Pebbles • Human Burial- Mesolithic human • Flakes burials have been found at Bagor in Tools were made of stones. A cutting Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat, edge was created by chipping and Bhimbetka in etc. flaking the stone. NEOLITHIC AGE: (7000 – 1000 Life Style BC) Sites: • People were hunters and • Chirand – Bihar (Only bone tools gatherers. They were omnivorous were found) i.e. both vegetarian and non- • Burzahom and Guftral – Kashmir vegetarian. • Bhimbetka – M.P. • Used to wear leaves and hides of • Belan Valley – UP animals. • – Balochistan (First • Hence preferred hilly areas as agricultural evidence is found) they provided security and • Maski and Brahmagiri – natural caves, thatched huts.The Karnataka (Both Neolithic and information is gained by chalcolithic tools are found) Bhimbetka cave paintings. Tools: MESOLITHIC AGE: (10,000 – • Antelope horns – Kashmir 4000 BC) • Oval shaped – Southern India Sites: • Polished Stone – Bihar • Adamgarh – Madhya Pradesh You can observe the sharpness and the • Bagore – Rajasthan fineness of the tools have changed. • Bhimbetka – Madhya Pradesh

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Life Style: • Pottery: Ochre Colored Pottery and Black and Red Pottery was • Man became a food producer. used. First evidence of agriculture is • Burials: they buried the dead found at Mehrgarh (Wheat and bodies with the personal Barley; 7000 – 6000 BC), Belan belongings of the person. This Valley (Rice; 6000 BC) shows that they must have • Clothing: Animal skin, leaves, believed in life after death. In bark. western India, bodies wereburied • Housing: Thatched houses made in North – South Direction and in of mud were made. Southern India;they were buried • People started living in bigger in East – West Direction. groups because of agriculture. • Housing: Mud and Mud brick Pottery making started with the houses were found. help of a wheel. • Belan Valley is the place in India CHALCOLITHIC AGE (2500 – 700 where all the Paleolithic, BC) Mesolithic and Neolithic sites are found. Chalcolithic is also known as Eneolithic • Robert Bruce foot was the father period which saw the use of the metals of Indian pre-history. among which the Copper was first. • Dolmen, Cairn-circles and Sites: Menhirs etc. Megalithic Burials. • Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) is • Ahar Culture (Ahar, Gilund in connected with Late Harappans. Rajasthan) • The earliest evidence of settled • Culture ( Inamgaon, agriculture in the subcontinent is Daimabad in Maharashtra) found at Mehrgarh • Culture (Navdatoli, Eran, • Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Kayatha in Madhya Pradesh) Neolithic Cultures are found in sequence at Belan Valley Tools: • The earliest evidence of Man in • Largely made of stone and copper India is found at Narmada Valley. • Hand Axes, sickles, borers made THE HARAPPAN CULTURE: of copper BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION Life Style: Discovery: • A developed village life started. • Till 19TH century, the Indus Valley • Food: A variety of crops were Civilization was unknown and it grown – wheat, barley, rice, was believed that Vedic people pulses, oil seeds, dates, peas and were the oldest inhabitants of water melon. India. • Domestication of Animals: Cattle • In 1850, during the construction and pigs were domesticated. work of railways, some artifacts • Clothing: Cotton was used in later were found which were very old. period. It was an exciting discovery and

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an excavation was planned. But wearing necklace and bangles, it is later, due to WW-I the excavation naked. It shows that dance was as planned had to be postponed. practiced. It also shows the artistic and • In 1921, Harappa was excavated metallurgical capability of the under the leadership of Sir John civilization. Marshal and D.R.Sahni. Harappa is situated on the bank of River Largest Number of Seals: Ravi in Punjab (Pakistan). • Seals were made of steatite (hard • In 1922, Mohenjodaro was clay) and were probably used as excavated in Larkana district of currency (although barter system Sindh (Pakistan) under the prevailed) or as mark of authority supervision of R. D. Bannerjee. for trade. • Since similar town planning and • Round, Square or Cylindrical artifacts were found, it was shape concluded that they belonged to • The Harappan script, gods and the same civilization despite animals are also depicted on seals being 480 miles apart. giving detailed information about • Since Harappa was excavated their practices, beliefs and life in first, the civilization was named general. after it due to historical precedence. Script: It is a pictographic script. It was written from right to left in one line and SITES then left to right in other and so on. This Mohenjodaro: type of script is called ‘Boustrophedon’. It has not been deciphered so far but Also known as "Mound of the Dead" around 400 unique symbols have been identified. • Largest site to be excavated/ on river Indus Assembly Hall: A large assembly hall was found at the citadel. Important findings: Pashupati Seal: A seal depicting a Great Bath: A great Bath i.e. a large human image, or Proto Shiva bath tub was found in the city. It (Pashupati) was found. The image is measures 11.88 meters x 7.01 meters surrounded by Tiger, Elephant, Rhino and has a maximum depth of 2.43 and a Buffalo. It has two deer at his feet. meters. It is made up of burnt bricks of standard size. It is believed that it might Cotton: Evidence of Cotton fabric was have been used for some ritual or holy found in fossilized form. bath. Large Building: A large building Great Granary: A large granary is (probably a palace or the Governor’s found, showing surplus food production. house) has been excavated at the citadel. It also shows that there was a proper However, it is not clear whether the civic administration, storage facilities, Harappan people were governed by a and trade and commerce. king or a committee of citizens. Dancing Girl: A bronze statue of dancing girl was found. Apart from

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Harappa- River Ravi Important Findings: Important Findings: • Dockyard (made of burnt bricks) was used for shipping (artificial • 12 granaries, kept in two rows. (6 dock) in each row) • Persian seals have been found • To the South of the Granaries lay showing the evidence of Trade. working floors consisting of rows • Evidence of Rice Husk (This is of circular brick platforms. These the only place other than were meant for thrashing grains Rangapur in IVC where evidence as wheat and Barley was found in of rice is found) the crevices of the floor. Two • Entry to houses on the main roomed barracks were also found street which probably accommodated • Evidence of double burial i.e. in the laborers. one grave- MF (most common), • Different types of Burial Practices MM, and FF. The reason why this were performed: was done is unknown. • Direct Burial i.e. body was • Evidence of fire Altars directly buried in the ground Urn Burial i.e. Body was first Chanhu Daro cremated and then the ashes were buried in the urn River Indus (Sindh) Coffin Burial • It is believed that it was the industrial town of the IVC. • Second largest numbers of seals were • Factories of bangles and beads found from Harappa after Mohenjodaro. have been found. • The only city in the Indus Valley • Kalibangan civilization which does not have a • River Ghaggar (Rajasthan) citadel was Chanhu Daro, located Important Findings: some 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-Daro. • Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture Dholavira • Evidence of ploughed land is • Kutch District, Gujarat. found. Wooden ploughs were • Its location is on the Tropic of used; hence the ploughs have not Cancer survived. • It is located on Khadir Byet • Evidence of Fire Altars Island in the Kutch Desert • Citadel is made of mud bricks. In Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great all other sides, the citadel has Rann of Kutch. been made of Burntbricks. • • The citadel of Dholavira is built • Bones of camel of stone and is a monumental • Rectangular and circular graves work and most impressive among • No drainage and brunt bricks the Harappan citadels discovered evidence found here Lothal River so far. Bhogwa (Gujarat)

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• • A unique water harnessing • It is called as Harappan system and its storm water civilization because in drainage system archaeology there is a convention • • One of the most important that when an ancient culture is findings of Dholavira has been a described, it is named after the signboard with Indus Script. modern name of first site which • • It has a similar bath like revealed its existence. In this case Mohenjodaro, but smaller in size. Harappa (situated in province of • Other important sites of Indus west Punjab in Pakistan) was the Valley Civilisation are: first site and so named Harappan • Rakhigarhi, Ropar, Kot diji, civilization. Alamgir Pur, Sokhtagindor etc. • The Harappan culture emerged in • Rakhigarhi in Hissar, Haryana is Sindh and Punjab. This was Pre one of the largest sites of Indus Harappan culture and Central Valley. zone of civilization which later • In the Indus Valley Civilization, a developed into mature Urban beared man in steatite image has civilization. Itspread into been found in Mohenjodaro southward and eastward. • Dholavira is the only site to be • In other words, Harappan divided into three parts civilization covered – Punjab, • In the Indus Valley Civilization, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, the remains of Horse bones have Rajasthan, Gujarat and fringes of been found from Surkotada site. western Uttar Pradesh. The site at Surkotada is located Extension of Civilization 160 km north-east of Bhuj, in the district of Kutch, Gujarat. • North – Jammu, South – • The Indus valley people knew the Narmada estuary, North-East – use of copper, bronze, silver, gold Meerut, West - Makrana coast of but not iron. Baluchistan. (see the above • The harappa site is located in image) Montogomery district of Punjab • Area – 12,99,600 kms. in Pakistan. • The Harappa civilization was 20 • The following map will show the times greater than Egypt and 12 important sites area of Indus times larger than combining area valley civilization: of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Geographical Extent Sites • The Harappan culture is older • About 1500 Harappan sites were than chalcolithic culture i.e. discovered out of which around 925 are Harappan culture time period is in India. 2800 B.C. – 1300 B.C. while • These sites belong to early, mature chalcolithic age’s time period is 2200 B.C. to 700 B.C. and late phases of Harappan culture but • It arose in north western part of most of them are late Harappa, post- Indian subcontinent. urban sites. These lie on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra channel. • It was first discovered in 1921.

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• Very few sites can be regarded as • Below the city there is a lower cities. town consisting of bricks. These may be inhabited by common • Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were people. two most important cities of • The pattern in which houses were Harappan civilization. Mohenjo- laid was grid or chessboard Daro means mound of the dead. pattern. In this system the road Both cities were linked by Indus or streets cut each other at right River. angles i.e. 90°. The city was City – divided into many blocks. Almost all the Indus settlements have ✓ Chanhudaro in Sindh. this pattern. ✓ Lothal in Gujarat at the head of • Mohenjo-Daro has more building the Gulf of Cambay. structures compared to the ✓ Kalibangan which means black Harappa. bangles, in northern Rajasthan. • Mohenjo-Daro was able to ✓ Banawali (Hissar, Haryana) mobilize labor and collect taxes. ✓ The last two cities have seen Pre- • 2 room barracks found at Harappan and Harappan culture. Harappa were possibly for • The Harappan culture in – laborers inhabitation. Mature phase is found in coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Great Bath Surkotada • Most important place of • Later phase is found in Rangpur Mohenjo-Daro. and Rojdi in Kathiwar peninsula • It was a tank situated at citadel. in Gujrat. • Example of beautiful brickwork. • Dholvira in Gujarat shows • On both the sides of the great Harappa fortification + all 3 bath there were flights of steps to phases of Harappan culture. lead to the surface. • Rakhigarhi in Haryana also • There are side rooms to change shows all the 3 phases. But cloths. Rakhigarhi is bigger than • Burnt bricks were used to made Dholavira. floor of the great bath. • To fill bath with water, a nearby TOWN PLANNING AND well was used. STRUCTURES • There was an outlet in the corner of the bath so that water can be • Town planning was unique drained when not needed. features of this civilization. • It is believed that this bath was • Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro has mainly for ritual bathing. citadel (a strong castle in or near a city, where people can shelter Granaries from danger, especially during a Mohenjo-Daro granaries war). There is a possibility that it can be occupied by ruling class. • These were the largest buildings in Mohenjo-Daro.

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Harappa Granaries • Water from houses flowed to the streets which had drains. • Harappa was having 6 granaries. • These drains were covered with • The granaries at Harappa had same stones slabs or bricks. area as Great granary at Mohenjo-Daro. • These street drains were also having • To the south of the Granaries, manholes used for cleaning purposes. working floors were there which were used to thrash the grains. • Remains of street and drains had also been found at Banawali. • How do we know this? – Remains of wheat and barley had been found in • The drainage system of Harappa is cervices of these floors. very unique. Kalibangan granaries • Harappan’s attention to health and clean probably had no match by other • In southern part of the city we found Bronze Age civilization. some brick platforms which could have been used for storing grains indicating AGRICULTURE that granaries were an important part of Harappan cities. • It seems that in ancient times Indus region was very fertile. • Probably, peasants paid their taxes in form of cereals which was stored in • Evidences of it are prosperity of the granaries for payment of wages and villages and towns and information by emergency purposes. (In Mesopotamia Alexander’s historian’s about prosperity barley was used for wage payments) of Sindh. Burnt bricks usage • Present day Indus region has hardly 15 centimeters rainfall. While in ancient • Burnt bricks were used remarkably in times abundant vegetation attracted construction of buildings in Harappa. more rainfall but clearing of forests for While Egypt used dried bricks for same agriculture, fuel, timber, grazing had purpose. largely affected rainfall. • Burnt bricks were also used by • The secret of fertility of Indus region Mesopotamia but Harappan cities used was annual inundation by Indus River. them largely. Walls rose for protection shows that flood takes place annually. Drainage system • The Indus carried more alluvial soil • Drainage system was impressive as than Nile River. almost all cities and towns were having drainage system. • Nile River in Egypt supported its people. Similarly, Indus helped and fed • In every city each small or big house Sindh people. had its own courtyard and bathroom with remarkable quality. • After receding of flood water in month of November the Indus people • Kalibangan – many houses had their sowed the seeds and in month of April own wells.

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i.e. before coming of next flood they DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS harvested wheat and Barley. • Animals which were domesticated - Agriculture Tools Oxen, buffaloes, goats, ships and pigs. • No trace of any hoe or ploughshare • Animal favored by Harappans – but ploughed field found in Kalibangan Humped Bull. shows that fields were ploughed. • Pets – Dogs. Cats were also • Probably they would have wooden domesticated and signs of the feet of ploughshare which degraded with time. both are found. • How these ploughshares were drawn • Animals for beasts of burden – Camel i.e. by men or oxen is unknown. and ass. • Maybe they have used stone sickles to • Horse evidences –Surkotada (Horse harvest the crops. remains in 2000 B.C.) Irrigation • But Harappan culture was not horse- centered and there were no bones of • Nalas or Gabarbands enclosed by horses in early and mature phases of dams were used to store water in Harappan culture. Baluchistan and Afghanistan. • Harappans knew Elephant and • Channel or canal irrigation – absent Rhinoceros. or not known to them. • Similarity of Harappans with Food Grain production Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia – same • Harappan villages situated near flood food grains production and same plains produced sufficient food grains animals’ domestication. for themselves as well as for other • Difference – Harappans in Gujarat communities like artisans, merchants produce rice and domesticated elephant and others wholived in the city and don’t which wasn’t in Mesopotamian cities. produce their foods. TECHNOLOGY • In other words, there was surplus of food grains. • Harappan culture belongs to Bronze Age. • They produced wheat and barley (2 types), rai, peas, sesamum and mustard. • They used the tools made of stone but they were also aware of manufacturing • In Lothal – rice was produced in of Bronze and use of bronze. 1800 B.C. • Bronze is made by mixing tin and • Food grains were stored in granaries. copper. But both were not available • Cotton’s earliest producers were locally and so the numbers of bronze Harappans. Greeks called it as Sindon tools were less. (derived from Sindh) because cotton • Copper - was obtained from Khetri was first produced by it. mines in Rajasthan’s Juhnjhunu district.

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It could have been brought from TRADE Balochistan as well. • Granaries at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro • Tin – it was brought from and Lothal, numerous seals, uniform Afghanistan or Hazaribagh and Bastar. scripts, regulated weights and measures suggest importance of trade in • The bronze tools discovered from Harappan civilization. Harappan sites were having less percentage of tin. • Inland trade - They traded in stone, metal, shell etc. • Bronze smiths – they were an important artisan group in Harappan • They didn’t possess raw material for society. They produced images, utensils, the production of commodities. axes, saws, knives and spears. • Money system – Today we have notes CRAFTS and coins but Harappans were not having any metal money. Most probably Textile they were having barter system, in • We read above that Harappans were which they procure metals in exchange earliest to produce cotton. of food grains. • A piece of woven cotton has been • Navigation – They practice found from Mohenjo-Daro. navigation on coast of Arabian Sea. • Spindle whorls – it was used for • Wheel – They knew about wheel and spinning. it was used in carts. • Weavers – they weave cloths from • They used kind of modern ekka but wool and cotton. not spoked wheel. Other Crafts Trade with Afghanistan, Iran and Mesopotamia • Brick laying, masons, boat-making, seal making and terracotta • Commercial links with one area of manufacturers were important crafts. Rajasthan, and also with Afghanistan and Iran. • Goldsmiths – they made jewelry from gold, Silver and precious stones. Gold • Trading colony – Harappans had and silver was obtained from setup a trading colony in northern Afghanistan while precious stones were Afghanistan which facilitated trade with brought from South India. central Asia. • Bead making – Harappans were • Trade with Mesopotamia–because exporters in bead making. Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamia. • Pottery making – for pottery making potter’s wheel was used. Pottery was • The trade between two mostly in lapis having its own characteristic with glossy lazuli in 2300 B.C. Mesopotamian texts and shining. speak of trading relations with Meluha which was ancient name of Indus region. They also told us about two

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intermediate stations – Dilmun and • The Harappans worshipped earth Makan – between the Meluha and goddess as fertility goddess and in Mesopotamia. Dilmun can probably be similar manner as Egyptians present Bahrain in Persian Gulf while worshipped the Nile goddess Isis. Makan is present Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan. • But we are not sure that Harappa's like Egyptians were matriarchal or not. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION • In Egypt daughter inherits the throne • There is no clear idea about the or property, but in Harappa who political organisation of the Indus Valley inherits this, we have no knowledge people. Unlike the Mesopotamians and about this. the Egyptians they have not left behind any inscription describing their system • It is only in 6th century AD onwards of administration. that various mother goddesses such as Durga, Kali, Chandi, Amba etc. came to • Perhaps the Indus valley people were be regarded as goddess in Puranas and more concerned with commerce and Tantric literatures. they were ruled by a class of merchants. But it can be safely stated that there was THE MALE DEITY IN THE INDUS an organization like a municipal VALLEY corporation to look after the civic • In Harappan civilization the male amenities of the people. deity was represented on seal Temples • The male deity was having three (3) • While Egypt and Mesopotamia was horns head. He sits like a yogi on a stool having temples there is no evidence of in crosslegged position. temples in Harappa's culture. • Animals like Elephant, Tiger, • In Lothal, there are evidences of Rhinoceros and Buffalo surrounded him practicing of fire cult but evidences of while two Deer are under his stool. temples are missing. • The male deity in seal is identified as • Probably Harappa was ruled by class Pashupati Mahadev which is doubtful. of merchants, who were more concerned Horned Gods appear in other ancient with commerce than conquests. It must civilization also. be noted that the Harappans lack in Phallus worship weapons. • Phallus worship existed in Harappan RELIGIOUS PRACTICES times which later connected with Shiva. • Numerous terracotta figurines of • Evidences of phallus worship - women have been found from Harappa. numerous symbols of the phallus and • In one of the figurine a plant is female sex organs made of stone. growing out of the embryo of women • According to Rig-Veda Non-Aryan representing earth goddess. This people were also worshippers of phallus. goddess was connected with the origin and growth of plants. • Phallus worship had been started by Harappans which later become

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respectable form of worship in Hindu THE HARAPPAN SCRIPT society. • Harappan like ancient Tree Worship Mesopotamians invented art of writing. • Other than worshipping phallus, male • The Harappan script is a mystery deity and mother goddess, Harappans because it is still not deciphered. also worshipped trees and animals. • Many have linked it with other • Pipal - most important tree which languages like Dravidian or Proto was worshipped and even worshipped Dravidian or Sanskrit or Sumerian but today. it’s an indigenous product and has nothing to do with other languages. • Evidences - Deity represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of • Because of non-decipherment of pipal. script, we can’t conclude anything about its religion, ideas and beliefs. Animal Worship • Most of the script is found on seals, • Like other worship evidences, animal using very few words. Seals were used worship can also be seen on seals. for authentication purposes. (for • One horned unicorn - Most important example if a packet is sealed, its animal to be worshipped. Identified with contents are safe) Rhinoceros. • Only one thing which we know about • Humped bull - Next important script is – it is pictographic and not animal which was worshipped. alphabetic. • Animals in Pashupati seal indicates o There were 250 to 400 pictographs that they were also worshipped. o Each picture represents an idea or • These Gods in form of trees, animals, object. were not placed in temples while in WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was common. • We know that Harappans have some script and they also trade. The script • Scholars have not said anything about must have helped them to record the religious beliefs of Harappan as their transactions, day to day activities, script is notdeciphered. property details etc. • Amulets – these were found in large • There are number of articles found numbers, probably because of belief in which were used for weights and ghosts and evil forces which could harm measures them and they used amulets which protected them from evil spirit. o 16 or its multiples – in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used. • Atharvaveda consists of many charms Example – 16, 64, 460, 320 and 640 and spells and recommends amulets for warning of diseases and evils forces. o This tradition of 16 is still continued and 46 annas made one rupee.

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• They also knew about measurement. • Nose – well-formed and medium size • Evidences – sticks inscribed with • Mouth – average size, close cut measure marks. One of the stick was moustache, short beard and made of bronze. whiskers HARAPPAN POTTERY • Hair – parted in middle • Plain woven fillet passed round • Used potter’s wheel to made pots head. • Numerous pots painted in various • Head – armlet in right hand designs. TERRACOTTA FIGURINES • Designs – trees and circles and also • Large numbers from Harappan geometry settlements SEALS • Terracotta figurines of animals – • less than 2000 seals found birds, monkeys, sheep, dogs and cattles, humped and • Majority carried short inscription with pictures of one horned bull, buffalo, • Humpless bulls tiger, rhinoceros, goat and elephant • Male and female figurines • Square or quadrilateral. • Terracotta bullock carts (today ‘s IMAGES bullock cart’s ancestors) • Made beautiful metal images • Quality- less than Mesopotamia Beads • Dancing girl made of bronze is master piece of Harappa. • Made of – agate, turquoise, carnelian and steatite • She is naked • Right arm on hip • Workshop- chanhudaro • Left arm hanging down REASONS OF DECLINE • Wearing number of bangles • Hair is plaited • Amount of rainfall • Masterpiece of Harappan art • 3000 BC – amount of rainfall in • Drooping eyes Indus region increased and then • Bearded priest decreased affecting the agriculture and stockbreeding • Figure of the bearded man was interpreted as a priest • Decreasing fertility • He is draped in a shawl which is • Expansion of desert increased coming under right arm and salinity which further decreased covers the left shoulder. the fertility again affecting the • Shawl decorated with trefoil agriculture. pattern • Eyes – little elongated and half • Sudden subsidence or uplift of the closed like in mediation land which caused floods

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• Earthquake • It was primarily chalcolithic in which tools of stone and copper were used • Earthquake caused changes in the course of Indus causing • Tools – Axes, chisels, knives, bangles, inundation of Mohenjo-Daro curved razors, fish-holks and spear- hinterland. heads • Decline due to foreign Invasion. • Economic subsidence – agriculture, stock raising, hunting and fishing • According to this view Vedic Aryans who destroyed the • Gradual disappearance of measuring Harappan culture. objects, human figurines etc. • But it is lacked in evidences. o Objects to measure length were not Reality of Decline of Harappan found. For e.g. in later period – cubical Civilization stone weights and terracotta cakes were absent in Gujarat. • There were lot of factors which contributed in decline of Harappan o All Harappan sites lack human civilization figurines • One of the important factors is – o Faience – it went out of fashion ecological imbalance • End of Indus trade with West Asian • Failure in the evolvement i.e. centers Harappan were conservative. No new o Scarcity or absence of Lapis lazuli, technologies. chert, carnelian beads and copper and POST URBAN PHASE OF bronze vessels HARAPPAN CULTURE (1900-1200 • Pottery BC) o New kinds of pottery occurred in last • Time period- 1900-1200 BC levels of post urban phase • Also known as – sub Indus culture o In Haryana and Punjab – grey ware • Earlier considered post Harappan but and painted grey ware found- these were now more popularly called as late associated with Vedic people Harappan culture. • It is said that barbarian horse riding • Traits of post urban Harappan people came from Iran and overran culture were found in Pakistan and Harappan cities. central and western India But careful examination of evidences o Manda, Jammu revealed that this wasn’t true. o Sanghol in Punjab o Successive groups of people may have encountered the people belonging to the o Daulatpur and mitthal, Haryana late Harappan phase between 1500 BC o Almgirpur and Hulas in Saharanpur, and 1200 BC. UP

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VEDIC PERIOD given to the linguistic group and not a race. It is believed that they originally Vedic period is broadly divided into came from Eurasia (Central Asia) and • Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC) settled in Punjab region. Hence rives Indus has been mentioned several times • Later Vedic (1000 – 600 BC) in Rig Veda. EARLY VEDIC (1500 – 1000 BC) • Indus was the most important river Rig Veda is the most important source for them. Also, river Saraswati has been to know about the early Vedic Period praised the most. It is referred as and early Aryans. It is considered the Naditama (Mother River). purest form of Hindu Literature. • They were aware of Himalayas but Manuscript of Rig Veda written on bark not of Deserts and Seas. In Rig Veda, the of a tree. word ‘Samudra’ meant a collection of water. Rig Veda • Since early Aryans did not come from The term ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘Vid’ Far East or South, they were not aware which means ‘to know’. of Narmada. • Oldest book of any kind in India. • Ganga is mentioned only once, since it was not socially important, it was not • It was composed during 1500 – 1000 a holy river then. Yamuna, since it was BC in the Punjab region. As a book it close to Punjab has been mentioned was compiled much later. thrice. • Since Aryans didn’t know how to OCCUPATION OF RIG VEDIC write, it was preserved for centuries SOCIETY using an oral tradition. • Early Aryans were pastoral nomads. • In Rig Veda, there are 10 Mandals Domestication of Animals was the most (chapters), 1028 Suktas (Hymns) and important activity. 10465 Shlokas (verses) • They knew farming, but it was not • The Mandals from 2nd to 8th are very developed. Only one crop is older. While 1St and 10th mandals are mentioned in Rig Veda, Yava i.e. Barley. the latest. The term ‘Shudra’, is mentioned for the first time in the 10th • Gau (Cow) is mentioned several times mandal. showing the importance of Cow and cattle. Cow was the most important • The book is written in Vedic Sanskrit. property. The wars were not fought for It is the earliest form of Sanskrit, land but for cattle. perhaps without Grammar. • Some important terms mentioned in • Gods and Goddesses are praised in Rig Veda related to cow: the book. Modern Hindus believe that it is a revealed book. Gavisti: Search/conflict for the cow. • Aryans: the word ‘Aryan’ literally means pure or noble. The name was

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