I C L E C 2 0 1 9

P R O C E E D I N G S o f t h e

2 n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n L a n g u a g e , E d u c a t i o n a n d C u l t u r e

Edited by Ahmet Selçuk Akdemir

İstanbul - 2019

2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LANGUAGE, EDUCATION AND CULTURE (ICLEC) 27-29 June 2019 – İstanbul

PROCEEDINGS

Copyright 2019© by KeD Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this may be printed, reproduced or distributed by any electronical, optical mechanical or other means without the written permission of ICLEC Organizing Committee. KeD Publishing holds the copyrights for each abstract.

ISBN: 978-605-68873-9-0

1st Edition

Edited by: Dr. Ahmet Selçuk Akdemir Layout Editor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ocak Akdemir

İstanbul – 2019

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Honorary Chair

Prof. Dr. Michael W. PURDY – Governors State University (USA)

Chair

Dr. Aynur Kesen Mutlu – İstanbul Medipol University (Turkey)

Organizing Committee

Dr. Hossein Khoshbaten – Erdebil University (Iran) Dr. Kübra Sarı Seo Lecoq – İstanbul Medeniyet University (Turkey) Dr. Mohammad Hossein Keshavarz – Girne American University (Cyprus - TRNC) Dr. Osamu Takeuchi – Kansai University (Japan) Dr. Pragasit Sitthitikul – Thammasat University (Thailand) Dr. Richard McGarry – Appalachian University (USA) Dr. Setiono Sugiharto – Atma Jaya Catholic University (Indonesia) Dr. Stephen Krashen – South Carolina University (USA) Dr. Stephen Ryan – Waseda University (Japan) Dr. Yonca Özkan – Çukurova University (Turkey)

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Dr. Bo Hyun Kim – Busan National Education University (South Korea) Dr. Bronia Holmes – Mainz University (Germany) Dr. Enrique Alejandro Basabes – La Pampa Santa Rosa University (Argentina) Dr. Gayane Hovhannisyan – Yerevan Linguistics University (Armenia) Dr. Georgeta Rata – Timişoara Banatuli University (Turkey) Dr. Görsev Sönmez Boran – Hasan Kalyoncu University (Turkey) Dr. Hadi Sağlam – Erzincan University (Turkey) Dr. Hasan Bacanlı – Fatih Sultan Mehmet University (Turkey) Dr. Hasan Boynukara – Namık Kemal University (Turkey) Dr. Hasnaa Sary Helwaa – Benha University (Egypt) Dr. Kübra Sarı Seo Lecoq – İstanbul Medeniyet University (Turkey) Dr. Lucilla Lopriore – Roma Tre University (Italy) Dr. Luis Guerra – Evora University (Portugal) Dr. Margaret Imhof – Johannes Gutenberg University (Germany) Dr. Müjdat Avcı – Osmaniye Korkut Ata University (Turkey) Dr. Nasi Aslan – Çukurova University (Turkey) Dr. Oktay Yağız – Atatürk University (Turkey) Dr. Tarana Khalilova – Azerbaijan State University of Economics - UNEC (Azerbaijan) Dr. Tofiq Abdülhasanlı – Azerbaijan State University of Economics - UNEC (Azerbaijan) Dr. Yasemin Kırkgöz – Çukurova University (Turkey) Dr. Yonca Özkan – Çukurova University (Turkey) Dr. Yilin Sun – Seattle University (USA)

FOREWORD

2nd International Conference on Language, Education and Culture (ICLEC) is organized by İstanbul Medipol University, Cyprus Science University, Euro-Balkan University and Governors State University. ICLEC aimed at presenting contemporary research on three basic themes: Language, Education and Culture.

We would like to express our gratitude to all partners (journals, universities, participants and speakers) who helped us realize the event in İstanbul between 27-29 June 2019.

Hope to meet at the 3rd ICLEC in Jordan !

Dr. Ahmet Selçuk AKDEMİR on behalf of the organization committee KEYNOTE SPEAKERS

Prof. Dr. Erdoğan BADA / Turkey

Dr. Claudia Ann NICKOLSON / USA

Prof. Dr. Arda ARIKAN / Turkey

Prof. Dr. Zoran MATEVSKI / Macedonia

Dr. Ali AL-HOORIE / KSA

Prof. Dr. Luma IBRAHIM / Iraq

KEYNOTE SPEAKER: PROF. DR. ERDOĞAN BADA (ÇUKUROVA UNIVERSITY - TURKEY)

Beyond the black and white…

Every entity is one part of another, and in some sense, independent of the other. The presence of this interconnection is the very testimony to the existence of some form of inter- communication between such universal entities. From this, we can surmise that one’s existence does depend on the existence of some other organism, and once the link is broken, alas, we have already set the alarm bells ringing for our own existence. Recognition and maintenance of diversity in a world where polarization is on the rise may help us see and appreciate colors other than black and white only, enabling us to accept and respect all regardless of race and creed.

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER: DR. CLAUDIA NICKOLSON (UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA at PEMBROKE - USA )

Social Justice: Lessons Learned from Migrant Education

This keynote session will examine some of the implications and considerations in working with migrant students in the United States. Factors that contribute to the educational vulnerability of students categorized as migrant include: their mobility, challenges to English as a second language, the effects of trauma, as well as social and economic issues. Teaching practices and enrichment programs that support psychosocial well being for migrant students help reduce disruptions experienced in school that result from instability and discrimination. Our shared goals today will be to explore possibilities for creating learning opportunities that foster equity, collaboration, respect, cultural responsiveness and awareness. The broader significance for ALL teachers in this audience is to actively challenge the deficit perspective, to highlight the resiliency of migrant and refugee families and children and to use this understanding to better reach and teach under-resourced children.

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER: PROF. DR. ARDA ARIKAN (AKDENIZ UNIVERSITY - TURKEY )

Studying Languages, Literatures, and Cultures as a Generalist: New Insights into Reading

This presentation will discuss the role we ascribe to reading and studying. It particularly focuses on the question of how we should read and study in today’s world. Regardless of the field in which we study, there are changes in the nature of the fields of study that bring new ways of reading and studying among which digital, critical and socially responsible ones are the leading dimensions. By giving specific examples from various fields of study and social and technological realities, it is postulated that although we have to follow and practice new ways of reading, we inevitably have to have a generalist’s perspective.

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER: PROF. DR. ZORAN MATEVSKI (SAINTS CIRYLAND METHODIUS UNIVERSITY - MACEDONIA)

Religious Education in the State Schools in the European Union and R. Macedonia The question with which the European Union states today is whether religious education will develop religious and ethnic tolerance among students in public schools. This also depends heavily on the teaching methods applied to the lessons of this course. The confessional model of teaching about religion, in which learning is oriented on the views of only one religious tradition, can be masked in a religious education of education where the ultimate goal is still the acceptance of one religious system of belief. Therefore, the potential benefits of the effective implementation of religious education in public schools should be taken into account. The research found that the basic reasons for introducing religious education in state schools in the Republic of Macedonia is: this subject will fill the moral vacuum and improve the moral behavior of young people; through this course children will become acquainted with each other and will integrate into the social system; in this way religious education will be under the control of the state. This kind of education will help young people develop their own thinking, mutual understanding, social integration and personal values that will keep the Macedonian society from "deviant" behavior. However, it is a fact that there is no European standard model of religious education in public schools. There is a range of approaches, with some common features in European countries. All have some sort of religious education in schools, as European contemporary societies face increasing plurality in the religious beliefs, values and cultural traditions of their citizens.

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER: DR. ALI AL-HOORIE (JUBAIL INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE - KSA)

Publication in language and linguistics: Opportunities and challenges

This presentation can be accessed at : https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334122480_Publication_in_language_and_li nguistics_Opportunities_and_challenges_keynote

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER: PROF. DR. LUMA IBRAHIM AL BARZENJI (DIYALA UNIVERSITY - IRAQ)

Pop Culture: An Overview

The term ‘popular culture’ refers to the vernacular or people’s culture that predominates in a society at a point in time. As Brummett explains in Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, pop culture involves the aspects of social life most actively involved in by the public. As the ‘culture of the people’, popular culture is determined by the interactions between people in their everyday activities: styles of dress, the use of slang, greeting rituals and the foods that people eat are all examples of popular culture. Popular culture is also informed by the mass media. Popular culture represents the most immediate and contemporary aspects of life. These aspects are often subject to rapid change, especially in the global world. With these fundamental aspects in mind, Pop culture may be defined as the products and forms of expression and identity that are frequently encountered or widely accepted, commonly liked or approved, and characteristic of a particular society at a given time. Ray Browne in his essay ‘Folklore to popular’ offers a similar definition: “Popular culture consists of the aspects of attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, customs, and tastes that define the people of any society. Popular culture is, in the historic use of term, the culture of the people.” Popular culture gathers the different tendencies and moods of people to be in one unit and shape the same form of desires and needs. It serves to unity the masses on ideals of acceptable forms of behavior. Along with society classes and standards, pop culture items often enhances an individual’s prestige in their peer group and makes them agree to follow one form or style. Further, popular culture, unlike folk or high culture, provides individuals with a chance to change, to create, innovate, collaborate, and establish. So popular culture appeals to people because it provides chances for individual and community bonding.

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CONTENTS

DOĞU-BATI İLİŞKİLERİ AÇISINDAN BİRLİKTE YAŞAM VE BİR ARADA YAŞAM BİÇİMLERİ ...... 4

AN INQUIRY INTO NONNATIVE ENGLISH TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA ...... 10

HARNESSING PEACE JOURNALISM AS A VIABLE COMPLEMENT FOR PEACEBUILDING ...... 35

NOT COMMON BEING, BUT BEING-IN-COMMON: CULTURAL DIVERSITY, COEXISTENCE AND TOLERANCE INITIATIVES IN THE UAE ...... 48

STRATEGIES TO MEET STUDENTS’ NEEDS TO WRITE FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES ...... 57

KARABAĞ FOLKLORUNDA İLK TÜRLERİN OLUŞMASI ÜZERİNE BAZI NOTLAR 70

THE INFLUENCE OF INSTRUMENT READINESS AND SELF-EFFICACY TOWARDS STUDENTS’ ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS ...... 76

AKADEMİSYEN HAMİT ARASLI TATKİKATLARINDA KADIN SURETLERİ ...... 88

FOSTERING SPIRITUAL PROSPERITY FOR THE ELDERLY PEOPLE BY DEVELOPING THEIR RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOR ...... 94

THE ISSUE OF TRANSLATING LINGUISTIC TERMS INTO ARABIC: A CALL TO UNIFY OUR TRANSLATION MANEUVERING ...... 100

SEKİZİNCİ SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN MATEMATİK PROBLEMLER KARŞISINDA KULLANDIKLARI STRATEJİLER ...... 105

MATEMATİKSEL PROBLEM ÇÖZME SÜRECİNDE BİR ÖĞRETMEN ADAYININ ÖĞRENCİYİ YÖNLENDİRME YAKLAŞIMLARI ...... 114

SET OFF THE ALARM ! ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION AND ACTIVE LEARNING AS A POTENTIAL SOLUTION ...... 123

TURKISH LEXEMES IN MACEDONIAN LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY CLASSES ..... 135

A CURRICULUM DESIGN FOR INITIAL LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY ...... 145

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TƏHSİLİN KEYFİYYƏTİNDƏ MÜƏLLİM-ŞAGİRD, MÜƏLLİM-TƏLƏBƏ MÜNASİBƏTİNİN ROLU ...... 159

GLOBAL AND DIGITAL EFL TEACHER EDUCATION: SCHOLARS’ VIEWS ON NEW FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION CURRICULUM ...... 162

AN EVALUATION OF THE TENTH GRADE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM OUTCOMES FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF THE TEACHERS IN JORDAN...... 171

THE EFFECT OF USING RECIPROCAL AND THINK ALOUD TEACHING STRATEGIES ON DEVELOPING READING SKILLS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE OF FIFTH GRADERS IN THE SCHOOLS OF PETRA DIRECTORATE OF EDUCATION 202

2018 HIGH SCHOOL TRANSITION SYSTEM MATH QUESTIONS’ COMPLIANCE WITH 8TH CLASS GAINS ...... 224

11th CLASS STUDENTS’ OPINIONS ON THE USE OF DGY (DYNAMIC GEOMETRY PROGRAMME) IN TEACHING THE SUBJECT OF TRANSFORMATION IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASS ...... 233

IS IT APPLICABLE TO INTEGRATE ELF INTO PRACTICUM? ...... 239

GOOGLE TRANSLATE FOE IN THEME-RHEME TRANSLATION OF UN HEADLINES FROM ENGLISH TO ARABIC ...... 251

INTEGRATING MNEMONIC DEVICES IN LEARNING LITERATURE ...... 263

INVESTIGATING STUDENTS’ SELF-REGULATED LEARNING THROUGH THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY ...... 272

THE ROLE OF ART COMMUNICATION IN TEXT ANALYSIS ...... 294

SOCIOLINGUISTIC ISSUES OF LANGUAGE CONTACT IN KAZAKHSTAN ...... 301

LOCAL LANGUAGE IN MULTILINGUAL LANDSCAPES OF TOURIST DESTINATION CITIES IN INDONESIA ...... 309

ÇOCUK GELİŞİMİ BÖLÜMÜ ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÇOCUK SEVME DÜZEYLERİNİN SOSYODEMOGRAFİK DEĞİŞKENLER AÇISINDAN İNCELENMESİ (LİSE ÖRNEĞİ) ...... 318

İNGİLİZCE TEKERLEMELERİN UYARLANMASI VE İNGİLİZCE DİL BİLGİSİ ÖĞRETİMİNDE KULLANILMASI: ÖĞRETMEN VE ÖĞRENCİ GÖRÜŞLERİ ...... 329

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THE ROLE OF ART COMMUNICATION IN TEXT ANALYSIS ...... 346

USE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING FOR READING IN KAZAKH LANGUAGE 352

BENEFITS OF SHORT STORIES IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM ...... 358

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DOĞU-BATI İLİŞKİLERİ AÇISINDAN BİRLİKTE YAŞAM VE BİR ARADA YAŞAM BİÇİMLERİ

Gökhan V. Köktürk1 Özen Özlem Özcan2 Özet Tarihin diğer adı da diyebileceğimiz doğu batı çelişkisi ya da düşünce düzeyindeki çatışması, batı düşünce dünyasının doğu toplumlarına kendilerinde olmayan birtakım özelliklere ulaşmasını önermesi şeklinde geçmişten günümüze inşa edilmiştir. Batı toplumlarının yaşam pratiklerinde çok kültürlülüğün olmaması, buna rağmen doğu toplumlarına örnek olarak birlikte yaşamayı önermesi çelişki yaratmaktadır. Nitekim batı düşünce dünyası doğu toplumlarına birlikte yaşamayı tavsiye ederken, kendisi de bir arada yaşamayı sürdürmektedir. Bu iki toplumsal yapı formu sosyokültürel yapı açısından farklılık göstermektedir; birlikte yaşam etnik, dini, mezhepsel vb. farklılıkların altının çizilmesi ve aralarındaki sınırların belirginleştirilmesini içerir. Bir arada yaşama ise ulus devlet yapılanmasına uyan bütüncül toplum yapısını içermektedir. Batı düşünce dünyası doğu toplumlarına birlikte yaşamı hedef gösterirken, terör, güvenlik ya da ekonomi söz konusu olunca, ulusal çıkarların ön planda tutulması doğu batı çelişkisinin günümüzdeki örneğini oluşturmaktadır. Kendinde olmayan özelliğe göre kendini tanımlamak ve batının belirlediği kategorilerden birine kendini dâhil etmek, yüzünü siyasi olarak batıya dönmüş doğu toplumları için temel bir karakteristiği oluşturmaktadır. Hızla yaşanan küreselleşme sürecinde her zamankinden farklı olarak doğunun kendinde olan fakat farkında olmadığı sosyokültürel bir özelliğin batı tarafından önerilmesi söz konusudur. Batıya göre doğu toplumları çok kültürlü ve çok dilli yaşamalıdır, ancak bu özelliğin de yine batılı sosyal bilimciler tarafından ortaya çıkarılması gerektiği, doğu batı çelişkisinin bir diğer boyutunu oluşturmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Birlikte yaşam, doğu-batı, küreselleşme, toplumsal yapı

Giriş Tarihin diğer adı da diyebileceğimiz Doğu-Batı çelişkisi ya da düşünce düzeyindeki çatışması, Batı düşünce dünyasının doğu toplumlarına kendilerinde olmayan birtakım özelliklere ulaşmasını salık verme şeklinde geçmişten günümüze inşa edilmiştir. Günümüzde çok kültürlülük adıyla yapılan önerme çok kültürlülüğün batı toplumlarının yaşam pratiklerinde olmaması açısından her zamankinden farklılık arz etmektedir. Nitekim Batı düşünce dünyası doğu toplumlarına birlikte yaşamayı tavsiye ederken, kendisi bir arada yaşamayı sürdürmektedir. Bu iki toplumsal yapı formu şu şekilde farklılık göstermektedir; birlikte yaşam etnik, dini, mezhepsel vb. farklılıkların altının çizilmesi ve aralarındaki sınırların belirginleştirilmesini içerir. Bir arada yaşama ise ulus devlet yapısına uyan bütüncül toplum yapısını içerir. Batı düşünce dünyasının Doğu toplumlarına birlikte yaşamı hedef gösterirken, örneğin terör söz konusu olunca ulusal çıkarlarını ön plana çıkartması doğu batı çelişkisinin günümüzdeki örneğidir.

1 Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Türkiye. 2 Bağımsız Araştırmacı,Türkiye.

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Sezer (1998:37 )’in de belirttiği gibi Doğu-Batı konusu son dönemdeki gelişmelerle ortaya çıkmış değildir. Bu konunun üzerine çok fazla sayıda anlam atfetmeleri mevcuttur. Bu anlam atfetmeleri sonucunda, Doğu-Batı konusu, Doğu-Batı sorunu olarak dile getirilmiştir. Nitekim B. Lewis’in “ Batı artık coğrafi bir terim değil, aynı zamanda kültürel, sosyal ve de son zamanlarda politik ve askeri bir varlıktır “ (1968:28) şeklindeki tanımlaması İkinci Dünya Savaşı sonrasında dünyanın alacağı şekiller açısından fikir vermektedir. En sonunda ise sorun, Batı’nın Doğu’ya uygarlık ve medeniyet aktarımı sorunsalı haline gelmiştir. Kendinde olmayan özelliğe göre kendini tanımlamak ve Batı’nın belirlediği kategorilerden birine kendini dahil etmek, yüzünü siyasi olarak Batı’ya dönmüş Doğu toplumları için temel bir karakteristiği oluşturmaktadır. Hızla yaşanan küreselleşme sürecinde her zamankinden farklı olarak Doğu’nun kendinde olan fakat farkında olmadığı sosyo-kültürel bir özelliğin Batı tarafından önerilmesi söz konusudur. Batı’ya göre doğu toplumları çok kültürlü ve çok dilli yaşamaktadır. Ancak bu özelliğe sahip olması yine Batılı sosyal bilimciler tarafından gün yüzüne çıkarılması gereken bir sosyal gerçekliktir. Günümüzde yüzünü batıya dönmüş doğu toplumlarının ortak algısı ise mağduriyet kavramı üzerinedir (Südaş ve Mutluer, 2010:32). Mağduriyet algısı, doğu toplumlarında bireylerin yoksun olduklarını düşündükleri özgürlük, ekonomik refah, eğitim ve sağlık imkanları gibi alanlarda içselleştirilmiş ve sosyal bilimlere göç kavramsallaştırmasıyla yansımıştır. Başka bir ifadeyle batı, doğuya uygarlığı ve medeniyeti aktarırken bunun en etkili yolunun yaşam biçimlerinin önerilmesi şeklinde düşünmüştür. Bunun sonucunda yüzünü batıya dönmüş doğu ülkeleri, batı toplumları gibi bir yaşam biçimine ve hayat standartlarına ulaşmayı hedeflemişler ve batı toplumlarındaki yaşam biçimini yakalama derecesiyle kendilerini kategorize etme yoluna gitmişlerdir. Ancak batı düşüncesindeki değişim, batı düşüncesinin toplum merkezli olma özelliğini bir nebze olsun yitirmesine yol açmış ve küreselleşme söylemi ile batı düşünce dünyası kendisini Amerikan pragmatizminin derin etkisine bırakmıştır. Nitekim günümüzde görülen sosyal hareketler temelinde ele alınabilecek göç hareketlerinin sadece ekonomik kaygılardan oluşmadığı bunun yerine yaşanan küreselleşme sürecinin etkisiyle savaş, ekonomik refah, sığınma, doğal afet ve iklim özellikleri gibi nedenlerden dolayı oluştuğu ve bunun da yaşam biçimi adı altında ana bir kavram altında toplanabildiği söylenebilir. Batının kendi gibi olmayan doğu toplumlarına şekil vermek istemesi yaşanan gelişmelerin temelini oluşturmaktadır. Bu şeklin nasıl olacağı ise Amerikan Cumhuriyetçi

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geleneğin savunduğu düşünceler çerçevesinde olmaktadır. Sezer ( 1998:42 ) ‘in belirttiği gibi batı dünyası diğer toplumlar ve kendi arasında bir ayrım yapmaktadır. Bu ayrımın günümüzdeki şekli ise küreselleşme ile birlikte ortaya çıkan yaşam biçimleri farklılığıdır. Küreselleşmeyi savunan batı düşünce dünyası kendi içinde bir bütünlüğe ulaşamamış, ulus- devlet yapılanmasının devam etmesi gerektiği yönünde refleksler göstermiştir. Nitekim konuyla ilgili görüşler içeren sosyolojik teorilerde de dünyanın iki güçlü aktörlerinden biri de ulus devlet olarak gösterilmiştir. Bu durum postmodern teorilerde kendini açıkça göstermektedir. Postmodern teoriler için devletin varlığını vurgulamak önemli sayılmıştır. Küreselleşmeyi ulaşılması gereken bir hedef olarak gösteren batı düşünce dünyasında ulus devletlerin sınırlarının ortadan kalkması ve sorgulanması ile birlikte başlayan süreç mikro milliyetçilik akımının doğmasına ve önüne geçilememesine neden olmuştur. Başka bir deyişle milliyetçiliği yasaklayan batı düşünce dünyası, günümüzde mikro milliyetçilikle karşı karşıyadır (Robertson and White, 2007:9). 1970 yıllarından sonra hızla yükselen kapitalist küreselleşme, özünde küreselleşme fikriyle aynı nitelikler taşımaktaydı. Ancak özellikle AB bünyesindeki ulus devletler güvenlik, göç ve adalet gibi sorunlarla karşı karşıya kalmışlar ve küreselleşmenin yalnızca ekonomi boyutunun ön planda olmasına neden olmuşlardır. Küreselleşme sürecinin ekonomik boyutuyla ön plana çıkması, ulus devletlerin ortadan kalkacağı söylemleri, beraberinde dünyayı tek bir yer olarak görme eğilimini getirmiştir. Bu durum sosyal bilimlerin özellikle sosyoloji ve antropolojinin karşı duruşuna neden olmuş, batı düşünce dünyası karşısında sosyal bilimlerin ağırlığı ön plana çıkmıştır. (Robertson and White, 2007:56). Modern Sosyoloji’nin kurucusu sayılan Weber’in görüşlerinde de kapitalizmin batıya özgü olduğu ve batı toplumlarının belli dönemlerde yaşayacağı bir serüven olarak değerlendirilmesi, küreselleşme sürecinin kapitalizmin yayılması ile anlam kazanacağı anlaşılmıştır (Sezer vd.2005:389) . Gelişmeler sonrası, doğu toplumlarında küreselleşme sürecinin kalıcı bir etki bıraktığını söylemek yerine, batı toplumlarında birlikte yaşam düşüncesinin temelinde toplumsal yapıyı oluşturan birbirinden farklı unsurların tanımlanması ve belirginleştirilmesi söz konusu olmuştur. Yüzünü batıya dönmüş ve siyasi tercihini batıdan yana kullanmış Türkiye açısından durum, batılılaşma başlığı altında sosyal bilimleri etkilemiştir. Bu durum en fazla sosyoloji disiplininde gözlemlenebilir. Nitekim sosyoloji, Türkiye’de kurulduğu yıllar itibariyle toplumun batılı gibi olmasını ve batıyı tanıtmayı kendine görev olarak seçmiştir. Batılılaşma

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konusunda kendine siyasi hedef olarak batıyı alan ülkeler arasında eşitsizlik temelinde toplumlar arası tabakalaşma meydana gelmiştir. Bu eşitsizliğin ölçüsü batılılaşmadır. Türkiye’de batılılaşma konusu ele alınırken, genellikle yakın tarih değerlendirilmektedir. Yakın tarihin sonuçlarının tam olarak ortaya çıkmaması nedeniyle değerlendirmeler yüzeysel kalmaktadır. Bu durum batının, batı dışı toplumlar hakkında 19.yy. başlarında sistematize ettiği açıklamalarının sonucu niteliğindedir. Başka bir deyişle batı dünyasının kurguladığı dünya egemenliği görüşünün son şeklidir. Batının doğu toplumlarında olan ama onların farkında olmadığı sosyo kültürel özellikleri ön plana çıkararak kendisi açısından ulusal perspektife ağırlık vermesi ise bir çelişki değil, kurulmak istenen dünya egemenliğinin bir tezahürüdür. Nitekim Türkiye’de batılılaşma adı altında yaşanan değişmeler bir medeniyet dönüşümünün ifadesidir. Bu medeniyet dönüşümü gerçekte kendini, Avrupa’yı gören Osmanlılar üzerine inşa etmiş ve batılı ülkeler gibi olmakla medeni olunacağı görüşü benimsenmiştir. Medeni olmanın en önemli tezahürünün yaşama tarzında bulunduğunu ifade eden Osmanlı aydını, günümüzdeki küreselleşme sürecinde batı düşünce dünyasının önümüze koyduğu hedefler doğrultusunda doğu toplumlarına örnek teşkil etmiştir. Benzer şekilde Okay ( 1991:61 )’ın belirttiği gibi batılılaşma, modernleşme, yenileşme kendini en fazla yaşam tarzı alanında gösterir. Medeniyet değişimlerinin en kolay etki edebileceği yer yaşama tarzıdır. Batı uygarlığı planlarını yaptığı dünya egemenliğine ulaşabilmek adına kuramsal temelde modernleşme kuramlarını ortaya koymuş, bu anlamda geleneksel toplumları batıya yönlendirerek modern toplum olma yolunda teşvik etmiştir. Günümüzde ise geleneksel toplumların yerini çok kültürlü ve çok dilli dini toplumlar almış ve batı kendinin öyle bir pratiği olmamasına rağmen birlikte yaşamayı doğu toplumlarına salık verir hale gelmiştir. Türk düşünce hayatı batı dünyasına duyduğu aşırı güven nedeniyle aklın sorgulamasını hiç yapmamış, batının uzun süre etkisinde kaldığı kilise tahakkümü ve sonrasında yaşanan aydınlanma süreciyle ilgilenmemiştir. Türkiye’nin batılılaşma serüveni doğu-batı çelişkisi içinde anlaşılmalıdır. Türkiye batılılaşma ile batılı olmaya çalışırken, diğer yanda medeniyetler ittifakı adı altında doğunun liderliğine ve öncü ülke olma konumuna kendini koymaktadır. Bu durum açıkça batılılaşma hedefi yerine küreselleşmenin, siyasi tercih olarak ortaya konduğunu göstermektedir. Türkiye’nin son dönemde ülke içinde ve toplumlar arasındaki farklılıkları belirlemeye yönelik geliştirdiği stratejiler batı dışı modernleşme sürecine karşılık gelmektedir. Başka bir deyişle bu batıya rağmen batılılaşma anlamına gelmektedir. Türkiye batılılaşma konusunda batılılaşmayı hedef edinen ülkeler arasında en çarpıcı örnek olma durumunu sürdürmektedir.

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Nitekim tarihte eşi benzeri olmayan kurtuluş savaşını batılı ülkelere karşı vermiş hemen ardından ise batı toplumlarını kendine örnek edinmiştir. Batı dünyası doğuya sürekli öğüt vererek akıl ve bilimin geliştirilmesi için çağrıda bulunmuştur. Ancak birbirinden kanlı iki dünya savaşı ve bunların yanında Hitler, Mussolini ve Stalin gibi insanlık adına hatırlanmak istenmeyecek şeyler yapan kişiler, batı düşünce dünyasının ürünüdür. Batı düşünce dünyası özellikle Avrupa kişilik üstüne incelemelere ağırlık vermiş ve parçalanmışlığın, bölünmüşlüğün, modernitenin doğal bir sonucu olduğu yönünde görüşleri kendisini takip eden doğu toplumlarına aşılamaya başlamıştır (aktaran:Veli Urhan, Doğu Batı Dergisi, “Modernizm, Postmodernizm ve Personalizm”,Yıl 2,Sayı 8,Ekim 1999, syf.143-145). Nitekim batılı düşünürler moderniteyi bölünmüşlüğün, çelişkilerin ve belirsizliklerin kuşattığı bir insanlık deneyimi olarak görmektedir. Aynı zamanda batı düşünce dünyası modernliği eleştirmeye başlamış, bu eleştirilerini de postmodernizm başlığı altında ele almıştır. Başka bir deyişle modernliğin ve ulus devletin eleştirisini yine batı düşünce dünyası yapmış ve dolayısıyla toplumsal yapıda bir gerilime yol açmıştır. 1960lı yıllardan itibaren modernizm kendi içerisinden kendisine tepki olarak postmodernizm düşüncülerini oluşturmuş (Urhan 1999:148); bölünme, farklılaşma ve ötekileştirme görüşlerini kendi içerisinde ve doğu toplumları açısından tartışmaya açmıştır. Bu aynı zamanda ulus devletin ve bir arada yaşamanın önünü kapamış, bunun yerine birlikte yaşama fikrine ağırlık vermiştir. Bu durum aslında pozitivizmin bilimde ve hayatın diğer alanlarında kemikleşmiş bir yapıya ulaşmasıyla açıklanabilir. Nitekim doğu toplumlarının gelişim süreci içinde akıl ve deneye öncelik veren bir anlayışın yerleşmesi söz konusu değildir. Dolayısıyla batı düşünce dünyası ulaşmış olduğu ya da geçirmiş olduğu düşünsel evreleri doğu toplumlarının da geçirdiğini varsayarak orada bir kültürel dönüşüm beklemektedir. Dolayısıyla yapıyı öne çıkaran ve bireyi önemsemeyen yapısalcılık düşünce ekolü yerine post yapısalcılığı geliştiren batı düşünce dünyası, günümüzde modernizm yerine postmodernizmi geliştirerek kişiliği ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Bu durum çeşitli kültür alanlarında ulus devlet ve bir arada yaşamayı sorgulamış ve sonunda doğu düşünce dünyasının egemen olduğu kültür alanları için birlikte yaşamayı salık verir hale gelmiştir. Batı düşünce dünyasının birlikte yaşam formunu ön plana çıkarması toplumsal yapıda diğerlerinin görmezden gelindiği, ötekileştirildiği ve hatta yok sayıldığı şeklinde hatalı bir algıya yol açmış, bunun neticesinde de ulus devlet yapısı ve bir arada yaşam geçirilen bir evre olarak görülmeye başlanmıştır. Bu durum pozitivist anlayışın bilimsel ve diğer kültürel alanlarda özneyi yok sayan, öznenin yaratıcı bir aktör olduğu fikrine kapalı olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Dolayısıyla böyle bir anlayış doğu toplumları için söz konusu

8

olmamaktadır. Zira doğunun batı toplumlarının aksine birlikte yaşama pratiği zaten tarihi süreç içerisinde mevcuttur. Sorun batı düşünce dünyasının ve batı toplumlarının sorunudur. Nitekim batı toplumlarının birlikte yaşama pratiği mevcut değildir. Bu durum özellikle orta çağın başlangıcından günümüze kadar yaşanan tarihi ve siyasi olaylar açısından ve de batının orta çağda yaşamış olduğu kilise baskısından kaynaklanan ve günümüze kadar gelen bir durumdur. Günümüzde batı toplumlarında görülen heterojen yapı, küreselleşmesinin etkisiyle şekillenmiş ve birlikte yaşam biçiminin kavramsallaştırmasıyla son halini almıştır. Ancak batılı toplumların yaşam pratiklerinde birlikte yaşam olmadığından günümüzde batı kaynaklı sosyal bilimler, nüfus ve göç hareketleri üzerine teoriler geliştirmek zorunda kalmışlardır çünkü batı toplumlarındaki heterojen yapı sadece sosyo-ekonomik açıdan şekillenmiş, bunun haricinde toplumsalı oluşturan diğer unsurlar, homojen kalma özelliğini göstermiştir. Bunun sonucunda batı toplumları, mikro milliyetçilik ve kültürel anlam kodları açısından sorun yaşıyor görünmektedir. Birlikte yaşam ve bir arada yaşam şeklinde açıklayabileceğimiz yaşam tarzına yönelik değerlendirmelerde batı dünya görüşünün öncelikle sanayi ve kalkınmayı, doğu toplumlarına ulaşılması gereken amaç olarak gösterirken, şimdilerde ise kimlik ve farklılık ortak paydasında, batının yaşam pratiklerinde olmayan birlikte yaşamayı, doğu toplumlarına ulaşılması gereken bir amaç olarak göstermektedir.

Kaynakça Okay, O. (1991) Batı Medeniyeti Karşısında Ahmet Midhat Efendi. MEB. Robertson, R. & White, K. (2007). What is Globalization?, The Blackwell Companion to Globalization. Sezer, B. (1998). Doğu Batı Ayrımı. Doğu Batı Dergisi, 2, 37-44. Sezer, B., Eğribel, E. & Özcan, U. (2005) Tarihte Doğu-Batı Çatışması: Sosyoloji Yıllığı 12, İstanbul: Kızılelma Yayınları. Südaş, İ. & Mutluer, M. (2010). Daha İyi Bir Hayata Doğru:”Yaşam Biçimi Göçü”. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 19(1), 31-47. Urhan, V. (1999). Modernizm, Postmodernizm ve Personalizm. Doğu Batı Dergisi, 2(8), 143-145.

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AN INQUIRY INTO NONNATIVE ENGLISH TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA

Zülal Ölmez İstanbullu1 Yonca Özkan2

Introduction English has undergone an enormous change as the number of people speaking English has increased across the world (Graddol, 1997). Increasing number of non-native speakers around the world has led to an ongoing decrease in the proportion of native speakers of English (Graddol, 1999). The fact that the number of people speaking English in outer or expanding circle countries started to outnumber the number of the people speaking the language in the inner circles (Graddol, 1999) encouraged many scholars to investigate the implications of that shift for the status of English. According to Crystal (2003), the status of a language is shaped with parallel to the social and cultural characteristics of the context in which it is used. Thus he concludes, the way English develops is different from any other language that is spoken mostly by its native speakers. Kachru (1985) describes the spread of English by the use of three circles, namely, inner circle, outer circle and expanding circle. While inner circle involves countries where people use English as their primary language such as the USA, the UK, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, outer circle represents the non-native contexts in which English is used in the forms of different varieties with different linguistic characteristics and accepted as second language or official language of the country after being colonized by inner-circle countries. Among outer- circle countries; Nigeria, Zambia, Singapore, and India can be named. Expanding circle, on the other hand, constitutes countries such as China, Greece, Korea, Israel, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Nepal, Taiwan, Zimbabwe and many others in which English is used due to its international status. In other words, those countries were not colonized by inner-circle countries, but they acknowledged English as an international language and taught the language in their schools. The international status of English and the ongoing increase in the number of people using English around the world brought about the term English as a lingua franca (ELF) which was defined in many ways in the literature. One of the earlier definitions was put forward by House

1 Cukurova University, Turkey. 2 Cukurova University, Turkey. 10

(1999), who defined the term as interactions that “occur between conversationalists of different language backgrounds, for none of whom English is the mother tongue” (p.74). Seidlhofer (2005) acknowledges English as a lingua franca as a more specific dimension of English as an International language and defines the term as “any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice, and often the only option” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.7). According to Seidlhofer (2005); due to its use as a lingua franca, non-native speakers of English own and shape English, at least as much as its native-speakers do. ELF is defined by Jenkins (2009) as “the common language of choice, among speakers who come from different linguacultural backgrounds” (p.200). Cogo (2012) defines ELF as a contact language spoken “by speakers from varying linguacultural backgrounds, where both the community of speakers and the location can be changing and are often not associated with a specific nation” (p.98). Similarly, Sert and Özkan (2018) refer to ELF as a multidimensional communication tool that embraces various languages, identities, and cultures brought by its users who come from different socio-lingual and socio-cultural contexts. Due to the recent changes the status of English has undergone, the latest research on English Language Teaching (ELT) has focused on the global status of English language and directed their focus from "English as a Foreign Language" (EFL) to "English as A Lingua Franca" (ELF). The distinction between "English as a Foreign Language" and "English as A Lingua Franca" and what the shift from one to another implies for English teaching has been the subject of many pieces of research. Despite the various definitions attributed to the ELF concept, many scholars reached a consensus on the implications of the ELF concept in English teaching. Native speaker norms bounded English teaching practices were criticized and the need was emphasized for a more dynamic teaching environment where the learners can make use of their cultural and linguistic varieties as resources (Mckay, 2004; Crystal, 2003; Canagarajah, 2014). Mckay (2004) argues that the role of culture in English teaching should be reconsidered now that the status of English has considerably changed. According to her, the increasing number of non-native users of English implies a different perspective concerning the ownership of English. She explains “as more and more individuals learn English, the language belongs to no one culture but rather provides the basis for promoting cross-cultural understanding in an increasingly global village”. Differentiating between a foreign language and international language, Canagarajah (2014) indicates that it is pragmatics and social contexts, not grammar and cognition, that make the speaker of an international language competent in that language. Therefore, he suggests, to

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develop their students' communicative strategies, the main focus of teaching should be procedural knowledge and negotiation strategies that will enable students to adapt to any interaction they may encounter, instead of teaching norms and principles of a standard variety. Recognition of English as a lingua franca has crucial implications for the status of NNESTs, as well. Llurda (2004) forecasts that recognition of English as a lingua franca will confute the notion that it is NNESTs who are authorized to establish the principles of English teaching. Graddol (1997), in the same vein, proposes that the growth of English among non-native speakers will deprioritize NESTs in the 21st century. The new perspective brought to English teaching with the spread of the ELF concept has inevitably influenced English teachers who are the practitioners of the practices taking place in English classrooms and students who constitute the most crucial element of the teaching. Thus, several studies have been conducted on teachers' and students’ attitudes towards ELF concept and ELF related issues such as ownership of English, culture integration, English varieties, native-speaker norms, and NEST-NNEST dichotomy. For example, Timmis (2002) conducted research in which 180 teachers and 400 students from 45 countries participated. The author made use of two questionnaires, one for teachers and one for students, and also 15 interviews with students to explore their attitudes to the native speaker norms. The findings of the study indicated teachers' and students' desire to conform to native-speaker norms. Still, teachers were found to be leaving native speaker norms faster than students. Mastering the language remains an ideal among students, although the majority of them state that their primary purpose is to achieve communication skills. Although the recent literature on ELF reveals that English teachers have been more knowledgeable and open to the concept of ELF (Jenkins, 2012), some studies investigating teachers’ attitudes towards ELF related issues and their ELF-related teaching practices yielded inconsistent findings between teachers’ statements and their in-class applications. For example, the participant teachers in Yılmaz and Özkan's (2016) study did not indicate any evidence of delivering ELF aware classes although they stated positive views regarding English varieties and a strong willingness to teach non-native cultures in their classes. Similarly, Deniz, Özkan, and Bayyurt (2016) found that the majority of pre-service English teachers in Turkey preferred applying inner circle native norms bounded practices in their teaching although they indicated a favorable position towards ELF. Likewise, conducting mixed-method research with the participation of 45 English teachers from five different countries in expanding circle, Soruç

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(2015) found out that English teachers appreciated the use of ELF in daily life and they even used it themselves, but they still thought that students should be taught standard English. The reasons leading to inconsistent findings regarding teachers' practices were found to be the influence of the stakeholders such as parents, administrators (Bayyurt&Sifakis, 2015); the context of the teaching, the background of the teachers (Bayyurt, 2006), and teaching materials (Coşkun, 2011). According to Qiufang (2012); the reason why teachers can not apply ELF in their classrooms are several including both NESTs’ and NNESTs’ ingrained conceptualization of norm-based EFL, existing English teaching system which is based on principles of EFL, and the content of the materials aiming at getting the students adopt native- like proficiency. Qiufang (2012) concludes that teachers feel obliged to follow EFL principles because their students are supposed to pass exams for better education. Given that lingua franca status of English has crucial implications for English teaching and that attitudes of English teachers towards ELF are not reflected in their teaching practices, there is still the need to further investigate the attitudes of English teachers towards ELF and how they are reflected or why they are not reflected in their teaching practices. Besides, it is of great importance to gain in-depth insight into teachers' knowledge, experiences, and opinions about ELF related issues; because findings of some recent studies indicated that teachers' confidence in teaching is strongly related to how they interpret the status of English language. It was found that those who were aware of the pedagogical implications of the international status of English felt more confident in teaching English because they were more concerned with intelligibility rather than a native-like pronunciation or accent (Lee, 2010; Sabokrouh & Barimani-Varandi, 2013). Based on the findings of previous research the current study aimed to explore Turkish NNESTs’ attitudes towards some ELF related issues such as (1) their own English accent, (2) use of L1 accented English, (3) ownership of English, (4) native speaker norms in English Language Teaching, (5) non-native English speaker teachers' competence, and (6) culture and English varieties in English language teaching. The study also aimed to find out how the participant teachers' attitudes shaped their teaching practices based on their views. Following research questions guided the research following the purpose of the study: 1. What are Turkish NNESTs’ attitudes towards English as a Lingua Franca related issues such as a) their English accent b) use of L1 accented English c) ownership of English d) native speaker norms in English Language Teaching 13

e) non-native English speaker teachers’ competence, and f) culture and English varieties in English language teaching. 2. Do Turkish NNESTs’ attitudes towards ELF influence their classroom practises?

Methodology The present study has been conducted in a sequential explanatory mixed-method design. In explanatory sequential design, qualitative data are used to extend and elaborate on the quantitative data (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011). Thus, data for this study were collected with the use of questionnaires and follow up semi-structured interviews. Below sampling, data collection procedure and data analysis process will be discussed. Sampling Participants of the study were selected by the use of the convenient sampling technique. 95 Turkish teachers of English (20 males, 75 females) involved in the study. They had been teaching English in different levels of schools across the country, respectively pre-schools (2 participants), primary schools (12 participants), secondary schools (54 participants) and high schools (27 participants). Of the participants, eight were aged between 18 and 24; 35 were aged between 25 and 31; 34 were aged between 32 and 38, and 18 were aged between 39 and 45. As for the departments graduated, 72 participants graduated from the English Language Teaching program; 22 from English Language and Literature program; three from the Linguistics program; one from American Culture and Literature program; one from the physics program; one from physics teaching program; and one from psychology program. Seven participants held a master's degree while the remaining 88 teachers held a bachelor's degree. Regarding their experience, 13 participants were experienced 1 to 3 years; 23 participants were experienced 4 to 6 years; 20 participants were experienced 7 to 10 years; 21 participants were experienced 11 to 15 years, and 18 participants were experienced more than 15 years. Out of the total number of the participants 10 teachers (4 males, 6 females) volunteered to participate in the qualitative phase of the study. Table 1 Demographic information about participants Number (f) Percentage (%)

Gender 20 78,9 . Male . Female 75 21,1 Age 14

. 18-24 8 8,4 . 25-31 35 36,8 . 32-38 . 39-45 34 35,8 . Over 45 18 18,9 - -

Institution . Pre-school 2 2,1 . Primary school 12 12,6 . Secondary School . High school 54 56,8

27 28,4

Experience . 1-3 years 13 13,7 . 4-6 years 23 24,2 . 7-10 years . 11-15 20 21,1 . 16 years and more 21 22,1 18 18,9 Undergraduate Program . English Language Teaching 65 68,4 . English Language & Literature 22 23,2 . Linguistics . American Culture & Literature 3 3,2 . Translation Studies 1 1,1 . Other 1 1,1 3 3,2 Degree . Bachelor’s 88 92,6 . Master’s 7 7,4

Data Collection Procedure A questionnaire and a semi-structured interview were used to collect data. The questionnaire was made of the beginning part and two other parts. The beginning part informed the participants that their involvement was voluntary and they could stop responding to the 15

questions without stating any reason whenever they want. The purpose of the study was stated and the participants were kindly requested to state their consent to participate in the study. It was also stated that the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants would be ensured and the data wouldn't be used for any other reason. The first part of the questionnaire included multiple-choice questions to reveal demographic information about the participants such as their gender, age, teaching experience, educational background, and the level of the school they are teaching at. The second part of the questionnaire included 18 ELF related statements adapted from a recent study on ELF with the consent of the authors (Rahatlou, Fazilatfar, and Allami, 2018). The participants were asked to state to what extent they agreed with each statement by choosing from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In line with the purpose of the study, statements were related to participants’ opinions about the English accents they use; their use of L1 accented English (7,8,9); ownership of English (6,13,14,15); native speaker norms (10,11,16); NNESTs’ competence (17), and culture and English varieties in English language teaching (12,18). At the end of the questionnaire, the participants were kindly requested to write down their contact information if they volunteered to be interviewed by the researcher. To ensure the validity and reliability, a pilot study was conducted with 10 in-service teachers and the questionnaire was edited based on the feedback gained from the respondents. Finally, Cronbach's alpha score of the questionnaire was calculated as 0,827. For the qualitative phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 volunteer teachers, which allowed the researcher to obtain more detailed, in-depth data to enrich the quantitative data and achieve an in-depth understanding of participants’ attitudes towards ELF related issues addressed in the quantitative part. Thus, 12 questions were formed in parallel with the themes explored by the questionnaire. The interview questions were subjected to a pilot study, just as the questionnaire was. The final version of the questions was formed upon the feedback given by two English teachers who participated in the piloting of the interview. The interviews, conducted with 10 volunteer participants, lasted about 15 to 20 minutes and audio- recorded upon the consent of the respondents. Out of ten interviews, 4 were carried out face to face and 6 were carried out through phone conversations. Data Analysis The quantitative data were analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics. The frequency, percentages, and arithmetic means were shown with the tables to interpret participant teachers’ responds to the ELF related statements. The qualitative data, on the other hand, was analyzed using content analysis (Yıldırım Şimşek, 2008). First, all of the recorded

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interviews were transcribed verbatim. Member-checking was ensured after the transcriptions were done. Both researchers read the data several times so that they could come with appropriate codes relevant to quantitative data. The coded items were compared afterward to ensure the inter-coder reliability. The similarities and differences between the emerged codes were identified and themes were formed to categorize interrelated codes. Finally, quantitative data and qualitative data were combined and categorized under the related themes to provide a more comprehensive representation of the data. Results This section presents the findings of the current study in light of the categories generated through content analysis. Quantitative findings and qualitative findings are presented successively under each category. To ensure the reliability of the data, quantitative data is illustrated through tables and qualitative data is presented via direct quotations from interview transcripts. The quotations are given by numbers given to each interviewee so that the anonymity of the respondents is ensured. Intelligibility and Acceptability of Teachers’ English Accents The beginning five statements dealt with participants' perceptions of their English accents. The first statement examined the extent to which the participants felt proud of their English accent. As shown in table 2; 74.7 percent (N=71) of the participants strongly agreed, agreed or somewhat agreed that they were proud of their accent while 25.3 percent (N=24) disagreed with the statement. Thus, it can be concluded that the participants indicated fairly positive attitudes towards their English accent with a mean score of 3.20. However, it is worth mentioning than out of 95 participants only 9 participants stated strong agreement with the statement. Interview results explain the reasons why participants are not totally content with their accents. Table 2 Participant teachers' perceptions of their English accents

N=95

Strongly Disagree Disagree Somewhat Agree Agree Strongly Agree

Statements f % f % f % %f f %

Mean Sd 1. I am proud of my 2 9

4 4.2 1,1 3 4.7 9 30.5 9 English accent. 0 .5

3.20 1.017

17

2. I think my accent is

intelligible to native 6 3 1 1 4 2 3 6 3 45.3

speakers when I speak 3.90 1.07 .3 .2 4 4,7 3 9 0.5 English. 3. I think my accent is

intelligible to non-native 6 3 9 4 3 3 6 3 9 45,3

speakers when I speak 4.01 1.07 .3 .2 .5 3 4 5.8 English. 4. I think my accent is

acceptable to native 4 5 1 1 4 2 2 4 5 49.5

speakers when I speak 3.88 0.99 .2 .3 4 4.7 7 5 6,3 English. 5. I think my accent is

acceptable to non-native 3 9 3 3 6 3 9 4 48,4

speakers when I speak 3.97 1.06 6.3 .2 .5 1 2.6 6 English.

One of the interviewees explained: “To be honest. I am not proud of my accent. I don't have the accent I would like to have. For example, British people, English people make an excellent accent. I had the chance to talk to them while I was in Erasmus. They are cool. I should be realistic, I know. Maybe not like them. But, at least... It would be good if I had some kind of accent.”(I1) Another interviewee shared “It depends. It depends on the place and the person I am talking to. If the person speaks English worse than I do, then I can speak with an excellent accent and I am also more fluent. Maybe it is personal. I feel like I am speaking with an American accent, if not a British accent. Talking to someone less competent in English than I am, gives me some sort of self-confidence."(I2) “I want to answer “No”. I do not practice my English so I think my accent is not good enough” said another participant. (I3) Another interviewee stated that she is really proud of her English accent thanks to the effort she made to develop her accent. She also commented that she gained enough feedback to consider her accent is good.

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“Accent is not something that will be achieved at once. You should improve yourself. I struggled much and thanks to my struggles I feel pleased with my accent now. When I went to the USA with work and travel program, people said "your accent is really good. Where did you learn English?" I feel even more proud when I say I learned it in Turkey” (I4) One of the participants emphasized how her feelings were affected by others’ expectations. She complained: “I want to feel proud of my English accent, but I can’t. People have unrealistic expectations. Especially when I say I am an English teacher they want to hear a British accent. Why? I am neither British nor American. I want to speak in my way. Fluent speaking, that is what matters. But people, they do not know that. They are obsessed with the accent."(I5) The second and third statements were respectively related to participants’ opinions about the intelligibility of their accents to native and non-native speakers. The mean scores of the statements show that the participants held strongly positive attitudes towards the intelligibility of their accents. 86 percent (N=86) of the participants agreed with the statements while only 9 participants (9.5 percent) stated disagreement towards the statements regarding their perceptions on the intelligibility of their accents to native and non-native speakers. Regarding the intelligibility of participants’ accents, the interview results were in line with quantitative data. When asked whether their accents were intelligible to native and non- native speakers of English all the interviewees stated that their accents were intelligible to both. For example one of the interviewees shared "Of course, totally intelligible. They can understand my accent. Both natives and non-natives...” (I6). Another said, "In all circumstances.”(I7). Another interviewee explained that he thought his accent was intelligible based on his experiences with both native and non-native speakers. He said “I think they can understand me. I mean native speakers, and non-native speakers as well. I had experiences before. I talked to both. I did not have any accent related problem.” (I8). The last two statements regarding participants' perceptions of their accents asked about participants' opinions regarding the acceptability of their accents to native and non-native speakers. According to the findings, the majority of the participants thought that their accent was acceptable to both native and non-native speakers. While 90.5 percent of the teachers (N=86) stated positive attitudes towards the acceptability of their accent to native speakers, only 9 teachers (9.5 percent) thought their accents were not acceptable to native speakers. The same results were achieved regarding the acceptability of their accents to non-native speakers, only

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6 (6.3 percent) teachers chose the strongly disagree option and 3 teachers (3.2 percent) chose the disagree option. Qualitative data obtained through interviews yielded similar results. When the interviewees asked about the acceptability of their accents claimed that their accents were acceptable to both native speakers and non-native speakers. “If a person’s accent is intelligible then it should be acceptable. I have intelligible English and I do not cause any misunderstanding. So I can say that my accent is acceptable” (I7) explained an interviewee. "Yes, I think my accent is acceptable. I met a native speaker from London. I could not understand some of what he said. But he understood me" (I6) shared another interviewee. One of the interviewees explained "I think my accent is no doubt acceptable to non-native speakers of English. However, I believe that my accent may not be such acceptable to a native speaker as they may not like my accent” (I8). Use of L1 Accented English Seventh, eighth and ninth statements in the questionnaire (shown in table 3) asked the teachers their opinions about the use of English with native accents. When asked whether they would like to be identified as a native speaker with their English accents approximately half of the participants (N=49) responded negatively while the other half (N=46) stated they would love to recognized as a native speaker. The majority of the participants did not state a willingness to speak English with a Turkish accent, either. With responding to the eighth item which sought to extract a degree of agreement to the statement “I would like to speak English with a Turkish accent because I am a Turkish” strong agreement was stated by only 3.2 percent (N=3). “Agree” and “somewhat agree” options were chosen by 25.2 (N=24) percent of the participants. However, 71.5 percent of the participants (N=68) stated disagreement which constitutes a large proportion of the sample. The last item in this category aimed to reveal how the participants would feel if their accents revealed their nationalities. The high mean score achieved from respondents’ answers (3.96) revealed that the majority of the participants would not feel disturbed if their nationality was identified out of their accents. Only, 14.8 percent (N=14) stated disagreement with the statement. That is to say, only 14 participants would not prefer to reveal their nationalities through their accents.

Table 3

Participant teachers' perceptions of their use of L 1 accented English

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Disag Some Disag Stron

Strongly Disagree ree Agree what ree gly Agree

M n

f % f % f % f % F %

ea (SD) 7. I would like to be

identified as a native speaker 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

of English through my 2.71 1.46 6 7.4 3 4.2 5 5.8 4 4.7 7 7.9 English accent*

8. I would like to speak 3 3 3 3 1 1 8 3 8 3

English with a Turkish accent 2.10 1.05 1 2.6 7 8.9 6 6.8 .4 .2 because I am Turkish.

9. I feel ok if someone 7 7 1 1 2 2 4 4

recognizes my nationality 3.96 1.25 7 7 .4 .4 3 3.7 3 4.2 5 7.4 through my English accent

Concerning the use of L1 accented English. interviewees stated that they do not care whether they sound like a native speaker or not. An interviewee emphasized the importance of the intelligibility, commenting: “I do not have such a concern. I do not mind that. When I speak English whether with native speakers or non-native speakers they tell me “your English is really good”. They do not mind my accent. They understand that I have a good quality of English education” (I1) One more comment shared indicated that the interviewee was not concerned about sounding like a native speaker: “As I speak English, I have no concern for people to feel that my mother tongue is in English. I don't see anything wrong with people getting the feeling that I learned later. I'm really at peace with myself on this. The fact that I am not a citizen of a country where English is spoken as a native language does not disturb me in any way (I3). The comments of another interviewee were much stricter. Focusing on the importance of pronunciation the interviewee explained: “I do not try to sound like an American or British. But it is important to use proper English. Some people cannot pronounce the sounds that they do not have in their language. I do not say they should speak like a native speaker. But some of

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them are irritating. They should at least try; they should learn to pronounce those sounds. Proper English is essential.” When they were asked whether they would feel ok if their nationality were recognized through their accent the interviewees one of the interviewees said: "If I am recognized as Turkish trough my accent, I would feel that I should improve myself.” Likewise, another interviewee explained: When I speak English, if somebody understands that I am Turkish, it means that the person has a good knowledge of many different languages. And for me... I can think that my accent is not good enough. (I3) Another interviewee was much concerned with pronunciation. He shared his opinions explaining: “It is not a big problem. But pronunciation is important. It would upset me if I am blamed for my pronunciation. But accent... No. It does not disturb me” (I2) Attitudes of others were explicitly dominant and shaping teachers' attitudes towards their accents as illustrated in the comment of an interviewee: “As I said before, people have expectations that affect you as an English teacher. If I were not an English teacher I would feel proud when they recognize my nationality. Because it would show that I am a learner of a foreign language, a hardworking learner, struggling to learn. But I am an English teacher, this is the fact. So it is embracing for me to be recognized as a non-native speaker” (I5) Ownership of English Concerning the ownership of English, as illustrated in table 4, the item numbered 6 asked the participants’ opinions about the statement “English belongs to native speakers” while the items numbered 13, 14 and 15 were related to the authority of non-native speakers to own and modify English language, and use the other languages they know in order to ease the communication in English. It is worth mentioning that, although the majority of the participants (N=77) rejected the idea that it is the native speakers who own the English language; the percentage of participants attributing non-native speakers the authority to own and adapt English were not high, either. For example, 57.9 percent of the participants (N=55) somewhat agreed, agreed or strongly agreed with the item stating that non-native speakers could own the English language. When asked about non-native speakers’ authority to modify English the answers were not much positive. 55.8 percent (N=53) chose the "disagree" or "strongly disagree" options for item number 14 investigating their views on non-native speakers' authority to modify English based on their needs. Similarly, approximately half of the participants (46.3 percent) rejected the idea that other languages known by non-native speakers of English can ease their communication in English.

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Table 4 Participant teachers’ perceptions of ownership of English

Disagr Some Agree Strong

N=95

Strongly Disagree ee Agree what ly Agree

M Sd f % f % f % f % F %

Statements

ean

6. I think English 1. 1. 4 4 3 3 8 8 2 8 8 2

belongs to native speakers. 6 8.4 1 2.6 .4 .4 .1

83 03 13. I think non-native speakers of English have the authority to own the English language 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 9 0.0 1 2.1 4 5.3 1 2.1 0 0.5

2.81 1.28

14. I think non-native

speakers of English have the 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1

authority to modify English 2.63 1.36 3 4.2 0 1.6 4 4,7 5 5.8 3 3.7 based on their needs 15. I think non-native speakers of English can use 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 9

the languages they know to 9 9 0.0 5 6.3 9 0.0 3 4.2 .5

avoid misunderstanding when 2.76 1.28 communicating in English

Concerning ownership of English, every interviewee mentioned the international status of English and every one of them claimed that English should be owned by both native speakers and non-native speakers of English. However, a few comments indicated that some of them were not tolerant of English varieties. For example one of the interviewees commented: “Of course everybody can own English. It is a world language today. But I recommend that they should speak proper English. Their use of English should not be shaped or modified under the 23

influence of their native language. There is one standard English and everybody should conform to it” (I9) Likewise another interviewee explained: “Sure, everybody can own English as long as they speak properly. English is a universal language. It is the language of the world. It does not belong to just British people or Americans. We cannot say so. Nobody has the right to say that” (I7) On the contrary, some interviewees indicated positive attitudes towards non-native speakers’ authority to modify English. One of them claimed: “Everybody has the right to own. Why? Because it is about culture. Culture shapes the language. Everybody can use it the way they want. Thus I do not understand why a society claims the authority to own the language. İf it is the world language it belongs to everybody” (I6). In the same vein another interviewee pointed out: “If we describe languages as entities that are living and constantly open to change, we can say that English is constantly changing. The words and other elements in the language change over time with the usage habits of people. This change is the common product of individuals who speak the language. Therefore, in case of limited and specific purposes, I do not see a problem when a person who speaks English as a foreign language can make changes in the language while speaking English. However, these changes should not have a generalist character” (I8). When asked whether non-native speakers can use the languages they know to avoid misunderstanding when communicating in English, all of the interviewees came up with confirmative comments. An interviewee pointed out that knowledge of other languages is a great advantage, especially in language teaching environments explaining: "It seems to me that taking advantage of other languages to avoid misunderstandings does not create any harm. On the contrary, it will benefit the listener or communicator. In this case, we can give an example of a class that is taught in a foreign language. The teacher, who speaks English as a foreign language, can use his or her mother tongue if he/she anticipates that the students will misunderstand the topic. This situation can occur especially when explaining the cultural differences (I8).

Native Speaker Norms in English Language Teaching As can be seen in Table 5, the items under the category of native-speaker norms in English Language Teaching aimed to reveal participants' views on how English teaching should be carried on in terms of the application of native-speaker norms in classes. A high mean score (4.18) was achieved when they were asked whether the students should be taught how to

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communicate effectively instead of native-like proficiency. All of the participants, except 10 (10.6 percent) agreed that teachers should help students to communicate effectively rather than achieve native-like proficiency. Thus, it is not surprising that the 16th item “I think it is necessary for non-native English speakers to sound like a native speaker of English to communicate successfully in English” had a low mean of 2.21. The majority of the participants (66.3 percent) disagreed with the statement However, many participants (67.4 percent) agreed with the 11th item which stated that students should learn English according to the native speaker model. The findings were inconsistent in that while the majority of the teachers stated the importance of teaching effective communication instead of native-like proficiency, only a minority resisted teaching English according to a native English speaker model. Table 5 Participants' perceptions of native-speaker norms in English Language Teaching

Disag Some Disag Stron

Strongly Disagree ree Agree what ree gly Agree

M n

f % f % f % f % f %

ea (SD) 10. I think teachers should help students 7 3 4 3 3 4 5

communicate effectively 7 3 4 .4 .2 .2 2 3.7 9 1.6

rather than achieve a native- 4.18 1.15 like proficiency 11. I think it is necessary for many students 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1

to learn English according to

8 4 4.7 7 7.9 6 7.4 3 4.2 5 5.8

the native English speaker 3.08 1.2 model 16. I think it is necessary for non-native English speakers to sound 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 4

like a native speaker of 1 2.6 2 3.7 7 7.9 1 1.6 .2

English to communicate 2.21 1.14 successfully in English.

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The reason for the inconsistency can be best understood by the interviewees' comments. For example, an interviewee explained that the coursebook was the reason why she followed the native speaker model in teaching. She verbalized: "I do not think English learners must learn English according to the native speaker model. But I have to show them the native speaker model. the listening parts of the book are all performed by native speakers. There is no non- native speaker included so that I can show them as an example. And I do not have the time to present other materials.” (I5) Another interviewee emphasized the connection between effective communication and English proficiency. She commented: “Of course effective communication is my biggest aim in teaching. Language is used to communicate. It is crucial to use proper English to communicate effectively. Although it is a world language, English has standards and I want to grow my students according to those standards. It is better if they learn English from primary sources (I9). Another interviewee explained: “it is, of course, better for students to learn English according to the native speaker model. This will help students to communicate better and healthier when they encounter native speakers” (I3) Non-native English Speaker Teachers’ Competence As shown in table 6, the 17th item was directed to the participants to reveal to what extent they thought non-native speakers of English could be a role model for Turkish students. A high number of respondents (87.4 percent) agreed that non-native speakers of English can be a role model for Turkish students while only 12 respondents (12.7 percent) thought otherwise. Table 6 Participant teachers' perceptions of non-native English speaker teachers' (NNEST) competence

Disag Some Disag Stron

agree agree

Strongly Dis ree Agree what ree gly Agree

M n

f % f % f % f % f %

ea (SD)

26

17. I think non-native

speakers of English can be a 7 5 2 2 4 4 2 2 7 5

role model for Turkish 3.68 1.10 .4 .3 0 1.1 2 4.2 1 2.1 students.

Through the interviews, various perspectives were found regarding non-native English speaker teachers. Non-native speakers were found a very good role model for students by an interviewee who said: “I think the non-natives can be a better role model. I am talking about my own students' experiences. For example, they go on holiday in summer. They meet British people. They say ‘We don't understand them, our English is bad. We can't speak English like them’ But when they see us speaking fluently as non-native speakers, they develop beliefs that they can learn English” (I1) Another interviewee stated that it depends on the qualifications of the teacher criticizing himself as a non-native speaker: “It is not about being non-native. What is important here is the aim and the goal to be reached. I think both native and non-native teachers can be a good role model based on their qualifications. For me, I don't see myself as a good role model because of my deficient speaking skills” (I3) Focusing on the importance of collaboration among native and non-native English teachers, one of the participants explained: “I am not sure. I always thought that native speaker teachers were better models than non-native teachers. But sometimes students feel bad because they think they can't get to that level. It would be fantastic if both could work together. As non- native teachers communicate with their native colleagues, they would compensate for their deficiencies. It would be good for both and also for students” (I7). Culture and English Varieties in English Language Teaching The last category involved two items regarding the inclusion of culture and English varieties in English classes. As illustrated in table 7, the 12th question aimed to examine participant teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of culture and traditions of native speakers while the 18th question searched for their opinions about how important it is to introduce students to different English accents. Both statements received means above the average. The majority of the participants agreed that students should be familiar with the culture and traditions of native speakers (m=3.7) and different English varieties(m=3.49). Table 7

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Participant Teachers' perceptions of the place of culture and English varieties in English language teaching

Disag Some Disag Stron

Strongly Disagree ree Agree what ree gly Agree

M n

f % f % f % f % f %

ea (SD) 12. I think it is necessary for many students 6 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3

to become familiar with the 6

.3 0 0.5 9 0.0 0 1.6 0 1.6

culture and traditions of 3.7 1.19 native speakers. 18. I think it is important to introduce 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 2

students to many different 2 2.6 2 2.6 4 4.7 1 2.6 6 7.4

English accents (both native 3.49 1.35 and non-native accents)

During the interviews, one of the respondents commented on the importance of teaching the students’ own culture: “First of all, I start with their own culture. We discuss Turkish culture. If there are similar things in England or America, then I compare them as far as my knowledge allows” (I4) In line with the quantitative data, respondents were quite inclined to prefer teaching cultures of England and American. There were also some respondents stating that it is not necessary to teach the cultures of other countries than the countries where English is spoken as a native language. An interviewee explained: “I teach my students cultures of America, England… where English is spoken. I do not teach other cultures. It is not necessary” (I2). Contrary to quantitative data which revealed the participants were mostly in favor of getting their students acquainted with non-native varieties, interviewees shared that they teach British and American English when they were asked about the accents they teach in their classes, it was found that they did not give place to non-native varieties in their classroom practices because they thought it was unnecessary. An interviewee explained: “Although I do not think I need to teach more than one accent, students can be made aware of this situation.

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Thus, students can foresee any possible situation. I do not include different accents in my classroom applications” (I3) Another interviewee said: “Children should be informed about the accents where English is used as a native language. I always inform my students about British and American accents. Other accents, I find them unnecessary”. It was also put forward that it was unnecessary to teach students the accents of outer and expanding circle countries because they were not “proper English”: “There is no need to teach different accents. I think American and British accents are important. Non-native accents... oh, never! They are not even proper English. I think everybody should learn proper English. Then there will be no need to learn different accents” (I2). Discussion The present study explored Turkish NNESTs’ attitudes towards some issues related to lingua franca status of English; including how they regard their accents, what they think about using L1 accented English, ownership of English, adopting NS norms in ELT, advantages, and disadvantages of NNESTs, and teaching non-native accents and cultures. In accord with many previous studies (Soruç, 2015; Yılmaz &Özkan; 2016, Deniz, Özkan & Bayyurt, 2016), the findings of the current research revealed that most of the in-service English teachers were in favor of native-speaker norms in their teaching practices although they showed positive attitudes towards ELF. A high number of participants asserted that their accents were intelligible and acceptable to both native speakers and non-native speakers. However, a small number of them were totally proud of their accents. In-depth analysis of the interviews put forward that the teachers would feel totally pleased with their accent if they had native-like accents. Similar results were achieved in the Iranian context, too. Rahatlou et al. (2018), whose questionnaire was used in the present study, found that English teachers in Iran have a deeply rooted belief that they should obtain native-like accents. Interview results also unveiled that those who studied abroad or attended work and travel program while they were university students felt more comfortable with their accents. Some interviewees explained that they were worried about the intelligibility of their accents because they did not have the chance enough to practice their language in English speaking environments. Similarly, Sağlamel and Doğan (2016) found that study abroad programs contributed to improving self-efficacy of English majors in terms of their language skills. Some other interviewees also shared that they do not feel totally confident of their accents because they were expected to speak like native speakers just because they are English teachers. One of the participants in Golombek and Jordan’s (2005) study also indicated that she did not

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want to reveal that she majored in English to not face others' criticism against her competence in English.

Concerning the use of L1 accented English, the majority of the participants stated unwillingness to use L1 accented English. They were not much concerned with speaking like a native speaker, either. Only half of the participants stated that they would like to sound like a native speaker. It was also found that the majority of the participants would not feel annoyed if their nationality was recognized while speaking English. In-depth analysis of the interviews, on the other hand, revealed that interviewees interpreted being identified as Turkish as being considered incompetent in English and saw it as a signal implying that they should improve their language. The other group of interviewees emphasized the importance of pronunciation and pointed out that they would not mind their accents as long as their pronunciation is good. Timmis (2002) examined English teachers' ultimate expected goals for their students. He found that both NESTs and NNESTs were more in favor of “accented intelligibility” than “native speaker competence”. In another study, Jenkins (2005) found that English teachers in expanding circle countries remain irresolute between their ambition to be identified as a native speaker through their accent and their desire to use L1 accented English to convey their nationality. Quantitative analysis revealed that half of the participants were aware of the international status of English. They agreed that English can be owned by non-native speakers as much as native speakers. Similarly half of them held positive attitudes regarding non-native speakers’ authority to modify English. Moreover, half of the participants valued knowledge of another language. Qualitative results were also moderate. Although interviewees accepted that it was both NS and NNS’ right to own English, some of them rejected NNS's right to modify English and stated that NNS should conform to NS norms while using English. Widdowson (1994) suggests that the authority to own a language should not be endowed only to those who are born to that language. According to him, all those speaking English should be given the right to own and adjust the language depending on their specific needs. Besides, all the interviewees valued knowing other languages and confirmed that it would ease communication. It was especially emphasized that the use of L1 by an English teacher in an ELT context would contribute to the learning process. Seidlhofer (1999) argues that knowledge of L1 is a crucial resource for the language teachers, which makes language teachers proficient facilitators negotiating between the languages and cultures. Regarding the role of native-speaker norms in language teaching, qualitative data showed that majority of the participants valued effective communication over native-like proficiency,

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but a much fewer number of them rejected the idea that the students should learn English according to native speaker model. This is in line with many studies (Kuo, 2006; Sifakis, 2009; Soruç, 2015; Yılmaz & Özkan; 2016, Deniz, Özkan & Bayyurt, 2016), indicating the ambivalence between the teachers’ attitudes towards native speaker norms in communication and teaching native speaker norms in classrooms. Consistent with previous studies, the findings of the present study indicated that teachers insisted on teaching English depending on native- speaker norms although they did not feel native speaker norms were much necessary for effective use of English. While conducting the interviews, researchers tried to figure out the reasons for that finding and two potential factors were determined. First, teachers applied native speaker norms bounded practices due to the content of the course books. Coşkun (2011) found a high preference to teach native or native-like pronunciation among pre-service English teachers one of whom stated that it is not their preference but the coursebook writers who will determine what to teach. Second, they thought that it is their responsibility to teach English based upon native-speaker norms and it should be the students' choice whether to use them or not. Cogo (2012) states “ELF is about awareness and choice". According to her, teachers should create awareness among students about ELF, and then they may prefer speaking native-like English or making use of ELF. Likewise, a high number of participants stated that it was important to introduce different English accents to students, based on quantitative data. However qualitative data unveiled that they did not include non-native accents into their classroom practices. English and British accents were dominant in their practices. Besides they were mostly inclined to teach British and American culture. Those findings were also consistent with the previous studies. Investigating university instructors’ opinions regarding the place of culture in ELT, Önalan (2005) found that coursebooks included British and American culture. Similarly, Yılmaz and Özkan (2015) examined the perspectives of 5 NEST and 11 NNEST language instructors about culture teaching in ELT classrooms. The findings obtained from qualitative data revealed that the participants were more in favor of teaching students’ own culture and non-native cultures than teaching native cultures. However qualitative data showed that most of the participants tended to teach the culture of native speakers because of several reasons such as course book which was dominated by American culture, syllabus, curriculum and lack of time to include other cultures. Regarding the role of NEST and NNESTs, both were valued depending on their qualifications. Also, the importance of collaboration among them was underlined. It was also

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highlighted that NNEST would especially be a good role model for students as they could help students to lower their anxiety and develop self-efficacy. In accordance, the results of Bayyurt’s (2006) study conducted with 12 non-native high school teachers revealed that the teachers valued themselves as good role models for students but they also indicated the importance of NESTs in teaching pronunciation and communication skills. Analyzing the opinions of NNESTs from both inner and expanding circles, Tajeddin and Adeh (2016) concluded that NNESTs found themselves good role models for students for understanding their difficulties and being familiar with their learning context.

Implications

The findings indicated that the participants’ attitudes towards ELF related issues were not in accordance with their statements about their classroom practices. Although it was found that most of the participants were inclined toward some principles concerning ELF, they did not apply them in their classrooms for several reasons. Therefore, further studies are needed into the causes behind the inconsistency between teachers’ attitudes and practices. The study has also crucial implications for language learners, language teachers, language teacher educators, and coursebook publishers. As Fang (2017) asserts, conventional teaching methods fall behind the necessities of today’s world in which English is used for different purposes than it was before. Thus, it is recommended that teachers should be well-informed about the lingua franca status of English to be able to prepare their future students for the real use of English, which attributes a big responsibility to the teacher training programs. Concerning this, Ur (2009) emphasizes that the goal of teaching English has changed from producing native-like speaking learners to growing “fully competent English knowing bilinguals” (p.6). To achieve that goal, teachers should also be supported by coursebook publishers. The books should include contents that will enable and encourage teachers to integrate ELF into their classes. Finally, it is hoped that the findings of the current study could give readers insight into the ELF notion and its implications on language teaching. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the participants for their contributions to this study.

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References Bayyurt, Y. (2006). Non-native English language teachers’ perspective on ‘culture’ in EFL classrooms. Teacher Development, 10(2), 233-247.doi:10.1080/13664530600773366 Bayyurt, Y., & Sifakis, N. (2015). Elf-aware in-service teacher education: a transformative perspective. In Hugo Bowles & Alessia Cogo (Eds), International Perspectives on English as a Lingua Franca: Pedagogical Insights (pp. 117-136). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Biricik Deniz E., Özkan Y., & Bayyurt Y. (2016) English as a Lingua Franca: Reflections on ELF-related issues by pre-service English Language Teachers in Turkey. The Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal, 16(2), 144-161. Canagarajah, A. S. (2014). In search of a new paradigm for teaching English as an international language. TESOL Journal, 5, 767-785. Cogo, A. 2012. English as a Lingua Franca: concepts, use and implications, ELT Journal, 66(1), 97-105. Coşkun, A. (2011). Future English teachers’ attitudes towards EIL pronunciation. Journal of English as an International Language, 6(2), 46-68. Creswell, J. W. & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (2014). Interview with David Crystal. Retrieved from: https://teflequityadvocates.com/2014/07/06/interview-with-david-crystal/ Crystal, David. 2007 [1997]. English as a global language, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fang, G. F. (2017). English as a Lingua Franca: Implications for pedagogy and assessment. TEFLIN Journal, 28(1), 57-70. Golombek, P., & Jordan, S. (2005). Becoming “black lambs” not “parrots”: a poststructuralist orientatiton to intelligibility and identity. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 513-533. Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English. London: The English Company Ltd. Graddol, D. (1999). The decline of the native speaker. In G. Anderman and M. Rogers (Eds.), Translation today trends and perspectives (pp. 152-167). Clavedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. House, J. (1999). Misunderstanding in intercultural communication: Interactions in English as a lingua franca and the myth of mutual intelligibility. In Gnutzmann, C. (Ed.), Teaching and learning English as a global language (pp.73-93). Tübingen: Stauffenburg. Jenkins, J. (2005). Implementing an international approach to English pronunciation: the role of teacher attitudes and identity. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 535-543. Jenkins, J. (2012). English as a lingua franca: from the classroom to the classroom. ELT Journal, 66(4), 486-494. Jenkins, J. (2009). English as a Lingua Franca: Interpretations and attitudes. World Englishes, 28(2), 200–207. Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp.11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kuo, I. (2006). Adressing the issue of teaching English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 60(3), 2013-221. Lee, J. (2010). Korean elementary school teachers’ attitudess toward the English language. English Language Teaching, 22(4), 25-51.

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Llurda, E. (2004). Non-native-speaker teachers and English as an International Language. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 314-323. Mckay S. L. (2004). Teaching English as an International Language: the role of culture in Asian contexts. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 1(1), 1-22. Önalan, O. (2005). EFL teachers’ perceptions of the place of culture in ELT: A survey study at four universities in Ankara/Turkey. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 1(2), 215-235. Qiufang, W. (2012). English as a lingua franca: A pedagogical perspective. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 1(2), 371-376. Rahatlou, B. M., Fazilatfar, A. M., & Allami, H. (2018). English as a lingua franca in Iran: an attitudinal investigation into the in-service teachers. Cogent Education, 5(1499215), 1-19. Sabokrouh, F. & Barimani-Varandi, S. (2013). The effect of EFL teachers’ attitude toward English language and English language proficiency on their sense of efficacy. Journal of Advances in English Language Teaching, 1(4), 117-125. Sağlamel, H., & Doğan, A. S. (2016). The impact of study abroad experience on EFL learners’ self-efficacy. The Journal of Narrative and Language Studies, 4(6), 13-30. Seidlhofer, B. (1999). Double standards: Teacher education in the Expanding Circle. World Englishes, 18(2), 233- 245. doi:10.1111/1467-971X.00136 Seidlhofer, B. (2005). Key concepts in ELT: English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59(4), 339-341. doi:10.1093/elt/cci064 Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sert S. & Ozkan Y. (2018). Implementing ELF-informed Activities in an Elementary Level English Preparatpry Classroom. Multicultural Learning and Teaching, 13, 1-14. doi:10.1515/mlt-2018-003 Sifakis, N. (2009). Cahallenges in teaching ELF in the periphery: the Greek context. ELT Journal, 63(3), 230-237. Sifakis, N. C. (2009). Teacher education in the post-modern era: Introducing a transformative dimension in the teaching of English as a lingua franca. Selected papers from the 18th ISTAL. Soruç, A. (2015). Non-native teachers‘ attitudes towards English as a Lingua Franca. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 30(1), 239-351. Tajeddin, Z. & Adeh, A. (2016). Native and non-native English teachers’ perceptions of their professional identity: Convergent or divergent. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 4(3), 37-54. Timmis, I. (2002). Native-speaker norms and international English: A classroom view. ELT Journal, 56(3), 240- 249. Ur, P. (2009). English as a Lingua Franca and some implications for English teachers. In TESOL France Colloquium. Paris. Widdowson, H. G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 377-389. Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2008). Sosyal Bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (7th ed.). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Yılmaz B., & Özkan Y. (2016) An investigation into English Language instructors’ and students’ intercultural awareness. The Qualitative Report, 21(10), 1932-1959. Yılmaz, B. & Özkan, Y. (2015). The perspectives of English language teachers on intercultural awareness at a university prep-school in Turkey. Journal of Language and Cultural Education, 3(3), 13-39. 34

HARNESSING PEACE JOURNALISM AS A VIABLE COMPLEMENT FOR PEACEBUILDING

Silas Oghenemaro Emovwodo1 Laurent Andriamalala2 Rani Sukma Ayu Suteja3

Abstract Journalism is not just about “reporting facts”. It is about “what” to report and “how” to report, which implies selection and responsibility hence, high standards of ethics and principles, especially when reporting on conflicts. Information is power and insight can impact on public discourse. Lack of information can, at any stage of a conflict, make people desperate, restless and easy to manipulate. The ability to make informed decisions strengthens societies and fosters economic growth, democratic structures and positive outlook on the future. For this reason, the United Nations Millennium Declaration stressed the need “to ensure the freedom of the media to perform their essential role and the right of the public to have access to information.” How the concept of peace journalism has taken advantage of what this new field of research is offering about understanding conflicts and securing world peace, by using conflict analysis and transformation to update the concepts of balance, fairness and accuracy in traditional news reporting is the aim of this paper. It was discovered that peace journalism can break the cycle of violence and help build a local culture of peace in conflicting communities. Conclusions include the fact that since journalist live, work and stay rooted to their communities, they understand the people, dynamics and history of local conflicts most times more than outsiders. By their knowledge and expertise, they have what it takes to bring people together from all religious and political divides. As neutral umpires, journalists are able to build mutual understanding and challenge violent or extremist narratives. This is critical to peace building in violently divided societies. Keywords: Peace journalism; Journalists; Media; Peacebuilding; Conflict.

Introduction Lynch and McGoldrick (2005) explain that journalism is beyond just reporting “facts”. It is about “what” to report and “how” to report, which implies selection and responsibility and hence, high standards of ethics and principles, especially when reporting on conflicts. Peace Journalism (PJ) as a concept is exploiting what this new field of research has to offer about understanding conflicts and working towards world peace, employing conflict analysis and transformation to update the concepts of balance, fairness and accuracy in the traditional news reporting. An understanding of Peace Journalism coupled with how it is being practiced by various mass media, especially in areas where wars and crises abound, unveils to an extent media influence during crises and wars (Adelakun, 2014).

1 Airlangga University, Indonesia 2 Airlangga University, Indonesia 3 Airlangga University, Indonesia 35

The concept of peace journalism was originally conceived by Johan Galtung, who contrasted it with ‘war journalism’ (WJ). Galtung defines WJ as war/violence-oriented, propaganda oriented, elite-oriented and victory-oriented, while PJ is peace/conflict-oriented, truth-oriented, people-oriented and solution-oriented (Galtung and Fischer, 2013 in Demarest and Langer, 2018). Changing the narrative of armed conflict to align with conflict transformation by emphasizing potential solutions and peacebuilding efforts, unequivocally stating the root causes of the conflict, and not seeing conflict in black and white terms as opposed to focusing on violence, military strategy, and winners and losers are the intents of peace journalism (Demarest and Langer, 2018). A good number of journalists and other media stakeholders who do not look favourably on peace journalism are those whose practice is still based on the popular notion that “bad news makes good news” because in their estimation, horrible scenes, fatal accidents, crises, wars, among others are news that not only interest the public but also sell. It is worthy of note that the debate either for or against peace journalism are rooted in media theories, ethics and laws (Adelakun, 2014). Peace-building on the other hand is the employment of measures to consolidate peaceful relations and create an environment which deters the emergence or escalation of tensions which may lead to conflict (International Alert, 1995). Ensuring durable peace is what the peacebuilding process is concerned with. As much as possible, peace-building process works to prevent violence recurrence by addressing root causes of conflict as well as its effect through reconciliation, building of strong institutions, as well as transformation of the political and economic landscape (Boutros-Ghali, 1995 cited in Maiese, 2003). To achieve this, physical, social and structural initiatives must be put in place, as these are vital components of post conflict reconstruction (Maiese, 2003). When conflict is discussed today, the mass media is often touted as playing a key role. Basically, their role can take two different and opposed forms. Either the media takes an active part in the conflict and has responsibility for increased violence, or stays independent and out of the conflict, thereby contributing to conflict management and peace building. Emphasis has been placed on the use of media for crisis promotion or war propaganda. The media to a large extent play a major role in ensuring that any particular conflict receives wide public attention, it should not only magnify its exploitation for crisis promotion. Cases of the positive use of the media in the reconciliation of post-conflict societies remain largely unknown. The purpose of

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this study is to make a case for peace journalism as a viable complement to be deployed by peace workers and other stakeholders in the peacebuilding process, a term that involves a wide range of activities that both precede and follow formal peace accords by trying to highlight some cases of the positive use of the media and creative ways in which peace journalism can complement the conventional peace building process. The research work is based on the information gathered from secondary sources. These sources include published books, journals, newspapers and magazines. The key findings of this study are quite consistent with the existing peace journalism scholarship that since journalist live, work and are rooted to their communities, they understand the people, dynamics and history of local conflicts as compared to outsiders. By virtue of their knowledge and expertise when deployed, they have what it takes to bring people together from all divides- be it religious, political, or economic. As neutral third parties, journalists are able to build mutual understanding and challenge violent or extremist narratives. This is germane to peace building efforts in conflicting societies.

Peace Journalism and Peace building: The Nexus Peace Journalism defined by Lynch and McGoldrick, (2005) is when editors and reporters make choices of what stories to report and about how to report them. This form of journalism bothers about looking into root causes of conflict so as to “create opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict”. In what is seen as a bold attempt to redefine and reconstruct the role of journalists who cover conflicts (Peleg, 2006), the peace journalism approach provides a new road map tracing the connections between journalists, their sources, the stories they cover and the consequences of their reporting. It opens up a literacy of non-violence and creativity as applied to the practical job of everyday reporting. Peleg (ibid) suggests that peace journalism assumes the role of the third party to a conflict in its facilitation capacity. In this capacity, PJ makes room for the opposing sides to get to know themselves, uphold understanding and empathy, to focus on creativity and human ingenuity to resolve conflicts and to emphasize truth -oriented, people-oriented and solution-oriented journalism resulting to peace in the end. Peace Journalism is characterized by four main principles:

1) Exploration of the backgrounds and contexts of conflict formation of all the sides involved in the conflict, not just two sides as the mainstream media usually portrays,

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2) Giving voice to the views of all rival parties from all levels,

3) Offering creative ideas for conflict resolution, development, peacemaking and peacekeeping, exposing lies, covering-up attempts and culprits on all sides, and revealing excesses committed by, and suffering inflicted on peoples of all parties, and

4) Paying attention to peace stories and post-war developments.

Shedding more light on the PJ model, Peleg (2006) situates the PJ model into the conflict triangle of situation-attitude-behavior (Mitchell, 1981) or the ABC triangle of Attitude, Behavior and Contradiction (Galtung, 1969). The situation of conflict is the initial state of the controversy, i.e. factors that led to confrontation. The attitude refers to the psychological aspect of conflict. This includes stigmatization, prejudice, labeling, name calling or demonizing. This is the peak of the conflict and a major source of escalation. While, behavior is how parties act and what they do with regard to the situation they are in.

Figure 1.

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Source: Peleg (2006).

McGoldrick (2000), describes peace journalism as a new form of journalism “which looks at how journalists could be part of the solution rather than the problem.” The peace journalism model differentiates between what is violence-war/victory journalism and what is conflict-sensitive or peace journalism. What is called war journalism is oriented towards violence in reporting, propaganda, elite and victory. On the other side, peace journalism is conflict, truth, people and solution-oriented journalism (Lynch and Galtung, 2010). Peace Building While peace on the one hand is all about cultivating attitudes and values that are germane to democratic culture of making people work together, share together, help one another by respecting the rights of others, obey the rule of law and promote social justice. It is a conscientizing process that helps to eliminate prejudices, stereotypes and hatred among people of diverse nationality by encouraging harmonious coexistence. Peace building on the other hand is the learning and internationalization of values antithetical to violence (Ezeoba, 2012). The term "peace building" came into widespread use after 1992 when Boutros Boutros- Ghali, then United Nations Secretary-General, announced his Agenda for Peace (Boutros- Ghali, 1992). The term "peace building" according to Morris (2000) has since then become a broadly used… term connoting activities that go beyond crisis intervention such as longer-term development, and building of governance structures and institutions. It includes building the capacity of non-governmental organizations (including religious institutions) for peacemaking and peace building. The United Nations Development Program, UNDP, defines Peace building “to involve a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all levels for conflict management, and laying the foundations for sustainable peace and development.” According to the UNDP, Peace building strategies must be coherent and tailored to the specific needs of the country concerned, based on national ownership, and should comprise a carefully prioritized, sequenced, and therefore relatively narrow set of activities aimed at achieving the above objectives (www.allianceforpeacebuilding org). The central task of peace building is to create positive peace - a stable social equilibrium in which the surfacing of new disputes does not escalate into violence and war. According to

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Haugerudbraaten (1998), Sustainable peace is characterized by the absence of physical and structural violence, the elimination of discrimination, and self-sustainability. Reychler, (2001) posits that moving towards this sort of environment goes beyond problem solving or conflict management. Peace building initiatives try to fix the core problems that underlie the conflict and change the patterns of interaction of the involved parties. This fact is corroborated by Lederach. (1997) who noted that peace building aim to move a given population from a condition of extreme vulnerability and dependency to one of self-sufficiency and well-being. Maiese (2003) notes that peace building measures also aim to prevent conflict from reemerging through the creation of mechanisms that enhance cooperation and dialogue among different identity groups. These measures can help parties manage their conflict of interests through peaceful means. He points out the fact that “parties must replace the spiral of violence and destruction with a spiral of peace and development, and create an environment conducive to self-sustaining and durable peace.” The creation of such an environment according to Maiese (2003) has three central dimensions: addressing the underlying causes of conflict, repairing damaged relationships and dealing with psychological trauma at the individual level. Each of these dimensions relies on different strategies and techniques. Albert (2001) corroborates this by noting that peace building is aimed at putting in place the necessary social, economic, political and environmental mechanisms necessary for making lasting peace possible. Peacebuilding, therefore, requires the promotion of: economic equity and sufficiency (development); popular political participation (democracy); respect for the rights of and integrity of others (human rights); healthy environment (environmental rights); and strict limits on the means of destruction, along with the development of peaceful means of resolving disputes (de-militarization).

Peace Journalism and Peace-building: The Nexus Mutasa (2015) listed three points worth noting about the UNDP definition. First, he sees the media (journalists) as a privileged partner in peace building, conflict resolution and reconciliation, it is therefore apparent that media does not work in isolation for peace. Secondly, the definition acknowledges that peace building does not start and end with attaining a cessation of fire but also targets measures to reduce the risk of relapsing into conflict. Thirdly, the UN acknowledges the importance of peace for the development process by explicitly stating that peace building measures lay the foundation for sustainable peace and development.

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Peace building in other words is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and tries to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and effects of conflict through reconciliation, institution building, and political as well as economic transformation. It is instructive to note that reference cannot be made to post conflict peace building if conflict had not taken place at a time or the other. Junne and Verokren (2005) explain the term post conflict to mean a “conflict situation in which open warfare has come to an end and such situations remain tense for years or decades and can easily relapse into large-scale violence.” Morris (2000) asserts that a great deal of human suffering is linked to violent conflicts, political instability, or unjust policies and practice. Short-term humanitarian relief and crisis intervention, while important, are not enough in conflicted or post-armed-conflict (often called post-conflict) societies. There is increasing awareness of the need for post-armed-conflict reconciliation, development of capacity for conflict resolution and management, and the building of sustainable peace.

Peace Building Through Peace Journalism: Exploring Through Powerful-Effect Model and Developmental Journalism Theory The Powerful-Effect Model of communication developed by Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann in 1973 is a model guiding this study and it is hinged on the perception that the mass media has a significant effect on a large number of people. This Model can therefore be used to spur audience of the mass media including conflicting parties, peace and humanitarian workers and government officials to embrace harmony and tolerance in order to build peace in conflicting societies. Elizabeth Noelle-Neuumann (1973) was the first to present this model (Anaeto et al., 2008). The basic tenets of the Powerful-Effect Model according to Mendelsohn (1973) as cited by Anaeto et al (2008) include the following:  The media spell out clearly the objectives of the campaign.  The media pinpoint the target audience.  The media work to overcome indifference of the audience towards the particular issue  The media find relevant themes to stress its messages. The Powerful-Effect Model is given priority in this study because it elucidates how the journalists using the mass media through the instrumentality of specially designed programs can help in building and sustaining peace by exploring the backgrounds and contexts of conflict formation of all the sides involved, give voice to the views of all rival parties from all levels, 41

offer creative ideas for conflict resolution, expose lies, cover-up attempts and culprits on all sides and pay attention to peace stories and post-war developments. Developmental Journalism in the media, print and broadcast, is part of the larger notion of using mass media as tools of national development. This theory sees the press as an instrument of social justice and a tool for achieving beneficial social change. In other words, the media should carry out positive development tasks in line with nationally established policy. Development journalists bring attention to issues that are overlooked or under- represented by other media and by the international political community. Ogan (1980) believes that the development journalist's job is three-fold: mainly, to inform; secondly, to interpret and thirdly; to promote. As investigative reporters, they uncover the stories within the stories. The developmental journalism theory is used in this study because development is sacrosanct to peace and vice versa as Adelakun (2014) noted, one of the fundamental objectives of the media emphasized in the developmental media theory is that, mass media should work towards development. Since peace is one of the foundations upon which development reclines, it implies that mass media should promote peace – not glamorizing crises and wars– to ensure development.

Interpeace International Organization for Peace-building: Positive Use of the Media in the Reconciliation of Conflict Societies Interpeace was established in 1994 by the United Nations to develop innovative solutions to build peace. As an international organization for peacebuilding, it supports locally led initiatives around the world tailoring its approach to each society and ensuring that the work is locally owned and driven. Together with local partners and local teams, interpeace jointly develops peacebuilding programmes and helps establish processes of change that connect local communities, civil society, government and the international community. From their works over the years, they present some strategies to build peace through journalism (https://www.interpeace.org/2017/05/strategies-through-journalism/) Honduras In Honduras, young men and women that are members of youth groups called barras, have become victims of stigmatization and criminalization. Barras have been compared to street gangs in Central America, when essentially, they are sports clubs supporting a local football team. However, because of weak institutions to manage conflicts, the natural rivalry that begins amongst fans of opposite teams, has transcended stadiums and has become a serious

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social problem. This is aggravated by the fact that football (soccer) is one of the activities in Honduras that is given considerable media attention. In this way, the young members of barras are permanently in the public eye, associated less with the sport and more with the general violence perpetrated in the streets. As part of the efforts to deepen the work that started with “Sports Clubs for Peace,” on November 2016, Interpeace launched the project “Journalism, youth and sports for peace in Honduras” in alliance with Free Press Unlimited and the Central American digital newspapers El Faro, Nómada, and Plaza Pública. The objective is to contribute to the non-violent transformation of conflicts by changing perceptions and reducing the stigmatization of young people in Honduras. The project provides training and technical support to the young members of the barras. This helps them develop their own digital media, and become producers and protagonists of alternative narratives that have a positive impact on the media, opinion leaders, politicians, civil society and the private sector. The project aims at establishing channels of communication between the different levels of society to better understand the phenomenon of violence, its causes and contribute to the transformation of the perceptions that the public has about marginalized youth. Listening to the voice, the human dimension and the story of young people immersed in cycles of violence, is an essential step for building peace in Honduras. Somalia Providing women with tools to improve their capacities as story tellers in contexts where women’s voices are repressed and underrepresented, has proven to be a source of empowerment and resilience. In 2013, our local partner, the Puntland Development Research Center (PDRC) worked with the Nugal Women Journalists (NUWOJO) in the Somali region. The NUWOJO is a group of young women who have completed their training as journalists and formed the organization to advocate for a better female representation in the media sector. Although Puntland has undergone important changes in the past two decades, developing several radio stations, newspapers and television channels, the media sector is the most male-dominated business in Puntland with more than 87% male staff. Through workshops with NUWOJO, PDRC provided this group of young women with a unique opportunity to get hands-on experience on media production, since most of them had received only theoretical training. The workshop highlighted the role that journalists can play in conflict resolution and the potential to contribute to peacebuilding, emphasizing the importance of providing accurate and unbiased information, building confidence and correcting

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misconceptions. Moreover, a major component of the workshop was devoted to gender mainstreaming, providing them with an understanding of the media’s crucial role in defining how women are perceived in society. This workshop was part of Interpeace’s effort to support the development of the media in the Somali region, highlighting the important role of women in peacebuilding, bearing in mind the significance of female presence in mass media. Malawi During the 2013 Malian crisis, Interpeace and Fondation Hirondelle, a Swiss organization of journalists and humanitarian aid professionals, joined forces to promote the development of a national scale citizen dialogue. Through the radio programme, Studio Tamani, created by Fondation Hirondelle, a culture of democratic debate began to gradually emerge, where Malians were able to identify the obstacles and priorities for peace. Our local partner Malian Institute of Action Research for Peace (IMRAP), regularly contributes to Studio Tamani’s programming. Studio Tamani provides a type of journalism that is far more credible in the eyes of the public, because it gives a voice to all Malians. Each day over 1.6 million listeners tune in, to hear the dialogues about conflict resolution, and the results of field research and population analysis on the root causes of conflicts, and opportunities for peace in the country. Therefore, journalists, researchers and communities are working together to expose and inform the major causes of crisis in the region. Due to the success of this collaboration, Interpeace and Fondation Hirondelle are strengthening their partnership, in order to foster new bridges between journalists, peacebuilders and local actors in other parts of the world.

Creative Ways Peace Journalism Can Complement Peace Building

Nora (2010) opines that in any culture of prevention, effective and democratic media are an essential part and indispensable for societies trying to make a transition towards peace and democracy. She adds that “not giving people the possibility of political participation and not allowing them to express themselves freely is a significant cause of conflict. On the one hand free, independent and pluralistic media provide a platform for debate and different opinions.” By creating an environment of balanced opinions, and information equilibrium, Peace Journalism can not only help to distribute information but also counter hate-speech which is a major cause of conflicts. Nora (2010) corroborates this point by explaining that responsible

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journalism does not just re-publish press releases but is truly concerned with a truthful, balanced and fair account of events. In order to achieve this journalists, have to stay clear of judgmental representations and describe reality without embellishment. Peace Journalism can also complement peace building by imbibing communitarian values that privilege stories that make society to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict. Under the communitarian media ethic as proposed by Christians et al (1993), the press has the cardinal obligation to be involved as engaged members of the community and to use their resources, privileges and expertise to stimulate discussions that can lead to peaceful co- existence. A communitarian system explicitly draws on the fundamental premise that the media is socially embedded in the community and has similar yearnings with the community within which it lives and derives its stories from. This creates a community-shared or communal space for fairness, balance and accuracy. Also, peace journalism can complement peace building efforts by finding room for perspectives from beyond the usual ‘official sources’ as well as seeks out peace initiatives and opportunities to report on them (Jacob. 2016). Conclusion Internal conflicts do not just happen suddenly; they have a history. Local media usually have a deeper understanding of the existing political structures, the participants of the conflict as well as the changes preceding the outbreak of violence. Peace journalism can therefore not only influence society before the conflict by recognizing and properly addressing the issue but also afterwards. Unlike international media covering conflicts, local media are a recognized part of society with the ability to accelerate and magnify fears or reduce them. Therefore, local journalist who live, work and stay rooted to their communities, understand the people, dynamics and history of local conflicts most times more than outsiders. By their knowledge and expertise, they have what it takes to bring people together from all religious and political divides. As neutral umpires, journalists are able to build mutual understanding and challenge violent or extremist narratives. This is critical to peace building in violently divided societies. With their experience and expertise, journalists are well plugged into the community and channel

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References Adekunle, A. L. (2014). Finding Justifications for the Practice of Peace Journalism: A Public Assessment of Media Roles towards Peace Promotion in Nigeria. J Mass Communication Journalism 4: 193. doi:10.412/2156-7912.1000193 Albert, I. (2001). Introduction to Third-Party Intervention in Community Conflicts. Ibadan: Peaceful Transformation Forums/John Archers Publishers Limited. Boutros-Ghali, Boutros. (1995). An Agenda for Peace. New York: United Nations. Christians, C. G., Ferré, J. P., & Fackler, P. M. (1993). Good news: Social ethics and the press. New York: Oxford University Press. Demarest, L., & Langer, A. (2018). Peace journalism on a shoestring? Conflict reporting in Nigeria’s national news media. Journalism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918797611. Development Journalism 1. Retrieved May 31, 2018 from https://www.slideshare.net/33534894/development-journalism-1-16976474 Ezeobe, K. O. (2012). Strategies for Interpreting Peace Education into Social Studies Curriculum for Junior Secondary Schools in Nigeria. Africa Research Review: International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia, 6(3). 218-231. Galtung, J. & Fischer, D. (2013) High road, low road: Charting the course for peace journalism. In: Galtung J (ed.) Johan Galtung: Pioneer of Peace Research (SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice), vol. 5. Berlin: Springer, pp. 95–102. Galtung, J. (1969). "Violence, Peace and Peace Research”. Journal of Peace Research, 3, 145-156. Haugerudbraaten, H. (1998). Peacebuilding: Six Dimensions and Two Concepts. Institute for Security Studies. Available at: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/7No6/Peacebuilding.html. International Alert. (1996). Resource Pack for Conflict Transformation. In: Schmid, A. P. (2000). Thesaurus and Glossary of Early Warning and Conflict Prevention Terms (Abridged Version). London: FEWER, pp. 19. Jacob U. J. (2016). Report of Peace Journalism Nigeria Workshop. American University of Nigeria. Available from the Peace Journalists Network website: www.peacenetwork.org.ng Lederach, J. P. (1997). Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press. Lynch, J. & Galtung, J. (2010). Reporting conflict: New directions in peace journalism. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. Lynch, J., & McGoldrick, A. (2005). Peace journalism. Stroud: Hawthorn Press. McGoldrick, A., (2000). Peace journalism. An introduction. In Friedrich-Ebert-shifting (ed). The Media in conflict-accomplices or mediator? Bonn. FCS, 19-24 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Maiese, M. (2003). "Peacebuilding." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Retrieved from http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/peacebuilding Mitchell, C.R. (1981). The Structure of International Conflict. In Peleg, Samuel. (2006). Peace Journalism Through the Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice. Conflict & Communication Online, 5(2), 99-123. Morris, C. (2000). What is Peacebuilding? One Definition. Retrieved July 20, 2016 from http://www.peacemakers.ca/publications/peacebuildingdefinition.html

Mutasa, I. (2015). Community media and peace building in post-conflict Rwanda. Masters Thesis, Faculty of Culture and Society, Malmo University, Sweden. Ogan, C. L. (1980) Development Journalism/Communication: The Status of the Concept. Paper presented_ at the Annual- Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism (Oido Boston, MA, August 9- 13, 1980). Peleg, S. (2006). Peace Journalism Through the Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice. Conflict & Communication Online, 5(2), 210-243. Reychler, L. (2001). From Conflict to Sustainable Peacebuilding: Concepts and Analytical Tools, in Peacebuilding: A Field Guide, Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, Eds. (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.), 12. What is Developmental Journalism? (2014). Retrieved May 31, 2018 from http://filmsforliberation.com/Fillfullarticle.aspx?Article=240 46

Willard, O. (2016). Unit 2 . 1 Definition of Development Journalism. Retrieved may 31, 2018 from https://prezi.com/r5a1l5_s8eri/unit-2-1-definition-of-development-journalism/

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NOT COMMON BEING, BUT BEING-IN-COMMON: CULTURAL DIVERSITY, COEXISTENCE AND TOLERANCE INITIATIVES IN THE UAE

Taleb Bilal Eli1

Abstract Cultural diversity, Coexistence, mutual understanding and tolerance are among the major concerns of United Arab Emirates and its leaders in 2019. Significantly, the declaration of the Year of Tolerance, the historical visit of Pope Francis, the construction of the first Hindu Temple, the naming of the tolerance Bridge, the re-naming of the Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Mosque to the Mother of Jesus Mosque along with many other initiatives made the UAE not only an example for the world to follow in promoting tolerance, but rather a global capital for tolerance in which individuals` sense of belongings, cultural and religious identities are overtly celebrated. Furthermore, the nation`s vibrant economy and the visions of its leaders have generated a secure, diverse, tolerant, inclusive, safe and welcoming environment. This latter has made the UAE an arable soil, a common ground and more importantly a respectful environment where people`s differences and cultures can be celebrated rather than suppressed. Obviously, promoting and deepening the values of tolerance and co-existence in the UAE is not a new, rather it is an old tradition that the father of the nation—H.H. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan—had started and set its foundations. Specifically, Not Common Being, But Being-in-Common: Cultural Diversity, Coexistence and Tolerance Initiatives in the UAE is an attempt to inspect the tremendous efforts done by the UAE`s government to promote cultural diversity, tolerance and co-existence among cultures through various initiatives. Additionally, this paper takes its major premises from the proposition that the best path to social harmony is to find a common ground amid people`s differences where diversity is seen and respected. Also, the notion of the “other” as accentuated in the Orientalists` discourse will be thoroughly discussed in this paper as attempt to draw an analogy between those Orientalists who saw the future of civilizations as a conflicting one and the initiatives of tolerance taken forward by the government of United Arab Emirates to deepen the values of tolerance and co-existence not an invitation for clash of civilizations. Keywords: diversity, coexistence, tolerance.

Introduction The question of accommodating people with different cultural and religious identities has always been among the major concerns in transnational places like United Arab Emirates. Many scholars, and Joan Wallach Scott is one of them, have argued that in these kind of places a new vision of community should be created where people`s voices amid their differences can be heard. Significantly, the phrase “Not common being, but being-in-common” belongs to Scott who has written very extensively on the questions of integration and cultural diversity. Scott believes that the best path to social harmony is to find a common ground amid people`s differences where diversity is celebrated, rather than suppressed. (Scott, 2005) Since the declaration of 2019 as the Year of Tolerance, United Arab Emirates has shown an enduring tendency towards the values of tolerance and cultural diversity through various initiatives. These initiatives are the real embodiment of the what UAE leaders believe to be the

1 Skyline University College Sharjah, UAE. 48

fundamental principles of promoting cultural diversity, peaceful co-existence and the celebration and acceptance of other people with different cultural backgrounds, nationalities and identities. Specifically, His Highness Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, president of United Arab Emirates and the ruler of Abu Dhabi affirmed that the ‘Year of Tolerance’ is a continuation of the legacy and values of tolerance and co-existence that his late Father Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan instilled in minds of people of the UAE. Additionally, His Highness Sheikh Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice President and Prime Minister of the UAE and Ruler of Dubai, emphasized the importance of having government policies that endorse tolerance and a deep sense of community. He also highlighted the necessity to spread the values of tolerance and co-existence among youth and future generations as a vital instrument for nurturing the culture of tolerance and openness. Furthermore, the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, His Highness Sheikh Mohammad Bin Zayed Al Nahyan added that UAE is a place that values tolerance, co-existence and openness to other cultures. His Highness Sheikh Mohammad Bin Zayed Al Nahyan believed that Sheikh Zayed, the father of the nation, had established and set the foundation of tolerance, co-existence, cooperation and the acceptance of the people regardless their cultural differences, mores and religion. Having tried to sketch out some of the views and thoughts of the decision makers in UAE in relation to the Year of Tolerance, the rest of the paper will be given to the main pillars of the Year of Tolerance as well as the other initiatives to promote tolerance in UAE. The paper will extend the discussion to include some other landmarks that I believe will have a tremendous effect when it comes to tolerance and cultural diversity such as Dubai Global Village. Promoting Tolerance in United Arab Emirates Obviously, promoting tolerance in the UAE is not a new, rather it is an old tradition that the father of the nation—H.H. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan—has started and set its foundations. In one of his bewitching and stunning quotes on tolerance and inclusion which appeared in the inspirational book entitled The Father of Our Nation published in 2017, Sheikh Zayed added that “To treat every person, no matter what his creed or race, as a special soul, is a mark of Islam.” Sheikh Zayed`s words had laid the foundations of the nation`s strategies of inclusion and the acceptance of other people regardless their culture, race and religions. (Al Tayer, 2017, P. 20) Year of Tolerance

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The first initiative of tolerance was the declation of 2019 as the Year of Tolerance. The declaration was announced on 15th of December 2018. The declation was meant to highlight UAE as a respectful environment and bridge of communication between people from different backgrounds and by and large a global capital for tolerance that condemns any sort of disrespect of other people on the basis of race, religion and culture. Specifically, the Year of Tolerance takes it major premises from the below pillars:

Pillars of Tolerance to deepen the values of tolerance and co-existence among cultures by teaching the youth the values of tolerance. to solidify the UAE as the global capital for tolerance through a series of initiatives, projects and dialogues between various cultures and civilizations. to implement multiple cultural programs and make contributions to build tolerant communities. to focus on legislative and policy-oriented objectives that contribute to mandating cultural and religious tolerance via dialogue. to promote tolerance through targeted media initiatives and projects.

One of the major concerns of the Year of Tolerance is to boost the value of tolerance and co-existence through various initiatives and projects that foster dialogue between cultures and civilizations. This can be clearly seen through the following picture that shows a parade in Dubai to support tolerance initiatives:

Figure 1: Group of people in parade in Dubai with banners on which the following phrase is written: “Tolerance unites us.” The above picture is a clear manifestation to solidify the UAE`s image as a global capital of tolerance through the solidarity of its expatriates and their sense of belonging. Additionally,

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there are many other national programs done at universities, schools and communities levels in support of tolerance and co-existence. Zayed`s Pledge of Tolerance as well as the logo of Year of Tolerance are two significant indicators of the efforts done by the UAE`s government to promote tolerance. Below is the pledge of tolerance that Sheikh Abdullah bin Zayed, the Minster of Foreign Affairs has urged everyone to take. The pledge is an attempt to consolidate the values of co-existence established by the Father of the nation, Sheikh Zayed:

The Pledge I pledge to uphold the duty of tolerance I pledge to take a first stand against hate and injustice I pledge to respect and accept people whose abilities, beliefs and culture are different from my own I pledge to wish for others what I wish for myself I pledge to live in harmony with my community I pledge to always be open to dialogue and forgiveness I pledge to do my part to create peace for all I pledge to exercise benevolence and choose kindness in all my dealings with my community I pledge to always stand up for these values: Zayed's values for tolerance and human fraternity. (The National, 19th March)

Pope Francis`s Visit Another stunning gesture that will surely deepen the values of tolerance and co-existence is the historical visit of Pope Francis. The visit can be theorized as a deconstruction of the Orientalists` views particularly their prediction of the future of civilizations as a conflicting one. No doubt that the below picture is a historical one when it comes to interfaith dialogues, tolerance and co-existence:

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Figure 2: Pope Francis holding a historical public mass in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates at Zayed Sports City. The visit is meant to deepen UAE and its leaders` vision of tolerance through the first ever papal visit to the Gulf where Islam was born. The visit was on the 5th of February which marked a historical millstone in achieving peace, acceptance others and dialogue of cultures and civilizations. In his speech address, the pope affirmed very strongly the need for openness to other beliefs. He added: “I look forward to societies where people of different beliefs have the same right of citizenship and where only in the case of violence in any of its forms is that right removed”. (Moukhallati & Catherine, 2019) Another millstone of tolerance that has been achieved during the Pope visit is a memorandum of understanding that the Pope and Sheikh Ahmed Al-Tayeb, the Iman of Al- Azhar signed. The crux of this document is on human fraternity and peace. It was seen by the Pope as an important step toward dialogue between Christians and Muslims. Additionally, Abu Dhabi Crown Prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al-Nahyan gave orders to construct the Abrahamic family House in Abu Dhabi as a gesture of co-existence and more importantly to commemorate the historical visit of the pope as well as Sheikh Ahmed Al-Tayeb. Consequently, Pope Francis`s historical visit can be used against Samuel Huntington (1996) who sees the future of civilizations as a conflicting one. He said: “The most important conflicts of the future will occur along the cultural fault lines separating these civilizations from one another”. Huntington disseminated that the future conflicts will be characterized by what he labeled the fault lines or differences in civilizations. Here one can argue that he wanted to eliminate completely the idea of space or geography that has a lot to do with nations and their civilizations. Huntington did not take into account the idea that separating civilizations will recognize their differences and therefore civilizations should learn how to exist. (Taylor, 2008) Most significantly, what is surprising in Huntington’s book— The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order— is the fact that he recognized the idea of difference in civilizations and kept prophesizing the clashes. As a result, one may venture to say that Huntington’s thesis statement is a fault one, unless he is talking about the manufacturing of the fault lines; that is to say, there is manipulation of those differences that make civilizations differ from one another. In one way, if civilizations differ from one another as Huntington stated, they should work and make use of the fault lines and learn how to coexist and live together in peace.

The construction of the first Hindu Temple in UAE

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The construction of the first Hindu Temple in UAE is another new landmark that will enhance the values of tolerance and co-existence in United Arab Emirates. The plan is already proved by the government of Abu Dhabi and the construction is expected to complete in 2020. The land where the Temple will be built was granted to the Hindu community in the UAE by Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed, Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces. Below is a shot of the Temple:

Figure 3: The first Hindu Temple in UAE. The Temple will have seven towers, each of them represents one of the Emirates of the UAE. Naming and Other Initiatives to Promote Tolerance Seemingly, the necessity to deepen the values of tolerance and co-existence is a long traditional in the UAE. Apart from the Year of Tolerance and its focus and pillars, there are other great initiatives which have been taken forward by the government of the UAE. These initiatives encompass:

Tolerance Bridge Mariam Umm Eisa Mosque (Mary, Mother of Jesus Mosque) Minister of Tolerance Using the term ‘tolerance’ in the names of places has some implications. Thus, Tolerance Bridge was coined by H. H. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid in 2017. The naming reflects tolerance as an important value in the mindset of the UAE government and the community at large where more than 200 nationalities live in a harmonious environment. Additionally, renaming the Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Mosque in Al Mushrif, Abu Dhabi, to Mariam Umm Eisa Mosque is another practical application of the principle of tolerance. This emanates from the fact that H. H. Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Abu Dhabi Crown Prince and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces who

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gave the order to rename the Mosque believes that tolerance is a virtue and an intrinsic part of the Islamic values and culture. Furthermore, the creation of a new post in 2016 under the Minister of State for Tolerance can be seen as another landmark to boost the values of tolerance. This was due to a structural change in the 12th Cabinet as an attempt to strengthen the UAE's commitment to eradicate ideological, cultural and religious bigotry in the society. Sheikha Lubna Al Qasimi was the first the Minister of State for Tolerance. Later, certain changes happened again in terms of the Cabinet in 2017 and His Excellency Sheikh Nahyan bin Mubarak Al Nahyan was appointed as a Cabinet member and the Minister of Tolerance in the UAE.

Dubai Global Village: Cultural Diversity, Tolerance and Belonging Dubai Global Village can be seen as a transnational home that accommodates people from different places, cultures and religions. The transnational home can be viewed as an amalgam of different things. It`s a place and space where the individual remains attached and connected to his/her country of origin; while at the same time residing and settling in a new country. For instance, the global village in Dubai—as far as my opinion is concerned—can be seen as an embodiment of the transnational home and an emblem of the cultural belongings. Here, I don`t look at global village from a touristic, leisure, shopping and entertainment perspective; but rather from a cultural viewpoint where the expatriates` sense of belongings, original homes and cultural identities are celebrated in a transnational manner. Apparently, what lays the foundation of the transnational home is the nation`s welcoming and enriching environment along with an enduring propensity of adoption shown by the expats to relocate themselves in this transnational space. (Taleb, 2017) The below shots are juxtaposed to support this point:

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Figure 4: The shot on the right is displayed in Dubai Global Village while the shot on the left is a picture of Dubai global village. The shot on the right is a clear manifestation of cultural diversity. The caption of the shot on the right says “Explore a World of Cultures”. The intended meaning of the picture is the cultural encounters, diversity coexistence, exploring other culture and unity. Consequently, the East—as used in postcolonial and Orientalists` discourses—in this manner becomes a place of cultural encounters and tolerance not the traditional Orientalists` imaginations. The idea that the East is a mysterious, not welcoming place, a place that lacks openness was falsified and debunked by the extraordinary initiatives done by the UAE government to deepen the values of tolerance and co-existence. (Said 1978)

Conclusion It becomes crystal clear that tremendous efforts have been made by the UAE`s government to promote cultural diversity, tolerance and co-existence. These efforts have been clearly seen through the initiatives taken forward by the government such as the declaration of the Year of Tolerance, the historical visit of Pope Francis, the construction of the first Hindu Temple, the naming of the tolerance Bridge, renaming of the Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Mosque to Mary, Mother of Jesus Mosque and the creation of a new post in 2016 under the Minister of State for Tolerance, to mention but a few. All these initiatives and other landmarks will surely deepen the values of tolerance and co-existence and more importantly make UAE a model and capital of tolerance. Dubai global Village can also be seen as a landmark of cultural diversity and an icon of cultural connectivity and belonging. This comes from the fact that it creates a sense of belonging through the exposure of the cultural heritage of nations. Cultural events and performances being held at Global Village reinforce the notion of cultural belonging and may in turn lead to tolerance and co-existence.

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References Aaron, T. (2008). Islam, The West, and Tolerance. Conceiving Coexistence. Macmillan: Palgrave. Dana M. & Catherine M. (2019). Pope Francis holds historic public mass in UAE, AFP February 5, 2019. Retrieved, 1st May, 2019 from : https://boksburgadvertiser.co.za/afp/582718/pope-francis-holds-historic- public-mass-in-uae/ Edward S. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books. Joan, W. S. (2007). The Politics of the Veil. United States: Princeton University Press. Lauvre Abu Dhabi website: https://www.louvreabudhabi.ae/en Rashid F. (2017). Types of Tourism an Overview. Retrieved, march 20, 2018, from: https://rashidfaridi.com/2017/03/21/relationship-between-culture-and-tourism-is-increasing/ Samuel, H. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Touchstone. Taleb E. (2017). UAE as a Transnational Home. Forbes Middle East, 65. UAE Residents Urged To Take the Zayed Tolerance Pledge, The National, March 19 2019, Retrieved 1st May, 2019: https://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/uae-residents-urged-to-take-the-zayed-tolerance- pledge-1.838493.

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STRATEGIES TO MEET STUDENTS’ NEEDS TO WRITE FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

Benketaf, Hafid1

Abstract Throughout their graduation and post-graduation studies, the students of English are required to write exposés, reports, dissertations, and articles in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters or Doctorate. Today, within the LMD (Licence-Master-Doctorate) system in Algeria, the students are required to be more involved in research activities and academic writings. Therefore, the purpose of this Article is to provide practical and efficient strategies for the students to be able to write their aforementioned academic assignments. It also aims at initiating debate on the teaching of written expression, preparing the students to write for academic purposes, and initiating and encouraging them to step in the vast domain of creative writing. The study is based on the evaluation of the students’ essays and dissertations that they elaborated in their semestral exams and Master studies. The research methodology in this study is constructed on gathering quantitative data in the form of dissertations and exam scripts to add qualitative dimensions, and personal records of teaching written expression and academic writing at Tahri Mohamed University in Bechar, Algeria. The findings highlight the importance and the effectiveness of implementing the adequate strategies especially: paragraph structuring - paragraph outlining - paragraph summarising - paragraph expanding, that the students must master in order to produce quality researches. The main implication of applying writing strategies is to enable the students to write without resorting to plagiarism. Keywords: Academic Writing – Writing Strategies – Academic Research – Text Summarising – Notes Expanding – Plagiarism.

Introduction

University students of English are required to produce researches within the LMD system in Algeria, which creates an embarrassing situation for both the supervisors and the students. The lack of reading and writing strategies pushes the students to resort to plagiarism in order to finish their dissertation and get their diplomas. The teachers complain about their students’ incapacity to produce quality pieces of writing without “Copy-Paste” technique obliging them to do more efforts to orient and correct, and even participate in the elaboration of their students’ academic works they supervise. The students should not be the only ones to be blamed for such situation because we can expect battlefield exploits from badly trained and poorly equipped soldiers. Therefore, it is primordial to teach and train the students to write academic researches and abandon the trial and error method that consumes the efforts and time vainly during research process writing. This article proposes writing strategies that proved to be effective for Master’s students of Language and Culture specialty at Tahri Mohamed University in Bechar, Algeria,

1 Tahri Mohamed University, Algeria.

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which the author developed throughout his career in teaching English. It focuses essentially on the summarising techniques that the students must master before starting their researches in order to face the huge amount of information that they will find in books, articles, and on the net.

Summarising Techniques to Write for Academic Purposes

A summary is an important skill in academic writing that must be mastered because it enables the researches to extract the most important points and ideas in a text and then write them in their own words. A good summary is always a condensed and shortened version of the original text, and is a proof that the student understood the text clearly. Therefore, training the students to write summaries develops in them the capacity to decipher a text as regards its form and content. The basic training to summarise a text includes: changing a verb into a noun, changing adverbs to adjectives, breaking up long sentences into shorter sentences, and joining short sentences together with linking words. This involves the selection of the main ideas from the original text, the rejection of unnecessary information, and the substitution of text sentences by other produced by the students. In written expression module, the students learn the procedures whether mental or technical to control their written production. These procedures are known as writing strategies that are intentional focused ways of thinking about writing to take different forms. Writing combines many complex activities including among others: “categorizing, building key terms and concepts for a subject, measuring one's reaction to a subject, making new connections, abstracting, figuring out significance, and developing arguments...”(Bean John C. 2001. P.17) Therefore, the writing phase is mostly devoted to summarising strategies with a brief note on text expanding technique. These strategies enable the students to summarise a text by adopting one of the following techniques: summarising using the topic sentences or summarising using the keywords in all text sentences. Summarising using just the topic sentences of a long text enables the students to get straightforward and in a short time to the main ideas debated. The students can spot the relationship between the ideas, their order, and emphasis. They practice this technique in class by writing down the topic sentences of a text to combine them into one paragraph that encompasses the main ideas of the text. Then, it becomes easy to construct a paragraph using just the topic sentences by adding connectors where necessary, eliminating any repetition, and checking grammar and punctuation. 58

The evaluation of this technique was undertaken by collecting notes from the students in which they express their opinions. At the beginning, the technique was found easy as regards the procedure, but 95% found it difficult when constructing the paragraph using the topic sentences. This is evident because they needed much practice through text study in class and at home under the supervision of the teacher. Using instructional scaffolding methods in the teaching of writing for academic purposes means that the teacher supplies his students with the needed assistance and support through cues, targeted and pertinent information, guided activities, and questions. This helps the teacher to bridge a learning gap between what the students know and what they can do (Gillies and Boyle, 2005, p.252). Scaffolding the students for the purpose of writing for academic purposes requires from the teacher to select simple text related to the specialty, and simplify the language and the activities. Then, gradually, the scaffold is removed to leave the students do the work independently. In this way, the students are given a clear direction to avoid confusion concerning the steps to follow to solve the problems that they would face while writing for academic purposes. Teaching writing for academic purposes follows clear and determined stages that the students go through before starting the elaboration of their dissertations and research works, which can be enumerated as follows:  Study the form and content of a text  Summarizing a text using the topic sentences  Summarising a text using the keywords

Form and Content Study of a text

The purpose of teaching the students how to study the form and content of a text is to spare them the confusion that the ideas debated in a text would create in their minds. Dealing with the form of a text is a step intended to change the students’ reading habits of scientific texts. The students read without interruptions or pauses to process what has been read, which is possible in reading stories but not in reading political, economic, or historical texts. Therefore, the key is to make them change this habit by teaching them to read sentence by sentence i.e., they move to the next sentence only when the first is analysed and understood clearly. Studying the form of a text, which contains a number of paragraph, starts with spotting the topic sentence in each paragraph, the supporting sentences, the linking sentences, and the

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concluding sentences. This makes the students aware of the structure of the paragraphs and that everything is written with a purpose. The next stage after dealing with the form of a text is to teach the students how to analyse its content. In the first session of each promotion a test is given to the students in the form of text analysis, and it revealed that 100% of the students have the habit to read the whole text then through their understanding they attempt to write a summary, which is impossible to do. It was found that 60% of the 24 students under study gave just scraps of the ideas developed mainly those in the last paragraph because it was the last to be read, and when they realised their mistake they asked to read the text again. 28% of the students were very far from what was developed in the text, and 12 % declared that they could not write a summary. The aim of this test is to draw the students’ attention on the difficulty of scientific texts, and on the fact that it is difficult to decipher the message that a text conveys without the appropriate strategies that enable them to find the ingredients necessary for writing the summary of the text. The strategies advocated in this perspective are: 1. Concentrating on the topic sentences to find the main ideas developed in the text. 2. Studying each sentence by highlighting the keywords that hold the meaning. 3. Determining the link between the sentences through the keywords. To undertake this task effectively, the students are trained to answer the following questions:

1. What are the ideas developed in the topic sentences of the text? 2. What are the keywords in the topic sentences that hold the ideas? 3. How does the writer support or oppose such ideas in the next sentences. Through the keywords? 4. How does the writer move from one paragraph to the next through the linking sentences? 5. How does the writer conclude his text? Answering these questions helps the students greatly since it provides a plan of study to follow, which spares them time, efforts, and confusion. Answering the first question provides for the students the shortest way to get to the general and main ideas that a text develops. The next step is to spot the keywords in the topic sentence of each paragraph that the writer supports or opposes in the supporting sentences. Determining the keywords in the topic sentence and in the supporting sentences helps answering the second and third questions, which enables the students draw a scheme to link up the ideas in the paragraph. Unfortunately, 100% of the students under study did not know the role of the last sentence in the paragraphs, which means 60

that no one could answer the fourth question. The task of the teacher is to train the students to read the last sentence as a linking sentence that the writer uses to move to the next paragraph and create a chain of ideas in his text. The construction of the linking sentence is very important since it is composed of two parts: the first is related to the paragraph it belong to, and the second to the next paragraph. The students are trained to determine this through the spotting of the keywords in the linking sentences in reference to those in the topic sentences in the following paragraphs. The mastering of the aforementioned strategies enables the students to find the essential ingredients to write the summary of the text. It was found that 90 % of the students under study could not write a summary directly after their reading of the text. They were obliged to go frequently back to the text to read and take ideas to be used in their summaries, which were just a repetition of the text, and in cases a massacre of the text. 7% of the students used the read- think-write technique which was risky since they produced unfaithful summaries of the text. The last 3% of the students abandoned and could not write a summary. Therefore, it was necessary to lead and show the students the right strategies to do a summary of a text. Understanding and Summarising Using the Topic Sentences and Text Keywords

It is evident that the scientific nature of the text, the ideas debated, the concepts and terms used, and the style of the writer pose serious challenges for the students that they cannot take up. The solution is to oblige the students to summarise using text keywords that they have to write down from each sentence so as not to return back to the text. Dealing with words that hold the meaning of the sentences helps them greatly to construct their own sentences, which they can combine and shorten at will to reach final and satisfactory sentences. The study of the following text1 demonstrates what has been advocated so far.

1 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Higher Education.” Publisher: Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Access Date: July 16, 2019. URL:https://www.britannica.com/topic/higher-education 61

Higher Education

Both France and Germany have systems of higher education that are basically administered by state agencies. Entrance requirements for students are also similar in both countries. In France, an examination called the baccalauréat is given at the end of

secondary education. Higher education in France is free and open to all students who have passed this examination. A passing mark admits students to a preparatory first year at a

university, which terminates in another, more rigorous examination. Success in this

examination allows students to attend universities for another three or four years until they have attained the first university degree, called a licence in France. Basic differences, however, distinguish these two countries’ systems. French

educational districts, called académies, are under the direction of a rector, an appointee of the national government who also is in charge of the university in each district. The

uniformity in curriculum throughout the country leaves each university with little to

distinguish itself. Hence, many students prefer to go to Paris, where there are better accommodations and more cultural amenities for students. Another difference is the existence in France of higher-educational institutions known as grandes écoles, which

provide advanced professional and technical training. Most of these schools are not affiliated with the universities, although they too recruit their students by giving

competitive examinations to candidates who possess a baccalauréat. The various grandes

écoles provide a rigorous training in all branches of applied science and technology, and their diplomas have a somewhat higher standing than that of the ordinary licence. In Germany, a country made up of what were once strong principalities, the regional

universities have autonomy in determining their curriculum under the direction of rectors elected from within. Students in Germany change universities according to their interests

and the strengths of each university. In fact, it is a custom for students to attend two, three,

or even four different universities in the course of their undergraduate studies, and the majority of professors at a particular university may have taught in four or five others. This markedUnderstanding degree of mobilitand Summarisingy means that the schemes Text Using of study the Topic and examination Sentences are marked by a freedomWhen andputting individuality the topic unknownsentences inof France.the three paragraphs together, it becomes clear that the writer deals with the topic of higher education in France and Germany. It is possible to state in other words that the writer deals with higher education in France and Germany highlighting the similarities and differences especially in the administration of both systems. This strategy

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enables the students to understand the general idea of the text through the topic sentences easily and in a very short time.

TS1: Both France and Germany have systems of higher education that are basically

administered by state agencies.

TS2. Basic differences, however, distinguish these two countries’ systems. French educational districts, called académies, are under the direction of a rector, an

appointee of the national government who also is in charge of the university in each district.

TS3. In Germany, a country made up of what were once strong principalities, the

regional universities have autonomy in determining their curriculum under the direction of rectors elected from within.

The purpose of listing the keywords of the topic sentences is the solution to the problem of reading without understanding that the students complain about. This technique helps them to construct their own sentences using words without resorting to the text. The following is a listing of the keywords in each topic sentence and an attempt to combine them into one sentence. TS1: France – Germany – systems of higher education – administered – state agencies  The French and German systems of higher education are administered by state agencies TS2: Differences- French – educational districts - academies – rector – appointed – national government  The French educational districts or academies are administered by a government appointed rector. TS3: Germany – regional universities – autonomy – curriculum – rectors elected  The German regional universities have the autonomy to design the curriculum, and are managed by an elected rector.

Combining the Three Topic Sentences

Although the French and German systems of higher education are both administered by state agencies, they differ in many respects especially that the French academies are managed by government appointed rectors, which is not found

in Germany since the rectors are elected and the regional universities are autonomous in curriculum design. 63

Summarising Using Text Keywords Spotting the Keywords in the three topic sentences helps greatly to determine further ideas and aspects of each system of higher education in the supporting sentences. For further study of the paragraphs, the students move to the supporting sentences (SS) to pick out the keywords that support those of the topic sentences.

 Study of Paragraph One

Keywords in the First Paragraph

France - Germany - higher education - administered - state Topic Sentence (TS) agencies

Supporting Sentence 1 Entrance requirements - similar

Supporting Sentence 2 France – baccalauréat

Supporting Sentence 3 Higher education - France - free and open

Students - preparatory first year - terminates - rigorous Supporting Sentence 4 examination.

Supporting Sentence 5 Success – students - universities - three or four years – licence

At this stage of text analysis, 83% of the students could write their own sentences with certain deficiencies related to grammar, sentence structure, and style. 11% declared that they had to go back to the text for further reading and guidance. The first attempt to rewrite the keywords into personal sentences is as follows: T S: In France and Germany, higher education is administered by state agencies. SS1: Entrance requirements to higher education are the same in both countries. SS2: In France, the baccalaureate is a requirement to access higher education. SS3: Higher education in France is free and open to all baccalaureate holders. SS4: The students undergo a preparatory first year that ends with rigorous examination. SS5: The successful students continue their studies for three or four years to obtain their licence degree.

The advantage in going through these stages is to enable the students to become independent from the source text. It is also primordial for the students to get pleasure and self

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confidence by manipulating the text and formulating their own sentences and combining them in their own words. The first version of combining the sentences of the first paragraph would be as follows:

Combining the Sentences TS+SS1: The similarity between the French and German systems of higher education lies in their administration by the government, and that they impose the same entrance requirements. SS2+SS3+SS4+SS5 : The French higher education system is free and open to all baccalaureate holders, who have to succeed in their preparatory first year as a condition to continue their studies to get their licence after three or four academic years.

 Study of Paragraph Two Keywords in the Second Paragraph

Topic Sentence (TS) Differences - two countries’ systems

Supporting Sentence 1 French – districts : Academies – Rector – appointed – government

Supporting Sentence 2 France : uniformity in curriculum

Supporting Sentence 3 students – prefer- Paris - better accommodations - more cultural amenities

Supporting Sentence 4 Paris : higher-educational institutions (grandes écoles) - advanced professional and technical training

Supporting Sentence 5 schools - not affiliated with the universities

Supporting Sentence 6 The grandes écoles - rigorous training - applied science and technology, - diplomas - higher standing than licence.

TS: However, there are still differences between the French and the German systems of higher education. SS1: The French academies are administered by a rector appointed by the government. SS2: The uniformity of curriculum is one of the major characteristics of the French higher education. SS3: Therefore, the students prefer studying in Paris because it provides better accommodations and cultural amenities. SS4: In addition, Paris provides higher-educational institutions (grandes écoles) that enable the students to follow advanced professional and technical training. SS5: Such institutions or schools are not affiliated with the universities. SS6: The schools impose on the students a rigorous training in applied science and technology to obtain diplomas considered to be of higher standing than the licence.

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Combining the Sentences

TS+SS1+SS2: Unlike the German system, the French government appoints the rectors of the universities and designs a uniform curriculum. SS3+SS4: Therefore, the students prefer to study in Paris because it provides accommodations and cultural amenities, and enables them to follow advanced professional and technical training in the existing educational institutions (grandes écoles), which are not affiliated with the universities. SS5+S6: Such educational institutions impose on the students a rigorous training in applied science and technology to obtain diplomas considered to be of higher standing than the licence.

 Study of Paragraph Three

Keywords in the Third Paragraph

Topic Sentence (TS) Germany - regional universities - autonomy : curriculum - the direction of rectors - elected Supporting Sentence 1 Students - change universities - interests - strengths of each university

Supporting Sentence 2 Students - attend - different universities - professors - taught in four or five others

Supporting Sentence 3 mobility - study and examination - freedom and individuality

TS: On the other hand, the German system gives more curriculum autonomy to the universities that are administered by elected rectors. SS1: Therefore, the students have the freedom to follow their studies in the universities of their choice (based on their interests and the educational level.) SS2: The students study in more than one university, which is the same with the teachers that can teach in different universities. SS3: The mobility of the students means that their studies and examinations are characterised by freedom and individuality

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Combining the Sentences TS+SS1: Since the German universities are administered by elected rectors and have autonomy in the design of the curriculum the students are free to follow their studies in the universities of their choice. SS2+SS3: The autonomy and freedom in the German higher education system enables the teachers to teach in different universities, and the students to study in more than one, which gives them the possibility to individualise their studies and examinations.

Summarising the Text Using the Combined Sentences

Further summarisation of the text in the form of paraphrasing or combing ideas can be realised until a satisfactory version is attained. When summarising is undertaken successfully, footnotes are added for the sake of the writer’s intellectual property. On the other hand, information that are pertinent to the research may require more details. In this case, expanding text data is used to deepen the analysis of the subject of study. The summary of the text is as follows:

The similarity between the French and German systems of higher education lies in their administration by the government, and that they impose the same entrance requirements. The French higher education system is free and open to all holders of the baccalaureate that have to succeed in their preparatory first year as a condition to continue their studies to get their licence after three or four years. Unlike the German system, the French government appoints the rectors of the universities and designs a uniform curriculum. Therefore, the students prefer to study in Paris because it provides accommodations and cultural amenities, and enables them to follow advanced professional and technical training in the existing educational institutions (grandes écoles) that are not affiliated with the universities. Such educational institutions impose on the students a rigorous training in applied science and technology to obtain diplomas considered to be of higher standing than the licence. On the other hand, the German universities are administered by elected rectors and have autonomy in the design of the curriculum enabling the teachers to teach in different universities, and the students to study in more than one, which provides them with the possibility to individualise their studies and examinations.

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Conclusion

The advanced ideas in this article grew out of the authors’ experience in the teaching of English to university students, and supervising Master’s dissertations whether in civilisation, history, and didactics. The writing strategies provided in this article are destined to the students that write research papers for the first time whether graduates or post-graduates. The mastery of the writing techniques such as summarising, expanding, and paraphrasing are more than necessary to write for academic purposes, and at the same time avoid plagiarism. The task here is to push the students to think about the different steps that they go through while writing to produce quality researches. In short, this implies that the level and quality of the academic researches and dissertations reveals our success or failure.

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References Bean, John C. (2001). Engaging Ideas: The Professor's Guide to integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gillies R., and Boyle M. (2005). “Teachers’ Scaffolding Behaviors during cooperative Learning.” In: Asian Pacific Journal of Teacher Education. N° 33. PP. 243-259. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Higher Education.” Publisher: Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Access Date: July 16, 2019. URL:https://www.britannica.com/topic/higher-education.

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KARABAĞ FOLKLORUNDA İLK TÜRLERİN OLUŞMASI ÜZERİNE BAZI NOTLAR Sönmez Abbaslı1

Karabağ Folklorunda Efsunlar İnsanların yabani hayvanları ve doğal güçleri etkilemek için kelime gücüne baş vurması, folklor adı verilen bir türün ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Farsça efsun sözünden türetilen bu kelime, sihir, büyü anlamına gelir. Efsunların yapımında kelime çok önemli olduğu için buradaki kelimeler araştırılır ve etkili olan kelimeler kullanılır. Tanınmış araştırmacı B.Abdulla efsunları, ilkel görüşle ilişkin olarak folklor hayalinin sihir ve efsanevi eylemlerine benzemektedir. (Abdulla, 2004: 81) Eski zamanlardan beri, belirli hastalıklara tutulanlar, Ay, Güneş gibi astrolojik birimlerin tutulmasından korkan insanları dua, ocak ile beraber efsunlarla da tedavi ediyorlardı. Karabağ bölgesine ait efsunlar içerik bakımından farklılık gösterir. Örneğin, yürüyemeyen bir çocuğa “çileli çocuk” denir. Onun çilesinin dökülmesi gerekir. Bu nedenle, çocuğu taşın, kayanın deliğinden, değirmen ve böğürtlen bitkisinin etrafında dolandırılır. Çileli çocuğu üç cüme akşamı kalbura konularak tüm evleri dolaştırılır. Her evden ekmek alıp, çobana verilir. (Bu Yurt Baykuşa Kalmaz, 1995: 60) Veya çocuğun korkusunu gidermek için çarşamba günü ersini2 ocağa konularak ısıtılır. Bir kabın içine su konulur. Çocuğun başında, orta tarafında, çocuğun ayak tarafında, ersin suya konulur. Ardından kabın içindeki su alınır ve çocuğun yüzüne sürülür. (Bu Yurt Baykuşa Kalmaz, 1995: 61) Karabağ'dan toplanan efsunlar, aile, maişet yaşamının hemen hemen tüm alanlarını kapsar: Örneğin, gözün tite3 olduğu zaman, 40 tane pirinci su dolu perçinin içine konulur. Hastanın başına siyah örtü örtülür, perçinin suyu başına dökerek denilir: “Mən aşığam sucuğaz, Sudan içdim bucuğaz. Gözündən titə düşsün, Dərmanıdı bucuğaz.”

1 AMEA Folklor Enstitüsü, Azerbaycan.

2 Hamur işlerinde kullanılan alet.

3 Göz bebeğinde bulunan beyaz nokta

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Gözdeki titenin düşmesi için buna üç çarşamba boyunca devam edilir: (Bu Yurt Baykuşa Kalmaz 1995: 61). Ya da duman olduğunda, çocuklar ocaktan köz alıp koşarak şöyle söylerler: “Çən, qaç, qaç, Cəhrə topun yumala qaç. Mən anamın ilkiyəm, Ağzı qara tülküyəm. Mən səni yandırdım, Sən də məni yandır.” (Bu Yurt BaykuşaKalmaz, 1995: 63) Aynı zamanda, kuraklıktan mahsullerin bozulacağından endişe duyan insanlar yağmurun yağması için sihirli kelimeleri kullanmaya başlarlar. Örneklerin birinde, kuraklık sırasında bir kaplumbağayı yakalayarak yüksek bir yerden asılır yada güney tarafda bir yerde bağlarlar ki, yağmur yağsın. (Bu Yurt Baykuşa Klamaz, 1995: 62). Ya da yağmur yağmadığında, bir ineği tarlanın başına bağlarlar. Daha sonra, seyit dua okur, ineği keser, eti oradaca pişirilerek yenilir. Bundan sonra yağmur yağmaya başlar. (Bu Yurt Baykuşa Kalmaz 1995: 63) Sürüden ayrılmış ve geceyi dışarıda geçiren hayvanlar için de belirli efsunlar var. Etkileyici olanı “kurt ağzı” bağlama efsunudur. Bunun için dedelerden bıçak alınır, efsun okunulur: “Ayı gördüm ağladım, Dəsdinə gül bağladım. Həzrət Əlinin bıçağıynan, Fatma nənənin qurşağıynan, Qurdun ağzını bağladım.” Diyerek hemen bıçağı kapatarak yüksek bir yere konulur. O gece hayvanlara hiç bir şey dokunmaz. (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap 2012: 141) Karabağ’dan toplanan efsunları analiz ederken, şöyle bir sonuca varmak mümkündür ki, efsunların her biri belirli durum ve tutumlarla bağlantılı olmuş, ve bunlar bölge için tipiktir. Karabağ Folklorunda Antlar Sözlü geleneğin arkaik türlerinden olan antlar ilkel insanların kutsal olarak kabul etdikleri varlıklarla ilgili inançlar oluşmuş ve kutsal sayılmıştır. Etimolojik bir temele, kökene dayanan bir antın, Azerbaycan halkının belli bir zaman dilimindeki durumu, onun sosyo-ahlaki ve felsefi düşüncesine dayanır. Bu türün ayrıca Karabağ folkloru ortamında kendi düzenlemesi vardır. Karabağ bölgesine ait belirli antlar kendilerini göstermiştir. Yani yerel önem taşıyan antlar inançlarla doğrudan bağlantılı olarak meydana çıkmıştır.

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Tanınmış araştırmacı A. Nebiyev antların oluşumunu şöyle açıklar: “Antlar, insanlar tarafından çeşitli evrim dönemlerinde kutsallaştırdıkları, ibadet ettikleri varlıklar, itikat ettikleri nesne ve canlılar tarafından ortaya çıkmıştır.” (Nebiyev, 2006: 317) Bir diğer değerli halkbilimci B.Abdulla antların iki şekilde oluştuğunu belirterek şöyle yazar: Birinci yol, insanların kutsal saydıkları şeylere yemin ederler. Bu tür antlarda bir neviniyet, işi yapmak, bitirmek için iradevi bir yargı olduğu söylenilir. İkinci yol, belli bir çalışma, hikaye ile ilgili söylenmiş fikre, söze şüphe ile yaklaştığında söylenenlerin gerçekliğine inandırmak için ant içilir.” (Abdulla, 2004: 84-85) Söylenilenlerden şöyle bir sonuca varılır ki, aslında antların oluşmasında folklor bilim adamlarının dediği gibi birinci yol ana faktör olarak kabul edilir. Bundan sonra, ikinci yol kendiliyinden doğrulanabilir. Karabağ’taki antlarda yerel özelliklerle birlikte, İslami görüşler ve genel Türk unsurları da yansıtılır. Azerbaycan folklor haritasında yer alan “Hazreti Abbas hakkı”, “Allah hakkı”, “Bereket hakkı” vb. gibi yaygın olan antlara tüm bölgelerin folklorunda karşılaşa biliriz. Karabağ folklorunda yer alan antları incelerken, yerel örneklerle karşılaşmak mümkündür. Bu anlamda “Seyit Lazım Ağa`nın ceddi hakkı”, “Seyit Peri'nin ceddi hakkı, “Seyit Usuf Ağa`nın (Yusuf Ağa) ceddi hakkı”, “Mirali Ağa`nın ocağı hakkı” vb. gibi antlar yerel amaç taşır. Karabağ'dan toplanan antların analizi sürecinde daha çok dini mabetlere, İslam kutsallarına, ocaklara ait antlarla da karşılaşıyoruz. Örneğin, “Bu Ali'nin yolu hakkı”, “İmamzadalar hakkı”, “Ocaklar hakkı”. (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, VI kitap, 2013: 390) Karabağ'da nispeten dar, kişisel ilişkileri ifade eden antlar da var. “Almemmed dayının urfu hakkı”, “Atamın üz koyduğu torpak hakkı”, “Bacımın itgin gözleri hakkı”, “Dedemin yaralı kabri hakkı” vb. Eski zamanlardan kutsal sayılan ateş, su, toprak ve gökyüzü ile ilgili antlar Karabağ folklor haritasında yer almıştır. “Gök hakkı”, “Yer hakkı”, “Su hakkı” vb. Karabağ'dan toplanmış antlarda insanların günlük yaşamlarında doğaya, topluma, insanlara olan tutumu yansıtılır. Karabağ Folklorunda Dua Ve Beddualar Eski mitik, iyi ve kötü düşüncelerle ilişkili oluşmuş dua ve beddualar, Karabağ folkloru ortamında çalışma sıklığı açısından önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Bugün, bu türün Karabağ halkı arasında yaygın olmasının nedeni, insanların karşılaşdıkları duruma bağlı oluşan ihtiyaçlarla

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ilgilidir. Bu tür sayesinde insanlar olumsuz ya da olumlu duygularını ifade ederler. Folklor araştırmacısı B.Abdulla, ruhların ilkel dünya görüş sisteminde “iyi” ve “kötü” olarak ikiye ayrıldığını ve dua ve beddualardaki “beyaz” ve “siyah” kelimelerinin aynı ruh isimleri ile ilgili olduğunu belirtir. Araştırmacının sonucuna dayanarak, bu tür ruhların aslında insanları olumlu veya olumsuz anlamda, dua ve beddua söylemeye tahrik eden ruhlar olduğunu söyleye biliriz. (Abdulla, 2004: 90) Karabağ'dan toplanan duaların çoğu, Allah`ın ismiyle ilgili oluşmuştur. Örneğin, “Allah yardım etsin”, “Allah bahtını açsın”, “Allah seni bin dal yapsın” vb. (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, VI kitap, 2013: 391). Örneklerden de anlaşılacağı gibi, insanlar Allah`a dua ederek, en iyi dileklerini ifade ederler. Toplanan örneklerde bereketi ifade eden örnekler de vardır. “Her zaman ruzulu olasan” (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, VI kitap, 2013: 392), “Bostanın tağlı olsun” (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap, 2012: 367), “Sofran bereketli olsun” (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap, 2012: 368), “Semaverin her zaman kaynar olsun, pilavın her zaman buğlu olsun.”(Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap, 2012: 368) Karabağ dualarının bir kısmında uzun ömürlülük ifade edilir. “Dünya durdukça ayakta durasın”, “Çocukların barını yeyesen” (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap, 2012: 367), “Toprağı sanı yaşayasın”. (Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Ttirarih, III kitap, 2012: 368) Duaların bazıları yardım toplantılarında ve düğün törenlerinde kullanılır. “Senin üç erkek, bir kızın olsun”, “Yediyin noğul olsun, doğduğun oğul olsun”(Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap, 2012: 368), “Allah seni min dal yapsın”, “Balan kucağında salamat olsun” vb. Karabağ’dan toplanmış örnekler içerisinde dua manileri de vardır. “Axarlı suyun olsun Arxalı soyun olsun Gəldi-gedər dünyada Qalımlı adın olsun” (Azerbaycan Folkloru Antolojisi, Karabağ Folkloru, V, 2000:183) veya “Kəhər atlı olasan, Yaşa-başa dolasan Koroğlutək əlində Misri qılınc çalasan” (Azerbaycan Folkloru Antolojisi, Karabağ Folkloru, V, 2000:184)

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Genel olarak Azerbaycan özellikli dualarla beraber, tamamen mahalle nitelikte dualar da belirgindir. “Biliyıı itirme, yahşı ol”, “Sinanda ağ tüh bitsin”, “Seni görüm suyun soyuğ olsun, bişmişin de hazır gelsin”(Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, VI kitap, 2013: 392) Gördüğünüz gibi, bu örnekler sadece yerel dualardır. Karabağ dualarında, lehçe, şive ve içerik çarpıcı şekilde kendini gösterir. Karabağ`dan toplanan bedduaların kapsamı geniştir. Kamusal yaşamın her alanında pratik olarak kullanılır. Hem genel Azerbaycan özellikli, hem de yerel özellikli beddualar vardır. “Dilin ağzında kurusun”“Çocukların yetim kalsın”, “Güzel günlere hasret kalasın”, “Ayakların kurusun” vb. bu gibi örnekler Azerbaycan özellikli örneklerdir. Sadece Karabağ'da kullanılan örnekler de vardır.“Boyaa ham ip tutum”, (“Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap, 2012: 369), “Dilaa qıyıh batsın”(Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir, III kitap, 2012: 369), “Misder olasan”(Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihtir,(III, 2012: 371), “Kazancın kar suyuna dönsün”(Karabağ: Folklor Da Bir Tarihitir, III Kitap, 2012: 372) vb. yerel beddualardır. Örnekler içerisinde mani şeklinde olan beddualar da vardır. “Büzmə köynək büzülsün, İncə belin üzülsün. Siftə gedən gecəsi Yardan əlin üzülsün Veya Əzizim yasamalı Xalların yasamalı Məni yardan edənin Tökülsün yasa malı” (Azerbaycan Folkloru Antolojisi Karabağ Folkloru, V, 2000:191) Hem nesir, hem de nazım şeklinde olan beddualarda olumsuz duygu, kin, nefret yer alır.

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Kaynakça Abdulla, B., (2004). Arkaik Folklor Türleri, Azerbaycan Edebiyatı Tarihi, I, Bakü: İlm, s.760 Azerbaycan Folkloru Antalojisi, Karabağ Folkloru, V. (2000). Bakü: Seda, s.416 Bu Yurd Baykuşa Kalmaz, Folklor Örnekleri. (1995). Toplama ve tertibi (M.Kazımoğlu, V.Nebioğlu ve E.Esger), Bakü: Yazıçı, s.240 Karabağ: Folklor da Bir Tarihidir, III kitap (Ağdam, Fuzuli, Cebrayıl, Terter, Gubadlı, Zengilan, Kelbecer, Laçın ve Şuşa bölgelerinden toplanmış folklor örnekleri). (2012). Bakü: İlm ve Tahsil, s.468 Karabağ: Folklor da Bir Tarihdir, VI kitap (Cebrayıl, Kelbecer, Terter bölgelerinden toplanmış folklor örnekleri). (2013). Bakü: “Zerdabi LTD” MMC, s.468 Nebiyev, A. (2006). Azerbaycan Halk Edebiyatı, I, Bakü: İlm, s.685

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THE INFLUENCE OF INSTRUMENT READINESS AND SELF-EFFICACY TOWARDS STUDENTS’ ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS

Hermin Endratno1 Abstract This research is entitled the influence of instrument readiness and self-efficacy towards student entrepreneurial intentions. The objective of this research is to analyze the influence of instrumental readiness and self-efficacy to students’ entrepreneur intention. Respondents in this study were students in Purwokerto City. Analyzer used is multiple regression analysis. Based on data analysis, it is concluded that instrumental readiness and self efficacy have an effect on student entrepreneur intention. It can be suggested that university decision- makers can motivate students through innovative empirical learning, providing information and business networks to improve students' entrepreneurial intentions. Keywords : instrumental readiness, self efficacy, students' entrepreneurial intentions.

Introduction The role of higher educations in motivating their graduates to become young entrepreneurs is very important to grow entrepreneur number. The increase of entrepreneurs from higher educations is expected to reduce number of unemployment and even to escalate the number of jobs. For this reason, the formation of entrepreneurship attitudes during this education level is also essential. The attitude, behaviour and knowledge of students about entrepreneurship will shape them to be able to open new businesses in the future (Indarti and Rostiani, 2008). Kourilsky and Walstad 1998 in Indarti 2008, revealed that the role of entrepreneurship education was considered as one of the factors that could foster interest and entrepreneurial spirit among the younger generation. Researches on entrepreneurial intention is important to conduct. This is because the potential of students during their study at higher education can be used as a reference whether they will become entrepreneurs or become employees. Researches to observe aspects of one's entrepreneurial intentions have received much attention from researchers. Katz and Gartner (1988) in Indarti 2008 interpreted entrepreneurial intentions as a process of finding information that can be used to achieve the goal of forming a business. Thus, someone who has entrepreneurial intentions will have better readiness and progress in a business than someone who does not have it (Indarti & Rostiani, 2008). Indarti and Rostiani (2008) stated that in general, researches on entrepreneurial intentions were conducted by focusing to three different factors, namely: demographic characteristics (gender,

1 Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto, Indonesia. 76

age, educational background, and work experience), personality characteristics (need for achievement and self-efficacy), and environmental characteristics (instrument readiness). There are three approaches that can be used to figure out the factors that influence entrepreneurial intentions among students that have been concern to researchers, namely: demographic factors (gender, age, educational background and work experience), personality factors (the need for achievement and self-efficacy), and environmental factors (instrument readiness). The instrument readiness includes three environmental factors which are believed to influence entrepreneurs, namely their access to capital, information and quality of social networks owned (Indarti, 2008). A research conducted by Agustina (2011) on Javanese ethnicity showed that the variables of self-efficacy, instrument readiness, and academic achievement influence entrepreneurial intentions while work experience do not influence them. For non-Javanese, it is known that readiness of instruments and work experience influence entrepreneurial intentions, while the variable academic achievement and self-efficacy do not affect the entrepreneurial intentions. According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is a person's assessment of one's abilities which is adjusted to the results achieved. A research conducted by Andika and Madjid's (2012), it was found that attitudes, subjective norms and self-efficacy influence entrepreneurial intentions of students at Economics Faculty of Unsyiah. Another finding by Endratno (2014) found that innovativeness, self-confidence, instrumental readiness, self-efficacy influence students' entrepreneurial intentions with respondents (students) from Faculty of Economics-UMP and Economics Faculty- UNSOED. Sarwoko (2011) in his study discovered that the entrepreneurship factor was positively affected by subjective norms and self-efficacy, the higher students’ self- confidence and maturity, the higher the entrepreneurial intention Based on the description above, the researcher is interested in taking the research title The influence of instrument readiness and self-efficacy towards students’ entrepreneurial intentions. This research re-examines the influence of instrumental readiness variables and self- efficacy on student entrepreneurial intentions with changes in the research subjects. Objectives The purpose of this research is to analyse the influence of instrumental readiness and self- efficacy to students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Hypotesis H1: Student readiness instrument has an influence on students’ entrepreneurial intention

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H2 : Self-efficacy influences students’ entrepreneurial intention Theoretical Framework Readiness Instrument Readiness of the instrument are three environmental factors believed to influence entrepreneurs, namely their access to capital, information and quality of social networks owned (Indarti, 2008). 1. Access to Business Capital Capital is a very important factor to start a business. Researches conducted by several researchers such as Marsden, Meier and Pilgrim, Steel in Indarti et al. (2008) stated that difficulties in gaining access to capital, credit schemes and financial system constraints were considered as the main obstacles to business success according to entrepreneur candidates in some developing countries. Kristiansen in Indarti et al. (2008) stated that access to capital was one of the success determinants of a business. According to Indarti et al. (2008) access to capital was a classic obstacle, especially in starting new businesses, at least in developing countries with the support of financial institutions that were not quite strong. Wajeeh, Elali, Badriah Al-Yacoub, (2016) found that access to capital did not significantly influence entrepreneurial intentions. 2. Information Availability The availability of business information is an important factor that drives someone's desire to open a new business. The research conducted by Singh and Krishna in Indarti et al. (2008) in India proves that a strong desire to obtain information is one of the main characteristics of an entrepreneur. 3. Social Network Social networks are defined as the relationship between two people including: (a) Communication or delivery of information from one party to another, (b) Exchange of goods and services from two parties, and (c) Normative content or expectations that a person owned towards others because of special characters or attributes. For entrepreneurs, networking is a tool to reduce risk and transaction costs and improve access to business ideas, information and capital. The same finding was revealed by Kristiansen (2003), he explained that social networks consist of formal and informal relationships between the main and supporting people in a related circle and describe the pathway for entrepreneurs to gain access to the resources needed in the establishment, development and business success. Self-efficacy

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According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is a person's assessment of one's abilities that is adjusted to the results achieved. Whereas according to Woolfolk (2004), it is the belief about personal competence in a special situation. Based on the above understanding, it can be concluded that self-efficacy is a person's assessment of his ability to do tasks with optimal results. A research on self-efficacy by Indarti and Rostiani (2008), entitled Comparative Study among Indonesia, Japan and Norway found that self-efficacy was proved to have a positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions of Indonesian and Norwegian students. This study also found opposing results which was self-efficacy had no significant effect in the context of Japanese students. Another research by Byabashaija et al. (2010), found that self-efficacy had a positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions. Ayodele's research (2013) examined the intentions of Nigerian teenagers' entrepreneurship which found that their self-efficacy had a positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions. A research by Nursito and Nugroho (2013) discovered that self-efficacy had a positive and significant effect on entrepreneurial intentions. Farrukh (2017) found that self-efficacy influenced entrepreneurial intentions. Framework

Instrument

al readines Entrepreneu

rial intension

Self-

efficacy

Methods

a. Research Methods The research method applied in the research was survey through direct observation to the field. The population was all undergraduate students of public and private universities in Purwokerto in 2016. There were some students selected as the sample. The data were analysed by multiple linear regression analysis. The sampling was conducted through Accidental Sampling method; whoever seen and obtained would be selected as the sample (suitable as data source). (Sugiyono, 2003) b. Operational Definition

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a. Entrepreneurial Intention (Y) ) which is a measure of how much students want to become entrepreneurs. The indicator is a large tendency to choose a career as an entrepreneur. The indicator of entrepreneurial intention variable is the career choice of respondents, namely employees or entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurial intention variables are measured by questions adopted from a research by Indarti and Rostiani (2008) including: a. I will choose a career as an entrepreneur. b. I prefer to be an entrepreneur rather than being an employee in a company/organization. Instrumental readiness (X1) is a context where individuals have access to capital, information and social networks. Indicators: a. Access to business capital b. Sosial Network c. Information Access a. Self-efficacy (X2) is an individual assessment on his/her ability to do tasks with optimal results. Indicators: a) leadership skill b) mental maturity c) confidence c. Analysis Method To determine the number of influence on instrumental readiness and self-efficacy on student entrepreneurial intentions, multiple regression analysis was used (Supranto, 2008).

Y = b0+b1X1+ b2X2 + e

Results Respond Rate Questionnaires distributed to the respondents are 232 from five universities (STAIN, UNSOED, UNWIKU, UMP, STIMIK AMIKOM) including 86 and 146 male and female students respectively. According to distributed questionnaire, there are 86 male respondents (37,067%) and 146 female respondent (62,94%). Validity Test

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According to data analysis, it is obtained that all Spearman Rho correlation scores of X and Y variables > 0.138 (Rho spearman, df = (α, n - 2) and all significant levels <= 0.05, therefore it could be concluded that all indicators are valid Reliability Test Results Table 1. Reliability Test

Va Alpha Rho Concl riable Cronbach's Pearson usion Correlation

X1 0.752 0.138 Reliab le

X2 0.735 0.138 Reliab le Y 0.730 0.138 Reliab le Source : Primary data is processed

The reliable indicator is proven by Alpha Cronbach's score of X or Y which is bigger than Rho Pearson Correlation 0.138 (Rho Spearman, df = (α, n- 2). Based on data analysis, it is known that the score of Alpha Cronbach's of all variables > 0.138 (Spearman rho table df = (α - 2), it proved that all variables were reliable. Classic Assumption Test a. Normality test With One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, test distribution is normal. Value of unstandardized residual is 0.508 (> 0.05) a. Multi-colinierity test Value of tolerance and VIF is under 10. So it’s good value. c. Heteroskedastisity test Using One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, value of unstandardized residual is 0.89 and 0.115 (>0.05). It is good value. All data in this research have passed the classical assumption test.

E. An Analysis of Multiple Linear Regression 81

Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Standar t Si Coefficients dized g. Coefficients B Std. Beta Error (Co 7,1 ,00 2,083 ,290 nstant) 76 0 Ave 3,7 ,00 1 ,288 ,077 ,255 rage X1 24 0 Ave 3,4 ,00 ,248 ,072 ,234 rage X2 19 1

a. Dependent Variable: Average Y Source : Primary data is processed Based on the results of multiple linear regression analysis obtained regression equation as follows:

Y= 2,083 + 0,288 X1 + 0,248 X2 + e Based on the result, it can be seen: Y = student entrepreneur intentions a = 2,083, its constant score means that if there is no change in instrument readines and self- efficacy then the entrepreneurial intention is 2,083.

B1 = 0,288, if the instrument readines increases one percent, the student entrepreneur intentions increase by 0,288 with the assumption that other variables remain the same. B2 = 0,248 if the self efficacy increases one percent, the student entrepreneur intentions will increase by 0,248, percent with the assumption that other variables remain the same. F. T Test Analysis Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Standar t Si Coefficients dized g. Coefficients B Std. Beta Error

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(Co 7, ,0 2,083 ,290 nstant) 176 00 Ave 3, ,0 1 ,288 ,077 ,255 rage_X1 724 00 Ave 3, ,0 ,248 ,072 ,234 rage_X2 419 01 a. Dependent Variable: Average_Y Source: Primary data is processed

Conclusions and Discussion The Influence of instrumental readiness towards student entrepreneurship intention T count of instrumental Readiness (3.274) > t tabel 1.97 (on df = n- k) or score of Sig (0.000 ) < 0.05. Variable of instrumental Readiness partially has significant influence towards entrepreneurial intention. The result is in line with the finding of Endratno (2014) with the respondents of Economics and Business Faculty students of UMP and students of Economics Faculty-UNSOED; it stated that instrumental Readiness partially influenced students’ entrepreneurial intention. The result is not in line with the research result of Wajeeh, Elali, Badriah Al-Yacoub, (2016) who found that access to capital did not significantly influence entrepreneurial intentions. Respondents’ answers to the statement of Instrumental Readiness No Statement Average Information I have accesses to business capital 3.54 Good 1 to become an entrepreneur. I have a good social network to 3.82 Good 2 become an entrepreneur. I have accesses to information when 3.90 Good 3 I begin to become an entrepreneur Source : Primary data is processed Based on the table, it is known that in general respondents respond well to all statement items. The Influence of Self-Efficacy towards Students’ Entrepreneurial Intention

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T count of Self-Efficacy 3,419 > t table 1.97 (on df = n- k) Sig score (0.01) < 0.05 partially has a significant influence on entrepreneurial intentions. This result is in line with research by Byabashaija et al. (2010), Ayodele (2013), Nursito and Nugroho (2013), Endratno (2014) Farrukh (2017) who found that self-efficacy influences entrepreneurial intentions. However, the results of this study are different from the findings of Agustina (2011) for non-Javanese ethnicity. It is known that self-efficacy does not influence entrepreneurial intentions. Respondents answers on the statements of Self-efficacy N Statement Ave Inform o rage ation I have leadership skills needed to be an 3.84 Good 1 entrepreneur. I have mental maturity to start being an 3.74 Good 2 entrepreneur. Source : Primary data is processed Based on the table, it is known that in general, respondents responded well to all statement items.

Respondents' answers to Entrepreneurial Intention statements N Statement Av Inform o erage ation 1 I choose myself as an entrepreneur. 4.0 Good 0 2 I prefer to be an entrepreneur than an employee of a 4.1 Good company/organization. 0 Source : Primary data is processed Based on the table, it is known that in general, respondents responded well to all statement items. G. F test ANOVAa Model Sum of df Mean F Si Squares Square g.

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Regr 24 ,0 19,088 2 9,544 ession ,563 00b Resid 22 1 88,980 ,389 ual 9 108,06 23 Total 8 1 a. Dependent Variable: average_Y b. Predictors: (Constant), average_X2, average_X1 Source : Primary data is processed Based on the results of f test analysis, F obtained was 24,563. This score was bigger than the score of f table = 2.46. Thus, instrumental readiness and self efficacy variables influence the entrepreneurial intentions.

H. Determinant test (R2) Model Summary M R R Adjust Std. odel Square ed R Square Error of the Estimate , ,17 1 ,169 ,62334 420a 7 a. Predictors: (Constant), Average_X2, Average_X1 Source : Primary data is processed The score of determination coefficient Adjusted R Square is 0.169 which means that all two independent variables contribute 16.9% in affecting the dependent variables. Conclusions Based on the results of calculations using multiple linear regression analysis, it can be concluded as follows: Based on f test results, it can be concluded that the variable of instrument readines and self-efficacy respectively have a significant effect on students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Based on t test result, it is known that of instrument readines and self efficacy have partially significant influence to entrepreneurial intention.

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Instrument readiness is the variable which has the most significant influence on entrepreneurial intentions since it has the biggest score of t obtained. Suggestion Academic policy makers are advised to provide instrumental readiness and improve self- efficacy related to business activities through entrepreneurship courses.

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References Andika, M. (2012) An Analysis of Influences of Attitudes, Subjective Norms and Self-Efficacy on entrepreneurial Intention of Students at Faculty of Economics, Syiah Kuala University (A Study on Students of Economics Faculty at Syiah Kuala University) Adnyana, P. (2016) The Influence of Entrepreneurship Education, Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control on Entrepreneurial Intention Agustina, S, (2011). Student Entrepreneurial Intention (A Comparative Study between the Faculty of Economics and the Faculty of Computer Science) in PESAT Proceeding Vol.4 October 2011. Ayodele, K. O. (2013). Demographics, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and locus of control as determinants of adolescents’ entrepreneurial intention in Ogun State, Nigeria. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 1(12), 59-67 Bandura, A. (1997). Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. New Jersey: Prentice- Hall,Inc Byabashaija, W. & Katono, I. (2011). The impact of college entrepreneurial education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention to start a business in Uganda. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 16(1), 127-144 Endratno H, (2014) Entrepreneurial intention of Students (A Comparative Study between FE Students of UNSOED and UMP), Proceeding Sustainable Competitive Advantage 4, Purwokerto, UNSOED Indarti, N. & Kristiansen, S. (2003). “Determinants of entrepreneurial Intentions: The case of Norwegian Students.” Gajah Mada International Journal of Business, 5(1), 79-95 Indarti, N. & Rostiani P. (2008) Entrepreneurship Intention of Students: A Comparative Study Between Indonesia, Japan and Norway in the journal of Economics and Business Vol. 23 Number 4 2008 Katz, J., & W. Gartner, 1988. “Properties of emerging organizations”. Academy of Management Review Kourilsky, M.L. & Walstad, W.B. 1998. Entrepreneurship and Female Youth: Knowledge, Attitudes, Gender Differences and Educational Practices. Journal of Business Venturing, 13(1): 77-88. Nursito, S., & Nugroho, A. J. (2013). An analysis on the influence of entrepreneurial knowledge interaction and self-efficacy on entrepreneurial intentions. Sarwoko (2011), Empirical Study of Entrepreneurial Intention of Student in the Journal of Business Economics, year. 16, Num. 2, July 2011. Sugiyono (2003), Statistics for research, Alfabeta, Bandung Supranto, J. (2008). Statistical Theory and Application, seventh edition. Jakarta: Erlangga Publisher Wiyanto H (2014) Instrument Readiness as Predictor of Student Entrepreneurial Intention (Study of Student Entrepreneurship Specialization in Management Study Program, Faculty of Economics, Tarumanagara University), Journal Management/Volume XVIII, No. 03, Oktober 2014: 392-406 392 Wajeeh, E. & Badriah A, (2016) "Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Intentions Among Kuwaitis", World Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development, Vol. 12 Issue: 1, Pp.18- 4, Https://Doi.Org/10.1108/WJEMSD-07-2015-0029 Woolfolk, A. E. (2004). Educational psychology. New Jersey: Allyn & Bacon. Yohnson. (2003). The Role of the Higher Education in Motivating Its Graduates to Become Young Entrepreneurs. Jurnal Manajemen dan Kewirausahaan, 5 (2) hal 97-111. Zimmerer, Thomas & Scarborough, Norman, (2004) Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, Publisher: PT Indeks, Jakarta Zimmerer, W.T. (2002) Essentials of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management. Third Edition. New York: Prentice-Hall.

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AKADEMİSYEN HAMİT ARASLI TATKİKATLARINDA KADIN SURETLERİ

Vüsal Safiyeva1

Akademisyen Hamit Araslinin Halk Kültürüyle Ilgili Hizmetleri Akademisyen Hamit Araslı'nın çok yönlü yaratıcı çalışmasından bahs ederken, onun sözlü halk yaratımının sistematizasyonu ve baskısında büyük çalışmalarını özellikle belirtmek gerekir. O, Azerbaycan halk kültürünün tarihi ve teorik meselelerinin incelenmesi, yazılı edebiyatımızla olan bağların ve ilişkilerin kurulması, folklor ve edebiyat eserlerinin örneklerinin hazırlanması, yorumlanması, ders kitaplarının yazımı ile ilgili problemlerin çözümünde özel bir yere ve role sahiptir. 1926 yılından bu yana, köyde bir öğretmen olarak çalışırken, bu bilim adamı, Azerbaycan halk edebiyatı ve aşık şiiri örnekleri alanında önemli bir çalışma yapmıştır. Bu malzemeler sözlü halk edebiyatının incelenmesi için yararlı bir kaynak haline gelmiştir. Folklorcu bilim adamı Paşa Efendiyev'in bu fikri, tarihimizi keşfetmede büyük bir ilgi uyandırıyor ki, Hamit Araslı'nın, Azerbaycan'ın sözlü halk edebiyatının çeşitli türleri hakkında araştırma çalışmaları yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır (Əfəndiyev, 1994: 15). Ünlü araştırmacı analiz ettiyi tüm sözlü halk edebiyatı örneklerinde, destanlarda, Nizami Gencevi, Muhammed Fuzuli ve diğerleri de dahil olmak üzere klasik şairlerimizin yaratıcı çalışmalarında da, birçok soru ile birlikte özel bir yere sahib olan kadın karakterlerin tipolojik özelliklerini analiz etmiş, türk kadınlarının kahramanlıkları, mertlikleri, cesaretleri, savaş alanlarında erkeklerle omuz-omuza mücadelesi, annelik gibi kutsal bir görevinin harikülade nitelikleri hakkında kapsamlı olarak konuşmuş. Akademisyen Hamit Araslı'nin edebiyatımız karşısındakı en önemli hizmetlerinden biri, hiç şüphesiz “Dede Korkut” destanının yayınlanması ve araştırılmasıdır. Destanı aşık yaratıçılığının ürünü olarak kabul eden Hamit Araslı, şöyle yazıyor: “Türk aşık şiirinin gelişen eski ve zengin bir tarihi var. Türk halkları edebiyatının en eski anıtı, yaratılış tarihi 10-11. yüzyıl tahmin edilen “Dede Korkut” destanları da aşık yaratıcılığının bir ürünüdür. Bu destanlarda biz modern aşık kavramını ifade eden Ozan adında ünlü halk sanatçılarıyla karşılaşıyoruz” (Araslı, 1938: 3).

1 Azerbaycan Milli Bilimler Akademisi, Azerbaycan.

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Ünlü Bilim Adamı “Şah İsmail” Destanı Hakkında Bilim adamının, “Şah İsmail” destanının, Safevi devletinin kurucusu Şah İsmail ile ilişikli olduğu hakda ilişkin ilginç görüşleri özel önem taşımaktadır. 16. yüzyılın tarihi olayları esasında destan oluntuları da ortaya çıkmıştır. Aşıklar, Azerbaycan'ın hükümdarı Şah İsmail Hatai'nin Azerbaycan'ın birleşmesiyle ilgili çabalarına kayıtsız kalamazdılar. Onun savaşlarının çoğu, muhtemelen aşk şiirinde ifadesini buldu” (Araslı, 1988: 9). Araştırmacı gösteriyor ki, bu destanın bir kısmında Şah İsmail'in komutanlarından biri Abdi beyin öldürülmesi, Taçlı hanımın esaretden kurtularak Durmuş han'la birlikte krala gelmesi ve onların diyaloqu destanda özellikle dikkat çekiyor (Araslı, 1988: 38-39). Şah, savaşta öldürülen Abdibey'i hatırlayıp ağlıyor ve söylüyordu: İstediyim, seni Allah getirdi, Ateşli gönlüm üste gülü yetirdi. Düşmanımı ortalıktan götürdü, Abdibey yüzünden Taçlı, ağlarım! (Araslı, 1988: 39). Taçlı hanım ise Şah İsmaili bu kelimelerle teselli eder: İranın şahısın, Türküstan hanı, Mürşiti-kamiliən cihanın canı, Abdibey oldu şahın kurbanı, Taçlı hanım sana kurban, ağlama! (Araslı, 1988: 39). Bilim adamı, bu fragmanlara dayanarak, 16. yüzyılında Şah İsmail adına kahramanca bir destanın yapıldığı fikrini ortaya koyuyor: “Burada Taçlı Şaha sadık kahraman bir kız” (Araslı, 1988: 39). 17. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında, kahramanlık temasının aksine, aşk temasının ana hattını oluşturan güzel destanlar çıktı. Bunlardan biri, aşık repertuarında çok büyük bir yer kaplayan “Şah İsmail” destanı. Bilim adamı, aşıkların bu destanı I Şah İsmail adına yaptığı fikrini ileri sürüyor (Araslı, 1988: 39). Akademisyen Hamit Araslı Destanlarda Kadın Suretleri Hakkında Akademisyen H. Araslı'nın araştırmalarında, “Aslı ve Kerem” destanı da yer alıyor. Bilim adamı, bu destanın Azerbaycan destan yaratıcılığında eşsiz bir yer aldığını gösteriyor ve onun bu konudaki düşünceleri büyük ilgi çekiyor. Akademisyen H.Arasli, Kerem'in adına 17. yüzyıl

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sonlarında ve 18. yüzyılın başlarında yaşayan şairlerin eserlerinde rastlanndığını belirtiyor (Araslı, 1960: 77). 19. yüzyılda, Azerbaycan'da Çar hükümetinin sert politikasına karşı protestocu olan, zulme karşı çıkan, yerel yöneticileri öldürüp dağlara çekilen, silahlı mücadele eden, kaçak yaşayan birçok köylü, halk tarafından saygıyla anılarak isimlerine destanlar yazılırdı. “Kaçak Nebi” destanı da böyle destanlar arasında bulunuyor (Araslı, 1960: 90). Kaçak Nebinin karısı Hacerin yigitlikleri hiç bir zaman aşıkların nazarından kaçmıyor, onun kahramanlıkları, cesareti halk tarafından övülür. Akademisyen H. Arasli, Nizami Gencevi'nin “Leyla ve Mecnun” adlı eserinin teminin de sözlü halk edebiyatından alındığını ve “Arap sözlü halk edebiyatında yeniden doğmuş ve Orta Doğu halkları arasında yaygın olan bu destanın 12. yüzyılda Azerbaycan halkı arasında popüler olduğunu” belirtti (Araslı, 1947: 10). Şair bundan eserin ön sözünde bahsetti. Akademisyen H. Araslı “Yeddi güzel” şiirinin de halk masalları yapısında yazılmış olduğunu, kızların söylədiyi masalların içeriğinin halk edebiyatından alındığını belirterek, şairin folklor ile olan ilişkisini olgularla kanıtlıyor. Bilim adamı, Nizaminin son eseri olan “İskendername” destanının da halk destanlarına dayandığnı belirterek yazıyor ki: “Nizami bu eserini arapça, farsça, yunanca ve romence yazılmış tarihi bilgilere dayanarak hazırlarken, İskender hakkında da birçok efsaneyi kullanmış” (Araslı, 1947: 11). Nizami'nin eserlerinin kaynakları ile ilgili olarak, H. Araslı, “Nizami'nin eserleri, onların konusu ve yapısıyla değil, aynı zamanda sanatsal özellikleri ve sözlü halk edebiyatı ile de bağlantılı” olduğu sonucuna varmaktadır (Araslı, 1947: 11). Akademisyen H. Araslı şairin halk edebiyatına olan bağlılığını, o zamanki edebiyatta istisnai bir yeri olan olumlu kadın imgeleri oluşturmasında görüyor. O, Nizami'nin Doğu edebiyatında olumlu kadın imgeleri üreten ilk sanatçı olduğunu gösteriyor. Bilim adamı Nizaminin “Şemira, Nüşabe gibi kudretli hükümdar, Şirin gibi cesur, Fitne gibi akıllı, Leyla gibi sadık, Çin hizmetçisi gibi esprili, Mariya gibi bilim kadını imgeleri yaratmasında” (Araslı, 1939: 10) halk edebiyatından gelen motiflerin önemli rolü olduğunu belirtiyor. O, Nizaminin kadın imgelerinin, aynı zamanda “Dede Korkut” hikayelerinde, “Şah İsmail” destanındakı motiflerin birçoğunun halk edebiyatından gelmiş olduğunun şairin folklor ile ilişkisinin yeni bir tezahürü olduğunu belirtiyor. Hamit Araslı destanlarda verilmiş kadınların hususiyetlerinden birinin onun evleneceyi adamı sınavdan geçirmesi ile sıkı şekilde bağlı olduğunu kayd ederek, bu sınavın fiziksel kuvvet, söz ustalığı ve bilim sahesinde aparıldığını söylüyor: “Seveni çok olan kızlar kendilerini

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büyüler ve onları kurtaracak kahramanla evleneceklerini şart koyar. Ya da sözde onu kapatacak aşıkla, hakk aşığıyla evleneceklerine söz veriyorlardı. Bazi destanlarda kahraman, kızın besledığı kurtlarla savaşıyor, bazen kendisi ilə güreş tutuyor, bazen de onun bulmacalarına cevap buluyor, sonra onunla evlənir” (Araslı, 1947: 19). Araştırmaçı tüm bu meselelerin Nizami eserlerinde de mevcut olduğunu belirli gerçeklerle karşılaştırmaya dayalı olarak gösteriyor. Nizami eserlerinin, Hamit Araslıya göre, her birinde “Dede Korkut”ta olan tüm motifleri görmək olar. Örneğin, blim adamı, destanın “Beyrekle Banıçiçek” və “Qanturalı” ilə bağlı olan hikayelerini və Nizaminin “Haft peyker” eserindəki “Rus şehzadesi” və “Yeddi güzel” eserindəki “Hayir ve Şer” masallarını karşılaştırarak onların her birinde kadınların evleneceği kişiyi sınavdan geçirdiyini gösteriyor. Aynı motiflere bilim adamı Azerbaycan halkının diger destanları olan “Şah İsmail”, “Valeh və Zernigar” destanında, hem de “Hazar destanı” masalında da rast rastlandığını belirtiyor. Bilim adamı, diger halk destanı “Novruz”da Tepegöz kahraman adlı adama rastlandığını və halk masalı “Tepegöz kahraman”ın “Basatın Tepegözü öldürməsi” hikayesinin aynı olduğunu düşünür (Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud, 1962: 11). Ünlü bilim adamı Nizami Gencevinin “Hosrov və Şirin” destanı ile “Dede Korkut” hikayelerı arasında da bir çok benzerlikler olduğunu kendi araştırmalarında yaygın şekilde örneklerle belirtir, her iki eserdeki değişik kadın imgelerinin kahrmanlığından konuşur (Kitabi- Dədə Qorqud, 1962: 11). Profesör Azade Rüstemova Həmit Araslıya dayanarak yazır ki, “Dede Korkut” hikayelerinin Azərbaycan epik şiirinə, özellikle Nizami yaratıcılığına büyük etkisi olmuştur: “Şairin büyüleyici kaleminin yarattığı kahraman kadın imgeleri – Fitne, Nüşabe, çinli türk kızı, at binıp çovkan (at üstünde topla oynanılan oyun) oynadan Şirin sanki “Dede Korkut” hikayelerindekı yigit kadın imgelerinden ruhen qidalanıp yücelmişler. Sanki Deli Dumrulun sevgili kocasına ölümü belə kabul etmeye hazır olan vefalı kadını sonradan yeni, daha mükemmel, daha eksiksiz manevi nitelikleri benimseyerek, dünya edebiyatının sonsuza dek yaşayacak imgeleri sırasına giren Şirin, Leyla haline geldi…” (Rüstəmova, 1975: 32). Bilim adamı daha sonra Büyük Nizaminin slavyan kızının (“Yeddi güzel”de Dördüncü Mevsim şehzadesinin söylədiyi masal kahramanı) sanki Selcan Hatunun, Banuçiçeyin kendi kız kardeşi olması, Banuçiçeyin kendini tanıtmadan Beyrekle at binip, ok atıp, güreş tutup, onun hüner və cesaretini sınadıktan sonra yüzük götürmesini ima ederek yazıyor: “Selcan hatunu kendi arkadaşı seçen insan bir çok şartlara uymalı... Ama durumun yakınlığı bir kenara bırakılırsa, “Dede Korkut” hikayeleri Nizaminin yaratıcılığı üzerinde öncelikle büyük fikri-

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manevi etkiye sahiptir ki, bu sorunun da özel bir araştırmaya ihtiyacı var” (Rüstəmova, 1975: 32). H. Araslı'ya göre, Fizuli, tüm aile yapısını (doğum, düğün, kız isteme ve okul sahnelerinde), Azerbaycan halkının gelenek ve göreneklerini “Leyla ve Mecnun” destanında anlatır: “Eserin konusunun arap folklorundan alınmasına rağmen, şiir, 16. yüzyıl Azerbaycan yaşamıyla yakından ilişkilidir” (Araslı, 1939: 25-26). Hamit Arasli daha sonra Fizuli'nin bu eserinin Azerbaycan halk edebiyatına geçtiğini belirtti. Bu eserin etkisi altında Azerbaycan aşıkları “Leyla ve Mecnun” destanını yaratmışlar (Araslı, 1939: 28). Hamit Araslı “Dede Korkut” destanında kadın imgelerini de bilhassa analiz eder, hər bir hikayedeki kadınların kahramanlığını özellikle ayrı-ayrı inceler: “Dede Korkut” destanında kadın toplumun bir üyesi gibi değerlendiriyor. Burada kadınlar yiğit ve sadakatli göstəriliyor. Onlar cesurlukta erkeklerden aşağı kalmazlar. Yavrularına sevgi gösterir ve ebeveynlere saygı duyarlar. Dirsə xanın kadını oğlunun avdan dönmedığını gördükdə atına binir, kırk incebel kız ilə onu dağlarda arar, yaralı oğlunu bulup getirir. Kazanın oğlu Uruz tutsak düştüğü zaman boyu uzun Burla hatun onu kur-tarmağa giden kocasının arkasından düşman ile savaşmaya gidiyor. Kendini yaralanmış kocasına getiriyor. Savaşa ünlü kahramanlarla birlikte katılıyor, cesaret gösteriyor. Beyreyin nişanlısı Banuçiçek, evleneceği erkekle ok atıyor, at binir, güreşir. Nişanlısını kahraman gördükten sonra evlenmeye razı olur. Qanturalının karısı kocası ile birlikte savaş ediyor. Yaralanmış, atı oklanmış kocasına koşuyor. “Düşmanın bir uçu benim, bir uçu senin” söyleyip savaşıyor, sevgilisini ölümden kurtarır. Deli Dumrula canı evezine Azrailə vermək üçün can gerekiyordu. Babası, annesi reddeder. Ama onun kadını: “Bir canda ne var ki, sana kıymamışlar. Benim canım senin canına kurban olsun” söyler (Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud, 1939: 8,10,14). Apardığımız araştırmalar sonuçunda vardığımız neticelere esasen böyle kanaat getirdik ki, türk kadınları her zaman yigitlikleri, kahramanlıkları sadakatı ile farklı olmuş, kocalarına sadık, savaşlarda yararlık göstermiışler. Türk kadını hem de manevi gücü ile engelleri aşan kahraman, çağdaşlarına örnek ola bilecek bir kişidir.

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Kaynaklar Araslı, H. (1960). Aşıq yaradıcılığı, B.: “Birləşmiş nəşriyyat”, 135 s. Araslı, H. (1938). Aşıq poeziyası və klassiklər // “Ədəbiyyat” qəzeti, 17 mart. Araslı, H. (1939). Füzuli. B.: “Azərbaycan Sovet Yazıçılar İttifaqının Nəşriyyatı”, 33 s. Araslı, H. (1939). Nizaminin qadın obrazları // ”Şərq qadını”, №10, s. 12, № 12, s.10. Araslı, H. (1947). Nizami və Azərbaycan xalq ədəbiyyatı // Nizami Gəncəvi: Məqalələr məcmuəsi, Bakı: “Azərbaycan SSR Elmlər Akademiyası Nəşriyyatı” , s. 97. Araslı, H. (1988). Şah İsmayıl Xətainin poeziyası // Şah İsmayıl Xətai: Məqalələr toplusu, B.: “Elm”, s. 9-17. Əfəndiyev, P. (1994). Azərbaycan folklorşünaslığı: 1920-ci ilə qədər, B.: “APİ”, 155 s. Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud. (1939). B.: “Azərnəşr”: “Bədii ədəbiyyat şöbəsi”, 171 s. Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud. (1962). B.: “Azərbaycan Dövlət Nəşriyyatı”, 157 s. Rüstəmova, A. (1975). Azərbaycan epik şerinin inkişaf yolları (XII-XVII əsrlər), B.: “Elm”, 338 s.

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FOSTERING SPIRITUAL PROSPERITY FOR THE ELDERLY PEOPLE BY DEVELOPING THEIR RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOR

Zakiyah Zakiyah1

Abstract The elderly is at the age that requires attention from all parties. They experience decreased physical and psychological health. They need a range of concern to be prepared in order to make elderly live happily, both physically and psychologically, as well as spiritually. With the aims, several efforts must be made in an integrated and cross-sector way. This study aimed to identify and analyze the effectiveness of fostering the religiosity among the elderly to improve their religious behavior. This study was a qualitative descriptive, with the elderly as the subjects participating in religiosity coaching. Other subjects include resource persons and the leaders of Aisyiyah, a moslem organization, in local area in Indonesia. The data were collected by observation, in-depth interviews and documentation; the data analysis follows the procedures of data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing. The results of this study illustrated that religiosity fostering on the elderly of Aisyiyah Banyumas Region was effective in shaping religious behavior on elderly, this was preceded by the organizers' commitment in fostering religiosity of the elderly and supported by competent source persons with indicators of; 1) material delivery in accordance with the characteristics of the elderly, 2) materials mastery, 3) appropriate methodology, 4) appealing media, 5) conducive situation and conditions. The effectiveness of fostering in shaping the behavior of the elderly was able to be proven from the elderly who stated that their behavior improved after following the fostering of elderly religiosity with indicators of; 1) stronger ideology in tawhid (Oneness of God), 2) improved rituals/worship,3) improved religious experience, 4) intellectual (scientific knowledge about religion also increased including enthusiasm to continue gaining religious knowledge) and 5) consistency in implementing religious orders was also more substantial. Keywords: Effectiveness, Fostering of Religiosity, Elderly

Introduction Human existence begins when humans are born with fitra (The state of purity and innocence Muslims believe all humans to be born with) by Allah then develop into an infant and grow to be children with all the potential and abilities they have and develop into adults and after that become elderly. Such a journey of human life is fitrah, qudrah and the power of Allah that no one can avoid and reject. Aging or growing old is a natural process experienced by all beings. In humans, the process is characterized by a decline in several aspects, especially the physiological aspects and motor sensor functions. In this case, there are two theories that explain human beings with their activities, namely disengagement theory and activity theory (Suardiman, 1995). The first theory says that the older the human age will be gradually followed by social, physical retreat and emotional interactions with worldly life; whereas the second theory says that the older a person is, the more he or she will maintain his physical, social and emotional relationships better.

1 Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto, Indonesia. 94

In the age of elderly, (Jalaluddin, 1999) a person tends to experience a decline in function, physically, psychologically and socially. Physical decline is generally influenced by a decrease in blood vessel function, especially capillary blood vessels. As a result, the amount of blood flowing to the organs of the body decreases, resulting in organs shrinking of the body. The impact on the human brain is a decline in memory function. Common people often describe it as forgetful or senile. Psychologically, there are also typical changes in the form of anxiety symptoms, tend to be less clean, and other paranoid symptoms such as stubbornness, selfishness, irritability, bad temper, suspicion, anxiety, and so on. Individual manifestations on the age of the elderly are mostly influenced by the personality of each individual in self-control. In this case, religiosity or ownership has an influential role in elderly self-control. Elderly who practice religion well and istiqamah (steadfastness) will be able to control themselves well and vice versa so that religion has an important role in controlling the behavior of the elderly in facing their lives. In other words, someone who has high and strong religiosity will be more able to control themselves in living their lives Aisyiyah Banyumas Region is a Muhammadiyah women's organization in Banyumas Regency which is engaged in social sector, amar bil ma’roof wa nahi ‘an munkar (an Islamic principle of commanding the good and forbidding the evil) which provides benefit for the people, community and the Nation. This organization has the aim of bringing people to become the key community capable of becoming servants and caliphs of Allah on the face of the earth. Religiosity Religiosity is the attitude of one's ownership of his religion which is his personal character which will then be applied in daily behavior in the form of real behavior. Religiosity becomes very important for someone because with religiosity a person's behavior will always be controlled and become a person who is always in good behavior as a reflection of people who embrace religion The religiosity of a person is not only revealed by an attitude that appears, but also the invisible attitude occurred in one's heart. Therefore there are several factors that influence a person's religiosity. Factors that have been recognized may construct religious attitudes. These factors consist of four main groups; social influences, various experiences, necessity and thinking processes. Thouless. (1971) mentioned several factors that may exist in the development of religious attitudes namely; 1) the influence of education or teaching and various social pressures (social factors). 2) various experiences that help religious attitudes, (natural

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factors). Glock and Stark (Ancok, 1994) suggested aspects of religiosity in 5 (five) dimensions, namely: 1. Religious of beliefs (ideological), in this aspect a person accepts dogmatic things in his religion, for instance believing about the existence of God 2. Religious of practice (ritualistic), it is the degree to which a person relates to ritual activities or worships both specifically and in general 3. Religious of feeling (experiential), it is the forms of feelings and experiences experienced and felt by someone related to their religion 4. Religious of knowledge (intellectual), it is the extent to which individuals has an interest in learning, practicing and believing in religious discipline. 5. Religious of effect (consequential), namely the extent to which a person's behavior is consistent with religious teachings, for example helping others

According to Hidayat (1999) the religious life of a person or group is divided into two types, namely: The first are those who emphasize the format, symbol, or religious institution. The second is those who pay more attention to the intrinsic substance of the teachings of a religion. The first type tends to maintain a religious institution which he believes as a form of piety and struggle to defend the truth, while the second type tends to live up to religious values to achieve personal satisfaction individually. Some research results demonstrate that from the needs of the elderly, the need for religion is a basic and urgent need for the elderly. Koenig HG (2007) states that religion helps with death, maintains the meaning of life, religiosity is positively correlated with wellbeing, marriage satisfaction, psychological functioning, negatively correlated with suicide, crisis and psychological deviations Research Method This study was a field research, while the research approach employed a qualitative descriptive approach intended to understand the phenomena and symptoms of everything experienced by the subject of research in the form of behavior, action, perception, and motivation holistically. In this case was the context of the effectiveness of the fostering of elderly religiosity in Aisyiyah Banyumas Region towards elderly religious behavior The research subjects were the elderly who actively participated in religiosity fostering in Aisyiyah Banyumas Region, the speakers as well as the Majlis Tabligh Regional Leader Aisyiyah Banyumas. Data collection techniques include; observation, interview and documentation. Data analysis method referred to the opinions of Miles and Huberman (2014),

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which stateed that the analysis of qualitative research data can be done through three lines of activities that occur simultaneously carried out by researchers, namely: l) data reduction 2) data displays, 3) conclusion drawing. Results and Discussion Research Results Based on the findings, the religious fostering for the elderly is effective in establishing the behavior of the elderly, this was verified by; 1. Commitment of the organizers (Majlis Tabligh Aisyiyah Banyumas Region) in the implementation of elderly religiosity guidance by preparing qualified source person, comfortable fostering places, selection of the proper days and hours for fostering (every Sunday, 07.30 - 08.30). 2. Support of qualified source persons with indicators of; 1) material delivery is in accordance with the characteristics and needs of the elderly, 2) material mastery of the source person, 3) appropriate and varied methodology, 4) interesting media, 5) conducive situations and conditions, 6) delivery of material that is not monotonous and question and answer session for the participants. 3. The effectiveness of coaching in shaping the behavior of the elderly can be proven from the elderly who stated that their behavior improved after following the fostering of elderly religiosity with indicators of; 1) stronger ideology in tawhid (Oneness of God), 2) increasing rituals / worship, 3) religious experience also increases, 4) intellectual (scientific knowledge about religion also increased including enthusiasm to continue gaining religious knowledge) and 5) consistency in religious practice. 4. In addition to the effectiveness of the fostering of elderly religiosity towards religious behavior, after taking part in the fostering, the elderly know more about the knowledge of religion so that they are being able to worship according to the example taught by the prophet Muhammad SAW and not only just to follow other people but recognize the basics from Al Qur’an and Al-Hadits. Discussion In general, it could be stated that the fostering of elderly religiosity was effective in shaping the religious behavior of the elderly; this was because old age was an age with lot of spare time to increase religious activities. Older people were more interested in activities related to socio-religion and things that could make themselves as beneficial person both for themselves and others. This was because in the old age, a person was no longer burdened with

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family dependents and occupation so that they were more interested in addressing themselves in improving and practicing religion. Research results of Daaleman, Perera and Studenski (2004); Fry (1999); Koenig & Larson, (1998) stated that older people were more interested in social-religious activities. Religion was able to fulfill some important psychological needs in the elderly in terms of facing death, finding and maintaining feelings of worth and importance in life, and could accept shortcomings in old age. Activities in the social and religious fields were one of the activities that could be followed by the elderly. This activity tended to be non-binding, carried out voluntarily, no coercion, overwhelmed with compassion for others and most importantly getting themselves closer to God and also made close relationship to fellow humans (Santrock, 2006). The results of a study from Seybold & Hill, (2001) also stated that there was a positive relationship between religiosity or spirituality with well-being, marriage satisfaction, and psychological functioning, as well as negative relationships with suicide, deviation, crime, and alcoholism as well as illegal drugs (Papalia, 2008). This might happen since worship was able to reduce stress and restrain stress hormone production by the body, such as adrenaline. This reduction in stress hormones was associated with several benefits to the health aspects, including an increasingly strong immune system.

Conclusion The age of the elderly is the age that requires attention from various parties so that the elderly is able to live happily both physically and psychologically. Religion is an important need for the elderly. The results explain that religiosity fostering for elderly in Aisyiyah Banyumas was effective in shaping the behavior of the elderly to be better in the aspects of 1) stronger ideology in tawhid (Oneness of God), 2) improved rituals/worship,3) improved religious experience, 4) intellectual (scientific knowledge about religion also increased including enthusiasm to continue gaining religious knowledge) and 5) consistency in implementing religious orders was also more substantial.

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References Bungin, B. (2006). Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta : PT. Raja Grafindo Persada. Crain, W. (2007), Teori Perkembangan , Konsep dan Aplikasi, terj.Yudi Santoso, Edisi Ketiga, Yogyakarta : Pustaka Pelajar. Creswell, J. W, (2009), Research Design Pendekatan Kualitatif, Kuantitaif dan Mixed, Tarj, Fauzan A. (2012), Pengaruh Religiusitas Terhadap Prestasi Kerja, Jakarta: Erlangga Hurlock, E.B.(1980). Psikologi Perkembangan. Terjemahan. Jakarta: Erlangga. Jalaluddin. (2005). Psikologi Agama. Jakarta : PT. Raja Grafindo Persada. Koenig H. G. (2007). Religion and remission of depression in medical inpatients with heart failure/pulmonary disease. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Miles, M.B., & Hubermen, A.M, (2003). Analisis data Kualitatif, (Tarj). Tjetjep Rohidi dan Mulyarto, Jakarta : Universitas Indonesia Press. Nurcholis, M. (2012). Psikologi Agama, Jakarta, PT Raja Grafindo Papalia, W. (2006). Psikologi Perkembangan. Terjemahan. Jakarta : Kencana Prenada Media Group. Parker, M. (2003). Religiosity and Mental Health In Southern, Community Dwelling Older Older Adults. Aging & Mental Health. Vol. 7 No. 5 : 390. Santrock, F. (2006). Life-Span Development. Terjemahan. Jakarta : Erlangga. Sarwono, O. (2006), Metode Penelitian Kualitatif, Jakarta: PT Raja GrafindaPersada. Thouless, T. (2000). Pengantar Psikologi Agama. Terjemahan. Jakarta : PT. Raja Grafindo Persada.

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THE ISSUE OF TRANSLATING LINGUISTIC TERMS INTO ARABIC: A CALL TO UNIFY OUR TRANSLATION MANEUVERING

Zouleykha Belabbbes1 Abstract It is unquestionable that English–Arabic translation is increasingly becoming a topic of much concern overtime. This paper highlights the problems that are likely to be encountered in English–Arabic translation of linguistic terminologies. In effect, it is important to understand and master the terms used in a given field in order to undergo effectively a research. Yet while some languages such as French or English have no problems with terms, Arabic has been confronted with the issue of how linguistic terminologies could be translated? As a matter of fact, many linguistic terms have been translated in different ways throughout the Arab world. For instance, the ,In a sense, this problem is, primarily …-اللسانيات علم اللغة - فقه اللغة - األلسنية - :concept “linguistics” is translated due to the lack of coordination between Arab scholars, linguists and translators, and the sole solution to this dilemma is to unify these terminologies and extend their use amongst researchers. Keywords: translation- linguistic terminology- Arabic- unifying- English.

For a long time, language has raised the interest of many scholars and researchers. This latter attempt to describe its systematicity, its structure, and the functions it serves; thus, many linguistic scopes have been emerged according to language levels such as: phonetics, phonology, morphology, semantics, sociolinguistics…etc. Moreover, many different schools and theories about linguistics have been acknowledged giving, then, a wide range of terminologies that contribute to linguistic studies in general. Considering the fact that linguistics’ role is to study the similarities, differences, varieties, standards of languages, spoken and written forms, and acquisition, translation has gone beyond that and ensured the act as a unifying communicative factor of lingual, cultural diversity, and academic knowledge. Cary (1959) as cited in Mondjie (2006) mentioned that “translation is playing the role of discovery. It discovers things from language to language, from country to country, from age to age, and from world to world” ( p.1). In fact, translation becomes a prerequisite for the acquisition of knowledge, thought, science and technology and to be a translator one should possess some basic abilities: (1) a broad knowledge of the subject-matter of the passage, text or book to be translated; (2) a well- developed imagination that enables the translator to visualize the process being described; (3) intelligence, to be able to fill in the missing links in the original text; (4) a sense of discrimination, to be able to choose the most suitable equivalent term from the literature of the field or from dictionaries; (5) the ability to use one’s own language with clarity, conciseness

1 El Tarf University, Algeria.

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and precision; and (6) a practical experience in translating from related fields. (Gasagrade, 1954; Giles, 1995; Latfipour, 1996). Gambier (1995) as cited in Mondjie (2006) emphasizes the role played by translators in importing foreign cultural values. This made translation not to be a substitution but “cross- fertilization, resulting in the hybridity of cultures” (p.1). Wilss (1982) points out that the importance of translation in the human communicative acts has made it one of the most important branches of linguistics. It is of paramount importance to understand and master the terminologies used in a given field in order to undergo effectively a research. As linguistics emerged as a new discipline of studying human language, new English or French words used to express new concepts come into existence. The existence of these terms has brought to Arabic, and manly translators, serious linguistic problems of expressing this expanding wave of newly–coined terms for which no equivalents in Arabic exist. In effect, the translation of these terminologies into Arabic has not been stable owing to a kind of heterogeneity among Arab linguists in their way of translating or coining equivalent terms in order to avoid transliteration which is in most cases the sole solution of translating those terms. Some instances of transliterated terms are as follows: فونيم :Phoneme/phonème - مورفيم، مونيم : Morpheme/ monème - لكسيم : lexeme - فونولوجيا :Phonology/phonologie - لسانيات دياكرونية :Diachronic linguistics/linguistique diacronique - لسانيات سانكرونية/سينكرونية : Synchronic linguistics/linguistique synchronique - ديغلوسيا/ دايغلوسيا :Diglossia/diglossie - Moreover, in the field of Onomastics there have been many terms that are transliterated as follows: طوبونيميا :Toponymy - هيدرونيم :Hydronym - أورونيم :Oronym - أودونيم : Ododnym - أنتروبونيميا : Anthroponymy -

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Many linguistic translated terms have been introduced as a result of a random approach of translation, and it was noticed that some Arab linguists have zeal towards the terminology they favored and used which lead to an anarchy and instability in the arena of Arabic linguistic research in terms of translated words usage. From this perspective, many linguistic terminologies remain shrouded in mystery and confusion as shown in the following examples: فونيم، صوتيم، الالفظ، الصيغيم، الوحدة الصوتية:Phoneme - مورفيم، صرفيم ، : Morpheme - سانكروني، وصفي، متعاصر، آني، ثابت :Synchronic - دياكروني، تاريخي، تطوري، زمني، تزامني :Diachronic - التقطيع المزدوج، التلفظ المزدوج، ازدواجية التمفصل :Double articulation - االزدواجية اللغوية، الثنائية اللغوية :Bilingualism - البنيوية، البنائية :Structuralism - السيميائية، السيميولوجيا، علم الرموز :Semiotics - علم المعنى في السياق، التداولية، :Pragmatics - علم اسماء االعالم، األعالمية : Onomastics - المواقعية، علم أسماء االماكن : Toponymy - Besides, the title of De Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” has been translated differently, for instance; "دروس في األلسنية العامة" ترجمة القرمادي ومحمد الشاوش ومحمد عجينة الدار العربية للكتاب 5891. "محاضرات في األلسنية العامة " ترجمة يوسف غازي ومجيد النصر دار النعمان للثقافة 5891. "علم اللغة العام" لوائل يوسف عزيز- وزارة اإلعالم بغداد. "فصول في علم اللغة العام" ترجمة أحمد نعيم. " محاضرات في علم اللسان العام" ترجمة عبد القادر قنبني- 5891. For the sake of overcoming the inability of unifying the translated terms, it would be wiser to demonstrate the reasons that lead to this issue. The first reason is that the Arab world is divided into two parts: Eastern Arabs (The Mashreq) and Western Arabs (Arab Maghreb). The former is attached to the Anglo-Saxon culture which lead researchers to express their scientific or academic works in the English language; whereas, the latter is attached to the Latin culture which also lead, in most cases, to expressing academic works in the French language. The second reason lies in the diversity of linguistic sources (French, English, German, etc.) that negatively affect the act of standardizing terminologies. The third reason can be attributed to a lack of coordination among Arab translators.

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Those are some reasons that hindered the act of unifying the translated terminologies. Accordingly, it was so significant to establish linguistic academies specialized in translating or coining linguistic as well as scientific terms. Some of them have been established such as; Damascus Academy (1919), Egypt Academy (1932), Jordan Academy (1976), and Coordinating Arabization Office (Rabat, 1961). One of the functions of these Academies is to produce translations and equivalent lexical items for most of the new and up-to-date words and expressions in different fields of knowledge. In fact, these academies lead to publishing a wide range of linguistic dictionaries like; - قاموس اللسانيات لعبد السالم المسدي-تونس 5891 - المعجم الموحد لمصطلحات اللسانيات)5898(: المنظمة العربية للتربية والثقافة والعلوم، تونس. - معجم اللسانيات الحديثة- إنجليزي- عربي ، سامي عياد حنا و زكي حسام الدين و نجيب جريس. - معجم علم اللغة النظري إنجليزي- عربي، محمد علي الخولي. - منشورات إتحاد الكتاب العرب، دمشق 5889.

The range of examples discussed in this study does not represent an in-depth list of all the attested translated forms of linguistic terms. Other forms also exist and it is possible that one may find other forms more suitable than what we have. Hence, when translating linguistic terms it would be wiser “to coin new words – or work out etymologies of original Arabic words - that sound natural to the Arabic ear and, at the same time, be familiar with what the Arabic Language Academies have introduced into the linguistic terminology, especially when translating for an audience of linguists” (Abdellah, 2003, p. 5). All in all, this situation which is rather difficult, it seems imperative for the Arabs to start a serious and large scale process of translation and coinage through coordinated and unified works which hopefully would lead to publishing a unified Dictionary of Translated Linguistic Terminologies either bilingual (English /Arabic) or trilingual (English/ French/ Arabic). Yet, this process cannot be carried out overnight; it requires an exceptionally high energy, good-will and more enthusiasm on the Arabs’ part to cover and assimilate what the west has spanned and assimilated before.

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References

Abdellah, A.S. (2003). The problem of translating English linguistic terminology into Arabic. Paper presented at Cambridge first postgraduate conference on Linguistics CAMLING on March 2003.Retrived from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536734.pdf Fihri, F. (1985). Linguistics and the Arabic language. Casablanca: Dar Toubkal Gasagrade, J. (1954). The ends of translation. International Journal of American Linguistics, 20, 335-40. Giles, D. (1995). Basic concepts and models for interpreter and translator training. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Lotfipour-Saedi, K. (1996). Translation principles vs. translator strategies. Meta, 41-(3), 389-392. Mondjie, M. (2006). A comparative study of literary translation from Arabic into English and French. University Sains, Malaysia.

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SEKİZİNCİ SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN MATEMATİK PROBLEMLER KARŞISINDA KULLANDIKLARI STRATEJİLER

Fatma Cumhur1

Özet Bu çalışmada, ilköğretim sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerinin rutin olmayan matematiksel problemlerin çözümünde hangi stratejileri ne düzeyde kullandıklarının tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Çalışma 2018-2019 eğitim-öğretim yılında iki devlet okulundan seçilen 40 ilköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencisi ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmanın verileri çeşitli matematik web sitelerinde yer alan ve her biri en az üç strateji ile çözülebilen 6 rutin olmayan probleme verilen cevaplardan elde edilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde betimsel analiz ve betimsel istatistikler kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada öğrenciler çoğunlukla denklem kurma, geriye doğru çalışma ve şekil çizme stratejilerine yer verirken diğer stratejilerin daha az kullanıldığı görülmüştür. Stratejiler arasında yanlışın ve hatanın en sık görüldüğü strateji ise denklem kurma stratejisi iken en az görüldüğü stratejiler örüntü bulma ile bilinçli tahmin ve kontrol stratejileridir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Problem çözme, strateji, rutin problem, rutin olmayan problem

Giriş Problem çözme, matematiksel düşünmenin ilk adımıdır. Problem çözme ile öğrenciler kazandıkları bilgileri yeni durumlarda kolaylıkla kullanabilirler. Problem, çözüm yolu önceden bilinen bir alıştırma ve sorudan ziyade, öğrencinin mevcut bilgileri ile akıl yürütme becerilerini kullanmasını gerektirir (MEB, 2013). Bu anlamada, matematik öğretiminin odak noktası problem çözme öğretimidir ve problem çözme öğretimi dört işlem problemlerinin yanı sıra çözüm stratejilerini tanıma ve kullanmayı da içermektedir (Altun, 2010). Eğitimcilerin çoğu problem çözmek için gösterilen çabayı, öğrenme ve düşünme açısından önemli bulmaktadır (Ersoy & Güner, 2014). Problem çözme, problemi cevaplamak için yeterli algoritma ve yöntemlerin edinilmesi ile çözüm aşamasındaki süreçlerin tümünü kapsar (Polya, 1997). Fakat bütün problemlerin çözümünde kullanılan belirli bir yol ya da yöntem yoktur (Gür & Hangül, 2015). Öğrenciler çözüm sürecinde kendilerine yakın gördükleri birçok yola başvurabilmektedir. Uygun problem çözme stratejilerinin kullanımı problem çözmeyi kolaylaştırmakta ve öğrencilerden başarılı sonuçlar elde edilmesine yardımcı olmaktadır (Yazgan, 2007). Bu sebeple problem çözme stratejisi, problem çözme sürecinin önemli unsurlarından biri olarak görülmektedir. Problemler incelendiğinde, bazılarının çözümü düşünmeyi ve kritik etmeyi gerektirirken, bazıları ise emek sarf etmeksizin kolayca çözülebilmektedir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında

1 Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi, Türkiye. 105

problemler, rutin ve rutin olmayan problemler şeklinde iki kısımda incelenmektedir (Altun, 2011). Rutin problemler daha çok alıştırma niteliğinde olup öğrencilerin öğrendiklerini pekiştirme amacıyla kullanılırken; rutin olmayan problemler ise bilinen bir yöntem veya formül ile çözülemeyen, çözümü, öğrencinin verileri dikkatli analiz etmesini, yaratıcı bir girişimde bulunmasını, bir veya daha fazla stratejiyi kullanmasını gerektirmektedir (Artut & Tarım, 2006). Öğrencilerin bilgilerini pekiştirmesi için rutin problemlerin yanında öğrendiklerini yeni durumlarda kullanabilmeleri ve düşünme becerilerini geliştirmeleri için ise rutin olmayan problemlerin de öğretimde kullanılması oldukça önemlidir. Rutin olmayan matematiksel problemler ilköğretim okullarında matematik programlarının önemli bir kısmını oluşturur. Bu tür problemlerin programda yer almasının en önemli nedeni; çocuklara gerçek hayatta karşılaştıkları problemleri çözerken, okulda öğrendikleri bilgi ve becerileri kullanmayı gerektirmesidir. Çoğu öğretmenler rutin problemlere daha çok yer verirken, rutin olmayan problemlere derslerinde yeterli miktarda yer vermemektedirler. Dolayısıyla okullarda öğrenciler rutin problemlerle daha çok karşılaşmakta ve mantıksal muhakeme yapma, akıl yürütme, gerçek hayatla ilişkilendirme gibi süreçlerden uzak kalmaktadırlar (Altun ve Arslan, 2006). Problem çözme stratejisi, problemin nasıl çözüleceğine dair yapılan bir tasarım ve olaylardaki ilişkilendirmelerden ibarettir. Dolayısıyla problem çözme sürecinde öğrencilerin mantıksal muhakeme yapma, akıl yürütme ve gerçek hayatla ilişkilendirme gibi düşünme becerilerini istenilen düzeyde kullanmaları hedeflenmektedir. Bir problemin çözümünde bazen bir, bazen birkaç strateji birlikte kullanılır. Bazen de aynı problemin çözümüne farklı stratejiler uygun düşebilir. Bu stratejilerden bazıları aşağıdaki gibidir (Altun, 2000; Baykul, 2014; Arslan & Yazgan, 2016):  Düzenli bir liste yapma  Tahmin ve kontrol  Şema, şema ya da diyagram çizme  Örüntü (bağıntı) bulma  Denklem kurma  Problemi basitleştirme ve küçük parçalara ayırma  Geriye doğru çalışma  Tablo oluşturma

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Bu çalışmada, ilköğretim sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerinin rutin olmayan matematiksel problemlerin çözümünde hangi stratejileri ne düzeyde kullandıklarının tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Yöntem Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden özel durum çalışması deseni kullanılmıştır. Katılımcılar Çalışma, iki farklı okulda öğrenim gören 40 sekizinci sınıf öğrencisi ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu okulların başarı durumları 5 üzerinden değerlendirildiğinde A Ortaokulu’ndaki öğrencilerin başarı ortalaması 3 ile 4 arasında iken, B Ortaokulu’ndaki öğrencilerin başarı ortalamasının ise 2 ile 3 arasında olduğu belirlenmiştir.

Verilerin Toplanması

Çalışma sürecinde öğrencilere ders kitapları ve çeşitli internet sitelerinden elde edilen toplamda 6 adet rutin olmayan matematiksel problem sorulmuştur. Her problem en az üç farklı stratejiden çözülmekte olup çözümlerde kullanılabilecek stratejiler örüntü bulma, problemi basitleştirme ve küçük parçalara ayırma, bilinçli tahmin ve kontrol, denklem kurma, tablo oluşturma, muhakeme etme, geriye doğru çalışma ve şekil, şema ya da diyagram çizme şeklindedir. Öğrencilere bu soruları çözmeleri için bir ders saati kadar zaman tanınmıştır. Çalışmanın verileri öğrencilerin cevap kâğıtlarının ayrıntılı incelenmesiyle elde edilmiştir. Verilerin Analizi Çalışmada betimsel analiz yöntemi kullanılmış olup öğrencilerin her bir problem karşısında kullandıkları stratejiler; tam çözüm, eksik çözüm ve yetersiz çözüm kategorileri altında incelenmiştir. Öğrencilerin problemlere verdikleri yanıtlar önce öğrencilerin hangi stratejileri kullandıkları tespit edilerek değerlendirilmiş, ardından kullanılan stratejinin doğruluk düzeyi kontrol edilmiştir. Problem çözmedeki bilişsel süreci analiz etmek adına çalışmada öğrenci sözel ifadeleri ve çözümleri ayrıntılı olarak incelenmiştir. Bulgular Bu bölümde öğrencilerin çözüm süreçlerinden bazı kesitlere ve açıklamalara yer verilmiştir:

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Denklem kurma stratejisi: Tam çözüm

Şekil 1. Denklem kurma stratejisinin doğru kullanımı

Şekle göre Ö1, denklem kurma stratejisini kullanmış ve 7 gün boyunca artan 500 metreyi bulup 8. gün koştuğu toplam mesafeden çıkararak tam çözüm yapmıştır. Öğrenci bu şekilde doğru sonuca ulaşmıştır. Geriye doğru çalışma stratejisi: Tam çözüm

Şekil 2. Geriye doğru çalışma stratejisinin doğru kullanımı

Şekle göre Ö2, 8. gün koştuğu toplam mesafeden her bir gün için 500 metre çıkararak ilk gün ne kadar mesafe koştuğuna ulaşmış ve tam çözüm ile doğru sonucu bulmuştur.

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Örüntü kurma stratejisi: Tam çözüm

Şekil 3. Örüntü bulma stratejisinin doğru kullanımı

Şekle göre Ö3, ilk günden başlayarak her gün 500 metre arttırarak 8. gün koştuğu mesafeye eşitleyerek tam çözüm yapmıştır ve doğru sonuca ulaşmıştır. Muhakeme etme stratejisi: Eksik çözüm

Şekil 4. Muhakeme etme stratejisinin eksik kullanımı

Şekle göre Ö23, toplam sayfa sayısından, bazı sayfalar koptuktan sonraki sayfa sayılarının toplamını çıkararak kopan yaprakların üzerindeki sayfa sayılarının toplamını bulmuş ve çözümü burada bırakmıştır. Öğrenci eksik çözüm yaptığı için doğru sonuca ulaşamamıştır. Denklem kullanma stratejisi: Eksik çözüm

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Şekil 5. Denklem kurma stratejisinin eksik kullanımı Şekle göre Ö19, tek bir değişken kullanma yolu ile tek bir cebirsel ifade oluşturup gerekli işlemleri uygulayarak doğru sonuca ulaşmaya çalışmış ancak işlem adımlarını doğru uygulayamadığı için çözüm eksik kalmıştır. Dolayısıyla öğrenci doğru sonuca ulaşamamıştır. Şekil, şema ya da diyagram çizme stratejisi: Yanlış çözüm

Şekil 6. Şekil, şema ya da diyagram çizme stratejisinin yanlış kullanımı Şekle göre Ö15, merdivenin basamaklarını şekillendirip verileri şekil üzerinde uygulamayı hedeflemiştir. Fakat hesaplama ve gösterimleri öğrenciyi doğru sonuca ulaştıramadığından yanlış çözüm yapılmıştır.

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Denklem kurma stratejisi: Yanlış çözüm

Şekil 7. Denklem kurma stratejisinin yanlış kullanımı Şekle göre Ö6 ilk gün koştuğu mesafeye ‘x’ diyerek her gün 500 metre arttırmış, 8. güne kadar gelmeyi denklem halinde gösterip işlem yaparak problemi çözmeye çalışmıştır. Fakat 500 metre arttırdığı gün sayısını 8 saydığı için yanlış çözüm yapmış ve doğru sonuca ulaşamamıştır. Sonuç, Tartışma ve Öneriler Çalışma sonuçları değerlendirildiğinde öğrencilerin problem çözümlerinde denklem kurma, geriye doğru çalışma, örüntü kurma, muhakeme etme ve şekil, şema ya da diyagram çizme stratejilerine başvurdukları; bu stratejilerin bir kısmını doğru kullandıkları, bir kısmını ise yanlış ya da eksik kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir. Başvurulan stratejiler arasında öğrencilerin en çok denklem kurma stratejisini benimsedikleri görülmüştür. Diğer stratejilere oranla denklem kurma stratejisinin daha yoğun kullanılması, öğrencilerin denklem kurmayı daha güvenilir bir yol olarak seçmelerinden kaynaklanabilir. Denklem kurmaya derslerde bir konu olarak yer verilmesi ve öğrencilerin denklem kurma ile problem çözmeyi kestirme bir yol olarak düşünmesi, bu stratejinin sıklıkla kullanılmasının farklı sebepleri olarak gösterilebilir. Denklem kurma stratejisi öğrenciler tarafından sıklıkla kullanılmasına rağmen öğrencilerin önemli bir kısmı bu stratejiyi yanlış kullanmıştır. Öğrencilerin problemleri dört işlem gerektiren problemlermiş gibi algılamaları ve rutin problemlere verilen cevaplara benzer olarak çözümleme yapmaya kendilerini şartlamış olmaları, öğrencileri ister istemez eksik veya yetersiz çözüm yapmaya itmiş olabilir. 111

Öğrencilerin diğer başvurdukları stratejiler arasında geriye doğru çalışma, örüntü bulma ve muhakeme etme stratejileri öğrenciler tarafından rahatça kullanılabilmiştir. İlkokuldan kalma alışkanlıkların, bu türde soruların çözümünü kolaylaştırabileceği düşünülmektedir (Gür & Hangül, 2015). Şekil, şema ya da diyagram çizme stratejisi öğrenciler tarafından tercih edilmesine rağmen çoğu öğrenci tarafından yanlış çözümlenmiştir. Bazı problemlerin uzun metinli olması ve çok veri içermesi, bu türde problemlerin çözülmesini güçleştirebilir. Soru metinlerinin öğrencilerin seviye ve yaşları ile uygun olmaması da bu tür problemlerin çözümünü zorlaştıran nedenler arasında sayılabilir. Çalışma sonucunda öğrencilerin rutin olmayan problemlerin çözümünde büyük güçlükler yaşadıkları ve problem çözme stratejilerini doğru ve etkili bir şekilde kullanamadıkları görülmüştür. Benzer sonuçlara farklı araştırmalarda da rastlanmıştır (De Bock, Verschaffel & Janssens, 1998; Elia vd., 2009; Erdoğan, 2015). Rutin problemlere derslerde sıklıkla yer verilmesi öğrencileri bir problemle karşılaştıklarında çoğu kez kullanılacak bir kural hatırlamaya itmektedir (Gür & Hangül, 2015). Dolayısı ile öğrenciler yeni durumlara adapte etme konusunda sıkıntı yaşamaktadır. Öğrenciye problem çözmeyle ilgili stratejileri tanıtmak ve bunları kullanabilmeyi öğretmek, bu tür sorunların giderilmesi için yol gösterici olabilir (Altun, 2010). Problem çözmenin önemi öğretim programında vurgulanmasına rağmen, uygulama bazında bu tür problemlere ve çözüm stratejilerine çok nadir rastlanmaktadır (Altun, Bintaş, Yazgan ve Arslan, 2004). Derslerde test türü alıştırmalara sıklıkla yer verilmesi, öğrencilerin daha önce karşılaşmadıkları tarzda soruları çözerken zorlanmalarına ve açık uçlu sorularda mantık yürütememelerine neden olabilir. Bütün bu sıkıntıların yaşanmaması için öğrenciler matematik derslerinde açık uçlu problemlerle olabildiğince fazla karşılaştırılmalı ve soruların çözüm sürecinde bizzat yer almaları sağlanmalıdır (Gür & Hangül, 2015). Öğretmenler ise öğrenciye problem çözmenin sistematiğini kavratmalı ve bu sistematiği kullanırken başvurulabilecek stratejileri kullanma becerileri kazandırmalıdır (Altun, 2010).

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Kaynaklar Altun, M., Bintaş, J., Yazgan, Y. & Arslan C. (2004). İlköğretim çağındaki çocuklarda problem çözme gelişiminin incelenmesi (Proje no: AFP 2001/37). Bursa: Uludağ Üniversitesi, Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Birimi. Altun, M. (2000). İlköğretimde problem çözme öğretimi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 147, 27-33. Altun, M. (2010). İlköğretim 2. kademede (6.7. 8. sınıflarda) matematik öğretimi. Ankara: Alfa Aktüel Yayınevi. Altun, M. (2011). Eğitim fakülteleri ve lise matematik öğretmenleri için liselerde matematik öğretimi (17. Baskı). Bursa: Aktüel Alfa. Altun, M., & Arslan, Ç. (2006). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin problem çözme stratejilerini öğrenmeleri üzerine bir çalışma. Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19(1), 1-21. Artut, P. D., & Tarım, K. (2006). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin rutin olmayan sözel problemleri çözme düzeylerinin çözüm stratejilerinin ve hata türlerinin incelenmesi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2), 39-50. Arslan, Ç., & Yazgan, Y. (2016). Matematiksel Sıradışı Problem Çözme Stratejileri ve Örnekleri. Pegem Akademi, Ankara. Baykul, Y. (2014). İlkokulda matematik öğretimi. Pegem Akademi. De Bock, D., Verschaffel, L. & Janssens, D. (1998). The predominance of the linear model in secondary school students‟ solutions of word problems involving length and area of similar plane figures. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 35, 65-83. Elia, I., van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M. & Kolovou, A. (2009). Exploring strategy use and strategy flexibility in non-routine problem-solving by primary school high achievers in mathematics. ZDM The International Journal of Mathematics Education, 41, 605-618. Erdoğan, A. (2015). Turkish primary school students‟ strategies in solving a non-routine mathematical problem and some implications for the curriculum design and implementation. International Journal forMathematics Teaching and Learning, 1-27. Ersoy, E., & Güner, P. (2014). Matematik öğretimi ve matematiksel düşünme. Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3(2), 102-112. Gür, H., & Hangül, T. (2015). Ortaokul ögrencilerinin problem çözme stratejileri üzerine bir çalisma. Pegem Egitim ve Ogretim Dergisi= Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 5(1), 95. Milli Eğitim Baknlığı [MEB]. (2013). Ortaokul matematik dersi (5, 6, 7 ve 8.sınıflar) öğretim programı. Ankara. Polya, G. (1997). Nasıl çözmeli? (Çev: F. Halatçı). İstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık. Yazgan, Y. (2007). Dördüncü ve beşinci sınıf öğrencilerinin rutin olmayan problem çözme stratejileriyle ilgili gözlemler. İlköğretim Online, 6(2), 249-263.

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MATEMATİKSEL PROBLEM ÇÖZME SÜRECİNDE BİR ÖĞRETMEN ADAYININ ÖĞRENCİYİ YÖNLENDİRME YAKLAŞIMLARI

Fatma Cumhur1

Özet Bu çalışmanın amacı, bir öğretmen adayının matematiksel problem çözme sürecinde öğrenciyi çözüme yaklaştıracak yönlendirici yaklaşımlarını incelemektir. Çalışmada ilköğretim matematik öğretmenliğinde öğrenim gören bir öğretmen adayının üç ortaokul öğrencisi ile problem çözme sürecinde yaptığı diyaloglar dikkate alınmıştır. Bu diyaloglar yazıya dökülerek öğretmen adayının ne tür yaklaşımlar sergilediği ve daha çok hangi türde sorulara yer verdiği ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. Veriler, içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. Çalışma sonucunda öğretmen adayının çoğunlukla problemin anlaşılması, uygun stratejilerin seçilmesi ve uygulanması aşamasında uygun yönlendirmeler yaptığını ve bu amaçla farklı soru türlerine yer verdiğini ortaya koymuştur. Anahtar kelimeler: Problem çözme, yönlendirici yaklaşımlar, öğretmen adayı

Giriş Problem çözme, ön bilgi ve deneyimlerin kullanılmasıyla matematiksel bilgiyi pekiştiren, genişleten ve derinleştiren bir öğrenme sürecidir. Polya (1997) problem çözmeyi hedefe en makul yoldan ulaşmak için yapılabilecek hamlelerin bilinçli olarak araştırılması olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Problem çözmenin pek çok bilişsel süreçleri de içeren bir matematiksel etkinlik süreci olduğu düşünülürse, problem çözme sürecinde öğretmene önemli görevler düştüğü söylenebilir. Bu anlamda öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarının problem çözmeye dair pedagojik bilgilerinin güçlü olması beklenmektedir (Biber, Aylar, Ay & İspir, 2017). Swing, Stoiber ve Peterson (1988), matematiksel bilgiyi anlama ve bu bilgiler arasındaki ilişkinin oluşturulmasında problem çözmenin önemli olduğunu ifade etmektedirler. Problem çözme, öğrencilerin matematiksel bilgisinin sorgulanmasında önemli bir role sahiptir ve öğrencinin problem cümlesini anlaması, çözüm için gerekli verileri seçmesi, problemi cevaplaması ve bu cevabın mantıklı olup olmadığına karar vermesi gibi önemli bilişsel süreçleri kapsamaktadır (Baki, 2006). Öğretmenler, problem çözme sürecinde öğrencilerin anlamalarını ilerletmek ve kavramlar arasında ilişkilendirme yapmalarını sağlamak gibi amaçlarla çoğu kez sorulardan yararlanmaktadırlar (Ilaria, 2009). Ayrıca Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB] (2013)’de problem çözme, akıl yürütme, ilişkilendirme ve öğrencinin cevabını dinleyerek onlarla iletişim becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik öğretmen davranışlarına vurgu yapılmaktadır. Bu davranışlara bağlı olarak öğretmenler ister istemez soru sormaya ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Burada söz konusu

1 Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi, Türkiye. 114

olan öğretmenin hangi soru türünü seçeceği değil, öğrenci ile diyaloğu nasıl geliştirebileceğidir (Moyer & Milewicz, 2002; Sonmez, 2019). Dantonio ve Beisenherz (2001) bu süreci öğretmenin öğrencilerin yanıtını basit bir şekilde duymak istemesi yerine, onları verdikleri yanıtlara karşı eleştirel düşünmeye teşvik etme olarak ifade etmiştir. Bu bağlamda problem çözme sürecinde kullanılan sorular, öğretmenin yönlendirici yaklaşımının kalitesine de vurgu yapmaktadır. Bu süreçte eğitimciler, üretici, etkileyici ve düşündürücü sorularla yönlendirme konusunda yetenekli olmalıdır (Martino & Maher, 1999). Öğretmenin soruları ile öğrenciyi yönlendirmesi ve öğrencinin yeni şeyler keşfetmesini sağlaması, yeni eğitim sisteminin amaçları arasında yer almaktadır (MEB, 2013). Yönlendirici yaklaşımın amacı öğrencilere kendi düşüncelerini ve öğrenme süreçlerini sorular aracılığıyla açığa çıkarmada yardımcı olmak (Ge & Land, 2003) ve öğrencilerin çözüme ulaşmaya çalışırken seçtikleri yöntem ve stratejilerin uygun olup olmadığı hakkında karar vermelerini kolaylaştırmaktır (Lin & Lehman, 1999). Öğretmenler bu yaklaşımı kullanarak ön bilgileri hatırlama, sorgulama, ilişkilendirme, bağlantı kurma, kavram yanılgılarını belirleme ve değerlendirme gibi amaçlarla öğrencileri süreç içerisine daha hızlı katabilmektedir (Rosenshine, Meister & Chapman, 1996). Bu çalışmanın amacı, bir öğretmen adayının problem çözme sürecinde öğrencileri çözüme yaklaştıracak yönlendirici yaklaşımlarını incelemek ve bu süreçte daha çok hangi türde sorulara başvurduğunu ortaya çıkarmaktır. Yöntem Bu çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden özel durum çalışması benimsenmiştir. Katılımcılar Çalışmanın katılımcılarını bir devlet üniversindeki ilköğretim matematik öğretmenliği son sınıfında öğrenim gören bir öğretmen adayı oluşturmaktadır. Verilerin Toplanması Çalışmada öğretmen adayının üç ortaokul öğrencisine yönlendirdiği 3 rutin olmayan problem karşısında öğrencilerle oluşturduğu diyaloglar dikkate alınmış ve bu diyaloglar yazıya dökülerek öğretmen adayının ne tür yaklaşımlar sergilediği ve daha çok hangi sorulara yer verdiği ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu şekilde her bir problem çözme süreci farklı zamanlarda yaklaşık 20-30 dakikalık süreler içerisinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Verilerin Analizi Verilerin analizinde içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Bu anlamda öğretmen adayının öğrencilerle görüşmelerinden elde edilen yazılı dökümler dikkatlice incelenmiş ve hangi yönlendirici yaklaşımlarda bulunduğu ortaya konulmaya çalışımıştır. Öğretmen adayının

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problem çözme sürecinde öğrencilere hangi soruları sorduğu, yönlendirici yaklaşımının genel yapısını ortaya koymuştur. Bulgular Öğretmen adayı, problem çözme sırasında öğrencilerin düşüncelerini ortaya koymak ve karşılaştıkları güçlükleri aşarak onları çözüme ulaştırmak için genellikle soru sormayı tercih etmiştir. Verilerden ortaya çıkan soru türleri incelendiğinde öğretmen adayının genellikle öğrencileri çözüme yönlendirmek ve cevaplarını sorgulamak amaçlı sorular kullandığı ortaya çıkmıştır. Aşağıda öğretmen adayının problem çözme sürecinde öğrencileri yönlendirirken kullandıkları yaklaşımlardan bazı kesitler sunulmuştur. Öğretmen adayı problemi yönelttikten sonra öncelikle öğrencinin anlayıp anlamadığını ortaya çıkarmaya yönelik yaklaşımlar sergilemişlerdir. Örneğin,

Öğretmen adayı: Soruyu okuyup anladın mı? Öğrenci: Evet hocam Öğretmen adayı: Açıklar mısın? Öğrenci: İlk dakika 100 kuruş sonraki dakikalarda 20 kuruş ama t süre ne demek? Öğretmen Adayı: t süre demek bir dakika da konuşsan 10 dakika da konuşsan herhangi bir süre için sağlayan bir durum demek, değişken olduğu için x, y, z gibi bir harf kullanırız.

Diyalogdan görüldüğü üzere öğrenci ilk etapta problemi anladığını belirtmiş ancak öğretmen adayının açıklama istemesi üzerinde problemi tam olarak anlamadığı ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu durum sorunun anlaşılması için ‘soruyu anladınız mı?’ gibi soruların yetersiz olduğunu bunun yerine ‘sorudan ne anladınız?’ gibi ayrıntılı cevap isteyen sorulara gereksinim duyulduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Takip eden süreçte öğretmen adayı çözüm için ne gibi stratejiler geliştirilebileceğini ortaya koyacak şekilde sorular yöneltmiştir. Örneğin,

Öğretmen Adayı: Peki bu soruyu çözmek istesen nasıl bir yol izlerdin, hangi işlemleri kullanırdın? Öğrenci1: Öğretmenim bu soruda ben bölme işlemini kullanırdım. Öğretmen adayı: Peki, neden bölme işlemini kullanırdın bu işlemi tercih etmenin nedeni nedir?

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Öğrenci 1: Çünkü öğretmenim burada kişileri bölüm bölüm yukarı çıkarmalıyız. Yani sefer sayısını bu şekilde bulabiliriz diye düşündüm.

Burada öğretmen adayının öğrencinin çözüm stratejisini daha sorgulayıcı bir yaklaşımla ortaya koymayı amaçladığı görülmektedir. Genel olarak öğretmen adayı strateji geliştirme bağlamında öğrencilerin düşüncelerini genellikle açığa çıkarmaya çalışmış, ancak geniş ve detaylı bilgi gerektirecek sorulara daha az yer vermiştir. Öğretmen adayının bu süreçte verilenler ile istenenler arasında bağlantı kurmaya ya da öğrencilerin çözüm stratejilerini tartışmaya yönelik herhangi bir yaklaşımda bulunmadığı dikkat çekmiştir. Diğer bir adım olarak öğrencilerden geiştirdikleri stratejiyi uygulamaları beklenir. Bu süreçte öğretmen adayı öğrencinin çözüm sürecini takip eder, eksiklik varsa bu eksiklikleri düzeltecek şekilde yönlendirmelerde bulunur. Örneğin,

Öğrenci: Nasıl bulacağımı bilmiyorum. Öğretmen adayı: Peki ben sana açıklayayım birlikte bulalım. Öğretmen adayı: Ürün sayımıza x diyelim, peki her ürün kaç saniyede okutuluyormuş. Öğrenci:3 Öğretmen adayı: Öyleyse toplam ürün kaç saniyede okutulur? Öğrenci: 3.x Öğretmen adayı: Şimdi paketleme süremiz ne kadar? Öğrenci: 20 Öğretmen adayı: Peki sırada 6. kişi sen isen kaç kişi beklersin? Öğrenci: 5

Diyalog incelendiğinde öğrencinin cevabından çözüme nasıl yaklaşacağını bilemediği anlaşılmaktadır. Bunun üzerinde öğretmen adayı öğrenciyi adım adım çözüme ulaştıracak şekilde sorular sormayı tercih etmiştir. Bu sorular incelendiğinde, öğretmen adayının öğrencinin problem çözme ve cebirsel muhakeme becerilerini geliştirecek yönlendirmelerde bulunmadığı anlaşılmıştır. Bunun yerine öğretmen adayının öğrenciyi cevap alınmasını kolaylaştıracak şekilde ipucu niteliğindeki sorularla doğrudan çözüme ulaştırdığı görülmüştür. Farklı bir diyalogda,

Öğretmen Adayı: istersen sen önce 10 dakika için çöz sonra yerine değişkeni yazalım. 117

Öğrenci: 10-1=9, 9.20=180, 180+100=280 Öğretmen adayı: Neden 1’den çıkardın? Öğrenci: Çünkü ilk dakikası zaten belli Öğretmen adayı: O zaman 10 değil de t olsaydı gene bir çıkarma gerekirdi. O zaman t zamanda belli olan 1 dakikayı çıkararak cebirsel olarak yaz bakalım Öğrenci: t-1 Öğretmen adayı: Sonra 9 ile neden 20 yi çarptın? Öğrenci: Çünkü geri kalanlar için 20 saniyeymiş

Diyaloğa göre öğretmen adayının çözüm sürecinde öğrencinin cevabını sorgulamayı gerektiren sorular kullandığı görülmektedir. Bu durum öğretmen adayının problemdeki nicelikler arası ilişkileri görmeyi sağlayacak sorulara yer verdiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Farklı bir diyaloda,

Öğretmen: O zaman t-1 ile ne yapmalısın? Öğrenci: t-1.20 Öğretmen adayı: t-1.20 ile (t-1).20 birbirine eşit mi ? Öğrenci: Evet Öğretmen adayı: Bir çarp bakalım eşit mi? Öğrenci: t-20 , 20t-20 Öğretmen adayı: Eşit miymiş? Öğrenci: Hayır ama peki hocam hangisi doğru? Öğretmen adayı: Biz 10 dan 1 i çıkarıp tamamını 20 ile çarptık yani ne olmalı? Öğrenci: Tamamını çarpmalıyım o zaman (t-1).20

Diyalogda verilen cevaba göre öğrencinin kavram yanılgısına sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Bunu fark eden öğretmen adayı ise öğrenciye hatasını doğrudan söylemek yerine bunu kendisinin görmesini sağlayacak sorulara yer verdiği anlaşılmaktadır. Öğretmen adayının öğrencide oluşan kavram yanılgısını gidermeyi amaçladığı ve sorularıyla bu amacına ulaştığı görülmektedir. Farklı bir diyalogda,

Öğretmen adayı: Arkadaşlar soruyu iyi anladınız fakat çözümün bir yerinde yanlış bir şekilde düşündünüz. Peki arkadaşlar yanlış düşündüğünüz kısım neresi olabilir bunu bana açıklamak isteyen var mı? 118

Öğrenci 2: Ama öğretmenim bölme işlemi bu soru için doğru bir yol biz kalansız olarak bu soruya benzer bir problem çözmüştük.

Öğretmen adayının öğrencilere çözümün bir yerinde yanlış düşündüklerini belirtmesi, öğrencileri soruya yeniden odaklarını göstermektedir. Ancak öğretmen adayının ‘bir yerde hata yaptınız’ şeklinde genel bir ifade kullanması ve özel noktalara değinmemesi, öğrencilerin tam olarak neye odaklanacakları konusunda yetersiz kalmıştır. Farklı bir diyalogda,

Öğretmen adayı: Peki arkadaşlar bu soruda size örnek vereyim. Siz 12 kişi sınıfça bir lokantaya yemeğe gidiyorsunuz ve lokantadaki asansör sadece 5 kişi taşıyabiliyor bu soruyu nasıl çözersiniz. Öğrenci 3: Öğretmenim 12 yi 5 e böldüm 2 kalanı var. Yine ondalıklı bir sayı geliyor. Öğretmen adayı: Şöyle düşünelim arkadaşlar mesela o kalan 2 kişi siz ikiniz olun, aşağıda sadece siz kaldınız nasıl yukarı çıkarsınız. İşaret edilen iki öğrenci: Bizde ayrı bir asansör ile yukarı çıkarız öğrenmenim. Öğretmen adayı: Doğru arkadaşlar yani kaç sefer olacak. Öğrenci: Toplamda 3 sefer olacak Öğretmen adayı: Aferin çocuklar şimdi bu sorunun çözümü gibi çözüm aşamalarını kendi sorumuz için de uygulamaya çalışalım Öğrenci4: Öğretmenim o zaman sorumuzun cevabı 10 olur çünkü kalan 12 kişi de ayrı bir sefer yapar.

Öğrencilerin cevabı bulamaması üzerine öğretmen adayı daha basit örnek verme yoluna gitmiş ve öğrencileri de olayın içine katarak problem ile günlük hayat arasında bağlantı kurmaya çalışmıştır. Öğretmen adayının basitleştirme yaparak bağlantı kurma stratejilerine yer vermesi öğrencilerin problemi çözmesine katkı sağlamıştır. Farklı bir diyalogda,

Öğretmen adayı: Arkadaşlar bu soruyu uygulamalı olarak çözelim. Şimdi sırayla herkes yedişer kişi olarak şu taraftan çıksın. Öğrenci 2: Öğretmenim ben ve arkadaşım burada kaldık biz ne yapacağız. Öğretmen adayı: Sizce arkadaşlar arkadaşlarınız bu adımda ne yapmalıdır? Öğrenci 4: Hocam onlar da ayrı bir sefer olarak asansörle gelebilir. Yani hocam cevap 4 sefer olacaktır. 119

Bu diyalogda sonucu ısrarla yanlış söyleyen öğrencilere karşılık öğretmen adayı, öğrencilerin problemi uygulaması ve canlandırmasına yönelik yaklaşımlar sergilemiştir. Bu yaklaşımında öğretmen adayının problemdeki değerler yerine uygulama ortamına uygun değerler alması, öğrencilerin problemi daha iyi anlamasını sağlamıştır. Öğretmen adayı öğrencilerin problemi uygulamaları esnasında aynı zamanda öğrencilerin çözüm stratejilerini ortaya koyacak yaklaşımlarda bulunmuştur. Öğrencinin hatalı cevabına karşılık olarak günlük hayatla bağlantı kuracak sorularla öğrencinin hatasını görmesini sağlamıştır. Canlandırma yoluyla problemdeki nicelikler arasında bağlantı kurmayı sağlayan öğrencilerin doğru sonuca ulaştığı görülmüştür. Farklı bir diyaloda,

Öğretmen adayı: Sorunun çözümü bana tekrardan anlatır mısın? Öğrenci: Öğretmenim şimdi ilk dakika 100 kuruş olduğu için onun ücreti belli, diğer dakikalar t-1, ilk bir dakikayı bu cebirsel ifadeden çıkardık. 100’ü yazacağız hocam daha sonra da diğer dakikalar için bu t-1 ‘i 20 ile çarpacağız. Borçta 100+ 20.(t-1) olacak. Öğretmen adayı: Aferin sana anlattıklarımı çok iyi anlamışsın. Çözümün doğru. Öğrenci: Oley bee.

Bu diyalogda öğretmen adayının öğrenciye sorunun çözümünü kendi ifadeleri ile anlattırdığı ve anlaşılmayan noktaları ortaya çıkarmaya çalıştığı görülmektedir. Tartışma, Sonuç ve Öneriler Çalışmada öğretmen adayının öğrencileri problem çözmeye yardımcı olan yaklaşımları incelendiğinde bazı adımlara bağlı kaldığı dikkat çekmektedir. Bu adımlara göre öğretmen adayı ilk olarak problemin anlaşılması, ardından ise uygulanması ve sonucun değerlendirilmesini sağlayacak yaklaşımlar sergilemiştir. Bu esnada öğretmen adayı öğrenciyi yönledirirken genel olarak soru sorma yolunu tercih etmiştir. Öğretmen adayı ilk olarak problemin anlaşılıp anlaşılmadığını ve çözüm için ne gibi stratejiler kullanılabileceğini sorgulamış ardından öğrencilerin çözümlerini takip ederek çözüm esnasında karşılaştıkları güçlüklere anında müdahale etme girişiminde bulunmuştur. Bu esnasında öğretmen adayı yönlendirme, sorgulama, kavram yanılgılarını belirleme, yeniden odaklama, bağlantı kurma ve canlandırma amaçlarına hizmet eden sorular kullanmıştır. Söz konusu soru türleri incelendiğinde öğrenmen adayının öğrencileri başarı ile sonuca ulaştırdığı söylenebilir. Ancak soruların yapısı olarak bazılarının öğrencileri düşünmeye daha çok sevk ettiğini söylemek 120

mümkündür. Çünkü süreç içerisinde öğretmen adayının sohbetin ilerleyişini kontrol altına almakta güçlük yaşadığı söylenebilir. Öğretmen adayının böyle durumlarda düşündürücü olmaktan ziyade daha çok açıklama niteliğinde olan sorulara başvurması bu durumu doğrular niteliktedir. Açıklama niteliğindeki sorular ise içerisinde cevabı gizli olduğu düşünüldüğünde öğrenciyi düşünmekten uzaklaştırabilmektedir. Oysaki etkili sorular öğrencilerin üst düzey düşünmesini kolaylaştırabilmektedir (Yenmez vd., 2017). Stratejiyi uygulama esnasında öğretmen adayı, öğrencilerin anlamakta güçlük yaşadıkları noktalarda kavram yanılgılarını belirleme, bağlantı kurma, yeniden odaklama ve canlandırma gibi yaklaşımlar sergilemeyi tercih etmiştir. Öğretmen adayı öğrencilerine bir problem çözdürürken o probleme çeşitli yönlerden bakabilmelerini amaçlamıştır. Öğrencilerin yanılgı yaşadığı yerlerde sorularla araya girerek yanlışını görmelerini sağlamıştır. Benzer sonuç Kayan ve Çakıroğlu (2008) çalışmasında da görülmektedir. García, Maass ve Wake (2010) çözüm sürecinde zorlanan öğrencilere karşı kullanılacak yönlendiricilerin öğretmenin sorumluluğunda olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Özellikle günlük hayatla bağlantı kurma ya da canladırma yapmaları, öğrencilerin durumu somutlaştırmasında etkili olmuştur. Benzer sonuçlar Yenmez, vd., (2017) ve Galbraith and Stillman (2006) çalışmalarında da görülmektedir. Ancak cevaptan uzaklaşıldığı durumlarda öğrencileri probleme tekrar odaklamak için ‘bir yerde hatanız var?’ şeklindeki sorular, öğrencilerin kilit noktaya odaklanmasında başarısız kalmıştır. Böyle bir durumda öğretmen adayının hatalı yere vurgu yapması ve öğrencileri hatanın boyutlarına odaklaması, daha etkili cevaplar alınmasını sağlayabilir. Öğretmen adayı son adım olarak problemin çözümünün anlaşılırlığın kontrol edecek yaklaşımlar sergilemiş ve buna yönelik sorular kullanmıştır. Ancak problemin ek çözüm yollarını araştıracak yaklaşımlar sergilememiştir. Öğretmen adayı, öğrenciler çözümleme yaptıklarında bu çözüm yolunun yeterli olduğunu düşünmüş ve ek stratejiler geliştirecek sorulara gerek duymamış olabilir. Öğretmen adayının problem çözme sürecini kısa zamanda tamamlamak istemesi ve tek cevabı yeterli görmesi, onun değerlendirme aşamasında yetersiz kalmasına sebep olabilir. Benzer şekilde bazı araştırmalarda öğretmen adaylarının problem çözme sürecine sonuç odaklı baktıkları gözlemlenmiştir (Biber vd., 2017). Çalışma sonucunda öğretmen adaylarının yönlendirici yaklaşımlarının geliştirilmesine olanak sağlayacak uygulama ortamlarının zenginleştirilmesi ve öğretmen adaylarının bu tür çalışmalar yapmaya teşvik edilmesi önerilmektedir.

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Kaynaklar Baki, A. (2006). Kuramdan uygulamaya matematik eğitimi. Trabzon: Derya Kitabevi. Biber, B. T., Aylar, E., Ay, Z. S. & İspir, O. A. (2017). İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının problem çözmeye dair pedagojik alan bilgilerinin sınıf içi gözlem ve görüşme yoluyla belirlenmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 25(4), 1483-1498. Dantonio, M. & Beisenherz, P. C. (2001). Learning to question, questioning to learn: Developing effective teacher questioning practices. Allyn ve Bacon. Galbraith, P. L. & G. Stillman. (2006). A framework for identifying student blockages during transitions in the modelling process. ZDM – Mathematics Education 38 (2): 143–162. García, F. J., Maass, K. & Wake, G. (2010). Theory meets practice: working pragmatically within different cultures and traditions. In Modeling Students' Mathematical Modeling Competencies, edited by R. Lesh, P. L. Galbraith, C. R. Haines, and A. Hurford, 445–457. New York: Springer. Ge, X. & Land, S. M. (2003). Scaffolding students’ problem-solving processes in an ill-structured task using question prompts and peer interactions. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(1), 21-38. Ilaria, D. R. (2009). Teacher questions that engage students in mathematical conversation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University, New Brunswick. Kayan, F. & Çakıroğlu, E. (2008). İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının matematiksel problem çözmeye yönelik inançları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 35(35), 218-226. Lin, X. & Lehman, J. D. (1999). Supporting learning of variable control in a computer‐based biology environment: Effects of prompting college students to reflect on their own thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 36(7), 837- 858. Martino, A. M. & Maher, C. A. (1999). Teacher questioning to promote justification and generalization in mathematics: What research practice has taught us. Journal of Mathematical Bahavior, 18(1), 53-78. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB]. (2013). Ortaöğretim matematik dersi (9, 10, 11, 12. Sınıflar) öğretim programı. Ankara. Moyer, P. S. & Milewicz, E. (2002). Learning to question: Categories of questioning used by preservice teachers during diagnostic mathematics interviews. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 5, 293-315. Polya, G. (1997). Nasıl çözmeli? (Çev: F. Halatçı). İstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık. Rosenshine, B., Meister, C. & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of educational research, 66(2), 181-221. Sonmez, H. (2019). An Examination of Needs Analysis Research in the Language Education Process. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 7(1), 8-17. Swing, S. R., Stoiber, K. C. & Peterson, P. L. (1988). Thinking skills versus learning time: Effects of alternative classroom-based interventions on students' mathematics problem solving. Cognition and Instruction, 5(2), 123-191. Yenmez, A. A., Erbas, A. K., Cakiroglu, E., Cetinkaya, B. & Alacaci, C. (2017). Mathematics teachers’ knowledge and skills about questioning in the context of modeling activities. Teacher Development, 22(4), 497-518.

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SET OFF THE ALARM ! ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION AND ACTIVE LEARNING AS A POTENTIAL SOLUTION

Dr. Amel Meziane1

Abstract A plethora of empirical studies and white papers have shed light on the set of thorny problems that international higher education is currently facing. One of the focal points that has been recurrently pointed at is pedagogical ineptitude (O’flaherty and Phillips, 2015) i.e. the unsuitability of traditional lecturing and encyclopaedic content, both of which put a considerable strain on university students. The list of consequences associated with such a serious situation includes student disengagement (Barkley, 2010; Coates, 2006, Schullery et al., 2011), high rates of absenteeism (Gump, 2006), low examination scores (Freeman et al., 2014), and striking gaps between university and the reality of professional life (Anderson et al., 2001). The relevant existing literature has already suggested active learning as a remedial measure. Loosely defined as “ anything that involves students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing’ (Bonwell and Eison, 1991:2), active learning has lately gained the attention of researchers, who strongly believe that frontal lecturing has become archaic. It is worth mentioning that the definition of the concept per se has never been as pivotal as the set of suggested teaching methods that may ensure students’ involvement in the learning act. This paper presents the value of active learning in comparison to frontal lecturing in and outside the classroom and suggests three pedagogical methods that can foster learning and achieve high-order educational outcomes (Bloom et al., 1956; Anderson et al., 2001). Keywords: international higher education, active learning, the Flipped Classroom, Peer Instruction, and Project- based Learning.

International higher education and its reported problems The underachievement of various tertiary educational institutions on an international level has set off the emergency alarm and raised serious questions about the suitability of the adopted teaching methods and syllabi in a significantly important number of curricula across various disciplines of studies (Karlsson and Janson, 2016). Upon a close scrutiny, a plethora of articles and white papers have agreed on the following verdict: A striking number of universities are old-school and have to “adapt in ways that meet the conceptual needs of our times” (O’flaherty and Phillips, 2015: 85). The evolution of society from an industrial one to a globally competitive, and digitised one is undeniable (Bachmann, 2018), and yet many educational systems remain stuck in a time warp, unable or unwilling to catch up with the fast speed of today’s ever-changing world. Traditional lecturing is by far the most applied teaching method worldwide. This is quite surprising considering that such a pedagogical approach is ill suited for many reasons. To

1 Zaghouan University, Tunis.

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start with, traditional lecturing induces passive learning. In other words, constant exposure to a factual content results into learners’ decreased concentration, reduced interest, and low motivation (Barkley, 2010; Coates, 2016; Schullery et al., 2011; Young et al., 2009). Meyers and Jones (1993), for instance, report that university students are not attentive to what is being said during the lecture. They retain 70% of the information in the first 10 minutes of a lecture, but only 20% during the last 10 minutes. Since empowerment, one of the five key principles judged pivotal for motivation (Jones, 2009), is missing in frontal lecturing, learners gradually lose interest. As time flows by, their disinterest incrementally manifests itself in the high rates of absenteeism reported by universities (Gump, 2006). Additionally, traditional lecturing has been long criticized for leaving no room for social interaction as teachers are loaded down with the amount of information they have to deliver while students juggle listening and taking notes. The content delivered by university teachers is also unnecessarily cumbersome. The issue is that these same teachers were used to such a condensed and complex bulk of information that they believe that every single detail is essential and find it very hard to summarise and demystify their lectures (Bachmann, 2018). Needless to say that the situation creates a memory overload for most students, who exert themselves to dissect then take in the gist of the lecture during the lecture. Since both parties, who are supposedly involved in the learning act, are racing against time for different reasons, it becomes difficult for them to slow down in order to discuss the lecture’s content. As a consequence, both the teaching and learning experiences fall flat and do not reach all expected goals. In point of fact, teachers are quite often disappointed because their profession is not exhilarating, whereas a number of students are left to struggle in an educational system that is meant for the most intelligent and fast-paced learners. Besides, there are clearly no opportunities to develop or to reinforce cross-curricular skills such as communication, collaboration, problem solving, critical thinking, and creativity (Larsen, 2008; Westwood, 2008). These same so-called 21st century skills were emphasized by Bloom’s taxonomy in the 1950’s as higher order thinking processes that should be covered by any curriculum. Nowadays, these same skills are sought by stakeholders as well as recruiters, but many graduates leave universities being ineligible candidates for the job market (see also Anderson et al., 2001). The long engrained tradition of teacher-centred teaching at universities has had its detrimental effects on evaluation as well as feedback. In a lecture hall packed with hundreds of students, oral or written feedback is unachievable to say the least. Moreover, students are

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unfortunately all-too-often unaware of the faculty’s expectations about the marked assignments or examinations and fail miserably. On the one hand, an undeniably important number of students regurgitate the material dealt with during the lectures through rote learning assuming that such a learning strategy yields good grades. On the other hand, teachers are frequently surprised by many errors they qualify as unanticipated. Obviously, examination scores are quite often discouraging and easily pinpoint to an educational crisis that needs not only full attention but also an urgent remedial plan.

Active learning: Definition and benefits In response to the current alarming situation, a relatively large number of researchers, practitioners, and experts from diverse fields have thoroughly looked into the repercussions of frontal lecturing at universities and came to agree that active learning might be the most favourable solution to the problem. Obviously, they describe the instructional approach in various manners, but quite often one can hardly discern the difference between the suggested definitions due to the striking overlap. Simply put, active learning means “involving students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing” (Bonwell & Eison 1991:2). To learn, a student has to be fully engaged, to participate in formulating pertinent questions and to find possible answers instead of being constantly hammered with dense lectures that he or she can sometimes barely understand. In this regard, Bell and Kahrhoff (2006) assert that active learning is a process wherein students are actively engaged in understanding and building facts, ideas, as well as skills through the completion of stimulating tasks. In this sense, the generally accepted paradigm of “being taught during the lecture, practising at home” is utterly shaken up, thence the in-lecture time is judiciously employed to give meaning to the learning path. Based on the well-known learning theory of constructivism, the most successful lessons are clearly those that involve learning by trial and error. To put it differently, if a learner has no chance to question, practice, commit errors and receive the necessary feedback, then how is he or she supposed to learn? Needless to say that learning is not about covering a topic. It is more about how students construct meaning in a setting that ensures the activation of background knowledge or previous experiences, and presents opportunities for problem-solving situations, interactive exchanges as well as practical tutoring. It is worth noting that students come to class with different learning styles, paces, and perspectives; therefore, teachers can find it quite arduous to deal with varying demands on a limited time interval. With its versatile range of teaching techniques and stimulating activities, active learning can establish equity and balance

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in a heterogeneous teaching environment.

As previously mentioned (see section 1), being knowledgeable clearly does not suffice to thrive in both professional life and social milieu. Developing competencies or skills such as creativity, critical thinking, and communication are as pivotal as constructing knowledge. Related to this, advocates of active learning have maintained that teaching spaces should be transformed into hubs where learners are given the floor to apply, analyse, evaluate and create (Bloom et al., 1956; Anderson et al., 2001). It is only when these skills are acknowledged as crucial educational objectives to be achieved that academic institutions can succeed in forging a new wave of skilful and versatile graduates, who in turn become fully-fledged professionals. For the course of the past two decades or so, active learning has also been highly praised for reinforcing the sense of self-development, self-efficacy, autonomy, motivation and academic achievement. Regarding the latter, Freeman and al. (2014) carried out a meta-analysis of 225 studies that were conducted in STEM contexts to compare traditional lecturing to active learning based on students’ performances in terms of examination scores and failure rates. Students in classes with traditional lecturing were 1.5 more likely to fail than were students in classes with active learning. Unlike the old-fashioned instructional method, which engenders dependence on the teacher as the sole knowledge transmitter, active learning empowers students, enables them to manage their own learning (Larsen, 2008) and allows them to actively take part in shaping the course of the lecture. Subsequently, they turn into more self-regulated and proactive students. There is no need to anchor encyclopaedic content, as knowledge has never been this accessible. It is omnipresent, and more importantly, it is delivered in a panoply of formats (written articles, orally records, videos, mind maps, etc.) that can surely appeal to a wide audience. Today, a teacher’s mission is to equip his or her students with specific methodological, social, and personal competences (Orth, 1999). This set of interdisciplinary or transversal competences enables them to structure, develop and prioritise knowledge depending on their needs. That is how teachers can ensure that their students can carry on once they graduate and pursue life-long learning.

Active learning: a practical description This part of the paper delves deeper into instructional practice and the diverse ways a university teacher can opt for to effectively manoeuvre his or her learning community into

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successful learning. As a start, the following myth must be debunked: active learning reduces by no manner of means the amount of work university teachers have to do. Also, it requires great courage to change long established teaching roles, and experiment with new techniques that require mediation, facilitation, and coaching.

As previously mentioned, the strength of active learning lies in the sheer range of pedagogical approaches that fosters engagement, autonomy and motivation. Despite the extensive array of active learning teaching methods that the literature review on this topic has gathered over the past years, this paper looks mainly at three of them. These are: The flipped Classroom (FC), Peer Instruction (PI), and project-based learning (PBL). As an English language teacher, the researcher also includes two lesson models that illustrate how each teaching method can be implemented in an English language classroom at university. As a matter of fact, the idea emerged after noticing the scarcity of works which explain how active learning can be promoted via instructional approaches that targets student centeredness in English language teaching. Obviously, the literature gathered so far has pointed at the importance of shifting to active learning when teaching English language, yet empirical research with solid conclusions remains unpopular.

The practical dimension of an active learning approach is time consuming, as teachers take longer to design activities and implement them in the classroom. One way to solve the aforementioned tricky problem is to consider an asynchronous, active, and blended approach that transforms learning into a spatio-temporal boundless act. Accordingly, a part of the material, quite often composed of the prerequisite readings (or other kinds of resources), is dealt with prior to the lecture, whereas the second part, quite often centred around practice, is meant to be covered in the learning space. In the advent of technology, such a possibility has become practicable and even very common in various tertiary educational systems on the international level. Known as the Flipped Classroom or FC (The Flipped Learning Network, 2014), The method was first trialled in American secondary schools (Bergmann and Sams, 2009), and is roughly defined as a setting where what is typically done in the classroom is done at home, and what is typically considered as homework, is done in the classroom (Bergmann and Sams, 2012). This implies that “direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment” (The Flipped Learning Network, 2014). The Flipped Classroom has elevated learning into a more updated process that matches the new standards 127

of the current digitalised world, and has enabled millennial students to get an education in a way that makes more sense to them (Bishop and Verleger, 2013). Also, FC can foster inclusive education. Students who have learning difficulties, for example, have more chances to succeed, as they are no longer constrained by the in-lecture time. Unfortunately, like any other form of blended learning, the Flipped Classroom cannot be properly applied in digitally ill-equipped contexts; thus, remains a pedagogical luxury (Meziane-Fourati, 2017) in countries that experience the digital divide phenomenon (Norris, 2001). There is no doubt that the FC model has drastically changed the classroom dynamics, but a set of complementary activities that maximises students’ engagement during the lesson remains pivotal.

Although some teachers may find the prospect of relinquishing a certain degree of control daunting, Eric Mazur (1997) contends that urging students to adopt Peer Instruction is a huge step forward. As he rightly puts it, university teachers suffer from the curse of knowledge. This means that they anchored the theoretical (and practical) content they teach a while ago and hence it can be quite challenging for them to simplify and lighten it. In contrast, learners who belong to the same learning community (same discipline of study, study year, or course) are all following the same path. They do not necessarily have the same level, intelligence rate, learning strategies or aspirations, but they strive for the acquisition of the same content. As Crouch and Mazur contends, Peer Instruction is a cooperative activity that “modifies the traditional lecture format to include questions designed to engage students and uncover difficulties with the material” (2001:970). The structure of a lecture based on PI is broken down into short presentations, each of which focuses on a targeted central element, followed by a ConcepTest i.e. a relevant conceptual question, which gauges learners’ understanding of the delivered information. Once the learner answers the question individually, he or she has to report his or her answer to the lecturer, then discusses it with one of his classmates. The aim is for both to vote and reach a common agreement. This conjoint discussion often involves clarifying hiccups along the way, explaining tricky details, and debating over the correct answer. Clearly, then, PI implicitly teaches learners crucial communicative skills such as listening, being open to opposing viewpoints, voicing out and accepting criticism, all of which are needed to succeed professionally.

Project-based learning (PBL) has also been commonly cited for promoting active learning at universities. Although this teaching method was first introduced back in the late 60’s (Postman and Weingarner, 1969), it has been lately in the spotlight for the benefits it has 128

brought to higher education. Indeed, as a student-centred method, PBL, whether implemented as an independent or a group work, bridges the chasm between educational institutions, frequently judged as unauthentic learning environments, and real-life situations. In the same vein, Berner et al. (2018) state that project-based learning that centres around socially-relevant and current topics seeks to reverse the separation between education and life with methodological, self-directed actions which occurs within a social environment. PBL has been also reported to impact positively on students’ metacognitive awareness (Tosun and Senocak, 2013). The nature of the pedagogical method, unlike ex-cathedra teaching, challenges students with a driving question (either a complex problem to be solved or a product to be designed) that has to be individually or jointly solved within a specific time frame. The process of bringing the issue to a conclusion (either a complex problem to solve or a product to design) develops in learners strategies such as planning, time-management, information selection and evaluation, all of which are important for academic achievement and professional endeavours. Finally, PBL involves multiple thinking processes in a meaningful and an ongoing activity, thus ensuring deeper learning.

Conclusion This paper is an attempt to urge a change of perspectives when it comes to teaching at universities. Living in a world that is fast changing requires forward-looking educational systems that favour the building-up of competences and skills rather that the accumulation of factual knowledge. Although the researcher attempts to promote the importance of adopting active learning in higher educational institutions, it is crucial to emphasize that the paper is not a mere eulogy of the teaching approach in question. A long list of serious impediments remains unlikely to be removed overnight.

On the one hand, teachers can resist unfamiliar teaching approaches and be reluctant to experiment with innovative techniques that require time and efforts to implement. On the other hand, university students may find it daunting to be exposed to unconventional teaching models and may worry about the pronounced shift in the teacher’s role and the classroom dynamics. On top of that, the implementation of active learning in some educational settings may come to nothing due to the lack of technology (such as clickers which can be employed during ConcepTests), Internet access, well-structured digital platforms (or databases), as well as experienced support services. Furthermore, the lack of suitable teaching resources strains teachers, who have to design appropriate activities and plan their lessons so that they maximise 129

instances of active learning. With their workload increased, there is absolutely no guarantee that these same teachers who are arguing for change can carry on using an active learning approach with their students. To conclude, to implement active learning in higher educational institutions necessitates profound transformations in the various elements upon which higher education itself lies starting from policy making to class sizes. However, if one lesson should be retained from the current international state of play in higher education, then it is clearly the following: It is time to question the relevance of universities in today’s world, re-imagine education and introduce teaching for the sake of lifelong learning via pedagogical methods that promote active learning.

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References

Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. Bachmann, H. (2018). Competence-oriented teaching and learning in higher education – essentials. Berne: Hep- verlag. Barkley, E. (2010). Student Engagement Techniques: A Handbook For College Faculty. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. Bell, D. & Kahrhoff, J. (2006). Active learning handbook. Louis, Missouri: Copyright Webster University. Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip Your Classroom: Reach Every Student in Every Class Every Day. Washington DC: International Society for Technology in Education. Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2009). Remixing chemistry class: two Colorado teachers make vodcast of their lectures to free up class time for hands-on activities. Learning & Leading with Technology, 36(4), 22-27. Berner, H., Isler, R., & Weidinger, W. (2018). Simply good teaching. Berne: Hep-verlag Bishop, J. L., & Verleger, M. A. (2013). The flipped classroom: A survey of the research. In proceedings of ASEE National Conference, Atlanta, GA. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company. Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, Washington DC: School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University. Coates, H. (2006). Student engagement in campus-based and online education: University connections. London: Routledge. Crouch, C.H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer Instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69(9), 970-977 Freeman, S., Eddy, S.L., McDonough, M., Smith, M.K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H. and Wenderoth, M.P. (2014) Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111, 8410–8415. Gump, S.E. (2006). Guess who is not coming to class: student attitudes as indicators of attendance. Journal of Educational Studies, 32(1), 39-46. Karlsson, G., & Janson, S. (2016). The flipped classroom: A model for Active Student Learning. In E. De Corte, L. Engwall, & U. Teichler (Eds.), From books to MOOCs? emerging models of learning and teaching in higher Education. Wenner-Gren International Series, (pp. 88-127), 136. Portland Press Ltd. Larsen, F. D. (2008). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. London: Oxford University Press. Mazur, E. (1997). Peer Instruction: A user’s manual. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Meyers, Chet, & Jones, B. Thomas. (1993). Promoting active learning (first edition ed.). San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. Meziane-Fourati, A. (2017). Farewell to ex-cathedra lectures: Redefining the role of teachers in the Flipped Classroom. Proceedings of the International Conference O Tempo Dos Professores, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. O’Flaherty, J and Phillips, C. (2015). The use of flipped classrooms in higher education: A scoping review. Internet and Higher Education, 25, 85-95. Orth, H. (1999). Schlusselqualifikationen an Deutschen Hochschulen. Neuwied: Luchterhand. Postman, N., & Weingartner, C. (1969). Teaching as a subversive activity. New York: Delta. Schullery, N.M., Reck, R.F. and Schullery, S.E. (2011) Toward solving the high enrollment, low engagement dilemma: A case study in introductory business. International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology, 1(2), 1-9. Tosun, C., & Senocak, E. (2013). The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on metacognitive awareness and attitudes toward teachers’ prospective teachers with different academic backgrounds. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3) Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers need to know about teaching methods. Victoria: ACER Press, Australia Council for Educational Research Ltd. Young, M. S., Robinson, S., & Alberts, P. (2009). Students pay attention! Combating the vigilance decrement to improve learning during lectures. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10(1), 41–55.

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Flipped Learning Network (FLN). (2017, June 27). The Four Pillars of F-L-I-PTM. Retrieved from http://www.flippedlearning.org/cms/lib07/VA01923112/Centricity /Domain/46/FLIP_handout_FNL_Web.pdf Lesson Template I

Teaching English Language Grammar with a focus on subject-verb agreement using Peer Instruction

(Level: upper-intermediate)

A week before the lecture on subject-verb agreement

Testing: A placement test is administered to students to gauge their knowledge of subject- verb agreement.

Self-study phase: All rules, explanations and examples are available to the students prior to the scheduled lecture.

Correcting: The university teacher corrects the assigned tests

During the lecture

 The bulk of information is divided into mini-presentations. Each one focuses on a central element of the lecture. o Example

Short presentation  Question or ConcepTest  Individual Answer Peer Instruction (PI) Collective Answer

 The same placement test is administered for the second time.

Next lecture

 The teacher takes fifteen minutes to distribute the corrected placement tests (both the pre- lecture and post-lecture versions) and re-explains in case of some persistent errors.

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Lesson Template II

Teaching oral presentation skills using Project-based Learning (PBL)

(Level: upper-intermediate)

Two weeks before the presentation of the group projects

 The teacher explains the project and its requirements.

o Example

Requirements a) Groups of 3-4 students. b) Format: A PowerPoint Presentation or another type of material with visuals such as a recorded video or a mind map. Creativity is highly rewarded. c) Time duration of the presentation: 20 minutes is allotted for each group.

Project

You are representative members of a youth association called “SAVE THE DATE”. Your major mission is to visit high schools and universities in order to raise teenagers and young adults’ awareness about the hazards of online dating via social media and dating applications such as “Tinder”.

One week before the presentation of the group projects

 Groups take turns to briefly explain their draft concepts and ask questions for guidance.  The teacher plays the role of a mediator and a facilitator.

The day of the project presentations

 Each group presents its fully finished project.  Peers ask questions and identify the weaknesses as well as the strengths of each presentation.

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 Students describe their experiences while working on the projects and discuss the hiccups that came along the way and the aspects of the project they could have been done differently.

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TURKISH LEXEMES IN MACEDONIAN LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY CLASSES

Anita Shterjoska-Mitreska1

Linguistic interference of the Macedonian language and Turkish language through history The influence of the Turkish language on the languages that it came in contact with and the issues regarding inter-language relations and interferences holds an important place in the Balkan’s linguistic science. The long linguistic interference on the Macedonian language territory from the fifteenth century until today resulted in many Turkish language and cultural traces in the Macedonian language. Although “the Turkish elements are most numerous in Macedonian linguistics, with almost no area without Turkish words, they can also be found in phraseology and even in the phonetic and morphological system of the Macedonian language” (Ol. Jashar-Nasteva (2001): 9). At the end of the XIX century, the peak of the Turkish language interference was reached both in the spoken and the written language, and after that a simultaneous but gradual continuous decrease of the Turkish loan-words started. The period of Renaissance in the Slavonic nations, including Macedonian resulted in reslavonization, i.e. change of the Turkish words with Slavonic. The folklore work from this century is very voluminous, and it is rich in Turkish words and Turkish expressions, sayings and calques. The existence of the Turkish loan-words is also related to the power and the demise of the Ottoman empire, the withdrawal of the state apparatus and the larger part of the Turkish population, which was especially evident in the period between 1950-1960, “as well as the death of the older Macedonians who were acquainted to Turkish and used the Turkish language elements” (Ol. Jashar-Nasteva (2001):24, footnote 43). Regarding this, we are also interested in the terminology related to the Turkish state organization, the military and civic administration, the judicial terminology, which was conditioned by the political situation. After the standardization of the Macedonian language (in 1945), the number of the Turcisms decreased on daily basis. Even Blaze Koneski raised the question regarding the Turcisms in the written language in the process of selection of words because many of them were present in the folk language (Koneski, 1987). This process of limiting the use of Turcisms

1 University “Ss. Cyril and Methodious” in Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia 135

and their forgetting became evident and “this resulted in an important step towards bringing our thesaurus closer to the ones of the closest Slavonic literary languages” (Koneski, 1987: 78). Here we need to emphasize that as Turkish lexical elements (Turcisms) we consider all the loan-words that entered the Macedonian language from Turkish after the Ottomans conquered the Balkan Peninsula, i.e. from the XV century onwards, regardless of their etymological origin (Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin, French, etc.)” (Jashar-Nasteva :15). In this paper we are going to analyze whether and to what extent we can find Turcisms in the currently used textbooks for the subjects Macedonian language and Society. This material is to be used for educational goals, which are mainly connected to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the students, and which needs to provide interactive communication with the teachers without semantic noises. The acquired body of lexemes will be subject to an adequate linguistic analysis and interpretation. For this goal we took an excerpt from the lexical material from the specialized textbooks for the area Literature of this subject, as well as the books used as readings (anthologies of folk works). We also used the Society textbooks as a subject of excerption. All of the textbooks are for Grades IV and V. (http://bro.gov.mk/http://www.e-ucebnici.mon.gov.mk/osnovno/3/1). More specifically, the literature textbooks, according to the program must mandatorily include content from the Macedonian folk works, and the readings include many anthologies from folk poems and stories. The Macedonian folk language, in terms of lexis, contains many Turcisms, which during instruction need to be acquainted in terms of phonology, meaning and afterwards the text is subject to analysis. The vocabulary of the students in the lower grades also needs to be enriched with Turcisms that we presume will be found in the historic content of the subject Society (“Macedonia under Ottoman reign”, i.e. “Macedonia during the Ottoman reign”), where the semantically the lexis would deal with the administrative-business, professional, judicial, and war terminology related to the Turkish state organization. In reality, this terminology persisted depending on the political situation. Lexis, as the most open, sensitive and changeable structure of the language system always reflected the changes and needs of a specific society in a given period. The words are the material of language, and from a historic perspective, they are symbols of the language code used by the speakers, and they have their own “destiny” of existence. Hence, we considered that it is possible to attain information to what extent the Macedonian folk literary works and historic content that refer to the time of the Ottoman reign of our country influence the expression of the students in the lower grades so as that it is enriched by Turkish

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lexemes. After excerpting Turkish words and phrases, which mandatorily need to be instructionally interpreted in the section Vocabulary for the specific text that refers to the folk works, we acquired a significant language material (194 words). We were surprised by the fact that the society textbooks, for both grades, did not contain a single Turcism, except for the word janichar (janichar), present in the methodological-didactical apparatus. We also came to the conclusion that the folk works which are currently present in the reading book and the books for readings, according to the program, are diverse and hence the Turcisms belong to different semantic sub-areas. More specifically our lexical material, according to the cultural spheres is divided into four main parts, as in Ol. Jashar Nasteva, without their division into groups or subgroups (Jashar Nasteva, 2001): Nature, City and village, Man, Other words.

a. Nature (Colors and scents, Geographic and weather occurrences and phenomena): azno < tur. hazine “1. Storage of precious and valuable things, treasury; 2. safe; cash; wealth, treasure” (MFS: 30; 31); (ES: 32, 33, 36) ajvan < tur. hayvan “animal, cattle” (MFS: 45) at < tur. at “a big domestic animal, part of the ungulate family, bred for work, transport or sport” (EP: 48) buluk < tur. bölük “herd, flock, multitude of animals” (ES: 38) damazlak < tur. damızlık “cattle that is kept for the needs of the household and for breeding”(MP: 77) eshek < tur. eşek “donkey” (MFS: 16)

b. City and village (Architecture and urbanism, Inner arrangement of the house, Trading and crafts, Weapons and military titles, Administration, Agricultural terminology): aga < tur. ağa “1. Land owner (in the past in Turkey), 2. Military chieftain (in the past in Turkey); a title held by Muslims; a Sir, a Master, an owner)” (MFS: 87; ES: 39) ajan < tur. ājāne “a chieftain of a place, ace, giant”(ES: 39) altan < tur. altyn “gold, gold coins from the time of the Turkish reign” (ES:21) amanet < message, promise. 1. Entrusting something for keeping or for doing based on honesty and trust. 2. An object that is given for keeping (V: 131) ambar < tur. ambar “1. A wooden object for grainy food; storage. 2. Box for wheat and flour” (ES: 54) an < tur. hána “1. Inn, 2. Accommodation for travelers, stopping place”(MP: 89) andzar < handžer “an oriental knife with two blades for cutting and stabbing; dagger; jathagan” (ES: 13, 16) aramija < tur. harami “bandit, thief” (MFS: 40; 72; 110…); (ES: 41) arch < (разг.) expense, expenditure; tur. härač “expandable, used material; fake; irresponsible waste of money“ (ES: 23) (MFS, see. 23) arshin < tur. arşın “1. Old measure for length (between 65 and 75 centimeters); 2. Unit for measurement” (ES: 43)

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asker < (арх.) tur. asker 1. Ottoman army. 2. Soldier (usually a Turkish one) (V: 36) (ES: 51) aspra < tur. aspra “Turkish money” (MFS: 29; 30; 31) at < tur. at “a big domestic animal, part of the ungulate family, bred for work, transport or sport”(ES: 48) atpazar < tur. at + pazar “a place for buying and selling livestock” (ES: 52) bajrak < tur. bayrak “flag”; (archaic) flag (IVa: 40) (ES: 42) batak < “wet soil, mud; swamp; march, muddy place” (ES: 26) bavcha < tur. bahçe “garden”(MFS: 40) bavchandzija < the person working in the garden (MFS: 39; 40) beg < tur. bey “a noble title, a title of feudal landowner or a commander in the Turkish kingdom” (ES: 43) berber < tur. bërberā “a person that shaves” (MFS: 27; 35) berikjet < (conversational) harvest, fruit, boon. (IVv: 122, 136) bichak < tur. вıçak “a knife, sawyer – the person making or selling knifes” (ES: 14, 17) bozdogan < tur. bozdoğan “a medieval cold weapon, an iron ball with spikes and a short handle useful for throwing and hitting the enemy” (ES: 10; 12; 20; 27) (MFS: 10) borch < tur. borç “debt, what is owed to somebody” (ES: 25; 26) bojadzija < a craftsman that dyes clothes (IVa: 188) buluk < tur. bölük “a herd, flock, a multitude of animals” (ES: 38) veresija < tur. veresiye “a debt, buying or selling on trust, on loan” (ES: 14; 15) (MFS: 14) vizba < izbe “a room in the house located under the floor” (ES: 54) vilaet < tur. vilayet “an area in the Turkish kingdom ruled by a governor” (MFS: 36) grosh < tur. kuruş “Turkish coin with the value of 40 units; small amount of money” (MFS: 27; 28; 45) davija < tur. dâva “a claim; lawsuit, requirement, indictment” (MFS: 29) damazlak < tur. damızlık “cattle that is kept for the needs of the household or for breeding” (MP: 77) delija < tur. deli “1. hero; physically developed man; (historic) 1. Turkish horseman in the Sultan's guard. 2. (conversational) Hero (MFS: 7); 2. Crazy, nuts” (ES: 7; 11; 32) divan < tur. divan “sofa, settee, sofa without a backrest”; (conversational) 1. Stand upright 2. Stands with crossed arms as a sign of respect (MFS: 22) (ES: 22) dimishkija < tur. dimişki “a steel sabre with a curved form, with decorations, forged in Damaskus” (ES: 27) dolap < tur. dolap “a type of furniture: cupboard, cabinet, closet in the wall for storing clothes, vessels and other objects” (ES: 51, 52) (MFS 51) donanba < tur. donanma “lighting and decorating on the occasion of a festivity” (ES: 17) dram < tur. dirhem “measurement unit (3,25 g.)” (ES: 22) dukjan < tur. dukkān “small craftsman’s workshop also used as a store for selling products”(MFS: 67; 68; 95); (ES: 42) gjubre < tur. gübre “pus, garbage, waste, manure” (MFS: 18) efendija < tur. efendi “a sir, master, a title that the Turks give to the educated people, especially priests, lawyers, clerks” < (archaic) a sir, master (IVb: 12) (MFS: 8) eshek < tur. eşek “donkey” (MFS: 16) zaptija < tur. zaptiye “steward, policeman, a Turkish guard” (ES: 39) izmekjar < (conversational) a person that makes money by serving other people; servant (IVb: 96) (IVv:108) janichar < tur. jànjıčār “famous type of soldier in the Turkish army” (О5: 21) kadija < (historic) judge (V: 109) kajmakam < (historic) governor of an area in the Ottoman kingdom (IVa: 191), (IVv: 72)

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kaldrma < tur. kaldırım “1. a road made with uneven stones; 2. stones used to cover a road” (ES: 26, 27) karagrosh < tur. karagroş “old Turkish coin” (MFS: 31); (ES: 21) kasap < tur. kasap “butcher” (MFS: 77) kafeana < tur. kahve + an “a place where coffee is prepared and sold, an inn” (MFS: 120) kilim < tur. kilim “a kind of thick cover, woven from wool or another similar material, used for covering the floor, wall etc.; carpet” (MFS: 31; 32) kirija < tur. kira “1. money compensation for renting a house, apartment, room, etc.; 2. Money compensation for temporal use of something (farmland, tools)” (MP: 109) komshija < komşu “neighbor” (MFS: 110; 111) kula < tur. kule “1. a high concrete narrow building acting as reinforcement of the city wall or as a part of a fortress, castle, which is square or round; 2. an independent standalone, narrow high building for different purposes (city clock, lighthouse)” (ES: 32) meana < tur. meyhane old-fashioned inn in which alcohol is served, pub (V: 121) (MFS: 10); (ES: 21; 24) meandzija < tur. meyhaneci “owner of an inn, innkeeper” (MFS:10) minc < tur. münze “money used in the past with different value” (ES: 31, 33) mushterija < tur. müšteri “1. buyer; 2. a man who constantly orders goods from the same master; constant buyer; 3. client, protégé” (MFS: 35) nagant < tur. nägānā “big caliber American revolver” (ES: 51) naija < tur. nahije “managing unit in the Turkish kingdom, district” (ES: 30; 31) nalbatin < tur. nalbant “smith, forge” (ES: 14; 21) nizama < tur. nïzāmā “order, rule; a regular Turkish army in the past” (ES: 39) nishan < 1. characteristic, sign. 2. a target, an object that is aimed at 3. a device of a gun for focusing on the target, visor; 3. honor, medal“ (ES: 25; 36; 40) (MFS: 36) odaja < tur. ödaja “room” (IVb: 96), (IVb: 108) ; (MFS:17) (ES:17) oka < tur. òkā “1. weight measure (1282 kg.); 2. volume measure” (1,5 l.)”(V: 22) orda < tur. ordu “1. administrative-army organization or tribal alliance in the Turkish-Mongol nomad tribes. 2. mob, gang or enemy army which robes or commits crimes” (MFS: 21) ortoma < tur. hortum “thick rope”(MFS: 23) odzak < tur. ocak “an opening in the house (or some other object) in the form of a hollow pillar from which the smoke goes out” (MFS: 5; 6; 39;... ) pazar < tur. pàzar “1. trade job, trading; 2. fair, square; 3. money for sold goods; 4. trading goods sold at a fair” (MFS: 45; 48; 88; 117); (ES: 26) panagjur < tur. panayır “fair” (MFS: 76; 77; 78) pasha < tur. paša “high Turkish civic and military ranking, general; 2. Turkish noble title” (ES: 39) pelivan < tur. pehlivan “fighter, hero, knight” (ES: 26) perde < tur. perde “curtains; veil” (MFS: 109; 110; 111) perche < tur. perçem “a mop of hair separated from the rest; streak“(ES: 36) pusija < tur. pusija “ambush” (ES: 51) samar < tur. semer “a base for loading animals; a base on which the carriers carry weight” (MFS: 27; 45; 46) sarach < tur. saraç “a craftsman who makes harnesses, bridles, saddles, etc.” (ES: 21) sejmen < (arc.) 1. a soldier in the janissary infantry in the army of the Turkish kingdom. 2. guardsman, gendarme in the Turkish kingdom. (IVa: 171) (ES: 36; 38; 39) sindzir < tur. zincir “chain; cuffs, a type of ornament, jewelry worn on the neck” (ES: 10; 23; 24; 25; ...)

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sofra < tur. so fra “a low wooden round table usually used for serving food, dining table” (MFS: 19; 81) srma < thread covered with golden strand used for needlework (IVa: 183) sultan < tur. sultan “Muslim ruler; king” (MFS: 60) tatar < tur. tatar “1. herald, carrier, postman; 2. nickname for a rough and cruel man”(ES: 23) telal < tur. tellal “herald, official bringer of news by yelling, drummer” (ES: 26; 34) tefter < tur. defter “notebook, protocol, trading book”(MFS: 117) terzija < tur. terzi “tailor, sartorial”(ES: 43) timar < tur. tımar “feudal property”(ES: 21) topuz < tur. topuz “ an iron ball used as a weight of a scale, clock, etc.; spiked mice” (ES: 33, 34) turpija < tur. törpü “a tool for shaping areas of wood, metal or other material” (MFS: 95) kjeramida < tur. кeramid, keremit “an object made of clay, brick” (MFS: 7) kjoshe < tur. köşe “corner” (MFS: 22; 104...) kjup < tur. küp”a deep wooden bowl for milk, honey, etc.” (MFS: 31); (IVa: 188) uzengija < tur. üzengi “part of the saddle in which the rider puts the leg” (MFS: 42) ukjumat < tur. hükümet “a state, state authority, regime, management”(MFS: 17) fener < a lamp with a protective box in which the source of light is placed (light of a candle, etc.) (MFS: 64) fildzan < fincan “a cup, usually for black coffee or milk”(MFS: 90) chaush < tur. çavuş “corporal rank in the Turkish army” (ES: 40) cheshma < tur. çeşme “a source from which the water flows through a tube“ (MFS: 16); (ES: 25) shifte < tur. çifte “a hunting gun with two barrels”(ES: 38) chordbadzija < tur. `çorbaci the person sharing the broth; commander of the janissary squad; distinguished Christian; owner, master” (MFS: 16); (ES: 22)

c. Man (Body parts, Terminology for relatives, Food, Clothing and cosmetics, Leisure time, Spiritual life, Religious terminology and words with abstract content): aber < (tur.) “news, rumor, notification, information, report; paying attention (ES:42) adet < tur. âdet “a custom, habit, tradition” (MFS: 76) azman < tur. аzman “very big” (ES: 26) air < tur. hayir “luck, goodness, use” (MFS: 46; 73) akal < tur. akil “brain, thinking” (ES: 44) al < (conversational) poverty, evil, trouble, accident (IVg: 137) anama < tur. hanim (anka) “woman, wife, lady, dame”(ES: 51) aram < tur. haram “everything that is not allowed according to the Muslim religion, “forbidden”, “wrong, cursed” aren < (conversational) tur. âr (hâr); haran “shy, well brought up”, good, honorable – “good” (MFS: 5; 22; 66; 70; …); (ES: 21) (V: 121), (IVg: 17) ater < tur. hatyr “1. affection, love, will; 2. showing affection, compassion (in the case of a death); 3. spite, stubbornness, argument, dispute” (MFS: 83) aterdzija < tur. aterdzija “the person showing affection, love”(MFS: 121) adzamija < tur. adžemi “foreigner, clumsy, inexperienced” (ES: 25; 26; 27; 28; 30) adzija < tur. hacı “man who paid homage at the holy places, Mecca for the Muslims and Jerusalem for the Christians” (ES: 39) badijaldzija < tur. bad - i hava “the person that wastes time fruitlessly“ (conversational) bum, sponger, lotus-eater, a person that dawdles (V: 121) (MFS: 10)

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borch < tur. borç “debt, what is owned to somebody else” (ES: 25; 26; 27) gajle < tur. gaile “worry, vexation` (conversational) anguish, bother (MFS: 35) (MFS: 35) daboana < tur. danburàna “1. a music band consisting from kettledrums, oboes and drums; 2. playing, festivity (ES: 17; 18) derd < tur. derd “bother, sorrow, worry” (MFS: 53) dervish < tur. derviş “monk, friar in the Muslims” (ES: 39) divanija < tur. divánija “flippant, foolish, crazy” (ES: 20) dolama < tur. dolama “1. A kind of man or woman costume similar to a coat from purple, green or red baize with long sleeves which are closed or floppy. 2. Clothes for the upper part of the body of a horseman – janissary, usually woolen” (ES: 27) dushman < tur. dűşman “enemy, adversary“ (MFS: 18; 19) gjurultija < tur. gürültü (conversational) “noise, yelling” 2. big dispute, mess (IVg: 136) (MFS: 110) gjuch < tur. ġuç “difficult, excruciating”(ES:5) zulum < (tur.) “evil, violence, injustice, terror, tyranny”(ES:38) zulumkjar < the person doing evil, abuser, bully, tyrant” (ES:36) kalpak < tur. kalpak “a kind of festive hat made of fur, laced with baize, silk or velvet and decorated with feathers or gold chains” (ES: 32) kamuha < tur. kamuha “a kind of silk cloth” koshija < tur. koşu “horse competition; horse race” (ES: 26, 27) k`smet < tur. kysmet “unavoidable powerful destiny, accident, doom” (MP: 38; 46); (ES: 5) laf < tur. laf “word, speech, discussion“; (conversational) 1. speech. 2. conversation (MFS: 32) (ES: 32) leven < tur. levend “1. nicely dressed up man; 2. hero, brave man”; (young exuberant boy, strong boy, hero, young man (MFS: 34) (ES: 34, 36) libade < tur. libade “1. type of garment made of thin black baize with wide sleeves and big deep pockets without decorations worn by pilgrims on pilgrimages; 2. short woman’s coat, long up to the waist made of baize or velvet with long sleev, decorated with golden or silver embroidery (ES: 43) maana < tur. mahana “mistake, incorrectness, shortcoming, objection” (MFS: 66) marama < tur. mahrama “a piece of clothing used by women to cover the head” masa < tur. masa “a part of the furniture consisting of a flat plate set on four footings” meze < tur. meze “snack, food that is consumed with a drink; delicacy” (MP: 81) metanija < deep bow in prayer (MFS: 12) niet < (conversational, archaic) intent, determination (IVb: 106), (IVv: 108) odza < tur. hoca, hace “Muslim, Muhammadan priest” (MFS: 8; 92; 94); (EP: 39); (IVb: 12) pogacha < tur. poğaça “corn bread of dough without baking powder, baked in a dish”(MFS: 113) pantaloni < tur. pantolon “trousers” simit < tur. simit, simid “bread from finest corn flour” (MFS: 74) surme < tur. sürme “black or silver color in powder used by women as cosmetics, applied on the eyelashes” (MFS: 107) tain < tur. tajin “meal, ration; corn bread” (ES: 12; 16) tabiet < tur. tabiat “character, temper, whim, nature, temperament” (MFS: 66) turlija < tur. türlü “type, diversity, variety”(MFS: 81) kjef < (tur. keyif) < 1. wish, will, demand. 2. good mood, joy, pleasure. (IVb: 106), (IVg: 136) (MFS: 70; 79) kjese < tur. ćësa “bag, sack, wallet”(V: 77) uner < tur. hüner “1. miracle; 2. skill, artifice, art” (MFS: 17; 28)

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fajde < tur. fayda “use, gain” fustan < tur. fistan “casual women’s clothes” (ES: 43) chalma < (tur.) “linen veil around the fez worn by Muslims” (MFS: 8; 30; 31) (IVb: 12) chare < (tur.) “salvation, exit from a situation, help, support, remedy, means, salvation“(MFS: 83) chitak < tur. çitak “offensive word for a Turk”(ES:38) chorba < tur. çurba, şorba soup with meat, rice etc. (V: 21) dzeb < (tur.) “an opening in the clothes made in the shape of a bad, in which small objects are carried“ (MFS: 70; 71; ); (ES: 24, 27) shamija < (tur.) “woman’s scarf worn on the head”(ES: 28) shapka < (tur.) “cap, hat“ (MFS: 90; 91) sheremete < tur. şeremet “cunning, sly, devilish” (V: 151)

d. Other type of words (adjectives, verbs, numbers, pronouns, adverbs, exclamations): airlija < tur. hayırlı “1. that brings good fortune, luck, fortunate. 2. Good luck!“ (MFS: 6) (MFS: 73; 74; ES: 6) alal < tur. helāl`(conversational) 1. what is just, blessed, which is earned in an honest manner. 2. a blessing, a desire that something will be of use to someone, nice, fortunate, forgiveness; in the expressions: neka mu e alal – may it be with good fortune; alal im (mu) vera+ – bravo!, excellent!”(MFS: 105; ES: 14) (MFS: 14) aman < tur. àmān “1. mercy, help (as an exclamation); 2. Protection, showing mercy, sparing, forgiveness” (MFS: 117) ami < tur. but, although (MFS: 48; 53; 54) (MFS: 48; 54; 60) aren < (conversational) tur. âr (hâr); haran “shy, well brought up”, good, honorable – “good” (MFS: 5; 22; 66; 70; …); (ES: 21) (IVg: 17) (V: 121) asli < tur. asli “1. thorough; 2. Completely, fully; certain, very probable; almost” (MFS: 53) ashk olsun < tur. aşk olsun “exclamation for praise: wonderful!; excellent!; bravo!” (ES: 38) bambakerno < tur. “cottony” (ES: 13; 16) belki < (conversational) maybe, perhaps (MFS: 38; 57) (MFS: 26) bitisa < tur.bitti “finish, finish off”; (archaic) finish, finish off (MFS: 12) (ES: 12) burmalija < tur. burmali “wrapped up, spiral” (ES: 22; 23) dejgidi < tur. dey gidi “exclamation used to address somebody with enhanced emotionality” (ES: 51) duri < dur, dura “to stay, be calm, wait, while” gjoa < tur. güya; (conversational) as if (MFS: 34; 113) epten < tur. epten “completely” (MFS: 99) ich < turç hıç “no way, at all” (MFS: 47) kandisa < tur. kandırmak “1. to give consent, to agree; 2. to force consent, to make someone do something” (MFS: 27) kurtuli / kurtulisa < tur. kurtariş, kurtulmak “save, find salvation”, “save, free”, “tear” (MP: 12); (ES: 5; 8; 50);.(IVg: 136) nishan < tur. nıkşan 1. trait, sign. 2. goal, an object that is aimed at 3. a device of a gun to focus on the target, visor; 3. decoration, medal”; 4. characteristic, gift that is given to a girl in a bethrotal (ES: 25; 36; 40) (MFS: 36) nishanlija < from tur. nıkşan “that has a trait, characteristic of oneself” (MFS: 25) ofajdil < from tur. fayda “to gain advantage, to earn” (V: 128) pishman < tur. pişman “the person who regrets, sinner, penitent” (MFS: 7) (MFS 104); (ES: 7) sade < tur. “1. simple, only; 2. pure, true, without any additions; 2. simple, plain, monolithic” (ES: 5)

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sardisa < (archaic) siege a place. 2. (conversational) surround somebody or something (V: 36) (ES: 51, 55) kjerdosa < (conversational) (tur. кâr)” 1. gain, earn, succeed, fortune in life. 2. for marrying, take for wife. 3. succeed, succeed in life, make oneself happy, become happy, rich” (ES: 26; 40) (IVa: 171); (MFS: 40) chunki < tur. cünki “why” (ES: 16) dzari < to stare into something; stare (V: 16) dzabe < (tur.) “free of cost, free” (MFS: 66)

Conclusion We emphasize that the students are unfamiliar with many words that refer to the neutral lexis (samar (saddle), srma (gold or silver thread), turpija (file), kjup (jug), etc.) which are learned by the students in the course of the educational process. We came to the conclusion that the present Turcisms, around 200, present a relatively large number for the course of two school years. In the didactical apparatus for the textbooks for Macedonian language, there is a rubric Dictionary, and when we are dealing with content from the folk works, the Turcisms are mostly found in this rubric. Of course, the origin of the words is irrelevant for the students, and they learn their form and content, which is a pre-requisite so they can work on the text. The readers (the anthologies for folk songs and prose) do not include the apparatus of a Dictionary, or it is very scarce, which is the reason why the students face semantic noise. For the educational work, this is undesirable and this shortcoming needs to be removed. The Turcisms enrich the dictionary of the students, speakers of the Macedonian language and thus these lexemes stay in their speech.

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References

Epic folk songs (reader, choice: T. Sazdov) (2001). Skopje: Kultura Macedonian folk stories (book for readers, choice: T. Sazdov) Skopje: Detska radost Milenovska, V. Pavlovski Gj., (2009). Society for IV grade, Skopje: Prosvetno delo Mitovska, V. at all. , (2015). Society for V-th grade in the nine year-long education, Skopje: Graficki centar Petkovska Bl., Sterjoska-Mitreska A. (2018). Enriching the elementary school students’ vocabulary with the help of folk literature, BES 2018 Edirne, Turkey Petkovska, Bl. (2008). Methodology of the creative instruction for the subject Macedonian language in the lower grades of primary school. Skopje: Magor Petkovska, Bl. Stherjoska – M. A., (2014). The importance of the words and the instructional communication through the prism of the subject Macedonian language in elementary education in the primary school. Skopje: Faculty of Pedagogy “St. Kliment Ohridski” Shterjoska-Mitreska An. (2018). Functional literacy as a concept and a strategy of the primary education in the Republic of Macedonia (PhD dissertation) Textbooks for the subject Macedonian language for grades I-V (www.e-ucebnici.mon.gov.mk) Јашар-Настева О., (2001). Турските лексички елементи во македонскиот јазик, Скопје: Институт за македонски јазик „Крсте Мисирков“ [Jashar-Nasteva O. (2001). The Turkish lexeme elements in Mace- donian, Skopje: Institute of Macedonian language “Krste Misirkov] Конески Бл., (1987). Граматика на македонскиот литературен јазик, дел I и II, Скопје: Култура [Koneski Bl., (1987) Grammar of the Macedonian literary language, part I and II, Skopje: Kultura] Македонски хумористични народни приказни (книга за лектира, избор: Т. Саздов) (2004). Скопје: Култура [Macedonian humoristic folk stories (reader, choice: T. Sazdov) (2004). Речник на македонската народна поезија I, II, III, Скопје 1983-1993 [Dictionary of Macedonian folk poetry I, II, III, Skopje 1983-1993] Толковен речник на македонскиот јазик I – V , Институт за македонски јазик „Крсте Мисирков“, гл. ред. Кирил Конески, Скопје: 2003 - 2012 [Interpretative dictionary of the Macedonian language I-V, Institute of Macedonian language “Krste Misirkov”, main editor Kiril Koneski, Skopje: 2003 – 2012]

Abbreviations:

MFS: Macedonian folk stories; MHFS: Macedonian humoristic folk stories; ES: Epic folk songs; G5: Society for fifth grade in the nine year-long primary education; IVa: Sevdinska Lj., Nastovska V. (2014) Mace- donian language for fourth grade in the nine year-long primary education; IVb: Krtolica B., at all. (2014). Macedonian language for fourth grade in the nine year-long primary education; IVv: Atanasova Lj. (2009). Macedonian language for fourth grade in the nine year-lobg primary education; IVg: Sinadinovska O., Stojanova A. (1999). Readingbook for Grade IV; Vb: Sevdinska Lj., Nastoska V. (2014). Macedonian language for fifth grade in the nine year-long primary education.

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A CURRICULUM DESIGN FOR INITIAL LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY Fidel Çakmak1

Introduction

Curriculum development is an ongoing process which aims “to determine the needs of a group of learners; to develop aims or objectives for a program to address those needs; to determine an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teaching methods, and materials; and to carry out an evaluation of the language program that results from these processes” (Richards, 2001, p. 2). It deals with planned activities of learning through relevant coherent activities organized by educational institutions. In a Teacher Education (TE) Program, a curriculum is defined as “part of a network of interacting systems: the learner, the teacher, the classroom, the school, the local community and national education” (Roberts, 1998, p. 102). Changes in such a network of interacting systems is not limited to effects on a single individual unit. If there is any change occurring in the system, it will inevitably affect others in a domino effect (Roberts, 1998). The big systems (global changes and conditions) and small systems (institutional structure) interact with each other and through this interaction, policies for teacher education and teaching resources affect the decision on the elements in the system (e.g. if the national resources are limited, coursebooks will be designed on the existing resources). When designing initial language teacher education (ILTE) programs in the 21st century, possible impact of global and technological changes should be recognized. These advances affect teaching approach (pedagogical stand), design (program objectives and allocated time, resources, participants’ numbers to realize initial teacher education), implementation and evaluation of the outcomes along with the effectiveness of adopted the process. This paper proposes detailed planning of what is going to be taught for student-teachers for their initial teacher education in the 21st century. The proposed curriculum aims to cover the approach, design, implementation, and evaluation of the program submitted.

1 Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Turkey. 145

Approach for the initial teacher education in the 21st century

Models of Teaching and Learning The present paper proposes a 21st century ILTE for language teachers based on problem solving models of teaching. This model gives teachers autonomy in making educational decisions when compared to the operative model of teaching which restricts teachers to meet the requirements of a centralized systems such as delivery of the content in a specific span of time or the use of certain specific textbooks. As the learners differ from one another, a diversified language curriculum requires teachers to assess the students’ needs for learning, to adapt and design learning activities accordingly. In this model teachers act as free agents who have the power and skills to specify the components of the teaching curriculum. They are regarded as global citizens and are able to teach in a diverse context. The paper also acknowledges the constructive nature of learning where student-teachers are seen as active and responsible for considering choices and teaching cases, testing them, making meaning out of them, and reflecting on them so as to develop their own thinking and practical skills. Reflection is realized especially in each course they take part in evaluation of their performance with self-reports, in-depth discussions with peers, and some reflective notes while they learn. Teacher Knowledge The curriculum model is designed to provide three types of teacher knowledge: pedagogic content knowledge (knowledge of language we need to teach), general pedagogic knowledge (classroom managerial knowledge about the organizations of the activities, mentoring, feedback and assessment), and process knowledge (knowledge to observe the process of teaching through observational, classroom inquiry and language analysis skills). Progressively, student teachers will learn general content knowledge through theories. Then, they will acquire general pedagogical knowledge when they are involved in skill teaching training. Later on, they are expected to create their own meaning of process knowledge through their observations, classroom inquiry, and analysis of language or functions to teach when they do their practicum in their senior year of ILTE. Their technological knowledge is also essential since the 21st century. Learners are users of emerging technologies. Therefore, it is vital to be able to work with digital tools and applications to motivate students to learn informal settings (outside the classroom) (Larson & Miller, 2011).

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Paradigms of person and ILTE In ILTE, there are two opposing paradigms, positivist and phenomenological paradigms, which seeks to explain how knowledge can be achieved. In positivist (knowledge-centered) perspective, knowing is objective, and we can generalize experiences based on facts. The external conditions- something outside the person- create opportunities where one can observe and learn with facts and tangible experiences. Teachers’ roles are submissive as they have to follow what the textbook mandates or what the curriculum specifies in terms of learning processes. The curriculum targets to reach tangible products at the end of the education and is very much product-oriented. On the contrary, in phenomenological (person-centered) aspect, learners are respected as self-determined individuals. Knowledge is subjective as each person experiences differently and creates his or her own world accordingly. This perspective regards learners as individuals with autonomy of learning. Teacher decentralizes the curriculum and tailors it to the needs of learners. The curriculum is process-oriented since learning outcomes are recognized during the period, not at the end. The ultimate goal of the latter perspective is to empower the student-teachers as individuals and learners of the 21st century. In this curriculum design, phenomenological perspective is adapted. It is agreed that knowledge is subjective. Even though a theory or some kind of scientific knowledge is objective, how a learner makes meaning out of is relative, subjective, and learner-dependent. In this ILTE program designed, learners are acknowledged as autonomous and global citizen who make meaning through integration of their own belief and global value systems. Real-life context is a necessity for learners to think, act and learn. Learner-teachers can observe real life situations and carry out a deep analysis of the situations transferring what they have learnt in the program to that specific context and thereby actively engaging in learning. However, to some extent, learners might need scaffolding to engage as social beings and learn from each other or one another. The Proposed ILTE Design Based on learner-centered view of knowledge, the following curriculum is designed for four- year language teacher education at the undergraduate level. It provides 147-credit course schedule for student teachers. There are two main objectives. The first is to equip student teachers with professional courses including methodological and pedagogical approaches to foreign language teaching with the awareness of language and culture, problem solving and critical thinking skills. The second is to provide opportunities for student-teachers to work

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collaboratively with diverse groups and to develop creativity and adapt to the innovative context. The core content is introduced to the students in their first week and reinforced at different period through their education. The meetings prior to the acceptance into the ILTE program are essential for conveying expectations and responsibilities. The process of learning is emphasized at this point and it is made clear that in the proposed design, assessment is done based on performance through a process, the standard competency level acquired as well as learners’ self-report of success. Assessment is thus transparent and objective. Pre-existing Factors A design of a curriculum is apt to be affected by the external conditions. At the broadest level, the centralized policies exist and create strict rules to follow. As there are state and private systems providing ILTE, the conditions in the private versus public context might differ. The present curriculum is public-sector ILTE and is envisaged to be provided by state-run universities in Turkey. Educational traditions at Turkish universities can be considered as centralized; yet, the adopted curriculum is open to discussion and negotiation with the student teachers in the system. Accreditation The proposed curriculum can be accredited as it provides courses of 147 credit hours for ILTE. There are compulsory courses as well as unrestricted ones. The electives are designed to give student teachers a chance to pursue individual interests and improve themselves throughout their initial teacher education. The evaluations of the courses are done with progress-oriented approach. For accreditation, this system provides the outline of courses, the credit system (equivalent to time allocated) for the courses, and the final decision on the performance of student teachers. Geography This ILTE program is envisaged to be provided by a local state university, in a city or town where the most of learner-teachers reside in order to follow their ILTE. It is a full time and long-term intensive schedule for students who take at least 17 credits for a term and who attend 8 terms to acquire a diploma from the ILTE program. Intake The intake refers to teachers giving the ILTE courses. Teachers’ level of competency, their educational background, and their motivation level have an underlying impact on the ILTE curriculum design. Student teachers are expected to have a high level of motivation as they have consciously dedicated themselves to becoming teachers of English. The portion of the courses

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in ILTE is arranged according to the student’s level of language competency. In a four-year initial language teacher education designed in this paper, courses given in the first year and the second year are arranged such that the students master their language competency.

Time allocated The completion of the program requires 4 years (full time) divided into 8 terms, 14 weeks in each term. Funding and structure For the designed ILTE, as there is no tuition but a small amount of registration fee and the provider is a public institution. The resources and facilities are limited when compared to private providers. The capacity of the ILTE program is designed for sixty student teachers who have taken nation-wide English Language Examination. Staff All staff are full time employed (stable) academics that have completed at least PhD degree in the field of teaching English as a foreign language. They have a mixed role: being both language researcher and course instructors. Staff are qualified faculty members teaching the subjects with creativity and utilizing innovative teaching approaches. Their teaching schedule ranges from 8 to 12 hours of teaching. They all offer two office hours to meet the student-learners and guide them through their learning process. As for collegiality, there is a departmental meeting in each week taking approximately two hours. Coherent Design Coherence in the ILTE curriculum design means that the different elements in the course are relevant to each other, which creates more meaningful learning experiences for the student- learners. The courses in the curriculum design are diverse but also interdependent, meaning that knowledge and experiences from one course is complementary to other kinds of knowledge and experiences from other courses. This coherence in design improves learning by making each course more relevant to the student. For the course content, there must be maximum coherence between the input materials and the classroom experiences. Learning can occur only though personal meaning making processes. In regards to overall ILTE curriculum designs, teaching practice can be organized either in block practice or cycles with a shorter interval between theory and practice. In this design, courses are provided first through classroom input and ten applied through a practicum in a later period of ILTE. This curriculum relies on block scheduling for the school experience and practice teaching. Two concerns are underlined in

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relation to practicum. The first is that there must be coherence between the practice of teaching and the theory that has been provided through the last two terms of the ILTE programs. The second concern is that pre-service students should demonstrate teaching activities that are coherent in regard with his or her practice teaching and reflect evaluation criteria for teaching practice. The coherence in practicum activities and sample lessons can be achieved by the cooperation between the mentors, students and cooperating teachers. Coherence between courses Coherence between courses can be provided by two strategies. The first is to design the program elements around a theme so that learners can easily make relationships between theories, material development, teaching methods, and testing. To exemplify, if receptive skill training is taught, the input about comprehension theories and strategies for comprehension (top down and bottom up), analysis of reading materials and preparation of the testing items accordingly can be highlighted. Throughout the curriculum implementation, the assessment should require students to describe the meaningful relationship between the components. The second strategy is to integrate two courses (e.g. theories of learning and teaching methods) by assigning the same staff for both courses or by having two staff designing a single assessment. The first strategy is adopted for this proposed model. The coherence between the courses are provided by taking the input (knowledge of the subject matter), and learners’ cognitive social and language development into account. The input (theoretical issues) is provided, and the transfer of this input for teaching is realized through teaching skills courses. At the final stage, theories are applied to real life situations (real classroom context) during the practicum, and reflection over teaching is adapted during the practicum. Coherence between related activities In ILTE in the 21st century, it is essential to provide meaningful activities for learners to make their own sense of input and experiences. The activities must be related to the learners’ interests and needs. Otherwise, the learners can have a difficult time in making relationship between what is being taught and its practical application. A coherent learning cycle based on activities can consist of carrying out activities both in and outside of the classroom. These activities include direct involvement in teaching (practicum), indirect experiences (school experiences), input of new information (theories), activities for self-awareness and reflection (diary or journal keeping, digital learning logs) and peer collaboration (seminars, presentations, group talks) for practicing life skills such as flexibility, collaboration and initiation.

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Curriculum Design The design is based on the learner-centered aspect of knowledge acquisition. Learner- centered aspect is threefold: humanistic psychology in which each learner is found unique, essentially good, and a whole, and constructivism where conceptual development through meaning making and active involvement is highlighted and social constructivism which allows personal development through social interactions in a social context. The proposed ILTE curriculum is assumed to be relevant in terms of the relationship between courses and core activities, and it is structured on the basis of national higher education policies (credit numbers and some basic courses for English Language teachers). The model is inspired by the FLED (Foreign Language Education) curriculum design currently used at Boğaziçi University, Istanbul and adopted to the 21st century learning frameworks (Kereluik, Mishra, Fahnoe, & Terry, 2013).

Year Structure- LTE 1st Semester

FLEDU (3+0+2) Academic Listening and Writing 101 3

FLEDU Developing Oral Communication (3+0+2) 103 in English I 3

Introduction to Linguistics & (3+0+0) LING 101 Language Awareness 3

(3+0+0) EDU 101 Introduction to Education 3

(3+0+0) ELIT 101 Survey of English Literature I 3

(3+0+0) PSY 101 Introduction to Psychology 3

2nd Semester

151

(3+0+2) EDU 102 Study and Research Skills 3

FLEDU Developing Oral Communication (3+0+2) 104 in English II 3

FLEDU (3+0+2) Critical Thinking 106 3

(3+0+0) ELIT 102 Survey of English Literature II 3

MITL 102 Media and IT Literacy (3+0+0) 3

Area Elective (3+0+0) 3

3rd Semester

(3+0+0) EDU 213 Development and Learning 3

(3+0+0) IT 201 Instructional Technologies 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) Introduction to Linguistics 1 201 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) Approaches to ELT 207 3

(2+0+0) CRW 201 Critical Reading and Writing 2

(3+0+0) Area Elective 3

4th Semester

(3+0+0) LING 204 Structure of Modern Turkish 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) Second Language Learning 202 3

(3+0+0) EDU 206 Principles of Instruction 3

152

FLEDU (3+0+0) Introduction to Linguistics 2 204 3

(2+0+0) EDU 202 Research Methods in Education 2

FLEDU Community Service Practice in (3+0+0) 203 FLEDU 3

Unrestricted Elective (3+0+0) 3

5th Semester

Fundamentals of Guidance & (3+0+0) EDU 312 Counseling 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) TEFL: Grammar and Vocabulary 302 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) TEFL: Reading and Writing Skills 304 3

Instructional Technology and (3+0+0) CET 271 Digital Design 3

(2+0+0) HTR 311 History of Turkish Revolution I 2

(3+0+0) Area Elective 3

6th Semester

(3+0+0) EDU 313 Classroom Management 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) TEFL: Listening and Speaking 305 3

FLEDU Teaching English to Young (3+0+0) 307 Learners 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) Sociolinguistics 309 3

(2+0+0) HTR 312 History of Turkish Revolution II 2

153

FLEDU Materials Adaptation and (3+0+0) 310 Selection in TEFL 3

(3+0+0) Unrestricted Elective 3

7th Semester (3+0+0) FLEDU 415 Multilingual Education 3

(3+0+0) FLEDU 401 Use of Literary Text in TEFL 3

(3+0+0) FLEDU 402 Special Education in FLED 3

(3+0+0) FLEDU 404 Testing and Alternative Assessment 3

(2+0+0) FLEDU 403 School Experience 2 FLEDU 408 Use of IT and Mobile Apps in TEFL (3+0+0) 3

(3+0+0) Elective 3

8th Semester FLEDU (3+0+0) Language Teacher Education 405 3

FLEDU (3+0+0) Seminar on Practice Teaching 409 2

FLEDU (3+0+0) Practice Teaching 405 4

FLEDU (3+0+0) Informal Language Learning 407 3

FLEDU Reflectivity in Teaching (3+0+0) 405 Professional 2

(3+0+0) Unrestricted Elective 3

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Total: 147 credits

In the year structure, we see that there is progression in terms of input acquisition. The first and second terms are mainly designed for ensuring effective language use in formal and informal situations (Development of Oral Communication in English I and II), the development of linguistic competency and language awareness (Introduction to Linguistics and Language Awareness), the psychology of learning (Introduction to Psychology), study skill (Study and Research Skill), academic listening and composition (Academic Listening and Writing). In the first year, Critical Thinking Course is also provided to create a solid background for the discussion on language learning. The second year continues to provide theoretical input for language and language learning and applications of linguistics in language teaching (Introduction to Linguistics 1 & 2), critical thinking practices on reading and writing skills (Critical Reading and Writing). Second Language Learning and Approaches to ELT are given as they complete the linguistic competency of the learners in a way that firstly learners learn about Psychology, and Linguistics and how it is used in teaching foreign languages. Then they take Second Language Learning (the combination of linguistic theories and psychology) and Approaches to ELT using the input of applied linguistics. In the third year, students take skill training courses which follow teaching methods and involve in teaching grammar and vocabulary by using inputs acquired from the course applied linguistics. They learn about using instructional technology for teaching designs and learn about some basics for classroom management and the fundamentals of guidance and counseling before progression to practicum. In the second term, they also take Teaching English to Young Learners Course, which aims to create an awareness of theory and practice in teaching English to young learners. Material Adaptation and Selection in TEFL covers material preparation and selection for skill-based tasks and activities. This becomes more coherent when the skill training is completed and a further step is taken: to design and prepare or select teaching materials to teach English to a group of learners with diverse background, competencies and interests. Sociolinguistics is also put in the third year of ILTE program as the study of language in its socio-cultural context is important before students do their practicum in different sociocultural context. This also increases awareness of students’ multicultural and multilingual literacies. The senior year is designed to enable students to prepare for their practicum. In the first term, students get familiar with the instructional programs, methods and materials used,

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classroom management strategies, technical resources and administrative before they start their own practice teaching. They are expected to have learnt theories related to practical teaching in the previous terms and now ready to teach. Multilingual Education provides them with insights for teaching English and other languages in a multicultural context. Testing and Alternative Assessments is provided after the material preparation and selection in TEFL. This encourages an orderly sequence of material preparation in the first step and the assessment of the materials or outcomes as the second. In this course, alternative assessments (creating and evaluating e-portfolio, badges, self-reports, etc.) are taught. Special Education in FLED is proposed to adopt their teaching and delivery instruction to meet the needs of each child with special needs. Use of Literary Text in TEFL provides teaching strategies and activities for literary texts (poems, short stories, novels, etc.) in the second and final semester. In the final term, students take Language Teacher Education which combines all the theories related to teaching, providing input about the ILTE systems and INSET cases so as to increase their awareness about the 21st century standards of English language teacher. Practice Teaching is designed as to prepare students for teaching profession enabling them act as a teacher in official and unofficial teaching capacities. The student teachers work with supervisors who work with schools, monitor student-teachers’ practice teaching and assess their performance with pre- defined criteria, checklists, and portfolios. Meanwhile, during practice teaching, student teachers receive guidance and constructive feedback from the supervisors. This foster mutual understanding of each other’s perspectives on teaching and classroom practice. The Use of Technology in TEFL is put in the last term syllabus as it combines computer literacy and instructional technology input with the application of technology in TEFL. This course is related to teaching practice as some students may prefer to demonstrate technology-oriented sample lessons. What is innovative in this proposed design is the integration of reflection and self-evaluation mechanism (SWOT analysis) in the programs. The aim of this course is to provide prospective students with input about what reflection is and how it can be practiced in language teaching profession (Yost, Sentner, & Forlenza-Bailey, 2000). Providing this course in the final term can also help students to formulate their reflections efficiently before and after their actual teaching. In the long term, it is expected that student teachers will integrate and benefit from the practice of reflection in their teaching career. Implementation of the proposed ILTE Curriculum The implementation of the curriculum designed follows three steps. The first is to provide input by uncovering personal theories and beliefs of student teachers. The next is to process

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input (theories) through certain tasks, assignments, talks, discussions and presentations. In this phase, new information is integrated with prior knowledge and beliefs. Formulating and reconstructing new input, criticizing and assessing its relevance to student teachers’ own context follows. At the final step, relating theories to teaching practice and reflection on the practice occur.

Evaluation of the ILTE Program The evaluation of such program can be accomplished by taking the objectives and system elements such as input, process, output and environment (the context) into consideration. The program evaluation shows if the goals stated are attained or not by analyzing the outputs in relation with the goals set at the beginning of the process. Moreover, in regard with input, it seeks availability of qualified human resources (e.g. teacher’s high level of competency) as well as logistic sources. As for the process, active involvement of learners in the process of learning, coherence between courses or activities, and appropriateness of assessment are highlighted. For the output, the program aims to improve academic performance, literacy and life skills development that is necessary for the 21st century, performance in teaching and the employability of the students. For the context, one can assess the impact of the program on the social environment in terms of better social conditions (positions for well-paid job, satisfied and motivated teachers, status in the teaching profession). Conclusion The proposed curriculum for ILTE in this paper aims to present a thorough plan for teacher education in the 21st century. Global changes and their implications for the teaching competencies have brought about alternative models for teacher education so that student teachers can acquire 21st century skills to teach effectively. The proposal portrays language teachers who are high-level knowledge professionals and willing to improve their knowledge in teaching profession. Through the proposed scheme they will be more knowledgeable, innovative, and creative in generating update and appropriate teaching sources. This will definitely affect learning outcomes and their capacity to prepare and guide language learners of the 21st century. The curriculum model in this paper supports the idea that teacher education should involve connection between courses (knowledge) and between course work and practicum (Darling-Hammond, 2006). It should also be premised on rethinking and restructuring of the existing ILTE curriculums for fostering the preparation of both 21st century English language teachers and the citizens in a global society.

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References Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st -century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 300-314. doi: 10.1177/0022487105285962 Kereluik, K., Mishra, P., Fahnoe, C., & Terry, L. (2013) What knowledge is of most worth. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 29(4), 127-140. doi: 10.1080/21532974.2013.10784716 Larson, L. C., & Miller, T. N. (2011) 21st century skills: Prepare students for the future. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(3), 121-123. doi: 10.1080/00228958.2011.10516575 Richards, J. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ CBO9780511667220. Richards, J., & Nunan, D. (1996). Second language teacher education. NY: CUP. Roberts, J. (1998). Language teacher education. GB: Arnold. Williams, M., & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for language teachers. GB: CUP. Yost, D. S., Sentner, S. M., & Forlenza-Bailey, A. (2000). An examination of the construct of critical reflection: Implications for teacher education programming in the 21st century. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(1), 39-49. doi: 10.1177/002248710005100105

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TƏHSİLİN KEYFİYYƏTİNDƏ MÜƏLLİM-ŞAGİRD, MÜƏLLİM-TƏLƏBƏ MÜNASİBƏTİNİN ROLU

Sevil Isayeva1

Müasir dövrdə təhsilin keyfiyyəti

XXI əsr öz xüsusiyyətlərinə görə təhsil əsri kimi dəyərləndirilir. Müasir dövrdə bütün qabaqcıl ölkələr öz milli inkişafının təminatını bilavasitə təhsillə bağlayırlar. Hansı ölkədə təhsilin keyfiyyəti yüksək olarsa, gələcək də onundur. Təhsil dövlət işi, ictimai əmtəə, hakimiyyətin yetişdirdiyi məhsul, dövlətin öz xalqına göstərdiyi xidmət hesab olunur. Təcrübə və araşdımalar göstərir ki, cəmiyyətin siyasi-iqtisadi inkişafında təhsilin böyük rolu vardır. Məhz təhsil vasitəsilə cəmiyyətin təlabatına uyğun müvafiq kadrlar hazırlanır və mövcud insan kapitalı inkişafın sürətlənməsinə, davamlı olmasına şərait yaradır. İnsan kapitalının, dərin biliyə, səriştəyə malik kadrların formalaşdırılması isə ilk növbədə, təhsilin məzmunundan, nəyin necə öyrənilməsindən, öyrənən-öyrədən münasibətlərinin düzgün tənzimlənməsindən xeyli dərəcədə asılıdır. Ona görə də təhsillə bağlı ciddi elmi araşdırmaların aparılması nəzəri və praktik istiqamətlərdə problemlərin tədqiqi, müəllim-tələbə münasibətlərinin düzgün qurulması, cəmiyyətin inkişafına xidmət edən təkliflərin həyata keçirilməsi vacib cəhətlərdən biridir. Qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, son illərdə respublikamızda bu istiqamətdə bir sıra dəyərli monoqrafik tədqiqat əsərləri nəşr olunmuş, oxucuların istifadəsinə verilmişdir. Elmi–pedaqoji tədqiqatların nəticələri göstərir ki, müəllim-tələbə münasibətlərinin düzgün qurulması, şəxsiyyətyönümlü yanaşma müasir dövrdə təhsilalanın inkişafını stimullaşdıran düzgün yanaşma kimi mühüm əhəmiyyət kəsb edir. Şəxsiyyətyönümlü yanaşma modelinə görə təhsilalanların emosional, sosial və idrak inkişafına eyni dərəcədə diqqət yetirilir. Bu yanaşma təhsilalanın təkcə dərs- prosesində, təlim aldığı məqamlarda deyil, həm də gələcəkdə yaxşı nəticələr əldə olunmasına imkan yaradır. Məhz müəllim-tələbə münasibətləriin obyektivliyi, şəxsiyyətyönümlü yanaşma nəticəsində təhsilalanlar, ilk növbədə, təşəbbüskar olur, özünə inamlı, yaradıcı və

1 Mingeçevir Devlet Üniversitesi, Azerbaycan. 159

müstəqil böyüyür, əsl şəxsiyyət kimi formalaşır və ikişaf edirlər. Ənənəvi təhsil sistemindən fərqli olaraq şəxsiyyətyönümlü təhsil sistemində müəllim və tələbə - öyrədən və öyrənən münasibətləri subyekt-subyekt münasibətləri kimi formalaşır. Müəllim-şagird, müəllim-tələbə münasibətlərinin düzgün qurulması, səriştəli yanaşma innovativ fəaliyyətin və əslində bütövlükdə təhsilin modernləşdirilməsinin əsas yollarından biridir. Bu, ilk növbədə, təhsilin bütün pillələri üzrə təlim və tərbiyə məsələlərinə yeni baxış deməkdir. Səriştəli yanaşma təhsilin məqsəd və nəticələrinə, məzmununa, təhsilverən və təhsilalanların fəaliyyətinə, təlim-tərbiyənin forma, metod və vasitələrinə, təhsil müəssisələrinin əlaqədə olduğu tərəflərlə münasibərlərinə müasir elmi düşüncə tələb edir. Müəllim-şagird, müəllim-tələbə münasibətinin yeni pedaqoji təfəkkürə müvafiq qurulması üçün müəllim: şagirdlərin fərdi xüsusiyyətlərini öyrənməli; müsbət xüsusiyyətlərinə əsaslanmalı; onların xarakterində baş verən dəyişiklikləri duymalı; onlarda özünə möhkəm inam yaratmalı; şagird şəxsiyyətinə hörmət bəsləməlidir və s. Deməli, təlimin keyfiyyətinə, onun daha səmərəli və ugurlu qurulmasına müəllim- şagird, müəllim-tələbə münasibətlərinin təsiri böyükdür. Belə ki, öyrədən və öyrənən münasibətlərini demokratik əsaslarla qurulduqda, şagirdə, tələbəyə təlim prosesinin subyekti kimi baxıldıqda onlarda təlimə maraq artır. Şagirdləri, yaxud tələbələri öyrənməyə cəlb etmək üçün müəllim pedaqogika, psixologiya, metodologiyanın vacib olan əsaslarına yiyələnməlidir. Təhsil ocağında qazanılan nəzəri bilikləri tətbiq etməyi aşılamaq üçün müəllim-şagird, müəllim-tələbə münasibətinin düzgün qurulması tədrisin keyfiyyətini yüksəltmək yolunda ən ümdə problemlərdəndir. Müəllim-şagird münasibətləri qarşılıqlı hörmət, ehtiram, yardım, mərhəmət, səmimi həmrəylik, məsuliyyət və sıx əməkdaşlıq üzərində qurulmalıdır. Gördüyümüz kimi, müasir dövrdə tədris prosesi sadəcə tədrisin komponentlərini əhatə etməklə kifayətlənmir, tədris prosesinə bilavasitə və dolayı yolla təsir edə biləcək bütün amilləri nəzərə alır. Bir sözlə, şəxsiyyətin təşəkkülündə təhsil özünəməxsus rol oynayır, təlimin nəticəsi kimi meydana gəlir. Təlim prosesi öz növbəsində təhsilləndirici, tərbiyələndirici və inkişafetdirici kimi mühüm funksiyaları yerinə yetirir.

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Kaynakça Əhmədov B. Azərbaycan dili təliminin qanunları, prinsipləri və metodları. Bakı: Mütərcim, 2007. Əfəndizadə Ə. Azərbaycan dili təliminin məzmun problemləri // Azərbaycan dili və ədəbiyyat tədrisi, 1987, № 1. İsaxanlı H. Müasir dünyada ali təhsil sistemində nələr baş verir və 2008-2012-ci illərdə Azərbaycan Respublikasının ali təhsil sistemində dövlət proqramı necə olsa yaxşıdır. Bakı: Xəzər Unuversiteti nəşriyyatı, 2008. Mehrabov A. Öyrədən və öyrənən münasibətlərinin tənzimlənməsində interaktiv təlim medodlarının (yanaşmaların) rolu. “Təhsil problemləri” qəzeti,11-20 iyun 2008-ci il (№33-34).

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GLOBAL AND DIGITAL EFL TEACHER EDUCATION: SCHOLARS’ VIEWS ON NEW FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION CURRICULUM

Fidel Çakmak1

Abstract A comprehensive literature has developed on the subject of curriculum development in relation to the needs of the current era in ELT. Current studies focus on how curricula are planned and implemented with the objective of connecting the teachers of English with global issues of foreign language education. Analysis of these studies highlights common problems encountered by teachers and offers constructive and practical suggestions in relation to effective implementation of ELT curricula in the Turkish context. The current study aims to illustrate how the current EFL curriculum of 2018 in English as a Foreign Language Education has invested in the professional development of teachers as global citizens. It is premised on the grounded theory with a qualitative research method adopting the emergent approach toward theory development. Through the analysis of multiple sources of evidence such as interviews with participating scholars, document analysis, and the researcher’s observation notes from the introduction to the new curriculum meetings, the study explores the direction of the new curricula in empowering English teacher candidates in Turkey. Emergent data were coded, analyzed, and refined. The author has found some developing themes including global community, mass communication skills, and the macro context of teaching. Finally, this paper concludes that implementation of the curriculum will have an influence on participants’ sense of responsibility for the personal and professional development of the community at large. Keywords: EFL curriculum of 2018, digital EFL teacher education, global citizenship

Introduction Momentous changes in science, economics, social structures, and emerging technologies have brought about new challenges requiring multiple skills (of life, learning and literacy) for the engaged global citizen. Understanding diversity, mental flexibility, collaboration, the ability to participate in initiatives and creativity, technological and media literacies are all core skills for the empowered global citizen of the 21st century. Achieving this empowerment could be seen necessary for teacher education in today’s world. In fact, such education should be considered an essential component for learning personal and professional responsibilities, encouraging respectful and ethical behaviors and for shaping global citizens into effective digital communicators. There is a substantial volume of studies on the implementation of newly designed curricula based on thematic approaches in teaching pre-teachers. These curricula require participants to take part in professional development, encourage the careful analysis of arguments, promote initiative and increased responsibility and collaboration in learning (Williams & Charlesb, 2008). Current national studies focus on how curricula are planned and implemented to connect language teachers with the global issues of foreign language education.

1 Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Turkey. 162

Analysis of these studies highlights common problems and offers constructive and practical suggestions in relation to the implementation of ELT curricula in the Turkish context. The perspectives of scholars as shareholders of curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation can contribute to the comprehensive understanding of curriculum development processes. This study aims to incorporate the opinions of ELT scholars in the existing studies and to illustrate how the scholars see how the current EFL curriculum of 2018 in English as Foreign Language Education has invested in the professional and self-development of teachers as global citizens Method This study is premised on the qualitative grounded theory approach and adopts the emergent cycle toward theory development in respect to the research question, and methods of analysis applied to the data. Before the data were collected, purposeful sampling was used to choose “information – rich subjects” (Patton, 2002, p. 230). When the raw data were analyzed, theoretical sampling was employed for additional data collection and saturation was reached. Taking into account the perspective of grounded theory studies, eight academics (five females, three males) took part in the study in the summer of 2018. A consent form for participation was signed by each of the participants. The participants had each been working as full-time employees in the Department of English Language Education at state universities. Two of them were professors (P1 and P2), two of them were associate professors (P3 and P4) and four of them (P5, P6, P7, P8) were assistant professors. Their age range was 41-54. Participants were each interviewed twice in person. Interviews were digitally recorded to ensure complete data collection. The interviews contained twelve open ended questions. Table 1

Sample Questions from the Interviews

First Interview

“What reasons brought about the reform in the ELT curriculum of 2018-2019 educational year?”

“How would you consider the innovation the ELT curriculum of 2018-2019 educational year?”

“Could you please describe the benefits of a) field knowledge courses b) professional knowledge courses c) cultural knowledge courses for pre-service English teachers?

“What differences would the new curriculum have for pre-service students of ELT?”

Second Interview

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“How do you describe the implementation process? Have you experienced any differences it made for pre- service students of ELT?”

“What areas should be strengthened for the implementation of the new curriculum?”

“How would you consider the new curriculum implementation has an effect on a) professional development and b) self-development of English teachers as global citizens?”

Semi-structured interviews were employed to illustrate how the current EFL curriculum of 2018 in English as Foreign Language Education has invested in the professional and self- development of teachers as global citizens. The interview questions were validated by two experts (professors in the area of curriculum and instruction and foreign language education) in terms of content and scope, as well as alignment with research questions. After minor revisions, the interview was piloted with two assistant professors who have been teaching full time in the Department of Foreign Language Education for six years. The interviews took between 40 and 60 minutes each. The data consisted of 17 hours of interviews conducted over six-months. The first interview of participants took place before the curriculum had been introduced to the students in August, 2018. The second interview took place in December, 2018 after the first semester of the new program had finished. Meanwhile other sources of data were also employed. The researcher analyzed the relevant official documents published in the Higher Education Institute as well as news reports from the media. The researcher also used her own notes from “The introduction to the new curriculum meetings” presented in the Faculty of Education, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Turkey in the summer 2018. The data were coded at two phases: a) an initial and b) a focused, selective phase (Charmaz, 2006). The former phase involved reading each line/segment when reading the data to form analytic ideas and major categories. The focused selective phase, on the other hand, involved the defined and linked categories premised on core phenomena driven from major categories. To ensure interrater reliability in this study, a collaborator from the Foreign Language Department was asked to review the data. The collaborator reviewed 35% of data collected and her coding agreed with the researcher 70% before reconciliation and 91% after reconciliation. Results The results have revealed a model of innovation in new EFL curriculum of 2018 in English as Foreign Language Education. The new curriculum has introduced three enrichment 164

categories into teacher education: a) field knowledge courses b) professional knowledge courses c) cultural knowledge courses. The themes underlying the categories are global community, mass communication skills, and the macro context of teaching.

Figure 1: The model of enrichment in the new curriculum of ELT

Theme: Global community This theme was evidenced in both pre and post interviews. It fell into three subcategories: Diversity, Ethics, and World English. The theme was found to be recently introduced and reported to be the most essential aspect of the curriculum by P2, P4, P7, P8. These participants mentioned the fact that in the new curriculum, pre-service teachers are considered part of the global community; and that the program provides a new framework for global identity through didactic courses, and promotes such values as moral education, comparative education, sustainable education in culture and language, interpersonal skills, as well as democracy education. As P2 stated: “The new program has introduced subjects to our pre-service students which could empower the feeling of belonging to global culture and community. The elective courses were not enough to open up our students to the global projections in the previous framework of language teacher education. This curriculum has better planning for developing the awareness of being a part of the community outside our living zone. When you learn how to teach a language, naturally you will be one of the members joining the global community and share the concerns and realities of what global communities hold as priorities to be a part of the community such as common values and moral codes.” P8 also stated that: “People are more diverse than they used to be. Emerging technologies enable us get connected and be part of the globally digital community. The more we are exposed to other

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communities -digital or living ones, the more we realize that there is diversity to embrace. This is what the new curriculum tries to do for the pre-service students. Making diversity easily accepted, and appreciating disadvantages and hardships so that people can partake in learning and developing cooperatively.” Diversity is highlighted as a grounding argument for inclusiveness. Some courses in the new curriculum highlight the appreciation and understanding of the fact that we come from diverse backgrounds and that there will be differences among us in terms of our potential, skills and competencies. How we tackle diversity and afford all an equal share of opportunities is important. This is one of the implicit social rules to living and flourishing in the global community. In addition to the notion of diversity, P6 underlined that “to be a part of wider community than our own, the pre-service students need to know matters of ethics, know what is morally right and wrong and identify virtue and vice in society. Eventually this makes them care for their students and respect their needs. With the new courses in the curriculum such as ethics and educational rights, pre-service students can be motivated by a universal respect for individuals and also be guided by principles of caring for students and their learning needs and rights. Also mentioned by P7, “Ethics of teaching in the new curriculum design is a brand new focus in training good teachers with a standard of values, ideals and goals. This is what steers them to be teachers and informs their treatment of students in class, each other outside the class exposing them to values such as justice, truthfulness and honesty, which are the general social norms in the global community. Unifying these values and integrating them in inner and outer circles of their own societies increasingly enable them to be a part of multicultural global community.” World English is also mentioned as an identity domain for pre-service students highlighting that they are members in a linguistic society where English is spoken by a majority of people living beyond the “inner circle”. This is mentioned by P4 as follows: “Pre-service students can now take World English and Culture not as a section in sociolinguistic course but as a separate elective course. This is an attempt to indeed make them more aware of the global context and cultural forms where English is used as a common language. This will help them to understand English not as a set form but a living dominance beyond the norm and to better identity with each speaker.” Also in the new report of 14 November, 2018, the Director of Higher Education Institute publicly announced that due to the changes in the world, the system for teacher education must be revised and cultural and ethics codes are to be introduced to the curriculum design of teacher

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education. This new design aims to create a teacher education structure which amalgamates teachers’ responsible manners and attitudes, human values and teaching proficiency. As social and cultural diversity rise in the population, pre-service students will encounter a wider global community and the idea of community has to be reshaped.” Theme: Mass communication skills The new curriculum has been considered a key attempt to develop teacher communication skills empowering them to connect with large segments of population through print and digital media. It has introduced a new subject for developing the communicating skills of teachers: English for mass communication. Pre-service teachers are able to develop their skills in: verbal expression, observation, critical thinking in the design and development of news in English, problem solving, and cultural awareness; as well as aquatinting them with the use of language and in writing for the media (such as letter to the editor, newspaper column, short news, public release, headlines, advertisements and short news bytes). P6 expressed that “This is how we engage in a digital global world, and our students are mostly engaged in social media and digital platforms such as learning management systems, blogs, online learning sites and forums. What is important is for us now, as an educator, to accept that communication among massive groups of people is a feature of today’s teaching culture because our pre-service students live in the digital global social media environment. They need to know how they can make most of that environment for their language learning and teaching. It is important that they can develop their understanding of media fact and fiction, the language of media in terms of message. The new course aims to encourage pre-service students to open their eyes to discern fiction from fact and to analyze the news and develop their own sense of personal growth while being a global citizen. This is especially important in today’s world when the world is accessible through mobile phones and teacher candidates are connected to wider digital context through social media and can reads tons of news and posts a day. My expectation is that this revision will likely bring about more professional (language use) and greater personal development (reading and analysis skills as well as improvement in world knowledge). The previous curriculum did not highlight the use of English as language in mass communication. However, pre-service students of ELT are now expected to be familiar with language and media studies, to make an analysis of English language use in media, and to master their skills of using English in mass communication. Theme: Macro context of teaching

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The new curriculum has taken the wider context of teaching and learning into consideration and now takes education beyond classroom activities. The courses introduced are Information Technologies, Instructional Technologies, Morality and Ethics in Education, Special Education and Inclusion (compulsory courses); Language and Society, World English and Cultures, English for mass Communication (field electives); Human Relations and Communication, Human Rights and Democracy Education, Career Planning and Development, Culture and Language, Media Literacy, Art and Aesthetic (general culture electives); Open and Distance learning, Out of Class Activities in Educational Institution, Project Writing in Education, Critical Thinking, Character and Value Education, Inclusive Education, Out of School Learning Environment, Comparative Education, Learning Disability, Individualization and Adaptation of Teaching, Sustainable Development and Education (Professional knowledge electives). P1, P3, P4, P5, P6, P8 explained the rationale for including the macro context for teaching noting emerging changes in technology, economy and society due to multi channeled information flow. The classroom as a micro context of teaching (in classes) has transformed into a macro context of teaching, including outside-the school learning and lifelong learning courses. The participants mentioned the realities of digital world that directed us to the wide open learning spaces outside the classroom. This indicates that learning spreads in a wider context and that the context for teaching has gone beyond the classroom. Conclusion Since the fruits of teaching are principally based on the curriculum design in teaching (Brown, 1995), opinions and evaluations on the design are crucial to ensure its quality. This study concludes that the scholars consider that implementation of the 2018 curriculum of ELT in Turkey will have a positive influence on participants’ sense of responsibility for the personal and professional development of the community at large (both real and digital) and will help them to cultivate their global identities as teachers of English. The new curriculum of EFL is seen as a unified program with the confluence of two literacies: real life intellectuality and digital literacy which encompasses digital citizenship. This program gives participants (student teachers in this context) a sense of responsibility for their personal and academic qualities and promotes ethical use in digital space while providing an infrastructure for considerable achievement in the 2st century as EFL teachers. The courses are seen as preparation “for a complex life and work environment” and to promote academic growth (Greenhill, 2010, p. 9). However, regular evaluation mechanisms from all stakeholders (teacher students, scholars,

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officials) are necessary to revise emergent shortcomings of the program and ensure successful implementation.

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References Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to program development. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. London: Sage. Retrieved from http://www.sxf.uevora.pt/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Charmaz_2006.pdf Dündar, E., & Merç, A. (2017). A critical review of research on curriculum development and evaluation in ELT. European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 2(1), 136-168. https://doi: 10.5281/zenodo.437574 Flouris, G., & Pasias, G. (2003). A critical appraisal of curriculum reform in Greece (1980–2002) trends, challenges, and perspectives. European Education, 35(3), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.2753/EUE1056- 4934350373 Greenhill, V. (2010). 21st century knowledge and skills in educator preparation. AACTE Project. Pearson. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519336.pdf Patton, M. Q. (2002). Designing qualitative studies. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods, 3, 230-246. Ulubey, Ö. (2017). Aday öğretmen yetiştirme programının değerlendirilmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education), 33(2), 480–502. http://doi: 10.16986/HUJE.2017031014 Williams, S., & Charlesb, L. (2008). The experience of developing early childhood learning goals and outcomes in the Caribbean and the implications for curriculum development and implementation. International Journal of Early Years Education, 16(1), 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760801892359

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AN EVALUATION OF THE TENTH GRADE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM OUTCOMES FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF THE TEACHERS IN JORDAN.

Rasha Omar Al-Qatawneh1 Ahmad Altweissi2

Abstract The study aimed at identifying the appropriateness of the general and specific outcomes for the 10th grade English language curriculum, and to identify any statically significant differences in teachers' perspectives related to the variables of gender, experience and the interaction between them. The sample of the study was consisted of (300) English language teachers (170) female and (130) male teachers. To achieve the goals of the study, a 53- items questionnaire was developed based on the learning outcomes items approved and adopted officially by Jordanian Ministry of Education to evaluate learning outcomes included in the tenth grade English language curriculum in Jordan from English language teachers' perspective. Results indicated the general outcomes were at a medium level of appropriateness, while it was with a high level of appropriateness for the specific outcomes. Results also indicated statistically significant differences at α ≤ 0.05 in the teachers’ estimations towards the general outcomes that could be attributed to the variable of experience and these differences were in favor of teachers with less than 5 years’ of experience, and statistically significant differences at in the teachers’ estimations toward the specific outcomes attributed to the variable of gender in favor of female teachers. Keywords: Learning Outcomes, Specific Outcomes, General Outcomes, English Language Teachers' Perspective.

Introduction

The education system in Jordan plays a crucial role in the life and culture of Jordanian society. The structure of the educational system in Jordan consists of two years of pre-school education, 10 years of compulsory basic education, and two years of academic or vocational secondary education. Basic education in Jordan is a compulsory ten-year education stage and the textbooks in this stage are standardized books distributed by the Ministry of Education. The course of basic stage education in Jordan covers Humanities, including Arabic, English, and French (in some schools); Social sciences, including history, geography and national education; Pure science and nature, including mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and earth sciences; Information and communication technology; Prevocational education, mainly includes basic skills in home economics, agriculture and industry and Art education; Musical education (a small percentage); Physical education (UNESCO, 2012).

1 Ministry of Education-Jordan 2 Mutah University-Jordan

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English Language Teaching (ELT) in particular, and as indicated by Hashisho (2009), has always been a subject of concern to educational policy makers in Jordan. Thus it was formally introduced in Jordan as a compulsory subject as early as the first class (at the age of 6), and it is taught over the rest of the school years up to grade 12 (Tawjeehy; at the age of 18). On average, there are 4-5 contact class periods (45 minutes each) a week (Al-Jamal, 2007).

The Ministry of Education (MoE) in Jordan is keen to continuously develop the general frame of English language curriculum to upgrade curriculums preparation and develop the method of teaching English language in Jordan. The most prominent component that are included in general frame is the preparation of the general outcomes to teach English language so those outcomes can be a reference in developing student who are considered the main part in learning. Thus, curriculums are considered as one of the most important axes in education, and is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. That is because, in any society, curriculums are an explanation of philosophy of education as they reflect the prominent politics, habits and cultures within society, thus curriculum development and formulation should be more accurate and indeed this is the hardest educational issue because curriculum are students' path to culture and prevail their community and link the scientific and technological developments, advances and changes that occur in the world. The progress of any community and its members is the result of the good curriculum. Jones (2016) indicates that learning outcomes are sometimes called intentional learning outcomes, learning objectives, or student-focused goals, and are usually categorized as short- term planning for a week or a lesson and these terms cover ideas of intended focus on pupils’ learning. Goodson and Mangen as cited by Savage (2015), state that since learning outcomes are contextualized by school subject disciplines, they should be appropriately written for these different content areas of the school curriculum such as English. Specific outcomes, as indicated in Curriculum Guide for English Language (2013), are delivered efficiently by being taught a cross-curricular approach, giving students opportunities to speak and listen, read and view, and write and represent, giving students opportunities to raise questions for deeper understanding through an inquiry-based learning approach, exploring topics of student interest, extending learning beyond the classroom into the local, national, and international communities, enabling students to use language in different situations, and exposing students to a range of English materials, in the other hand, if specific outcomes can’t

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be attained or are not appropriate for individual students, teachers then can utilize statements of general curriculum outcomes. Thus, it is imperative to evaluate such outcomes from time to another. Curriculum evaluation must be ongoing focused efforts and at regular intervals, it is imperative to review existing programs, as a means of continually improving them in addition to the necessity of assisting teachers to determine whether the time is right to systematically evaluate curriculum (or some aspect of it), and—if so—to broadly identify topics and questions of greatest current interest, teachers also should be instructed through a number of fundamental planning decisions, including who will be responsible for overseeing and conducting the evaluation (Malin, 2014). In general, the evaluations of curriculum help to connect all other elements of curriculum and also to highlight the positive and negative issues related to these elements such as goals, objectives and purposes of the different subjects, guidelines for course design, teaching and learning principles and others.

Statement of the Problem

When the Ministry of Education seeks to adopt any educational reform, several components are included, among which the main development is via a new or revised curriculum. Thus, when decisions are made about changes in curriculum’s learning outcomes or content, based on their direct interaction with learners and with the curriculum itself, teachers can provide concrete feedback. Educational research supports any endeavor in identifying any necessary revision or development of the curriculum. Based upon the above aforementioned justifications, the necessity of the current study emerged. The purpose of this study is to analyze and evaluate the outcomes of tenth grade English language curriculum in Jordan. It is expected that this study will sheds the light on the appropriateness of the 10th grade English language curriculum outcomes from the perspectives of the 10th grade English language teachers.

Questions of the study To achieve the study’s purpose(s), the following questions were formulated: 1. To which extent the 10th grade English language curriculum outcomes are appropriate from the perspective of the English language teachers in Al-Karak, Alqaser, and Southern Al-Mazar directorates of Education in Jordan?

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2. Are there any statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) in English language teachers' perspectives toward the appropriateness of English language curriculum outcomes could be attributed to the variables of teacher's gender (male, female), teaching experience (less than 5 years, 5-10 years, above 10 years) and the interaction between them?

Significance of the study

The significance of this study lies in the significance of the topic it addresses and in that – for the researchers’ best knowledge- it is the first to address the specific and general outcomes for the main four English language skills in Jordan, in particular the directorate of curriculum and textbooks, is expected to benefit from the outputs of this study while revising the outcomes of English language curriculum for the tenth grade.

Operational Definitions of the Terms Several terms were employed in this study, that need to be defined operationally, as follows:

Learning Outcomes: It is defined by Carr (2007) as quantifiers and qualifiers of the knowledge or skill level to be attained. More specifically, Surgenor (2010) defines learning outcomes as statements of what learners should know and, more importantly, be able to do and demonstrate their knowledge, understanding, skills and/or competences at the end of a module or program. For the purpose of the current study, it can be operationally defined as those outcomes developed by the Ministry of Education in Jordan and approved by the board of education in session No. 4/2013 dated 17-6-2013.

General and Specific Outcomes: Taghi (2009) defines general outcomes as the underlying reasons for or purposes of a course of instruction and called the long-term goals, while Specific outcomes can be defined as the descriptions of what is to be attained in a course and they are more detailed descriptions of exactly what a learner is expected to be able to do at the end of a period of instruction which might be a single lesson, a chapter of a book, a term’s work, and etc.

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For the purpose of the current study, general outcomes can be operationally defined as the (13) items that are included in the study instrument and related to the English language skills as following; (2) items for listening skill, (3) items for speaking skill, (3) items for reading skill and (5) items for writing skill. While the specific outcomes can be operationally defined as the (40) items that are included in the study instrument and related to the English language skills as following: (8) items for listening skill, (9) items for speaking skill, (7) items for reading skill and (16) items for writing skill.

Teachers' Perspective: It reflects that 10th grade English male and female teachers' responses and opinions as measured by their scores on the questionnaire of the appropriateness of general and specific outcomes for the 10th grade English language curriculum, including the outcomes as appeared in the document of 10th grad outcomes (General and specific) in Alkarak, Alqaser and Southern AlMazar directorates of education.

Tenth Grade Students: students who are approximately 16 years old and have been receiving English language teaching for 10 years now.

Theoretical background and literature review In education, and in order to work systematically, it is important to consider the components of: input, process and output, and then setting objectives, contents, methods, and assessment, which in turn considered the key elements of curriculum. Within the curriculum context, it is necessary to report that many countries now use learning outcomes to express what a student is expected to know and to be able to act or understand at the end of learning sequence. According to Greenleaf (2008) learning outcomes are statements that describe students' cognitive level acquired by the end of a particular assignment, class, course, or program, and assisting students in connecting learning in various contexts, in addition to guide assessment and evaluation. Moreover, appropriate learning outcomes focus on the application and integration of knowledge, and instead of focusing on covering a material, they articulate how students will be able to utilize the material, both inside and out of the class. Within this context, Declan, 2007:26-27) reported that “he tasks of writing learning outcomes has been made considerably easier for us due to the work of Benjamin Bloom (1913 –1999), Bloom’s taxonomy is frequently used for writing learning outcomes as it provides a ready-made structure

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and list of verbs. These verbs are the key to writing learning outcomes. Thus, since learning outcomes are concerned with what the students can do at the end of the learning activity, all of these verbs of the outcomes are expected to be on active (action) verbs”. To sum-up, good learning outcomes should have specific characteristics that indicate their effectiveness, thus, Ward (2012) states that learning outcomes should be focused on the learner and be very specific regarding what the student should be able to do at the end of an educational program or course, in addition, learning outcomes are better expressed with clear verbs. There are two outcomes' levels (general and specific outcomes) that identify the expectations for student achievement across the curriculum, these are:

General learning outcomes General outcomes are used in order to supply direction with respect to what is to be learned in a program or in a specific course. These outcomes are districted abstractly and present a wide range of expected characteristics or lasting changes that may develop in a group of learners following an extended learning scenario (Legendre, 2005). These changes are often existed in terms of knowledge to acquire learning skills and competencies to be developed. Moreover, general learning outcomes define the learning path on the basis of the three main domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective learning, which are expressed through various taxonomies (Jean, 2016).

Specific learning outcomes Specific learning outcomes relate content to ability by expressing as precisely as possible the knowledge, abilities that learners must acquire or improve during or by the end of a learning situation (Legendre, 2005). Specific outcomes help in relating an additional subject to a course outcome (general outcome) and student's expected performance. Furthermore, specific outcomes are; produces from the reduction or decomposition of general outcomes; list the external manifestations of an internal change (general outcomes) or knowledge, abilities; and highlight the expected behaviors of learners (Jean, 2016). Within the Jordanian context, learning outcomes in English curriculum cover the four basic linguistic skills (listening speaking reading and writing). In this regard, Alghazo, Alghazo and Oqlah (2013) indicate that the English language outcomes are organized into four categories correspond to the four skills of language use, and that foreign language teaching has changed from concentrating on the language components; grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation to a focus on these four skills. 176

Purposes of learning outcomes Karam (2013) divided the purposes of learning outcomes into four levels: 1)- at the learners' level: outcomes provide learners with the necessary information to help him\her in selecting the programs or qualification and enable him\her to recognize what is to be learned, 2)- at the educational institutions' level: for planning programs, curriculums, units, educational activities and as a method for development, 3)- at the national level: outcomes are the corner stone in the learning system transparency and 4)- at the international level: approving qualifications and facilitating transferring. While Mark Battersby (1999) indicated that learning outcomes are more than simply several sentences appended to existing lesson plans or curricula; instead, they aim to develop the learning process and to shape learning and assessment activities in addition to enhancing students' engagement and learning. Learning outcomes are important as they aim to define the type and depth of learning achieved by students, to provide an objective reference for formative, summative, and prior learning assessment, to clearly communicate expectations to learners, to define coherent units of learning that can be further subdivided or modularized for classroom or for other delivery modes and to guide and organize the teacher and the learner (Learning Resources Unit, 2003).

Characteristics of Learning Outcomes Good learning outcomes focus on the application and integration of the knowledge and skills acquired in a particular unit of instruction (e.g. activity, course program, etc.), and emerge from a process of reflection on the essential contents of a course. More specifically, good learning outcomes are very specific, and use active language – and verbs in particular – that make expectations clear. This informs students of the standards by which they will be assessed, and ensures that student and instructor goals in the course are aligned. (University of Toronto Faculty, 2008:8). Learning outcomes also characterized by that they delineate the acquired knowledge and skills application as indicated by the educational authorities within the framework of curriculum outcomes as describing the knowledge, skills and the application of the knowledge and skills a learner has to acquire or is able to demonstrate as a result of learning. Good learning outcomes focus on learners, a very specific statements about what the student should be able to do after finishing a specific material or program, expressed using clear articulated verbs and can be can be developed into cognitive level (Ward, 2012).

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Learning Outcomes' Assessment Assessment is a main component of any educational process and has a positive impact on school-based curriculum, and can enhance learning and teaching. Schwartz (2010) states that when designing assessments, it is important to make sure that any exams or assignments match the learning outcomes of the course. Jennifer (2008) points out that when assessing students' learning outcomes, these outcomes should be identified and practices used to achieve outcomes through curriculum mapping methods of assessment are determined then, evidence gathered and results are reviewed and interpreted and finally changes are made and measured. Jankowski (2017) states that assessment of student learning outcomes is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about educational programs undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning and development. Supporting that, Thomas (2016) confirms that the formats of assessment should be congruent with the intended learning outcomes and with the formats of teaching and learning, by using a proper and adequate instrument(s). Finally, assessors should be appropriately qualified, trained and aware of the curriculum content to ensure proper feedback to guarantee continuous process of moderation for curriculum.

Teacher's Role in Curriculum Evaluation Richards (2001) claimed that participants in the evaluation process have two types; insiders and outsiders. Insiders are those who are involved directly in developing and implementing the course; these can be; teachers, learners, and the curriculum officers. The insider participants or evaluators can work better with the formative type of evaluation. Supporting that, Hollowell (2017), stated that teachers should be consulted about curriculum evaluation because they are ultimately responsible for interpreting its outcomes and objectives in the classroom. Therefore, teachers are crucial in evaluation process, since they are teaching the curriculum for several years, thus they are well-qualified to judge if a curriculum provides appropriate outcomes. Graves (1996), as cited in Hussain (2016:40) reported that, curriculum developers and specialists, traditionally, have had an influential voice in many issues related to curriculum development, such as in determining the purposes, designing the syllabus and developing materials. In contrast, teachers have had no role in the development stages and their perceived role has been as curriculum implementers in classrooms. However, there is a growing tendency 178

towards adopting a different practice that promotes activating teachers’ roles in the development period. Jordanian English Language Curriculum: Haines (2009) as cited by Bani Abdelrahman (2014: 145) reported that the tenth grade English course includes a student's book, two cassettes with listening material, workbook and teacher's book. These materials for this course based on the General Framework and Outcomes of English Curricula in Jordan where the course is formed as a foreign language. The course consists of twelve units that form four modules. Action Pack has regular review units after every module, which revises each module and includes a project for students to work on together. The review units include various activities and test types. Many authors and researchers have addressed the topic of curriculum assessment in light of learning outcomes, and most of literature indicates the importance of developing curriculums that include appropriate learning outcomes at both the specific and general levels. For instance, Al-Qazaq (2011) evaluates the content of "Action Pack" Textbook Series for the Jordanian tenth grade students in light of the lifelong learning and the basic academic competencies and investigated the Jordanian English language teachers' views concerning it and to find if there any consistency between the Jordanian English language teachers’ views and the content analysis of the Action Pack tenth grade textbook with regard to the lifelong learning and the basic academic competencies. The sample the study included of (65) Jordanian English language teachers at (30) schools in the First Directorate of Education / Amman. The researchers developed a content analysis checklist based on six domains including (57) items to investigate the English language teachers' views about the content of " Action Pack " for the tenth grade. The results of the study showed that the basic academic competencies (listening, speaking, reading and writing) were not fairly available in the tenth grade units of "Action Pack" textbook series, except the reading competency. In addition, some findings of the study might be attributed to some limitations such as the population of this study, the sample of this study, the study instruments and the researchers’ evaluation of the content of "Action Pack" textbook series for the 10th grade. In addition, the study of Bani Abdelrahman (2014) which identifies and analyze the types and levels of questions available in the tenth grade English language textbooks which are used in Jordan during the academic year 2012-2013 to determine the distribution of the questions over the six levels of the new version of Bloom's Taxonomy of the cognitive domain. The sample of the study consisted of the Tenth grade English language textbooks where the researchers analyzed (655) questions. A study analysis sheet was prepared

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and used in the classification of the questions according to the new version of Bloom's Taxonomy to achieve the purposes of the study. The results revealed the following: most of the questions were within the first two levels; remembering and understanding (55.11%), 16.18% for applying and less for the other levels 28.71% which reflected the preponderance of the low level question in the two investigated textbooks. The results revealed that the difference were in favor of the low level questions as the percentage was 51.9%. In light of the results, the researchers recommended to improve the questions in the textbooks to cover the six levels of the new version of Bloom's Taxonomy and to train teachers and designers of curriculum to use and write questions following the new version of Bloom's Taxonomy. Moreover, Omari (2015) analyzes the intended learning outcomes (ILOs) and learning activities in Action Pack textbooks for Jordan in light of the EFL curriculum objectives. The sample of the study consisted of Action Pack textbooks for three grade levels 6th, 10th and 12th during the academic year 2014/2015. A prepared coding sheet was developed by the researchers to analyze the collected data based on a five- point Likert scale. The results indicated that the outcomes and activities in Action Pack textbooks reflect the curriculum objectives to a certain extent and the study recommended that curricula expert, textbook authors and the Ministry of Education in Jordan should work more closely, so that a higher degree of match between curriculum objectives, textbooks outcomes and learning activities can be achieved. In parallel with the aforementioned studies, AL-Jarrah, Al-Jarrah and Talafhah (2015) evaluates Jordan Opportunities 3 used for the twelfth grade in Jordanian public schools from supervisors' and teachers' perspectives and attempted to determine to what extant do Jordan Opportunities (3) adhere to the general guidelines for English language teaching in Jordan. The sample of the study was consisted of a random sample of (5) supervisors and (20) of 12th grade teachers. A self-completed questionnaire was used to investigate the teachers' and supervisors' perceptions of Jordan Opportunities (3) (Twelfth Grade). The results indicated the necessity to provide teachers with the necessary educational materials and involving teachers in drawing and designing the objectives. Results also indicated that the General Guidelines and General and Specific Outcomes for the English Language Curriculum for the Basic and Secondary Stages helped the teacher with all aspects of course planning and instruction, offered instructions on how to present and deal with each task and helped teachers chart their students' progress. It can be realized that previous studies within the Jordanian context are keen to evaluate some aspects of the English language curriculum, but hasn’t addressed the appropriateness of

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learning outcomes; general and specific. For Instance, Al-Jarrah et, al. (2015) addressed specific and general outcomes in relation to teachers' development in planning and instruction and not in relation to student’s achievement, or curriculum appropriateness for 10 grade. Thus, this study differs from the studies reviewed above in that it focused on the appropriateness of specific and general learning outcomes in the 10th grade English curriculum from English teachers' perspectives in relation to some variables.

Methodology and Design Population and sample of the Study The population of the study was 10th grade English language teachers in Jordanian public schools at Southern Mazar, Alqaser and Alkarak Directorates of Education during the 1st semester of the academic year 2017/2018. With the total of (300) teachers, which in turn considered as the study sample including (170) female and (130) male teachers. Study Instrument Based on the learning outcomes items approved and adopted officially by Jordanian Ministry of Education, a 53-items self-completed questionnaire was developed to evaluate learning outcomes included in the tenth grade English language curriculum in Jordan from English language teachers' perspective. Validity of the study tool: Validity of the study tool and its conformity with the objectives of the current study was verified by subscribing it in its initial form to a jury of arbitrators; and a group of experienced and specialized professors in curriculum and teaching methods as well as in measurement and evaluation in Jordanian universities. They were asked to confirm the appropriateness of each item to the domain it belongs to, the language, the clarity of items, and the needed modification(s). The final form of the scale included (13) items related to the general outcomes and (40) items related to the specific outcomes. Furthermore, internal consistency of the study tool (the general outcomes, specific outcomes) has been verified through applying the internal consistency approach. The coefficient of correlation has been determined for each item on the scale, as well as the total score of the scale. Where all correlation coefficients of the total outcomes scale items were statistically significant at (α ≤ 0.05), which proves the validity of the scale’s internal consistency.

Reliability of the study tool:

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To verify the reliability of the study tool of general and specific outcomes, it was applied on a pilot sample of (30) participants from the study population and outside its original sample. The internal consistency was calculated using Cronbach’s Alpha approach for each outcome as well as for the instrument as whole. Table (1) shows the results.

Table (1): Coefficients of the study tool’s reliability Out Skills Cronbach Outcome skills Cronbach comes 's Alpha s 's Alpha Liste 0.77 Listening 0.87 ning

Spea 0.79 Speaking 0.90 king Readi 0.81 Reading 0.82

Specific Specific

General General ng outcomes Writi 0.80 outcomes Writing 0.83 ng Total 0.86 Total 0.90

Table (1) indicates that skills’ consistency coefficients for the general outcomes ranged between (0.77- 0.81) and (0.86) for the tool as whole, whereas the consistency coefficients for the specific outcomes ranged between (0.82- 0.90) and (0.90) for the tool as whole and these values are acceptable for the purposes of the current study. Correction Criteria Participants responded on the study instruments items based on Likert five scale (5= strongly agree, 4= agree, 3= neutral, 2=disagree and 1= strongly disagree) and respondents’ scores were divided into three levels (high, medium and low) depending on the following formula as a correction criterion: Correction criterion = Higher value – Lower value \ Number of choices = 5-1\3=1.33. Thus teachers’ perspectives toward learning outcomes in the English language curriculum can be classified as follows: First range: 1+1.33=2.33, which indicates that scores of 2.33 or less reflects low level of appropriateness for outcomes and the outcome need urgent revision. Second range: =1.33-2.33=3.66 which indicates that scores of more than 2.33 and less than 3.67 reflects moderate level of appropriateness for outcomes and the outcome is acceptable but need slight revision. Third range: from 3.67 and above indicates that scores of 3.67 and above reflects high level of appropriateness for the outcomes and the outcome is not in need for any revision, thus can remain as is. 182

Results and Discussion Results related to the research 1st question: “To which extent are the 10th grade English language curriculum outcomes are appropriate from English language teachers' perspective in Jordan? To answer this question, Means and standard deviations were calculated for the study sample’s responses in terms of each skill according to the general outcomes and the specific outcomes as shown in table (2).

Table (2): The scores Mean scores and Standard deviations of the appropriateness of the outcomes of grade ten English language curriculums’ General outcomes D Specific outcomes omain Le M Std R R M Std. L vel ean . ank ank ean Deviation evel Deviatio n hi 3 1.0 5 Li 1 3 h 0.83 gh .68 6 stening .82 igh m 3 1.0 1 Sp 5 3 h 0.63 edium .34 9 eaking .93 igh m 3 1.0 1 Re 2 3 h 0.63 edium .50 9 ading .91 igh m 3 0.8 2 W 1 3 h 0.67 edium .53 7 riting .80 igh m 3 0.9 To 3 h 0.60 edium .50 2 tal .86 igh

Results shown in table (2) indicate the appropriateness of the general outcomes for the 10th grade English language curriculum were at a medium level with a Mean score of (3.50) and a standard deviation of (0.92). Whereas in terms of skills, they ranged between high to medium levels: the outcomes of listening skill came at first rank with a Mean of (3.68), the second rank was occupied by the outcomes of writing skill with a Mean of (3.53), the third rank was occupied by outcomes of the reading skill with a Mean of (3.50), whereas, the outcome of speaking skill came at fourth rank with a Mean of (3.34). For the specific outcomes, table (2) shows that the appropriateness, of the outcomes of the 10th grade English language curriculum were at a high level with a mean of (3.86) and a standard deviation of (0.60). For skills as whole, they came at high levels of appropriateness; as the outcomes of speaking skill came first with a Mean of (3.93), followed by the outcomes of reading skill as second with a Mean of (3.91), the third rank was occupied by the outcomes

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relevant to listening skill with a Mean of (3.82), and finally the outcomes relevant to writing skill occupied the last rank with a Mean of (3.80).

Results related to the items of questionnaire of the general outcomes were analyzed in accordance to the English language four skills as following:

1st: General Outcomes Related to Listening Skill Table (3) shows that, on the total level, the appropriateness of the general outcomes related to listening skill, was of high level with a total

Table (3): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the appropriateness' level of the general outcomes of the listening skill S. Outcomes R M St Le No. ank ean d. vel Deviatio n 1 Develop strategies of active 1 hi listening to confirm meaning in a variety gh 3 1.1 of authentic formats such as simple .77 3 discussions, conversations and presentations. 2 Demonstrate understanding of 2 m simple directions, presentations and 3 1.0 edium performances in a variety of authentic .59 9 contexts - Total - 3 1.0 Hi .68 6 gh

Mean of (3.68) and a standard deviation of (1.06). Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail; outcome number (1) stating “Develop strategies of active listening to confirm meaning in a variety of authentic formats such as simple discussions, conversations and presentations” came at first rank and reflecting a high level of appropriateness with a Mean of (3.77), whereas outcome number (2) stating “Demonstrate understanding of simple directions, presentations and performances in a variety of authentic contexts” came second reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with a Mean of (3.59) and a standard deviation of (1.09).

2nd: General Outcomes Related to Speaking Skill

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Table (4): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the level of appropriateness of the general outcomes related to the speaking skill S. Outcomes R M Std. Le No ank ean Deviation vel 3 Speak English words and 1 M 3 sentences clearly, correctly, and 1.12 edium .42 fluently. 5 Take part in a variety of well- 2 M 3 prepared simple authentic 1.22 edium .34 presentations to the class. 4 Use words and sentences to 3 M participate in simple discussions 3 edium 1.20 and conversations in a variety of .27 authentic contexts - Total - 3 M 1.09 .34 edium

As indicated in table (4), and on the total level, the appropriateness of the general outcomes related to speaking skill was at medium level with a total Mean of (3.34) and a standard deviation of (1.09). Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail; outcome number (3) stating “Speak English words and sentences clearly, correctly, and fluently” came first reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with a Mean of (3.42), whereas outcome number (4) stating “Use words and sentences to participate in simple discussions and conversations in a variety of authentic contexts” came last and reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with a Mean score of (3.27) and a standard deviation of (1.20).

3rd: general outcomes related to reading skill Table (5) shows, on the total level, that the appropriateness of the general outcomes related to reading skill was of medium level with the total Mean score of (3.50).

Table (5): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the level of appropriateness of the general outcomes related to the reading skill

S Outcomes R M Std. Le . No ank ean Deviation vel 8 Make connections between prior 1 M knowledge and experiences and a variety of 3 edium 1.05 simple authentic informational and literary .58 reading materials (e. g, magazine and

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newspaper articles, advertisements, brochures, resource materials and poems) . 6 Use reading strategies to understand a 2 M 3 variety of simple authentic informational and 1.31 edium .48 literary reading materials. 7 Demonstrate understanding of a variety of 3 M simple authentic informational and literary edium 3 reading material (e.g., magazine and newspaper 1.19 .45 articles, advertisements, brochures, resource materials, and poems). - Total - 3 M 1.09 .50 edium and a standard deviation of (1.09). Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail; outcome number (8) stating “Make connections between prior knowledge and experiences and a variety of simple authentic informational and literary reading materials” came at the first rank reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with an Mean scores of (3.58) whereas the outcome number (7) stating “Demonstrate understanding of a variety of simple authentic informational and literary reading material” came at the last rank reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with an Mean scores of (3.45).

4th: general outcomes related to writing skill

Table (6): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the level of appropriateness of the general outcomes of the writing skill S. Outcomes R M S Leve No ank ean td. l Deviati on 10 Write a series of paragraphs for a 1 3 1 Medi variety of specific simple authentic purposes .63 .06 um and audiences such as short reports, narrative accounts and presentations. 13 Revise written work for clarity, 2 3 0 Medi correctness and coherence with the assistance .59 .94 um of peers and teachers. 9 Gather information and ideas from 3 3 1 Medi print and electronic sources to organize and .56 .23 um write in a variety of simple authentic contexts 12 Apply knowledge of the conventions of 4 3 1 Medi language(e.g., spelling, punctuation, .44 .10 um grammar, and usage) 11 Use appropriate organizational patterns 5 3 1 Medi to create simple authentic written work .41 .06 um

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- Total - 3 0 Med .53 .87 ium Table (6) shows, on the total level, that the appropriateness of the general outcomes of writing skill was of medium level with Mean score of (3.53) and a standard deviation of (0.87). Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail; outcome number (10) stating: “Write a series of paragraphs for a variety of specific simple authentic purposes and audiences such as short reports, narrative accounts and presentations.”, occupied the first rank reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with Mean scores of (3.63), whereas the outcome number (11) stating “Use appropriate organizational patterns to create simple authentic written work” occupied the last rank reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with Mean score of (3.41).

Results related to the responses of the participants to the questionnaire of the specific outcomes were analyzed in accordance to the English language four skills as following: 1st: Specific outcomes related to listening skill

Table (7): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the level of appropriateness of the specific outcomes related to the listening skill S. Outcomes R M Std. L No ank ean Deviation evel 2 Recognize the significance of 1 4 0.98 h connecting words to understanding when .04 igh listening (e. g on one hand, on the other hand). 4 Record information while listening 2 3 1.01 h (e. g discussions, tapes, audio – video .88 igh presentations). 3 Use context to understand 3 3 1.07 h unfamiliar words, expressions and ideas .84 igh when listening to a presentation. 7 Identify the objectivity of 4 3 1.04 h information provided by a speaker. .79 igh 6 Synthesize information on a topic 5 3 0.99 h after listening to a discussion. .78 igh 5 Respond to brainstorming 6 3 1.13 h analytical questions before, during and .77 igh after listening to an oral presentation or watching a video. 1 Recognize the importance of 7 3 1.08 h figurative language when figurative .75 igh listening (e, g comparisons in similes and metaphors).

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8 Provide constructive feedback on 8 3 1.18 h oral presentations of peers (e.g., .73 igh accuracy, clarity, completeness). - Total - 3 0.83 h .82 igh Table (7) shows, on the total level, that the appropriateness of the specific outcomes of listening skill was of high level with the total mean score of (3.82) and a standard deviation of (0.83). Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail, all outcomes’ items were of high level; outcome number (2) stating “Recognize the significance of connecting words to understanding when listening (e. g on one hand, on the other hand)” occupied the first rank with Mean scores of (4.04), whereas the outcome number (8) stating “Provide constructive feedback on oral presentations of peers (e.g., accuracy, clarity, completeness).” occupied the last rank with Mean score of (3.73).

2nd: Specific outcomes related to speaking skill

Table (8): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the level of appropriateness of the specific outcomes related to the speaking skill S. Outcomes R M Std. L No ank ean Deviation evel 9 Use dictionaries to check correct 1 4 0.91 h pronunciation of words. .18 igh 11 Engage in discussions to 2 4 0.77 h exchange interests and experiences .02 igh using meaningful sentences (e.g., talk about career plans for the future). 15 Do a presentation on a topic of 3 3 0.85 h personal interest or based on a topic .98 igh studied in another subject. 14 Use socially appropriate 4 3 0.89 h language to participate in debates. .97 igh 12 Engage in discussions to 5 3 0.89 h understand and clarify main ideas. .94 igh 10 Rehearse oral presentations with 6 3 0.81 h peers and get feedback. .93 igh 17 Make suggestions for the 7 3 0.91 h improvement of the presentations of .82 igh peers. 13 Interview peers, teachers, family 8 3 0.85 h and community members about a .81 igh variety of topics (e.g., the benefits of learning English as a foreign language).

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16 Participate in a performance 9 3 1.01 h (e.g., a scene from a story or play .72 igh studied in class). - Total - 3 0.63 h .93 igh Table (8) shows, on the total level, that the appropriateness of the specific outcomes related to speaking skill was of high level with the total Mean scores of (3.93) and a standard deviation of (0.63). Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail, all were of high level; outcome number (9) stating “Use dictionaries to check correct pronunciation of words” occupied the first rank with Mean scores of (4.18), whereas the outcome number (16) stating “Participate in a performance (e.g., a scene from a story or play studied in class)” occupied the last rank with Mean scores of (3.72).

3rd: Specific Outcomes Related to Reading Skill Table (9) shows, on the total level, that the appropriateness of the specific outcomes related to the reading skill was at high level with a total Mean score of (3.91) and a standard deviation of (0.63).

Table (9): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the level of appropriateness of the specific outcomes related to the reading skill S. No Outcomes R M Std. L ank ean Deviation evel 18 Use print and electronic dictionaries 1 hi and glossaries to confirm word gh meanings, pronunciation, parts of 4. 1.00 speech, derivations, synonyms, 07 antonyms and clarify shades of meaning. 19 Identify the main ideas in 2 hi 4. informational materials and explain 0.78 gh 06 how the details support the main idea. 20 Recognize the organizational 3 hi 4. pattern of a text (e, g, compare and 0.81 gh 04 contrast, cause and effect) . 21 Paraphrase information, ideas, 4 hi 3. opinions and themes in written reading 0.81 gh 90 materials about various topics. 24 Read functional material for a 5 hi variety of purposes (e,g advertisements 3. gh 1.00 to make purchase, brochures to plan a 85 vacation) . 22 Read revenant material to get 6 hi 3. background information on current 0.89 gh 84 issues and events.

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23 Read various articles and stories 7 3. hi 1.13 for enjoyment. 67 gh - Total - 3. 0.63 hi 91 gh Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail, all of them came at high level where outcome number (18) stating “Use print and electronic dictionaries and glossaries to confirm word meanings, pronunciation, parts of speech, derivations, synonyms, antonyms and clarify shades of meaning” came at the first rank with a Mean of (4.07), and outcome number (23) stating “Read various articles and stories for enjoyment” came at last rank with a Mean of (3.67). 4th: Specific Outcomes Related to Writing Skill As shown in table (10), and on the total level, the appropriateness of the specific outcomes related to the writing skill was at high level with a total Mean score of (3.80) and a standard deviation of (0.67).

Table (10): The Mean scores and standard deviations for the level of appropriateness of the specific outcomes related to the writing skill S. Outcomes R M Std. Le No ank ean Deviation vel 2 Interview peers, teacher, family and 1 Hi 7 community members in English about a 3 gh 0.83 variety of topics (e, g the benefits of doing .98 charitable acts) . 3 Translate short paragraphs form English 2 3 Hi 0.92 2 into Arabic. .97 gh 3 Write a text dictated at reasonable speed, 3 Hi 3 5 using correct punctuation 0.87 gh .95 marks. 4 Use spell check, dictionaries, etc. to edit 4 Hi 3 0 texts. 0.89 gh .90

3 Transform information from a visual or 5 3 Hi 0.80 3 non-linear to a linear text and vice versa .88 gh 3 Organize information into an e- 6 3 Hi 0.82 4 presentation. .87 gh 3 Write a paragraph using complex 7 Hi 6 sentences with appropriate subordinating 3 gh 0.99 conjunctions (e.g., since, although, as though, .87 unless, until, whereas, while, so that) 2 Use multiple internet sources to gain 8 Hi 6 information for oral and written reports on 3 gh 0.89 topics related to personal interests and school .85 projects. 190

3 Revise own written work and that of 9 Hi 3 8 peers for clear and coherent text 0.82 gh .83 with correct standard of English 2 Prepare an e-presentation to demonstrate 1 Hi 3 9 understanding of a theme or an issue related to 0 0.87 gh .83 literary works. 2 Write 3 well-developed paragraph on a 1 Hi 8 topic of general interest (e, g describing a 1 3 gh 0.90 process, narrating an event supporting a point .76 of view, explaining a concept). 2 Locate and use English reference 1 Hi 3 5 materials found in the school and public 2 0.98 gh .74 libraries. 3 Email other on topics related to study 1 3 Hi 1.06 1 needs personal interests. 3 .67 gh 3 Identify some differences between 1 M 3 7 normal written texts and computer mediated 4 1.21 edium .65 communication (CMC) texts 3 Edit and proofread own written work 1 M 9 and that of peers to produce 5 3 edium 0.83 clear and coherent texts with correct .64 spelling and punctuation 3 Complete forms (e.g. application visa 1 3 M 1.13 0 entry, exit cards and C.V) 6 .47 edium Total - 3 Hi 0.67 .80 gh

Moreover, speaking about the outcomes in detail, they ranged from high to medium levels of appropriateness with outcome number (27) stating: “Interview peers, teacher, family and community members in English about a variety of topics (e, g the benefits of doing charitable acts” occupied the first rank and reflecting a high level of appropriateness with a Mean of (3.98), and outcome number (30) stating “Complete forms (e.g. application visa entry, exit cards and C.V)” occupied the last rank and reflecting a medium level of appropriateness with a Mean of (3.47).

Results related to the research 2nd question: Are there any statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) in English language teachers' perspectives toward the appropriateness of English language curriculum outcomes that could be attributed to the variables of teacher’s gender (male, female), teaching experience (less than 5 years, 5-10 years, above 10 years) and the interaction between them?

To answer this question, means and standard deviations for responses were analyzed and calculated based on both gender and years of experience variables as shown in table (11). 191

Table (11): Means and standard deviations for the appropriateness' level of the outcomes of English language curriculum according the gender and years of experience variables Outc Va L List Sp Re W T omes riable evel ening eaking ading riting otal F Mean 3.4 3.5 3. 3 3.67 emale 1 4 63 .57 Std. 0.9 1.0 0. 0 1.15 Deviation 9 8 79 .88

gender M Mean 3.2 3.4 3. 3

3.69 ail 1 4 35 .39 Std. 1.2 1.1 0. 0 0.86 Deviation 5 1 98 .99 L Mean 3.8 3.9 3. 3 3.91 essthan 8 0 72 .83

5 Std. 0.9 0.9 0. 0 0.94 Deviation 9 5 86 .85 General outcomes 5 Mean 3.2 3.5 3. 3 3.73 -10 3 1 60 .51

experience Std. 1.2 0.9 0. 0 0.87 Deviation 1 9 88 .92 M Mean 3.2 3.3 3. 3 3.56 ore than 7 8 40 .39 10 Std. 0.9 1.2 0. 0 1.23 Deviation 5 0 86 .93 Outc Va L List Sp Re W T omes riable evel ening eaking ading riting otal F Mean 4.0 4.0 3. 3 3.87 emale 5 4 87 .94 Std. 0.5 0.5 0. 0 0.85 Deviation 5 3 58 .54

gender M Mean 3.7 3.6 3. 3 3.74 ail 3 9 69 .71 Std. 0.7 0.7 0. 0 0.80 Deviation 0 3 71 .67 L Mean 3.9 3.9 3. 3

3.90 essthan 8 6 90 .93 5 Std. 0.6 0.6 0. 0 0.74 comes Deviation 7 8 64 .61 5 Mean 3.9 3.7 3. 3 3.84 -10 0 5 83 .83

Std. 0.6 0.6 0. 0 0.71 Deviation 6 3 61 .59

Specific out M Mean 3.9 4.0 3. 3 3.79 ore than 5 6 75 .86

experience 10 Std. 0.5 0.5 0. 0 0.96 Deviation 8 9 65 .60 5 Mean 3.2 3.5 3. 3 3.73 -10 3 1 60 .51 Std. 1.2 0.9 0. 0 0.87 Deviation 1 9 88 .92 M Mean 3.2 3.3 3. 3 3.56 ore than 7 8 40 .39 10 Std. 0.9 1.2 0. 0 1.23 Deviation 5 0 86 .93

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Table (11) indicate apparent differences in the English language teachers' estimations for the English language curriculum’s outcomes based on the variables of the study (gender, years of experience). To find out whether those differences are statistically significant at (α ≤ 0.05), Two Way – ANOVA analysis was employed and the results were as follows:

1st: Variance at the Level of General Outcomes

Table (12): Two way – ANOVA analysis' results for the variance in the estimations of the English language teachers’ opinions toward the English language curriculum’s general outcomes according to the study variables Outc S Source Type df Mean F Si omes kills III Sum of Square g. Squares Gender 0.002 1 0.002 0. 0. 002 966 Exp 2.489 2 1.245 1. 0. 116 329 gender * 1.998 2 0.999 0. 0.

Listening exp 896 410 Error 272.1 2 1.115 20 44 Total 3659. 2 750 50 Gender 1.569 1 1.569 1. 0.

393 239 Exp 12.50 2 6.252 5. 0. 4 551 004* gender * 7.746 2 3.873 3. 0.

Speaking exp 438 056 Error 274.8 2 1.126 22 44 General outcomes General Total 3081. 2 444 50 gender 1.400 1 1.400 1. 0. 233 268

Exp 4.600 2 2.300 2. 0. 026 134 gender * 12.06 2 6.031 5. 0. Reading exp 1 312 006* Error 277.0 2 1.135 09 44 Total 3366. 2

W 444 50

gender 4.209 1 4.209 5. 0.

ng riti 827 017 193

Exp 2.128 2 1.064 1. 0. 473 231 gender * 5.094 2 2.547 3. 0. exp 526 051 Error 176.2 2 0.722 58 44 Total 3300. 2 520 50 gender 1.845 1 1.845 2. 0. 262 134 Exp 3.767 2 1.884 2. 0.

310 101

Total gender * 6.248 2 3.124 3. 0. exp 830 041* Error 199.0 2 0.816 16 44 Total 3277. 2 059 50 *Statistically significant at (α ≤ 0.05)

Data in table (12) indicates that there are statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) in the estimations of the English language teachers’ opinions towards the English language curriculum’s general outcomes in terms of the speaking skill level, and these differences are attributed to the variable of (experience). In order to investigate in favor for which experience level these differences belong, the Scheffe’ Test for Post Hoc Comparisons was employed and the revealed results shown in table (13).

Table (13): The Scheffe’ Test for Post Hoc Comparisons for the differences in the speaking skill at the level of general outcomes based on the variable of experience Experience Mean difference Lessthan5 5-10 More

than 10 Lessthan5 3.88 - 0.65* 0.61* 5-10 3.23 -0.65* - -0.04 More than - 3.27 10 -0.61* 0.04 *Statistically significant at (α ≤ 0.05)

Data in table (13) indicates that the differences between teachers with 5-10 years experience and those with more than 10 years experience were not statistically significant at the level of (α ≤ 0.05), whereas differences for teachers with less than 5 years experience were statistically significant.

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In terms of the interaction level, results indicated that there are statistically significant differences that are attributed to the interaction between the variables of gender and experience, within the speaking skill on the total level, as well as for the skill of reading as shown in Figure (1).

Figure (1) The interaction between the variables of gender and experience according to the total level of the general outcomes

Figure (1) indicates that the estimations of female teachers with short and medium level experiences exceeded the estimations of male teachers; whereas for the long term years of experience, the estimations of male teachers exceeded the estimations of female teachers when it comes to the extent of the general outcomes’ appropriateness.

2nd: Variance at the Level of the Specific Outcomes: Table (14) Two way – ANOVA analysis for differences in the estimations of the English language teachers’ opinions toward the English language curriculum’s specific outcomes according to the study variables Out S Source Type d Mean F Si comes kills III Sum of .f Square g.

S L Squares

Gender 0.362 1 0.362 0 0.

s

c

pe ist

ou ng

tco me eni cifi .529 468 *Statistically significant at (α ≤ 0.05) 195

Exp 0.371 2 0.186 0 0. .271 763 gender * 3.133 2 1.567 2 0. exp .292 103 Error 166.8 2 0.684 02 44 Total 3826. 2 172 50 Gender 2.603 1 2.603 7 0. .074 008* Exp 0.600 2 0.300 0 0. .815 444 gender * 1.883 2 0.942 2 0.

Speaking exp .559 079 Error 89.79 2 0.368 5 44 Total 3963. 2 630 50 Gender 3.724 1 3.724 1 0. 0.439 001* Exp 4.572 2 2.286 6 0. .409 002* gender * 0.516 2 0.258 0 0.

Reading exp .723 486 Error 87.03 2 .357 7 44 Total 3929. 2 959 50 gender 0.874 1 0.874 2 0. .218 138

Exp 0.699 2 0.350 0 0. .887 413 gender * 1.045 2 0.523 1 0. Writing exp .326 267 Error 96.17 2 0.394 2 44 Total 3718. 2 910 50 gender 1.428 1 1.428 4 0. .144 043* Exp 0.505 2 0.253 0 0.

al .733 481

Tot gender * 1.298 2 .649 1 0. exp .883 154 Error 84.07 2 .345 4 44 Total 3806. 2 646 50

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As shown in table (14), there are statistically significant differences at (α≤ 0.05) in the estimations of the English language teachers’ opinions towards the English language curriculum’s specific outcomes in terms of the total level and at the level of speaking and reading skills that are attributed to the variable of gender, and these differences were in favor of female teachers. For the variable of experience, results indicated differences related to the reading skill. In order to investigate in favor of which these differences were belong to, the Scheffe’ Test for Post Hoc Comparisons has been conducted as shown in table (15).

Table (15): Scheffe’ Test for Post Hoc Comparisons to detect the differences in the reading skill according to the variable of experience Experience Mean difference Lessthan5 5-10 More

than 10 Lessthan5 3.96 - 0.21* -0.10* 5-10 3.75 -0.21* - -0.31* More than - 4.06 10 0.10* 0.31* *Statistically significant at (α ≤ 0.05)

Data in table (15) shows that the differences were in favor of the teachers with long-term experience (more than 10 years), followed by teachers of short-term experience (less than 5 years), and at last were the teachers of medium length of experience (5 to 10 years).

Discussion Results of this study indicated the appropriateness of the general outcomes for the 10th grade English language curriculum from teachers' perspective in Jordan with a medium level, while for the specific outcomes, results indicated the appropriateness, of the outcomes of the 10th grade English language curriculum from the English language teachers' perspective in Jordan with a high level. Those results are might be attributed to the fact that all Jordanian EFL teachers use the same teachers' book and receive the same training courses and workshops related to the general outcomes in the English language curriculum supported with the fact that the Ministry of Education in Jordan implementing the same curriculum in all public schools. The current study revealed statistically significant differences at (α≤0.05) in the estimations of the English language teachers’ opinions towards the English language curriculum’s general outcomes in terms of the overall skills' level, and these differences are attributed to the variable of (experience). This result might be attributed to that most teachers with long experience have started teaching in remote schools and then transferred to schools 197

with advanced teaching material that assist them in teaching English language skills, while for those with short experiences, this result might be attributed to that they still in need for the appropriate skills for teaching these skills and could be attributed to the fact that some schools they teach in lack for the necessary materials for teaching. The difference in teachers perceptions toward the general outcomes came at medium level while came at high one for the specific outcomes because there is a kind of general formulation for the general objectives so teachers' understanding for them isn’t like that of specific outcomes, and general outcomes and objectives are more flexible because of their generality and inclusiveness and need to be more clear while the specific outcomes and objectives are more clear and have behavioral objectives which makes it easy for teachers to understand them more than general ones, and thus,their tasck is more easy in the evaluation. Results can also be attributed to the educational environment when the researchers observed during the application of the study, there were differences among these environments as there were developed schools equipped with advanced teaching materials which gave teachers in these schools opportunities to acquire experience in all teaching dimensions and to be skilled in dealing with the curriculum and able to interact with specific outcomes more than general ones. There were also remote schools where teaching is traditionally with low teachers' experience due to the lack for the necessary materials and teachers in these schools completed the tool of the study with no conveienet knowledge about general outcomes in addition to there short experiences of less than 5 years. All the aformationsed explanations guide to the conclusion that learning outcomes with moderate and low level of appoperations should be modified and devolped coupeled with the necessity to alleivate the diversity of school environments. In additio to ensure the the availability of educational facilities that may help in raising the level of achieving the proposed learning outcomes. Results of this study are in agreement with that of Omari (2015) who found that the outcomes and activities reflect the curriculum objectives to a certain extent and the result of Al- Jarrah et al (2015) which indicated a congruent between Jordan opportunities 3 (twelfth grade) and general guidelines for English language teaching in Jordan, these results of the study are also in agreement with that of Al-Qazaq (2011) who indicated that the correlation coefficient of consistency between the teachers' views responses and the content analysis checklist was high concerning these three domains (thinking, reading and learning) while the correlation

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coefficient of consistency was low between the teachers' views responses and the content analysis checklist of the other three domains (speaking, writing and listening).

Recommendations In light of the results of the study, the following recommendations were suggested: 1- The directorate of curriculum and school textbooks in the Ministry of Education should revise the both specific and general outcomes in the English language curriculum 2- Teachers should develop special tests to assess the learning outcomes among students they teach based on the recent research findings and recommendations. 3- Offering training courses for English language teachers regarding learning outcome and in particular new teachers in addition to including expert teachers in the process of developing specific and general outcomes.

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References Alghazo, Abeer and Smadi, Oqlah (2013) A Content Analysis of the English Reading Text's Authenticity in Student's Book of Action Pack Level in Jordan. European Scientific Journal .9, (29) Al-Jamal, Dina (2001) English Teaching and Learning Experiences in Jordan: Attitudes and Views. Umm Al-Qura University Journal of Educational & Social Sciences & Humanities. 19 (1): 29-55. Aljarrah, Jarrah; Al-Jarrah, Tamer and Talafhah, Rania (2015) The Extent to which Jordan Opportunities 3 Meets the General Guidelines for English Language Teaching in Jordan. International Journal of Accounting and Financial Reporting, 5,(2( : 15-25 Al-Qazaq, Mohammed Bayer (2011) An Evaluation of the Action Pack Textbook Series for the Jordanian Upper Basic Stage Students in Light of Lifelong Learning and Basic Academic Competencies and the English Teachers' Views. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Amman Arab University-Jordan. Bani Abdelrahman, Mahmoud Sulaiman (2014) An Analysis of the Tenth Grade English Language Textbooks Questions in Jordan Based on the Revised Edition of Bloom's Taxonomy. Journal of Education and Practice (Electronic Edition): 5, (18): 139-151. Carr, Sandra (2007) Developing Learning Outcomes Linking Outcomes to Assessment. Education Centre Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences University of Western Australia. Curriculum Guide (2013) Grade One English Language Arts. Interim Edition. New Foundland, Labradorm. Retrieved in 22nd October 2018 from https://www.ed.gov.nl.ca/edu/k12/curriculum/guides/english/primary/ELA%20Gr%201.pdf Declan Kennedy (2007) Writing and Using Learning Outcomes: A Practical Guide. Higher Education Authority. University College Cork. Watermans Printers. Italy. Greenleaf, Emily (2008) Developing Learning Outcomes: A Guide for University of Toronto Faculty. Centre for Teaching Support & Innovation. University of Toronto. Hashisho, Nawal H (2009) An Investigation of the Status of English Language Instruction in the Lower Basic Stage in Jordanian Public Schools. University of Jordan. Dirasat, Educational Sciences,36, (1);179-191. Henriques, Siamo. (2009). An evaluation of English as a foreign language textbook for secondary schools in Angola. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Kansas, USA. Hussain, Mohammed Adam (2016) EFL Teachers’ Views about their Roles in the Curriculum of the EFL Foundation Year Program in Saudi Arabia. PhD thesis. University of Exeter. Jankowski, Natasha (2017) Assessing Student Learning Outcomes; A Best Practices in Assessment and Accreditation. National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment. Bucknell University. Retrieved from: http://www.learningoutcomesassessment.org/documents/ACCSC.pdf Jean-François Richard (2016) Writing Learning Outcomes: Principles, Considerations, and Examples. Université de Moncton A resource document published by the Maritime Provinces Higher Education Commission January 2016. Jennifer E. Roberts (2008) Methods for Assessing Student Learning Outcomes. Academic Assessment Office of Institutional Research, Planning, and Assessment Northern Virginia Community College. Jones, S. A. (2016). Writing learning outcomes for English language lessons in multilingual schools. TESOL Journal, 7 (2), 469 - 493. doi:10.1002/tesj.255. Karam Abdela'ati (2013) Learning Outcomes. Ministry of Higher Studies. University of Salman Bib Abdela'ziz. National Committee for Evaluation. KSA. Learning Resources Unit (2003) Writing Learning Outcomes. British Columbia Institute of Technology Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada, British Columbia Institute of Technology, available on: https://tlc.iitm.ac.in/PDF/htoutcomes.pdf Malin, J. R. (2014). Curriculum evaluation for the improvement of STEM programs of study. Champaign, IL: Office of Community College Research and Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Mark B. (1999) So, What's a Learning Outcome Anyway? Center for Curriculum, Transfer and Technology, Vancouver, BC, USA. Omari, H. (2015) Analysis of the Intended Learning Outcomes and Learning Activities of Action Pack Textbooks in Jordan. School of Educational Sciences, the University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan. Modern Applied Science; 12 (5): 60-71. Richards, J, C (2001) Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press. Savage, J. (2015). Lesson planning: key concepts and skills for teachers: David Fulton. 1st Edition. Institution of education Manchester. Mmetropolitan University, UK. Schwartz (2010) Matching Assessments to Learning Outcomes. Research Associate, for the Learning & Teaching Office, http://www.ryerson.ca/lt/taga/index.html.

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Taghi, J. (2009) The Importance of Classroom Assessment and Evaluation in Educational System. Yazd University, Iran Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of Teaching and Learning (ICTL 2009) INTI University College, Malaysia. Thomas de B. (2016) Assessment and Demonstration of Achieved Learning Outcomes: Recommendations and Good Practices Outcomes. The NVAO Peer Learning Event on 29-30 October 2015. the European Commission. UNESCO (2012) Education in Jordan. Education for All Global Monitoring Report Fact Sheet, Progress towards the six Education for all goals in Jordan, the Arab States and the World. As Available on: https://en.unesco.org/gemreport/sites/gemreport/files/Jordan_fact_sheet.pdf , retrieved on / /2018 University of Toronto Faculty (2008) Developing Learning Outcomes: A Guide for University of Toronto Faculty. Center of Teaching Support and Innovation, p8. Ward, T. (2012) Characteristics of Good Learning Outcomes. Project funded by the EU Lifelong Learning Program. Retrieved from: http://www.saleie.york.ac.uk, University

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THE EFFECT OF USING RECIPROCAL AND THINK ALOUD TEACHING STRATEGIES ON DEVELOPING READING SKILLS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE OF FIFTH GRADERS IN THE SCHOOLS OF PETRA DIRECTORATE OF EDUCATION

Ekhlass Haroun Al-Amarat1 Ahmed Issa Al-Tweissi2

Abstract This study aimed at investigating the effect of using reciprocal and think aloud teaching strategies on developing reading skills in English language of fifth graders in the schools of Petra Directorate of Education during the second semester of the school year 2017-2018. The researchers developed a reading test where its validity and reliability were verified. The sample of the study was consisted of two experimental groups wher the 1st experimental group (39) male and female students was taught using reciprocal teaching strategy, and the 2nd one of (39) male and female students was taught using think aloud teaching, while the control group was consisted of (33) male and female students was taught using conventional method. The findings of the study indicated that there were statistically significant differences at (α≤0.05) in favor of reciprocal teaching, with the mean scores of (30.76, 29.15 and 23.54) respectively. Furthermore, there were no statistically significant differences at (α≤0.05) that are attributed to the variable of gender with the mean scores of (30.47 and 29.48) for male and female students respectively. Several recommendations were suggested, among which : conducting further research to investigate the effect of using reciprocal teaching and think aloud strategy on other language skills. Keywords: Reciprocal teaching, Think Aloud, English reading skills.

Introduction The development of education has contributed to make Jordan one of the advanced countries in the region. Thus, the Ministry of education is keen to invest in all the educational components, namely; students, teachers, curriculum, learning environment, and educational resources, where each component affects and interacts with other components. With regard to the component of curriculum, in turn, it includes educational objectives, content, teaching strategies, and evaluation strategies. The objectives often help to clarify the purpose for which the curriculum is designed; the content helps to identify appropriate knowledge, skills and pedagogical attitudes; while the evaluation element assists in the development of tests appropriate for both the curriculum and students. Relevant to the topic of the current study, it is worth noting that curriculum development contributes greatly to the adoption of modern teaching methods and strategies and encouraging teacher(s) to invert old traditional methods. Therefore, it is important to report that the diversity of learning strategies is commensurate with individual differences among students, as learning

1 Ministry of Education-Jordan 2 Mutah University-Jordan

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can only be achieved if there is such diversity. Hence, the idea of using a single strategy is no longer adequate for all educational providers, but rather diversity to suit all attitudes, increase student motivation and influence positive in attention, focus and interactivity. There are many modern teaching/learning strategies that raise the level of student achievement and education, among which are the strategy of reciprocal-teaching and thinking aloud; each of which is expected to produce positive results when applied to students and their educational attainment.

Teaching Strategies of English Language English language is taught as a foreign language and it is used as a second language, so the aim of English language learning is for communication, that is, learners are in need to some extent, to master four skills which are reading, writing, listening and speaking (Wright, 2010). Reading is considered as a complex intellectual processes when the learners uses mind along with the sense of sight, pronunciation and other tools. Moreover, reading is a communication mean among individuals and contributes to the recognition of the different opinions and ideas. Thus, it is imperative to employ those learning strategies that will help teachers and facilitate learner’s task to develop their reading skills. Having said that, learners have to coordinate multiple strategies to be good learners, among these strategies; the reciprocal teaching and think aloud strategies. Reciprocal teaching strategy is one of the reading instruction methods, which helps students hasten their data increase, and thus become better readers. The objective of reciprocal teaching method is to narrative symposium to optimize students’ data appreciation, corroborating self-regulatory and monitor skills, and wind up all- inclusive enhancement in stimulation (Mohammed and Abbas, 2012). The Think-Aloud is a method whereby the teacher makes his or her thought process a part of the presentation. The teacher engages students in ardent making them think in the matter of what has happened or what buttress happen through the use of comprehension or prediction questions. Think-Aloud method is to undertake students real and delineate what they are gauge when they are reading aloud. This allows teacher to pay attention and carry out concentration into what a student is thinking about when reading. (McKeown & Gentilucci, 2007; Oster 2001). Statement of the Problem According to the researchers’ experience; the first as a teacher of English language for five years while the second as university lecturer (for -20- years), it was noticed that most

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students encounter difficulties in reading in English as a foreign language, and some students are felt to be bored or shy while reading, meanwhile there are many strategies that teachers can adopt and use to help learners improving their comprehension or overcoming the difficulties of reading. Based on what has been reported early about reciprocal and think aloud strategies, it expected that using these two strategies will contribute to alleviating the difficulties that learner encounter. Having said that, the main aim of the current study is to investigate the effect of using reciprocal teaching and think aloud strategies on developing reading skills in English language of fifth graders in the schools of Petra Directorate of Education.

Questions of the Study This study is an attempt to answer the following two questions; 1- Is there an effect of using reciprocal and think aloud teaching strategies on the development of students’ reading skills in English language? 2- Are there any statistical significant differences in students’ reading skills at α≤0.05 that can be attributed to the teaching strategies: reciprocal teaching and think aloud strategy based on the variable of learner’s gender (female, male)?

Significance of the Study The results of this study might be significant for the followings:  It is expected to encourage teachers to improve their students reading skills by exposing them to a modern learning strategies.  It is expected to encourage teachers to use the modern teaching strategies in classrooms instead of the conventional one.  It is expected to motivate/ encourage decision maker(s) to adopt such strategies to be a part of the teachers' training program.

Operational Definition of Terms Several terms were employed in this study, that needed to be defined operationally as follows: Reciprocal Teaching: - It is an instructional strategy instituted on modeling and guided practice, in which the guide first models a group of reading comprehension strategies and then progressively relinquish responsibility for these strategies to the students (Brown &Palaincsar, 1989; Palincsar, 1986; Palincsar& Brown, 1984). 204

However, for the purpose of the current study, reciprocal strategy was defined as a strategy that is take place alternately between the instructor and students or between students themselves for the implementation of certain activities in the learning of English language according to several sub-strategies which are questioning, summarizing, clarifying and predicting. Think Aloud Oster (2001) defined the think-aloud as a technique in which students verbalize their thoughts as they read and thus bring into the open the strategies they are using to understand a text''. However, for the purpose of the current study, the think aloud strategy, can be operationally defined as a strategy that is used by the teacher and students, through which students have been allowed to practice asking questions aloud to themselves as they read the text. It was done individually, with a partner, and in a small group. Moreover, through this strategy student have been allowed to display everything that is going on in their intellect in front of others so that they can realize it, and thus, students use all their capacity in a positive orientation.

Reading Skill It is the skill which is considered as the process of making meaning from a text. The purpose, therefore, is to profit an aggregate understanding of what is qualified in the text rather than to acquire meaning from secluded words or sentences. (Wolley,2011). However, for the purpose of the current study, it can be defined as the 5th graders' ability to read English text from their own textbook (a selected comprehension passage was employed). Fifth Grade Students They are those students who are about 11 years old at the Jordanian schools, and in particular at the schools of Petra directorate of education. Petra Directorate of Education It is one of the directorates of education located in south of Jordan within the governorate of Ma’an.

Limitations of the Study 1- In terms of the targeted group, this study was conducted on the is 5th male and female graders in public schools in Petra Region

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2- In terms of time, this study was conducted in the second semester of the scholastic year 2017/2018. 3- In terms of instrumentation, this study examined the effect of using reciprocal teaching and think aloud strategies on the reading skills by using the achievement test.

Theoretical Framework There are developments and changes on the educational level in the teaching methods and strategies that seek to improve the learner capacity, through shifting from access to schooling to improving learning quality. As it is one of the most important components on education reform, curriculum must keep pace with those changes, in particular the teaching of English language skills, whether writing, speaking, listening or reading. Focusing on the reading skills in English language, the current study, also investigated the effect of using two modern teaching strategies, namely: reciprocal teaching/learning strategy and think aloud teaching strategy.

Definition of Reading Skill Reading is a skill that aims to help reader to bear the textbook to alternative types of familiarity, to empower him/her to better understand comprehension and to provide entertainment in the text (Chandavimol, 1998). According to Aebersold and Mary (1997) and Rumelhart (1977), reading is a reciprocal process including two section: the reader and the realistic text; proposing that the reading process seems to be governed by the interaction between representatives. Grabe and Stoller (2002: 9) argue that “reading is the ability to draw meaning from the printed page and interpret it appropriately”. In line with that, and according to Linse and Nunan (2006), as cited in Surjosuseno (2011), reading is a set of skills involving the meaning and derivation of the meaning of the printed text. Based on the above mentioned definitions, it can be concluded that reading is one of the important discretionary skills in which a person must be able to construct words and understand what s/ he reads.

The Importance of Reading According to Burns& Smith (2002) the importance of reading is related to several aspects, among which are the followings: 1- It enhances the ability of students to read more theoretically, which in turn may enhance

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their abilities to communicate more effectively. 2- It helps students to obtain information from the reactions to their reading in oral and written forms. 3- It encourages students to relate what they are thinking about, when they read, with their experiences. Principles of Teaching Reading The principles of teaching reading are popularization about reading instruction established on research in the field of reading and observation of reading practices. Thus, reading is an integral part of all content area instruction within the educational program, through which a student needs to see that reading within the context as an enjoyable pursuit. According to Burns & Smith (2002), and within the context of reading, there are several principles that should be taken into consideration among which are the followings: 1) While there is no single exact track to teach the reading skill, students should be educated word recognition strategies that will grant them to turn on the pronunciations and meanings of uncommon words independently. 2) Employed teaching strategies should allow teacher to appreciate each students reading ability and use the appreciation as a base for planning prescript. Employed teaching strategies for reading should permits each learner to taste the success. Employed teaching strategies should enforce self-direction and self-monitoring of reading for learners. Models of Reading Process A clearly articulated previous literature on reading models described four main models that can be applied in the reading process in a second language teaching and learning. These models are referred to as following 1. The Top-down Model It is a model in which top is the higher mental order whereas the bottom as the physical text on the page. In this regard, Nuttall (1996) asserts that readers may predict information directly only by reading the title of the text, which in turn can reduce the amount of effort invested in the reading process, which starts from the highest level (top) and moves to the lowest level (down). 2. The Bottom-up Model It is the model which emphasize the written or printed text, and the ability to decide or put into sound what is scan in the text. In this regard, Carrell (1989) points out that in the bottom-up reading reader creates meaning from those small units to larger units. 207

3. Interactive Model The interactive is the model in which a combination of the both bottom-up and top-down models and emphasizes the interrelationship between a reader and the text (Ahmadi & Pourhossein, 2012). Moreover, it can be reported that within this model good reader are both good decoders and good interpreter of the text.

4. Constructive Model In the constructive model, the reader integrates the information presented, its context with his background knowledge, using these to construct meaning that may go beyond what is actually written. In link with the aim of the current study, it is important to highlight that when second language learners make frequently use of the interactive model, they become effectively and efficiently readers and renounce a successful reading process that owned its success to such a model for being a combination of the Top-down and Bottom-up models. Here, it is noteworthy to point out that the reciprocal model of teaching and think aloud strategies is based on the interactive model and therefore, the two are closely related. Reciprocal Teaching Strategy The definition of reciprocal teaching strategy: Reciprocal teaching refers to an educational activity that takes place in the form of dialog between teacher and students while reading part of the text. Therefore, it was defined, by Ockzus (2010), as a scaffolding discussion technique involving four strategies that use good readers when they read: prediction, question, clarify, and summarization (can be used in any order). Each is first modeled by the teacher, then practiced by students with each other and finally individually applied. Thus it can be concluded that reciprocal teaching allows the teacher to model and give students enough practice to build the meaning of the text in the social environment. Actually, it enables students to monitor their own thinking through the reading process, and enhances readers to be better at reading and help them to reach the most important goal of reciprocal teaching and become independent readers. The Stages of Reciprocal Teaching According to many researchers, such as; Palincar and Brown (1984); and Hartman (1997) it can be reported that reciprocal teaching strategy is a technique used in teaching reading through four stages, which are summarized in the following: Phase I: Teacher demonstration, within this phase, teacher models how to use the strategies of

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predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing. Phase II: Direct instruction and guided practice, within this phase, teacher teaches each of strategies, mentioned in phase (1), explicitly and supports students with practices. Phase III: Teacher-student groups, within this phase, teacher leads discussion about the text in classroom group using four strategies: - predicting where students draw inferences and use evidence from the text throughout the reading process; - questioning, where students ask and answer questions to understand the text; - clarifying, where students know and apply grade level phonics and word analysis skills in decoding words in texts. They also use context to confirm or self-correct, and they reread when necessary; and - summarizing, where students can identify main ideas and details in paragraphs and in multi paragraph texts. They also compare and contrast the overall structure of a text. Students determine themes and summarize poems, dramas, or literature .and students take turn leading and practicing the strategies. Phase IV: Student-led groups Within this phase, students lead the discussion in small groups using four strategies (predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing), the teacher provides support as needed. The Advantages of Reciprocal Teaching Strategies Here are some advantages of reciprocal teaching technique as reported by Gajria, et al. (2007): 1- It helps teacher to explicitly scaffold learning to help students become more metacognitive about their reading and learning. 2- It helps student become more active, reflective, and strategic readers. Think Aloud Strategy The Definition of Think Aloud Strategy Think a loud strategy has been defined in many different ways: Someren (1994:35), defined think aloud as a problem solving process in which the subject keeps on talking, speaks out loud whatever thoughts come to mind, while performing the task at hand”. A fundamental part of efficient think a loud contains teacher modeling of meaningful comprehension strategies. According to Oster (2001:64), the think-aloud was defined ''as a technique in which students verbalize their idea as they read and thus get into the strategies they are using to comprehend a text'', but they are not in prospect to construe their conduct as in reflection. While Migyanka et al. (2005) reported that think aloud should be used in helping learners with disabilities and those who are learning English as a second language. This strategy is fundamental for the refinement of comprehension as well as fluently. It is serious for teachers to perfectly understand this strategy, so that they are able to perform it in the classroom in a suitable technique. The Purpose and Advantages of Think Aloud

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The purpose of think aloud strategy is to help foreign language learners develop their abilities on how to monitor their reading and how to understand reading text. According to Block & Israel (2004), and Dunston& Headley (2002), the advantages of purpose of the Think- Aloud is related to several aspects, among which are the following: 1- It helps student to reinforce the efficiency of the thinking process and facilitate their task on recognizing what they comprehend. 2- It helps teacher to display their thinking process during the reading for those students who are struggling with comprehension. 3- It helps student on how to be an expert reader and can be read with better comprehension.

Using of Think Aloud According to Tovani (2000) there are several procedures that could be adopted when using think aloud with students, among which are the following: 1- Select a short portion of the text, and give all student a copy of the text. 2- Illustrate the design of the think aloud reading strategy and when it can be applied. 3- Read the text out loud and stop oftentimes to share your thinking. Think-aloud the connections you are making. 4- After modeling think-aloud a few times, permit students to participate in the process and ask them to explain your idea using the recording sheet. In turn you will be able to estimate if they can differentiate one strategy from another. It is worth noting that the recording sheet will attract students in the think-aloud you are designing. 5- Direct students to try using the think-aloud strategy with each other. More clearly, each student should do all the reading and thinking-aloud while his/her colleague register or writes a note about the other student’s use of think-aloud. 6- Allow students to apply these strategies independently and think in their heads whenever they encounter a text. Literature Review The researchers reviewed many studies that discussed the effect of using reciprocal teaching and think aloud strategies, several studies were reviewed, among which are the followings: In Jordan, the study of Irteimeh (2006) examines the effect of the reciprocal teaching model on enhancing reading comprehension skills in English language of Jordanian secondary school students. The results of the study revealed that there were a statistically significant differences at α = 0.05 between the scores of the experimental and control groups on favour of

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reciprocal teaching strategy, while there were no statistically significant differences were found due to the variable of gender. In Egypt, the study of Durham (2013), investigates the effects of a reciprocal teaching as a method to develop reading skills of preparatory stage pupils. Two groups of students: a control group of (37) pupils and an experimental group of (39) pupils were targeted. Results confirmed that there were statistically significant differences in favor of the reciprocal teaching strategy. In Saudi Arabia, the study of Alaraj (2015), investigates the effect of using think –aloud strategy to improve English reading comprehension for 9th grade students in Saudi. Two groups of students were targeted; a control group and an experimental group The results showed that the students in the experimental group had, in the majority of cases, improved their reading comprehension; as measured by the assessments, while the control group’s scores remained the same. Once again in Saudi Arabia, the study of Alqahtani (2015) investigates the effects of the think aloud strategy on the abilities of 6th grade students in Saudi Arabian in reading comprehension. Two groups of students were targeted; a control group and an experimental group which consisted of (20) students. The researchers found that students in the experimental group, using the Think Aloud strategy consistently scored higher grades compared to the students in the control group taught by conventional methods of reading. Results showed that the Think Aloud strategy is instrumental in improving reading comprehension and should be considered a potentially valuable alternative strategy to the conventional method of reading. The researchers recommended that a teacher may only teach what they know and if they do not know the strategy, then they cannot teach it. In Indonesia, the study of Sapurta (2017) investigated the influence of using think aloud strategy towards students reading comprehension on recount text at the first semester of the eighth grade in the academic year of 2016/2017 in Malaysia (Darul Huda Bandar Lampung.). Two groups of students were targeted, a control group consisted of (34) students and an experimental group consisted of (36) students. The study tool was pre-post reading tests. The results revealed that there is a significant influence of using think aloud strategy towards reading comprehension recount text at the first semester. The researchers recommended for English teacher to apply think aloud strategy as one of the strategies in teaching reading comprehension, and advised students to use think aloud strategy as one of the strategies in learning reading comprehension.

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Finally, in Jordan, the study of Alzyoud (2017) identified the effect of teaching reading texts by using thinking aloud protocol and inquiry strategy in improving analytical reading and writing skills among the students of the fifth grade. Three schools have been selected from those schools which pertaining to (Al-Zarqa-first) Education Directorate. One fifth grade class has been randomly selected from each school. The population of the study consisted of (112) female. The researchers have administered two exams. The first exam has been administered to measure the analytical reading skills, and the second exam to measure writing skills. Results indicated that the first experimental group showed superiority in analytical reading and writing skills upon the control group, and that the second experimental group showed superiority in the two mentioned exams upon the control group. In addition, results indicated no significant differences between the two experimental groups in the two tests of analytical reading and writing skills. And the researchers recommended that it is necessary to include the two strategies of questioning and loud thinking in Arabic language teacher’s books for the first basic stage, as they are two modern strategies for teaching reading texts.

Conclusion The researchers concluded that none of the previous studies investigated the effect of using reciprocal teaching coupled with the effect of using the strategy of think aloud together. More interestingly, the uniqueness of the current study stems from the reality that it is the first within its context that was carried out on the schools of Petra directorate of education, In addition, most of the previous studies targeted the upper stages students, whereas, the current study approached the 5th graders. Thus it is expected that the output of the current study will contribute to the knowledge and the educational literature about the education in the region of Petra, and the lower basic grader learning.

Methodology The study followed a quasi-experimental method, and this method was employed due to the nature of the study and its appropriateness to achieve its objectives.

The Sample of the Study The sample of the study consisted of (111) of the 5th graders whom where intentionally selected from (4) basic schools in Petra directorate of education. The targeted sample was randomly distributed into three main groups as follows: 1. Control group which included (33) students.

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2. The first experimental group which was exposed to a reciprocal strategy included (39) students. 3. The second experimental group which was exposed to a think aloud strategy included (39 students. Table (1) shows the distribution of the sample based on groups and variable.

Table (1): Distribution of participants in both the experimental group and the control group Group Gender No First experimental group Males 19 : taught using the reciprocal Females 20 strategy Total 39 Second experimental Males 18 group : taught using the think Females 21 aloud strategy Total 39 Control group: taught Males 16 using the conventional method Females 17 Total 33 Total 111

Study Tools To achieve the objectives of the study, an achievement test was designed for reading skill in English for 5th graders on the 14th and 15th units in the textbook of the 5th grade. The test was designed based on the researchers’ experience and by referring to previous studies related to the topic of the current study. Validity of the Achievement Test The initial version of the study tool(achievement test) underwent through a process of validity verification by asking a jury of (12) arbitrators of experienced specialists include the faculty members in Jordanian universities, a group of experienced educational supervisors and English Language teachers, in addition to a group of experienced specialists in assessment and evaluation The referees were asked to review the test validity regarding questions' clarity; inclusion of the educational material and questions' appropriateness for students' abilities, in addition to provide their opinions about adding or deleting questions and to check for the test instructions' clarity. Based on their opinions, questions upon which 80% of arbitrators agreed to modify were modified. The test in its final version after being arbitrated consisted of (6) separated questions that included (25) multiple choice sub-questions, fill in the blank, correct the error and True and

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False items. The test was designed based on Bloom test levels that included the following levels: knowledge, comprehension and evaluation. Reliability of the Achievement Test To verify the achievement test reliability, technique of checking the test items' difficulty and discrimination indexes was employed. Table (2) shows difficulty indexes for the pilot sample responses on the test Table (2): Difficulty indexes for the test questions’ items Item Difficulty Item Difficulty Item Difficulty No Index No Index No Index 1 0.60 10 0.51 19 0.55 2 0.56 11 0.47 20 0.49 3 0.49 12 0.54 21 0.58 4 0.45 13 0.54 22 0.56 5 0.53 14 0.51 23 0.46 6 0.42 15 0.49 24 0.51 7 0.54 16 0.72 25 0.66 8 0.54 17 0.52 9 0.56 18 0.50

Results within the table (2) indicates that difficulty indexes for the achievement test's items ranged from (0.40) to (0.72) which indicates no difficulty indexes above (0.85) or less than (0.20). These values of difficulty indexes are educationally appropriate for the purpose of administering this test in the current study. Test piloting To verify the reliability of the achievement test, the test and retest method was employed on a sample of (50) 5th graders, with two weeks’ period between the first and the second applications. Pearson correlation were calculated for the test levels and the output was presented in table (3). Table (3): Pearson Correlation for the achievement test Questions' Pearson Correlation Variable No Achievement 25 *0.65 Test

As shown in the table (3) the test has high degree of reliability as Pearson correlation for the whole test items reached (0.65), hence the achievement test with its final version was consisted of (25) items distributed over (6) main questions. Groups Equivalence: To check for the equivalence among targeted groups, Means and SDs for students' scores on the achievement test were analyzed. The results were presented in the table (4).

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Table (4): Means and SDs for students' scores for the three groups on the achievement test on reading skills in English Pre Achievement Test Group N Mean SD o First experimental group: taught 3 22.38 4.23 using the reciprocal strategy 9 Second experimental group : 3 22.03 4.67 taught using the think aloud strategy 9 Control group: taught using the 3 21.61 3.23 conventional method 3 Total 1 22.03 4.10 11

Table (4) indicates slight differences among students mean scores on the achievement test. To determine the significance of differences among students means scores, ANOVA for the mean scores of students’ achievement was performed and the results are shown in the table (5) below.

Table (5): ANOVA results for differences' significance of students scores' means on the achievement pre-test Contra Square Freedo Squares F Significan st Source s' Sum m Scores '' Mean Calculate ce d Value within 10.8 2 5.42 Groups Among 0.32 0.73 1840.1 108 17.04 Groups Total 1850.9 110

Results as presented in the table (5) revealed that there are no statistical significant differences at the level α≤0.05 between students scores' means on the pre-test for the three groups as calculated (F) value reached (0.32) and this value isn’t statistically significant. This indicates that there are groups equivalence on the pre achievement test.

Variables of the Study:

First: Independent Variables: Independent variable(s) represented by the teaching method, where it has three levels; 1- teaching with the reciprocal strategy; 2- teaching with the think aloud strategy; 3- teaching with the conventional method; and

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4- the variable of gender (female and male).

Second: Dependent Variables The dependent variables are represented by the 5th graders achievement in reading in English test. Results, Discussion and Recommendations The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of using the reciprocal strategy and the think aloud strategy on 5th graders achievement in reading in English at the schools of Petra directorate of education. The results of the study are presented and discussed with reference to the aforementioned aim and sub-aims (study questions).

Results related to the research 1st question: Is there an effect of using; reciprocal teaching and think aloud on the development of students’ reading skills in English language? For the purpose to answer this question, Means and SDs for students' scores on the post achievement test on reading skill in English in the three studying groups were analyzed and presented as shown in the table (6). Table (6): Means and SDs for students' scores on the post achievement test in the three studying groups Pre Achievement Test Group No Mea SD n First experimental group: taught using 30.7 39 3.30 the reciprocal strategy 6 Second experimental group: taught using 29.1 39 3.72 the think aloud strategy 5 Control group: taught using the 23.5 33 1.87 traditional method 4

Table (6) shows apparent differences among students' scores on the post achievement, where the maximum mark was (40) marks. These differences could be attributed to the teaching method (reciprocal strategy, think aloud strategy and conventional method). To determine the significance of differences between students' scores on the post achievement test in the three groups at the level α≤0.05, ANOVA was employed and the results are shown in the table (7).

Table (7): ANOVA test for differences' significance between students' scores on the achievement post-test based on the variable of teaching method Contras Squares' Freedom Squares'' F Significanc Eta t Sum Scores Mean Calculated e Squared Source Value 216

within 1005. 502.7 2 Groups 5 5 *51.5 0.00 0.6 Among 1054. 10 1 2 9.76 Groups 2 8 Total 2059. 11 7 0 * significant at α≤0.05. Table (7) indicates that there are statistically significant differences among the mean scores of the three groups on the post achievement test that could be attributed to the teaching method (reciprocal strategy, think aloud strategy and conventional method) as (F) calculated value reached (51.51); which is statistically significant at α≤0.05. This result is confirmed by Eta Squared value which reached 60% and indicates a great effect for the teaching method in creating differences between students' scores on the post achievement test in reading in English. To identify the sources of differences among mean scores of students' in the three groups, the Shefee post Hoc Multiple Comparison was used as shown in the table (8).

Table (8): The Shefee test results for sources of differences between students scores' means on the achievement post-test based on the variable of teaching method Teaching Mean Reciprocal Think Conventional strategy Aloud Differences among Means Reciprocal 30.76 - 1.62 *7.22 Think Aloud 29.15 - - *5.61 Conventional 23.54 - - - * significant at α≤0.05.

Table (8) indicates that the differences were in favor of students in the first experimental group which was taught using the reciprocal strategy which came first, followed by the second experimental group which was taught using the think aloud strategy and these two groups had higher means compared to students in the control group which was taught using the conventional method. Differences' values among means were (7.22) between the students’ scores in the reciprocal and conventional strategies, while it was (5.61) between the think aloud and the conventional strategies. Differences were considered significant at the level α≤0.05. Referring to the results above, the positive effect of both reciprocal and think aloud strategies on students' achievement in reading skill in English is confirmed, and revealed that the reciprocal strategy came first regarding effectiveness flowed by the think aloud strategy as second regarding the relative importance with a little difference that reached (1.61) which indicates that both strategies used in teaching have great effectiveness for increasing students'

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achievement in the post application. In addition, there was great improvement in the reading skill levels in English among the two experimental groups while very tiny improvement occurred among the control group students despite the three groups' equivalence on the pre achievement test for 5th graders. These results can be interpreted in that the two used strategies in this study had in a way or another contributed to provide the appropriate, attractive and motivating educational environment for students within classroom, and also contributed in all students' participation in the supportive activities for teaching reading skill in English which assisted them on learning via discussion, and dialogue in addition to facilitating reading skill possession and composition which needs preparation, practice and continuous evaluation. These strategies also improved students' ability to correctly pronounce the language vocabulary which most students fear of in the basic stage and in particular in reading classes in English language within classroom. The given realty of teaching reading in English language for basic stage students – based on the researchers’ s experience- is a conventional one and depends on one method without taking into account students' abilities and their individual differences. The result of the first research question, which indicated the effectiveness of both reciprocal and think aloud strategies in students' achievement in reading skills in English is in agreement with the results of many earlier studies such as those of Irteimeh (2006) Alarajm's (2015) Alqahtani's (2015) and in line with results of the study of Sapurtam (2017).

Results related to the research second question: Are there any statistical significant differences in teachers’ perceptions toward students’ reading skills at the level of α≤0.05, that can be attributed to the teaching strategies reciprocal teaching and think aloud strategy based on the variable of learner gender (female, male)? To answer this question, means and SDs for students' scores on the post achievement test in reading skills in English in both experimental groups (the reciprocal strategy group and the think aloud group) were calculated, based on the variable of gender (Female and Male) as presented in the table (9). Table (9): Means and SDs for both experimental groups students' scores on the achievement post-test based on the variable of gender Group Males Females Mean SD Mean SD First Experimental 31.52 3.07 30.05 3.42 Group: reciprocal

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Second Experimental 29.38 4.61 28.95 2.87 Group : Think Aloud TOTAL 30.47 3.84 29.48 3.13

Generally speaking, Table (9) shows that there were observed differences between female and male students with overall mean score of (30.47 and 29.48) for male and female respectively. Moreover, results indicate plausible differences between the first experimental group students' scores (reciprocal method group) and these differences could be attributed to the variable of gender as male students scores' mean reached (31.52) and an SD of (3.07) while female students scores' mean reached (30.05) with an SD of (3.42). It is also indicated that there were plausible differences in the scores of the second experimental group students' (think aloud strategy group) and these differences could be attributed to the variable of gender as male students Mean scores' reached (29.38) and an SD of (4.61) while female students Mean scores' reached (28.95) with an SD of (2.87). To determine whether the aforementioned differences were statistically significant, the (T) test was employed and results were presented in the table (10).

Table (10): T-test results for the significance of differences between students Means scores' in the two experimental groups on the achievement post- test based on the variable of gender Group Ge M S Free T signific nder ean D dom value ance Scores First Experimental Ma 3 3 37 1.4 0.16 Group : Reciprocal le 1.52 .07 3

Fe 3 3 male 0.05 .42 Second Experimental Ma 2 4 37 0.3 0.72 Group : Think le 9.38 .60 6 Aloud Fe male 28.95 2.87

Results in the table (10) show that: 1- There were no statistically significant differences that could be attributed to gender at the level α≤ 0.05 in achievement on the post-test between the first group students mean scores (reciprocal method group) as calculated (T)value reached (1.43) and this value

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isn’t significant at the level α≤ 0.05 which indicates no significant differences that could be attributed to gender. 2- There were no statistically significant differences that could be attributed to gender at the level α≤ 0.05 in achievement on the post-test between the second group students mean scores (think loud method group) as (T) calculated value reached (0.36) and this value isn’t significant at the level α≤ 0.05 which indicates no significant differences attributed to the variable of gender. These results can be interpreted based on several factors, some of which are related to the similar educational conditions and abilities offered to both male and female students in public schools in Petra, and the similarities in the availability of learning resources in both male and female schools. In addition, there is a similarity in the awareness level toward the importance of reading among male and female students, and finally, this result may be due to the convergence of male and female students tendencies to learn reading skill in English using the new teaching methods and strategies and this is what the researchers have noticed during the follow up of students' opinions about the strategies used in this study. On other side, this result confirmed the readiness of students to deal more positively, with new teaching strategies regardless of their gender. Thus, and within the context of the current study, the differences in achievement is more relevant to instructional practices rather than it is related to gender variable. This result is aligned with the result of the previous studies, namely: Irteimeh (2006) which indicated no statistically significant differences at the level α≤ 0.05 between the experimental and control groups mean scores on the reading comprehension test with respect to gender.

Recommendations In light of results of the study, the following recommendations were suggested: 1. Further research is recommended to investigate the effect of using reciprocal and think aloud strategies on other lingual skills, such; as writing, speaking and listening. 2. It is recommended to conduct more studies about the variables of this study in different scholastic levels and in other directorate of education in Jordan. 3. Extra workshops to train teachers on implementing reciprocal and think aloud strategies in the teaching and learning process in Jordanian schools.

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English Language teachers within Petra Directorate of Education are advised to expand the use of modern teaching/learning strategies, such as reciprocal and think aloud strategies.

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References

Aebersold, J. A. & Field M. L. (1997). From Reader to Teaching Reading: Issues and Strategies for second Language Classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press Ahmadi, M. R., & PourhoseinGilakjani, A. (2012). Reciprocal Teaching Strategies and Their Impacts on English Reading Comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(10), 2053-2060. Alaraj, M. (2015). The effect of using think aloud strategies to improve English reading comprehension for 9th grade students in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished Thesis. University of New York at Fredonia Alqahtani, M. (2015). The effect of think aloud strategies to improve reading comprehension of 6th grade students in Saudi Arabia. Thesis. University of New York at Fredonia AlZyoud, Y. M. (2017) Effect of teaching reading texts by using thinking aloud protocol and inquiry strategy in improving analytical reading and writing skills among the students of the fifth grade. Journal of Dirasat; Educational Sciences-University of Jordan, 44(4):1-16, Supplement(5). Block, C., & Israel, S. (2004). The ABCs of performing highly effective think aloud. International Reading Association, 16, 154 – 157 Brown, A., & Palincsar, A. (1989). Guided, cooperative learning and individual knowledge acquisition. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 393-451). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Burns,P., Roe, B.,& Smith, S.(2002).Teaching Reading in Today's elementary schools.(8th ed.) New York, Houghton Mifflin Company. Carrell, P. L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. Modern Language Journal, 73, 120– 133. Chandavimol, M. (1998). Reading Comprehension: An Active Engagement or a Passive Experience? PASAA, 28, 31–42 Dorgham, R. (2013). The effectiveness of using reciprocal teaching in improving reading comprehension skills of preparatory stage pupils. Thesis. Institute of educational studies. Cairo university. Dunston, P. J., & Headley, K. N. (2002). Think – Aloud. In B. J. Guzetti (Ed.). Literacy in America: An Encyclopedia of History, Theory, and Practice. England: ABC-CLIO, Inc. Gajria, M J. A. K., Sood, S., & Sacks, G. (2007). Improving comprehension of expository text in students with LO: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 210-225. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. (2002). Teaching and researching reading. Harlow: Pearson Education. Hartman, H. (1997). Reciprocal teaching. Human learning and instruction. Available from: http://www.scribd.com.doc/135706129/reciprocal-teaching (pdf). As retrieved in 2018http://www.literacyworldwide.org/get-resources/journals Irteimeh, M. (2006), The effect of reciprocal teaching model on enhancing reading comprehension of Jordanian secondary school students. Unpublished M. Ed Thesis. Mutah University. Laing, S. & Kamhi. (2002). The use of think-aloud protocols to compare inferencing abilities in average and below average readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(5): 436-447 Linse, C. and Nunan, D. (2006). Young Learners (Practical English Language Teaching Series) (ELT PELTS) [Paperback]. Cambridge: McGraw-Hill Higher Education Mckeown, R. G., & Gentilucci, J. L. (2007). Think-Aloud strategy: Metacognitive development and monitoring comprehension in the middle school second-language classroom. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 51(2): 136-147. Migyanka, J., Policastro, C., & Lui, G. (2005). Using a Think-Aloud with diverse students: Three primary grade students experience chrysanthemum. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(3): 171-177. Mohammad R. A., & Abbas P. G. (2012). Reciprocal Teaching Strategies and Their Impacts on English Reading Comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, l 2 (10): 2053-2060. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching Reading Skill in a foreign Language. London: Heinemann Educational Ltd. Oczkus, L.D. (2010). Reciprocal teaching at work: Powerful strategies and lessons for improving reading comprehension (2nd ed.). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Oster, L. (2001). Using the think-aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55: 64-69. Palincsar, A. S. & Brown, A. (1984). Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehension – Fostering and Comprehension Monitoring Activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1 (2): 117-175. Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1986). Interactive teaching to promote independent learning from text. The Reading Teacher, 39(8): 771–777. Palinscar, (1986). Reciprocal Teaching. Available on:www.pdf-search-engine.com/Reciprocal-Teaching-pdf.htm. As retrieved in 20/ 3/2018. Rumelhart, D.E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In Dormice, S. (Ed.), Attention and Performance, 1, 573–603. New York. Academic Press. 222

Saputra, A. N. (2017). The influence of using think aloud strategy towards students’ reading comprehension on recount text at the first semester of the eighth grade of MTs Darulhuda Bandar Lampung in the academic year of 2016/2017. Unpublished thesis, UIN Raden Intan Lampung. Someren, M. (1994). The think aloud method: A Practical guide to modeling cognitive processes. London: Academic Press Surjosuseno, T. T. (2011). The effects of “one stays the rest stray” and “lockstep techniques on the enhancement of students’ reading achievements. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, I (1): 123-139. Tovani, C. (2000). I read it, but I don’t get it: Comprehension Strategies for adolescent reader. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publisher. Woolley, G. (2011). Reading Comprehension: Assisting Children with Learning Difficulties, DOI 10.1007/978- 94-007-1174-7_2, Springer Science and Business Media B.V. as retrieved in 23-10-2018 from: https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundation for teaching English language learner: Research, Theory, Policy and Practice. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.

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2018 HIGH SCHOOL TRANSITION SYSTEM MATH QUESTIONS’ COMPLIANCE WITH 8TH CLASS GAINS

Tayfun Tutak1 Zeynep Umare Kolbaşı2

Introduction Education is changing rapidly in today's education and continuous progress in the understanding of the world and in Turkey. The knowledge and skills to be gained in accordance with the changes and innovations should be programmed with modern regulations. In this regard, MEB curriculum should be prepared in accordance with universal education understanding and needs of the age. The curriculum should be compatible with the content of the exams, which are part of the system, and should be adopted by the teachers and should support the teachers in this regard (MEB, 1997). One aim of mathematics is to make use of mathematics in society and to make life easier. Thus, mathematics teaching gained value in order to provide employment to the fields needed in the society. In the academic sense, mathematicians are educated at a young age and the development and continuation of mathematics is aimed. Therefore, every knowledge that students will acquire at secondary level is considered as an important gain for the society. Raised individuals need to have a good education in order to meet the needs of the society. Therefore, education and training tools should be well prepared and presented to students in a good way (Dane, Doğar & Balkı, 2004). One of the most important elements of education which plays a very important role in the training of individuals is measurement and evaluation (Demirel, 2006). Measurement and evaluation are carried out for many purposes. These objectives can be said to determine the students' achievement levels, learning needs and deficiencies, readiness levels, interests and abilities (Duban, & Arısoy, 2017). Measurement and evaluation determine whether the students acquire the information they are intended to gain, but they help to monitor, control and improve the functioning of the system by looking at the outputs of the education system (Koğar & Aygün, 2015). The exams that determine student success and come to mind when measurement is mentioned can be done with various measurement tools. These tools can be in the form of

1 Fırat University, Turkey. 2 MoNE, Turkey. 224

multiple choice tests, long-term exams, short-answer tests, oral surveys or various performance tests (Semerci, 2007). One of the most important examples of these measurement and evaluation tools is the transition from basic education to secondary education. In terms of its historical development, this process dates back to the 1950s in our country (Birinci, 2014). It is seen that these exams implemented by the Ministry of National Education during the transition to high schools have changed since the past, some of the selection exams have been removed, some have been renewed and some new examinations have been added in relation to the institutions opened. In Turkey, the transition to secondary education, although the main determinant of student selection and placement process in the central exams, the exam structure, content, methods of calculating a score in subjects such as stability was not achieved. Central examinations; In order to reduce or even eliminate the negative effects on the education system, students and parents, four different examination systems have been implemented over time. These; Transition from Basic Education to Secondary Education (TEOG), Selection and Placement Examination for Secondary Education Institutions (OKS), SBS conducted in 6th, 7th and 8th grades, and lastly only SBS (MEB, 1998, 2003, 2005, 2008) exams in 8th grade (Çelik, 2011). Finally, in our country, since the 2017-2018 academic year, the High School Entrance Exam (LGS) exam is applied. The Central Examination, which is applied within the scope of LGS, is applied to select students for Science High Schools, Social Sciences High Schools, Anatolian Imam Hatip High Schools and Special Education and Project Implementing Secondary Education Institutions. The Central Examination for 2018 was held by the Ministry of National Education on 2 June 2018 in two sessions in 81 provinces (URL 1). In the 8th grade of the schools where formal education is given to the 2017-2018 education instructor, the private and private secondary schools, imam hatip secondary school, open education secondary school, central education center and abroad (URL 2). The exam was conducted on the basis of 8th grade education programs and applied in two parts. The exam consisted of 90 multiple choice questions and was held on the same day. The first part consisted of a 50-question verbal field with a duration of 75 minutes; The second part consisted of a 40-question numerical field and the duration was 60 minutes. In the verbal section, 8th grade Turkish, religious culture and moral knowledge, T.C. History of Turkish Revolution and Kemalism, foreign language, numerical section of mathematics and science questions were asked (URL1). While there was no obligation to take the LGS exam, TEOG had to take the exam. With the new system, the obligation to exams was eliminated. 5 preferences were given to students

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who took the exam and did not take the exam. Students who do not take the exam will be able to choose the schools closest to their address, while students who take the exam will have 5 choices according to their scores. If the student cannot settle in any of her preferences, she will be able to register at the school closest to her address. Students who do not pass the exam or do not take the exam will register to high schools close to the address (URL 1). With the exams, it is aimed to determine whether the achievements foreseen in our education system are realized in individuals and to place the students in a higher education institution with the scores obtained as a result of these exams. There are some reasons why exams are needed in the transition between teaching levels in order to select students. One of these reasons is that the number of students applying to enter the educational institutions of the relevant level is more than the quota of the institution, and the other is that the educational institutions want to choose the most suitable among the students who apply for education in them (Kutlu ve Karakaya, 2007). This exam must be suitable for the 8th grade. In literature review, this type of study is not very common. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate whether the questions of this exam match 8th grade gains. For this purpose, in this study, it was investigated whether the LGS mathematics questions applied in 2017-2018 matched with the 8th exam gains. Research subject The subject of this study is to investigate whether the mathematics questions asked in the LGS exam in the 2017-2018 academic year match the 8th grade gains. Method In this study, a qualitative case study was used. Case study is a methodological approach that involves in-depth examination of a system using multiple data collection to gather systematic information about how a limited system works and how it works (Chmiliar, 2010). Findings In this study, it was investigated whether the mathematics questions asked in the LGS exam in the 2017-2018 academic year matched the 8th grade gains. For this purpose, each of the questions asked in the exam was compared with the achievements of middle school 5, 6, 7 and 8. When the 8th grade mathematics curriculum is examined, it is seen that there are 6 units, 12 subjects and 52 gains. This unit, topics and gains are given in table 1 below. Table 1: Units, Topics and number of gains Unit Name Topics Number of Gains 1.Unit Multipliers and Multiples 3 Exponents 5 226

2.Unit Square Root Emoticons 8 Data Analysis 2 3.Unit Probability of Simple Events 5 Algebraic Expression and Identities 4 4.Unit Linear Equations 6 Inequalities 3 5.Unit Triangles 5 Accompaniment and Similarity 2 6.Unit Transformation Geometry 3 Geometric Objects 6

When the mathematics questions of the 2018 LGS exam examined the gains, it is clear that a total of 20 gains from 52 gains in the 8th grade learning area were included. These units and their gains are given in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Units and gains of units Units Gains

Number and Operations 6 Algebra 7 Geometry and Measurement 6 Possibility 1 Data Processing 0

When Table 2 is examined, it is seen that there are 6 gains from numbers and operations unit and geometry and measurement units. However, there are 7 gains from the algebra unit and 1 gain from the probability unit. However, it has been determined that there is no gain from the data processing unit. On the other hand, in this study, the mathematics questions that appeared in the LGS 2018 exam were also examined on a subject-by-subject basis. As a result of this examination, the achievements in the LGS exam were determined according to the subjects. In the 2018 LGS exam, the questions asked in mathematics exam and the gains related to the subjects are given in table 3. Table 3: Topics and achievements

Units Gains

Multipliers and Multiples 1 227

Exponents 2

Square Root Emoticons 3

Algebraic Expression and Identities 2

Linear Equations 3

Inequalities 2

Triangles 2

Transformation Geometry 1

Accompaniment and Similarity 1

Geometric Objects 2

Probability of Simple Events 1

When Table 3 is examined; multiples, transformation geometry, parity similarity and probability of occurrence of simple events. It is clear that there are two gains in exponential expressions, algebraic expressions and identities, inequalities, triangles and geometric objects. However, it has been determined that there are 3 gains of square rooted expressions and linear equations. However, although some questions included 8th grade mathematics learning area, it is seen that these questions include some gains from 5th grade and 7th grade mathematics learning areas in detail. When the LGS questions and gains were examined, it was found out that they were in the questions in their gains outside the 8th grade mathematics learning area. These are questions 1, 4, 6, 8, 11 and 16. Questions 1, 4, 6, 8 of these are based on the gains of the 5th grade mathematics learning area. In the 11th, 16th questions, the gains of the 7th grade mathematics learning area were included. In addition to the data processing unit, although all 8th grade mathematics learning fields and proportional gains were given to these fields, the other grade level gains were also included. . The importance of spiral education is felt once again, although the mathematics gains of 6th and 7th grade have not been turned too much (URL 3). In addition, the fact that the data processing unit processed every year from 5th to 8th grades is not asked in the exam shows that the scope validity of the exam is not fully ensured. Discussion and Conclusion

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In this country, the LGS exam held in 2018 is a place where mathematics questions are found mathematically. The LGS exam was held on 1 June 2019. The first mathematics questions in the LGS exam held in 2018 differ from the mathematics questions in the previous years. As a result of the study, it was found that there were 52 achievements in mathematics curriculum but 20 of them were asked in this exam. Although it is explained that the gains will be asked from the 8th grade gains in this exam, it is seen that this is not done in practice. When the questions are examined, it is seen that some of the questions also include some gains from 5th and 7th grade mathematics learning areas. These are questions 1, 4, 6, 8, 11 and 16. Among the questions 1, 4, 6, 8, the gains of the 5th grade mathematics learning area were included. On the other hand, in the 11th and 16th questions, the gains related to the 7th grade mathematics learning area were included. In addition to the data processing unit, although all 8th grade mathematics learning fields and proportional gains were given to these fields, the other grade level gains were also included. 5. Although the mathematical achievements of 6th, 7th and 7th grade have not been turned too much, the importance of spiral education is felt once again. (URL 3). In addition, the fact that the data processing unit processed every year from 5th to 8th grades is not asked in the exam shows that the scope validity of the exam is not fully ensured. On the other hand, it is obvious that the new examination system forces students. Experts point out that students who do not have the habit of reading and interpreting have a low chance of success. Educator Onur Soguk, ‘arak Looking at the sample questions published by the Ministry of National Education, the LGS exam in 2018 will be a challenging test previously said. In addition, the students who have high reasoning power, who can carry out analytics and who love to read have a high chance of success in this exam ’’ (URL 2). Cihan Yeşilyurt, Guidance Coordinator of Science Education Institutions, also pointed out that the questions of Numerical Department require knowledge, reasoning, interpretation and high-level thinking skills. ‘In order to be successful in’ LGS; to read, to enjoy what they read, to be able to comment. He said that it is impossible for a student who is not in the habit of reading and interpreting to be successful in this system (URL 2). It did not lead to the wrong truth in previous years. Similar studies have shown that students are particularly satisfied with this situation (Öztürk & Aksoy, 2014). A person who does not have the desired property to mark the right option by chance is called chance success, and the resulting error reduces the validity and reliability of the measurement. The correction formula is a commonly used method to compensate for the error caused by chance success in exams that require selection, although it is inconvenient to make more corrections than

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necessary (Turgut & Baykul, 2010). Therefore, unlike students and parents, it can be said that teachers' inadequate adoption of this new practice stems from pedagogical concerns related to assessment and evaluation. Similarly, İlhan and Özdemir (2013) reported that teachers have concerns that the failure to apply the correction formula will increase the chance success and decrease the reliability and validity of the exam. In the LGS exam held in 2018, the practice of taking the wrong to the right was applied. When examining the gains of the LGS exam questions, the questions in which more than one gain are questioned constitute the majority of this exam (URL 4). The questions created by the combination of more than one achievement led to students' difficulties in general (Bilfen Schools, 2018). In addition to measuring more than one achievement in a single question, the fact that a single question contains more than one subject increased the difficulty level of the exam (Güler, 2018). Questions involving multiple gains, aiming to measure reasoning power, remembering the gains of past classes, reading and interpreting more than one graph-table, and establishing equations from graphs and tables are the majority (Mektebim Schools, 2018). In a study examining the views of teachers about the compatibility of LGS with the gains in the curriculum; “Gains knowledge and understanding while questions analysis and synthesis, incompatible with textbook, there are questions above gain, incompatible with questions in the textbook, multiple gains combined, no questions from some gains, matter challenges high, there are few questions from recent topics” the results were obtained (Güler, & Çelik, 2019). When the opinions of experts and teachers in general are examined, the questions of the 2018 LGS math exam include the gains of 8th grade mathematics teaching area in general, although some questions should be informed from the 5th and 7th grade gains. This is an indication that the 8th grade mathematics gains are not fully compatible with the 2018 LGS mathematics questions. In addition, measuring multiple gains of questions, taking advantage of learning outside the learning area, questions being long, inadequate time to these questions, such as the effects of many reasons such as the student increases the likelihood of not being able to solve the question. In the LGS 2018 report, which is shared by the Ministry of National Education, the highest sub-test was found to be mathematics. (MEB, 2018). Of course, in this case, failure in mathematics brings to the forefront. Therefore, it can be said that the 2018 LGS math exam questions should be revised and made more compatible with the gains.

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References Bilfen Schools (2018). Bilfen Schools Publishing, 2018, İstanbul. Birinci, D. K. (2014). First experience in centralized system joint exams: Mathematic lesson. Journal of Education and Training Research, 3(2), 8-16. Çelik, Z. (2011). Transition to secondary education system and sources of legitimacy. M. Orçan, (Ed.), 21. century Turkey's education and science policy symposium (53-61). Ankara: Eğitim-Bir-Sen. Chmiliar, l. (2010). Multiple-case designs. In A. J. Mills, G. Eurepas & E. Wiebe (Eds.), Encyclopedia of case study research (pp 582-583). USA: SAGE Publications. Dane, A., Doğar, Ç., Balkı, N. (2004). Evaluation of Primary School 7th Grade Math Textbooks, Erzincan Journal of Education Faculty, 6 (2) Demirel, Ö. (2006). The art of teaching and planning in teaching. Ankara: Pegem Publishing. Duban, N. & Arısoy, H. (2017). Investigation of 8th Grade Students' Perceptions of Transition from Basic Education to Secondary Education (TEOG) Exam through Metaphors. Kalem Journal of Education and Human Sciences, 7 (1), 67-98. Güler M., Çelik D. (2019). "How well prepared are the teachers of tomorrow? An examination of prospective mathematics teachers' pedagogical content knowledge", International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, vol.50, pp.1-18, 2019 Güler, G. (2018). Pasinler Mehmet Akif Ersoy Middle-School Bulletin. 1(1), 2018, Pasinler, Erzurum. İlhan, T. & Özdemir, Y. (2013). Adaptation of authenticity scale to Turkish: A validity and reliability study. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 5(40), 142152. Kaşıkçı, Y., Bolat, A., Değirmenci, S. & Karamustafaoğlu, S. (2015). Evaluation of science and technology questions according to some criteria. Journal of Education and Training Research, 4(1), 225-232. Koğar, E., Y. & Aygün, B. (2015). Examination of the scope validity of tests of the basic mathematics field of the transition from basic education to secondary education (TEOG). Pegem Journal of Education and Training, 5(5), 667-680. Kutlu, Ö. & Karakaya, İ. (2007). A research example about determining factor structures of tests used in student selection and placement exam of secondary education institutions. Online Journal of Primary Education, 6(3), 397-410, http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr. MEB. (1997). 2479-2480 Journal of Papers, Ankara. National Education Printing House. MEB. (2018). MEB 2018 LGS report, Ankara. Mektebim Schools (2018). Mektebim Schools Publishing, 2018, İstanbul. Öztürk, F. Z. & Aksoy, H. (2014). Evaluation of transition from basic education to secondary education according to 8th grade students' views (Example of Ordu province). On dokuz Mayıs University Journal of Faculty of Education, 33(2), s: 439-454. URL 1. https://www.posta.com.tr/lgsde-basarili-olmanin-5-yolu-2006845 the address 16.06.2019 taken on. URL 2. http://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/egitim/1165041/LGS icinipuclari cokokuyan basarir.html the address 18.05.2019 taken on. URL 3. https://orgm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2018_10/09145213_Erkencocukluk.pdf the address 28.05.2019 taken on.

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URL 4. http://www.google.com.tr/lgsnin-belirleyicisi-matematik-sorulari-oldu-40855821 the address 12.04.2019 taken on. Turgut, M. F. & Baykul, Y. (2010). Measurement and Evaluation in Education. Pegem Academy Publishing, Ankara, 2010.

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11th CLASS STUDENTS’ OPINIONS ON THE USE OF DGY (DYNAMIC GEOMETRY PROGRAMME) IN TEACHING THE SUBJECT OF TRANSFORMATION IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASS Abdulkadir Borazan1 Tayfun Tutak2 Ebru Kükey3

Introduction Today, on the behalf of the developments in technology there is a fast and extraordinary change in education. In the last twenty years of 20th century, the developments in technological devices affect the education in mathmatics (Habre & Grundmeier, 2007). Mathematical thinking and mathematical competence will open the doors to an efficient and productive future. All students should have the opportunity and support to understand mathematics in detail (NCTM, 2000). Mathematics is considered as a phenomenon composed of independent parts, not related to daily life and some procedural rules that need to be memorized (Baki, 2006). It is thought that the use of different technologies and methods will contribute to this process. The new Secondary Mathematics Curriculum has changed since 2005 and has different objectives than the mathematics curriculum that has been implemented so far. In this program, every young can learn mathematics (MEB, 2005). Mistretta (2000), in the study of geometry, which is one of the lower learning areas of mathematics, stated that students have difficulty in understanding high-level conceptual information. With DGY, students can easily create geometric shapes or interpret them by performing various investigations on the shown geometric shapes. In this way, the conscious use of information and communication technologies aims to increase the mathematical skills of the students and make them accessible to mathematical thinking (MEB, 2013). Giving place to new Technologies in training and education intitues enables to respand the necessities of people in learning. The more important feature of the computers and visual tool is, its ability to move and embody abstract mathmatical rules to the screnn. Technology deepens mathmatical understanding and thinking when It is used appropriately in math classes. Aim

1 MoNE, Turkey. 2 Fırat University, Turkey. 3 Fırat University, Turkey. 233

The aim of this study is to define the opinions of students who has studied the programme of dynamic geometry at 11th class. Method In this study, as a method, case study from qualitative research approaches was chosen. Research group was formed from 30 students at 11th class who are from an Anatolian school in Adıyaman. First of all, before applying the programme, dynamic geometry programme (Cabri) was introduced to students and let them to study on it. According to 11th class math programme, the study took 18 haurs in total, including 3 weeks and each week has 6 lesson haurs. In the laboratory environment, students have been provided with worksheets in accordance with the acquisition of the transformation topic actively. After the application, in order to determine students opinions, a semi- structured student opinion form which consist of 5 open- ended questions was used for the use of DGY. According to it, qualitative data obtained from open- ended questions were analyzed by content- analysis method. When we consider the opinions, theme, categories and the frequencies of have been created. Findings During the study, the results we have gathered from the forms given out to students containing their opinions on the use of DGY have been analyzed. Frequencies have been calculated based on the views formed by the theme, category and codes.

Data containing the theme, category and codes according to the students reply to the question “What are your opinions on using Dynamic Geometry Software Cabri throughout mathematics lessons? Explain.” Have been provided in the table below.

Table 1. The frequency spread of the theme, category and codes according to the first question of the student opinion form.

Theme Category Code Frequency Attractive 6 Permanent 5 Fun 2 Positive Students opinions on Easily Understandable 9 the use of DGY Visual 6 Practical Learning 5 Negative 5

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The Traditional System Being Better 3 Temporary 3 Difficulty Focusing

According to the table showing students’ opinions on the use of DGY, most of the students giving a positive review (9 students), have reported their opinion as “Easily Understandable”. On the other hand, most of the students giving a negative review have reported that “The Traditional System is better”. It is thought that the difficulty of using computers and the level of inaccessibility to computers outside of lessons has resulted in this point of view.

Data containing the theme, category and codes according to the students reply to the question “what are your opinions on the use of the worksheets alongside the use of DGY Cabri?” Have been provided in the table below.

Table 2. The frequency spread of the theme, category and codes according to the 2nd question of the student opinion form.

Theme Category Code Frequency Efficient 10 Easy to Use Software 7 Positive Permanent Learning 9 Worksheets Fun and Educating 3 Not Enough 1 Negative Ineffective 2

According to the table, while most of the students of experiment group 2 have reported positive feedback on the use of worksheets saying its “time efficient” and provides “permanent learning”, a small number of students have given feedback expressing it as “not enough” and “ineffective”.

Data containing the theme, category and codes according to the students’ replies to the question “Express your opinions on the DGY Cabri II Plus programme.” Have been provided in the table below.

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Table 3. The frequency spread of the theme, category and codes according to the 3rd question of the student opinion form.

Theme Category Codes Frequency Speed 6 Positive Practicality 7 Effective Learning 12 Cabri Programme Memorising 3 Negative Not Enough Ability to 2 Use Software

According to the table, almost half of the students (12/25) giving a positive review on the use of the Cabri II Plus geometry programme in lessons expressed that it provided “effective learning”. The other half thought that it was “fast” and “practical”. A small number of students (5/30) have reported that this programme had a lack of “ability to use software” and that it required more “memorizing”.

Data containing the theme, category and codes according to the students replies to the question “What are your opinions on the DGY Cabri II Plus programme being used with other mathematical topics?” Have been provided in the table below.

Table 4. The frequency spread of the theme, category and codes according to the 4th question of the student opinion form.

Theme Category Codes Frequency

Yes Visual topics 26 The use of Cabri on different topics No Non-visual topics 4

According to the table, 87% of the students in experiment group 2 voted “yes” on using the Cabri programme on different topics within mathematics. Data containing the theme, category and codes according to the students replies to the question “What are your views on the effectiveness of applying these on transformation, rotation and mirroring topics?” Have been provided in the table below.

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Table 5. The frequency spread of the theme, category and codes according to the 5th question of the student opinion form.

Theme Category Codes Frequency

Accessibility of Positive 27 practical learning Effective Learning Negative Easily forgettable 3

According to the table, 90% of students have reported positive thoughts on the effective learning of transformation, rotation and mirroring due to the practices applied. Only 3 students express that it’s “easily forgettable” later on. Results According to the results obtained from the students' opinions about the use of DGY, it was concluded that the lessons were generally more enjoyable, permanent, meaningful, visual, fast and practical. When the literature studies are examined, similar to these results, Güven and Karataş (2003) concluded that students' views on mathematics in general and geometry in particular changed positively and found dynamic geometry environments very useful.In the study of Gülburnu (2013), as a result of the descriptive analysis of the data obtained from the interview form applied to the students for teaching with Cabri 3D, it was found that the students had positive opinions about the teaching in computer-assisted environment. When the negative opinions of the students about the DGY were examined, it was stated that very few of the students had a better traditional method, the applications were not permanent and directed to memorization. Therefore, it is concluded that the use of DGY in classes is effective in other subjects as it is effective for students to learn by using and actively using the program. References Baki, A. (2006). Mathematics Education from Theory to Practice. Trabzon: Derya bookstore. Borazan, A. (2019). The effect of the use of teacher and student centered DGY on the academic achievement and motivation of students in teaching 11th grade mathematics course transformations, PhD Thesis, İnönü University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Malatya.

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Gülburnu, M. (2013). The Effect of Cabri 3D on Academic Success and Evaluation of Students' Opinions Used in 8th Grade Geometry Teaching, Unpublished Master's Thesis, Adıyaman University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Adıyaman. Güven, B. & Karataş İ. (2003). Learning geometry with dynamic geometry software cabri: Student opinions. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), (2),10. Habre, S. & Grundmeier T. A. (2007). Prospective mathematics teachers’ views on the role of technology in mathematics education. The Journal, 3, 1-10. MEB, (2005). Secondary Mathematics Course (9, 10, 11 and 12. classes) Curriculum, Ankara: National Education Printing House MEB, (2013). Secondary Mathematics Course (9, 10, 11 and 12. classes) Curriculum, Board of Education and Training, Ankara. Mistretta, R. M. (2000). Enhancing Geometric Reasoning. Adolescence, 35(138), 365-379. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2000). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics.

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IS IT APPLICABLE TO INTEGRATE ELF INTO PRACTICUM?

Esra KURTULDU1 Yonca ÖZKAN2

Introduction Beyond the Standard English: ELF and WE Standard English (SE) has been started to be challenged with the existence of World Englishes (WE). Although they seem to promote a dissimilar ideology, the fact might not be really like that. SE encloses the ideology of teaching the most appropriate form of English in language teaching which was globally approved to be used in target language teaching and it could be spoken with an optional accent (Strevens, 1981) while WE refer to varieties of English and their different features occurring when English is used by non-native English speakers. The ideology of WE is based on speaking, and it indicates that this ideology does not promote differences in writing language. On the contrary of Quirk’s (1990) claim, it could be inferred that SE and WE are not the opposing sides but these terms are related to the different parts of language teaching. Basically, SE mostly adheres to the writing language in English which is supposed to include the same grammatical rules in all English-speaking countries and/or non- English speaking countries to offer a mutual understanding between individuals; whereas WE are much related to the cultural aspect of the English language and emphasize to benefit from the existence of various Englishes in language classes especially in terms of having intercultural competence. WE and English as a lingua franca (ELF) are highly interrelated. ELF is regarded as the mutual communication tool for speakers across the globe and also, it is the status of English in today’s global world. To comprehend the status of English today, Kachru’s (1992) concentric circles have become the core figure of ELF field in terms of noticing different purposes and situations in using English. For example, the countries in the world were divided into three separate circles as inner circle standing for the use of English as mother tongue, outer circle referring to the use of English as a second language or an official language, and lastly expanding circle enclosing the use of English as a foreign language. In ELF, the focus is mostly non-native English speakers (NNESs) from outer and expanding circle countries because NNESs have

1 Tarsus University, Turkey 2 Cukurova University, Turkey 239

highly contributed English to receive its status as ELF thanks to the number of NNESs. In 2003, the number of native English speakers (NESs) was three times higher than the number of NNESs (Crystal, 2003). Although the precise number of NNESs in 2019 is not known, it is known that the number of NNESs has increased much further since 2003. Crystal (2014) estimates that the ratio of NNESs now has turned to be around five times higher than the ratio of NESs. As a conclusion, Kachru (1985) informs that native speakers do not hold the right of owing to the single ownership of English anymore and this promotes the idea of ownership of English not only for NESs but also for NNESs. Widdowson (1994) asserts that the standardization of English should be on the basis of intelligibility instead of a standard accent. Considered from this perspective, the inner circle does not share a single accent (e.g. American accent, British accent) in itself yet these accents are intelligible on their own when shared different characteristics, which indicates that intelligibility is possible even if there are differences. Widdowson (1994) questions the ownership of English in his paper and concludes that it is shared by each community that uses it, therefore this idea supports legitimating the ownership of English by NNESs. Seidlhofer (2004) declares that this usage among NNESs which is called ELF does not need to be committed to its traditional roots. WE including various types of pronunciation are the natural process of globalization. The more English is shared by communities with different backgrounds, the more it is reshaped by the specific pronunciation features of each community. If these differences in pronunciation do not lead to misunderstanding while communicating, it needs to be accepted in international settings as the main aim shared by NNESs is to communicate. Therefore, Alptekin (2002) draws attention to the significance of competence in the intercultural settings, which indicates ELF and WE should be in the curriculums as authentic material. The need for ELF pedagogy emerges when the standard native English forms are addressed as “utopian, unrealistic, and constraining” for classroom practices (Alptekin, 2002, p.57). In addition, the native speaker forms are not enough for representing the worldwide social reality and the status of NNESs. The notion of ELF has ended the uncertainty usage of English among NNESs (Erling, 2005) because it is chosen as a mutual language for communication among the speakers of other languages (Firth, 1996; Meierkord, 1996) and it is the first option most of the time. From this point, ELF is regarded as a way of benefiting from different varieties of Englishes shared by NNESs (Dewey & Cogo, 2007; Jenkins, 2007). Sifakis (2007) and notes that most of the English language teachers tend to have a normative approach that welcomes

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only either American or British English in teaching English, yet it is seen as an inadequate practice by Alptekin (2002) as a result of ignoring other diversities of English. Therefore, Sifakis (2014) draws attention to the transformative approach in teacher education and according to him, the transformative approach aims to reshape the perspectives of English language teachers, to make use of ELF varieties in their classroom practices, and to create a change in teacher education by being familiar with WE. Bayyurt and Sifakis (2015) carried out a study with 12 English language teachers having no knowledge of ELF and ELF-related issues. The findings of the participants’ perspectives embraced that adopting a native speaker (NS) form as an ideal model in language teaching has posed a hurdle affecting the success of non-native English-speaking teachers (NNEST). In her study, Biricik-Deniz (2017) examined 10 pre-service teachers’ teaching practices. The data was gathered through many data collection tools such as open-ended questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, focus-group interviews, and etc. The study showed that the participants were not informed about ELF and WE. After the training, the participants questioned their beliefs and they attempted to integrate ELF in their practicum. In Kemaloglu-Er and Bayyurt’s (2018a) study, ELF-pedagogy was introduced to the pre- service English language teachers. It was a two-term study. The first term enclosed the training and assisted pre-service teachers to be familiarized with the issue of ELF via different tools such as readings, videos, online discussion, etc. related to ELF and WE. The second term included pre-service teachers’ teaching practices. At the end of the study, it was seen that familiarizing with ELF and WE broadened the pre-service teachers’ perspectives, provided them self-awareness about their identity while speaking English, and boosted their self- confidence. Another study by the same researchers Kemaloglu-Er and Bayyurt (2018b) investigated the pre-service teachers’ practices regarding ELF and highlighted similar results. For instance, the participants realized the reality of NNESs, became aware of their identity and explored their potential as a NNEST, and agreed on integrating ELF and WE in their classrooms. A study from the Turkish context by Soruç (2015) investigated the perceptions of NNESTs and the study concluded that NNESs from the expanding circle tended to prefer native speaker (NS) forms and showed admiration to the inner circle speakers. With the aim of exploring language learners and teachers’ beliefs, Yılmaz and Özkan (2016) did research and their research indicated the fact that they were strictly fond of the NS forms and stated their admiration towards these forms.

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On the contrary to these studies, Curran and Chern’s (2017) research exposed the positive attitudes of language teachers towards WE. The participants indicated that the target should be the communication while teaching or learning English. ELF-aware pedagogy has been new research interest in ELT, hence the number of the studies especially focusing on English language teachers’ integration of ELF and WE are limited. However, there has been a number of studies exploring language teachers’ beliefs, approaches towards ELF and WE. As a conclusion, the related studies show that language teachers tend to change their beliefs and try to make use of ELF in their teachings after familiarizing with ELF and ELF- related issues. Their perceptions and beliefs may change and their attitudes towards WE and their local English may be improved after their exposure to ELF. However, more elaboration on the issue of ELF integration into teaching practices is needed to better understand the applications of language teachers.

Methodology Context of the study This voluntary-based study was conducted with the pre-service language teachers at the Department of English Language Teaching (ELT) in a state university in Turkey. The ELT department prepares the students for being competent in teaching English including primary, secondary, and high school by offering compulsory courses such as Listening and Pronunciation, Communication Skills, ELT Methodology, Teaching Language Skills, and etc. In the fourth grade, the pre-service English language teachers need to do the internship at schools specified by their university and they are randomly assigned to these schools. The participants of this study included the eight pre-service English language teachers who were in the fourth grade. Six of them were female and two were male. The study was carried out at their practicum schools in 2018-2019 Academic Year, The Spring Term. All of the pre-service language teachers in this study were chosen from the individuals who were placed in a secondary state school in order to provide equality while comparing their teaching practices and they were supposed to teach English to the eighth graders. The participants were requested to prepare lesson plans each week and practice their teaching skills in real classes with the students in their schools to which they were assigned beforehand. During the term, the pre-service language teachers were supposed to perform two micro-teaching sessions accompanied with a proper lesson plan for each session and they were observed by their mentor and supervisor at least twice in a semester. In their micro-teachings, the supervisor, who is also

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the researcher of this study, observed and took notes on the issue of ELF-related teachings. Their classroom artifacts were also investigated in this process. Each micro-teaching session was followed by the reflective paper which the participants evaluated their own teaching practice on what they have done or have not done. At the end of the study, a semi-structured face-to-face interview was held and the participants were required to discuss their opinions, beliefs, and attitudes with the help of related questions towards their practicum experiences. The answers to the questions below were sought out throughout this study: 1) How do the ELF-informed pre-service English language teachers differ from the ELF-non-informed pre-service English language teachers in dealing with culture in ELT context? 2) How do the ELF-informed pre-service English language teachers benefit from ELF in their lesson plans and teaching practices? Data collection and data analysis With the aim of seeking answers for the research questions above, the pre-service English language teachers’ practicum applications were investigated with four data collection tools. Observations, reflective papers, a semi-structured face-to-face interview, and classroom artifacts including lesson plans, PowerPoint slides were examined according to the content of the research questions. Before starting up the data collection process, the students were classified into two groups as the ELF-informed and the ELF-non-informed group including four pre-service teachers in each group. In order to divide pre-service teachers into groups, they were given an open-ended questionnaire which revealed their knowledge on ELF and ELF-related issues and they were grouped according to their answers. Both the ELF-informed and the ELF-non-informed group consisted of a male and three females. It was concluded by the questionnaire that the ELF- informed students appeared to be the students who took the elective course Globalization in ELT. The observations were carried out twice and the supervisor took notes about their usage of ELF during the observation of the pre-service teachers’ teaching practices. Both during and after the observation, classroom artifacts (e.g. lesson plans, PowerPoint slides) were examined. A semi-structured face-to-face interview was held so as to understand the participants’ beliefs, approaches, and attitudes towards their teaching practices. Lastly, reflective papers were benefited to enable the participants to reflect upon themselves and all of them were analyzed under the thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006). The mistakes in their papers in

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grammar and vocabulary were corrected by the researchers while presenting the data so as to provide ease reading. This study is a qualitative study employing a deeper interpretation for the data analysis and adopted the constructivist paradigm (Creswell, 2003) as it was aimed to be comprehended the individuals’ subjective knowledge and meanings of their experiences. Also, this study is a case study in terms of analyzing and figuring out a complex phenomenon, which are practicum applications in this study, within a Turkish higher education context.

Findings The main data was provided from the reflective papers and the semi-structured face-to- face interviews. The analysis of the qualitative data was conducted by following six steps to perform a thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Out of the analysis, two categorizations emerged and both were discussed in detail under the related verbatims. A. Nativeness and Non-nativeness The pre-service teachers in the ELF-non-informed group preferred and expressed their great admiration to the NS forms and had no prior knowledge on WE. A great number of the participants (n.4) from the ELF-non-informed group expressed that they adhered to the NS forms while performing their teaching practices. According to the Participant 3 and 4, these NS forms are the only role models as exemplified in the following: P1: “I only follow the book that was distributed by the government and use its materials.” P2: “I use resources with British English accent and I like that accent.” P3: “While planning the lesson, I pay attention to use only native English accents as they are the best role models.” P4: “The curriculum doesn’t include the other English accents so it is best for them to teach the native accents, I think.” However, one of the participants from the ELF-non-informed group had stated that his/her beliefs started to change without training or course on ELF. The reason for this was that the participant did not feel confident about his/her accent as their materials opted only the British English accent while teaching pronunciation. In addition, young learners might be sometimes mean to their teachers; hence presenting the NNS forms could provide a safe place for the NNESTs according to the participant’s opinion. From this perspective, this participant regarded showing the NNS forms as an example might be beneficial in terms of improving the confidence

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of the NNESTs, and also improving students’ beliefs and opinions. The participant’s utterance was presented below. P2: “I use native English accent which is the British accent in the videos I select for classes but the students question my accent when I don’t sound like the native speakers. For this reason, I have started to believe that showing students the non-native accents might be useful because they will notice that there are many different English accent forms so I hope that they will not be judgmental.” On the contrary to the ELF-non-informed group, most of the participants (n.3) in the ELF- informed group were aware of their power as a NNS and they were trying to show the NNS forms as much as they can via teaching materials or verbally and enrich their horizons by becoming aware of the presence of the NNSs. P5: “It is important for the students to know that they don’t need to be a British or American to speak English well. I always try to emphasize this in my classes especially when they feel unsatisfied about their accent.” P6: “I try to teach my students that they can be a confident English speaker as a non- native speaker. I pay attention to choose videos that the non-native people speak English and let them see how they speak.” P8: “I often say that I like the students’ accents and they do speak well so that I think they become motivated.” Another participant explained that s/he had previous knowledge on ELF; however, s/he was not competent in terms of using and integrating ELF knowledge into his/her teaching practices. P7: “I have knowledge on World Englishes but I don’t know how to use them in my classes. I sometimes explain to the students that there are many people (non-native English speakers) on earth like them. With this, I try to broaden their perspectives.” B. Intelligibility vs. Native-like pronunciation in ELT From the ELF-non-informed group, all of the participants (n.4) believed the importance of the NS forms yet half of the participants (n.2) desired their students to be competent in native- like pronunciation. The Participant 3 regarded very important to perform a native-like accent and the Participant 4 referred the native English accents as a clear accent. They expressed their feelings towards these forms as in the following: P1: “Pronunciation should be taught by the native English accents as the coursebook shows us.”

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P2: “I am fond of the British English accent but it is not easy to sound like British while speaking English.” P3: “I like to teach my students a native English accent because I believe they need to gain an accent like that and it is very important to speak like a native speaker.” P4: “I need a clear accent (native accent) in my class; otherwise they will be confused about pronunciation.” The ELF-informed language teachers (n.3) were seemed to be a volunteer in integrating ELF and WE if possible. They believed that their students were not required to gain a native- like accent to be an acceptable speaker and they valued their students’ local English accents. The Participant 8 was trying to motivate students by avoiding immediate correction while teaching pronunciation as the participant believed that it would motivate students to speak English by their local English accent. Their comments were presented below. P6: “The non-native accents can be also intelligible; I try to indicate this in my class with the help of different videos but it is not always easy to find a video related to my topic including a non-native accent.” P7: “I don’t think that my students need an exact native-like accent as long as they pronounce words correctly. I give importance to communication instead of accuracy.” P8: “I don’t use immediate correction for pronunciation especially when I am able to understand the word. According to my opinion, this is good for their motivation to speak English with their own accent.” When the participants’ lesson plans and micro-teachings were evaluated, it was seen that there were no significant differences in their lesson plans in both groups. However, the ELF- informed group made an effort to provide familiarity with WE while presenting their classroom artifacts especially with the help of videos according to their related topics. The ELF-informed group stated that their textbooks and textbook materials embraced a single variety and it was mostly British English. As a result of this, the participants in the ELF-informed group had difficulty in dealing with WE in their teaching practices, they explained that a collaborative textbook would ease their hard work. They also expressed their satisfaction with their local English accent. One of the participants expressed that the knowledge on how to benefit ELF and WE in language classrooms was limited, therefore it could be concluded that the participants in the ELF-informed group were not aware of the potential ways that they could get used of their knowledge on ELF-related issues in class even though they had previous knowledge.

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The ELF-non-informed group had no knowledge of ELF-related issues. They were not aware of the NNESs and NNESTs. They showed a great appreciation towards the inner circle accents, mostly the British and American English. This meant that they were also ignoring the other inner circle forms as their background education familiarized them with only the British and American English accents. They were not integrating either ELF and WE or other inner circle accents. They adhered to a single variety as a conclusion of their previous educational background which was probably lack of ELF and WE. Also, they sometimes tended to be dissatisfied with their English accent when they were not able to speak with a native-like English accent as the Participant 2 explained. The Participant 1 was only following the coursebook and coursebook materials that were distributed by the government for state schools; therefore, s/he was unaware of native and non-native English accents. The Participant 4 drew attention to the fact that the curriculum did not provide any non-native accents.

Discussion and conclusion It was pretty obvious that the pre-service language teachers who had knowledge of ELF (n.4) were probable to have a positive attitude towards the different varieties of Englishes and willing to introduce WE to their students. This may be based on their previous interactions, experiences on ELF and WE, which could be deduced that interactions with ELF and WE during the pre-service English language teachers’ education program assisted them to enlarge their horizons and gain new perspectives so that they supported the idea that their students could feel more confident in speaking English when they were introduced with the speakers of English from different languages. With the relation to Kemaloglu-Er and Bayyurt’s (2018a) research, this study exposed that familiarity with ELF which was gained thanks to the previous course on globalization taken in their bachelor’s education enhanced language teachers’ horizons and boosted their self-confidence as NNSs. The ELF-informed group was aware of their identity and local English accent as in the study by Kemaloglu-Er and Bayyurt (2018b). The participants in this group held a positive attitude towards the varieties of English as in Curran and Chern’s (2017) study. Therefore, it is possible to emphasize that the familiarity with ELF-related issues develops pre-service teachers’ awareness of both their identity and their knowledge on the different English varieties. A number of participants (n.4) were not informed about ELF as in Biricik-Deniz’s (2017) study and they preferred only the NS forms in their teaching experiences in similar to the study by Yılmaz and Özkan (2016). The reason for their choice could probably arise from their former

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education which did not embrace ELF reality and the status of NNESs as a real-life phenomenon. A participant in the ELF-non-informed group touched upon an issue related to competence, the participant clarified that the students might be harsh sometimes when their teacher did not hold an exact native-like accent. The students appeared to react to a NNS accent as incompetent because they were not acquainted with WE before. This became a hurdle for the pre-service language teacher who is a NNS as in the study by Bayyurt and Sifakis (2015). This also showed Soruç’s (2015) claim that expanding circle participants have a tendency to support the NS forms was related to the findings in this study. As it was seen the pre-service teachers having no interaction with ELF-related issues appeared to be strict about the accent preference and they supported the British or the American English accent among the NS forms The findings of this pilot study concluded that language teachers having the previous familiarity with ELF observed to broaden the pre-service English language teachers’ perspectives and create a change in their opinions. Hence, their teaching practices were affected in a positive manner. The ELF-informed language teachers were appeared to volunteer in making use of ELF and the NNS forms although they expressed their complaints about their textbooks which did not have any example of WE. On the other hand, the ELF-non-informed group opted the NS forms as an ideal model for teaching and did not integrate ELF in their classes. Therefore, it could be summarized that both the ELF-informed and the ELF-non- informed group did not significantly differ each other in terms of dealing with culture in ELF context as an answer to the first research question in this study. When the second research question was elaborated, it could be inferred that the teaching applications of these two groups did not embrace quite differences; however, the ELF-informed group sometimes showed willingness to benefit ELF and WE in their teaching materials such as a video related to their topic even though they did not include ELF into their lesson plans. They expressed their lack of knowledge on the application of ELF and WE. The ELF-non- informed group was not aware of ELF and WE reality; they gave importance to the NS forms while ignoring the NNS forms. To conclude, their lesson plans and teaching materials did not differ yet the pre-service language teachers’ beliefs on ELF and WE were quite distinct. For further changes in the Turkish curriculum, it is important to highlight that not only the knowledge on ELF-related issues but also the solutions on how to utilize the knowledge in real language classes carries high importance. Such courses on ELF-related issues and courses on ways of benefitting from ELF and WE could be offered to pre-service English language teachers as a part of their teaching programs. Much elaboration on this issue is needed to gain

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a deeper understanding of the situation and seek solutions on the application of ELF knowledge so as to be sure of preparing pre-service language teachers to the needs of this globalized world. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the participants for taking part in this study, we appreciate their valuable time. Besides, this study has been funded by Cukurova University Research Fund under the project number of SYL-2018-11215.

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References Alptekin, C. (2002). Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. ELT Journal, 56(1), 57-64. doi:10.1093/elt/56.1.57 Bayyurt, Y. & Sifakis, N.C. (2015). “ELF-aware in-service teacher education: A transformative perspective.” In H. Bowles & A. Cogo (Eds.), International Perspectives on Teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 117-135. Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. ISSN 1478-0887. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/1347976.pdf Biricik-Deniz, E. (2017). A case study on ELF-aware pre-service language teacher education model: Theory into practice. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Çukurova University, Turkey. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Dewey, M. & Cogo, A. (2007). Adopting an English as a lingua franca perspective in ELT. IATEFL Voices, 199, 11. Erling, E. J. (2005). The many names of English. English Today, 21(1), 40‐44. Firth, A. (1996). ‘The discursive accomplishment of normality. On “lingua franca” English and conversation analysis’. Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 237–59. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the Outer Circle. In R. Quirk & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kachru, B. B. (1992). The other tongue: English across cultures (2nd edition). The USA: University of Illinois Press. Kemaloglu-Er, E. & Bayyurt, Y. (2018a). ELF-aware pre-service teacher education: Teaching practices and reflections from Turkey. In L. Cavalheiro (Ed.), Preparing English language teachers for today’s globalized world (47-63). Lisbon: Húmus & University of Lisbon Centre for English Studies. Kemaloglu-Er, E. & Bayyurt, Y. (2018b). ELF-awareness in teaching and teacher education: Explicit and implicit ways of integrating ELF into the English language classroom. In N. C. Sifakis & N. Tsantila (Eds.), English as a Lingua Franca for EFL contexts (147-163). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Meierkord, C. (1996). Englisch als Medium der interkulturellen Kommunikation. Untersuchungen zum non-native- /non-native speaker—Diskurs. Frankfurt/Main: Lang. Quirk, R. (1990). Language varieties and standard language. English Today, 6(1), 3-10. Sifakis, N. C. (2007). The education of teachers of English as a lingua franca: A transformative perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(3), 355-375. doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.2007.00174.x Sifakis, N. C. (2014). “ELF awareness as an opportunity for change: A transformative perspective for ESOL teacher education.” Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 3(2), 317-335. doi: 10.1515/jelf-2014-0019 Soruç, A. (2015). Non-native teachers’ attitudes towards English as a lingua franca. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 30(1), 239-251. Strevens, P. (1981). What is “Standard English”? RELC Journal, 12(2), 1–9. doi:10.1177/003368828101200201 Widdowson, H. (1994). ‘The ownership of English’. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 377-389. Yılmaz, B., & Özkan, Y. (2016). An investigation into English language instructors' and students’ intercultural awareness. The Qualitative Report, 21(10), 1932-1959. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss10/12

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GOOGLE TRANSLATE FOE IN THEME-RHEME TRANSLATION OF UN HEADLINES FROM ENGLISH TO ARABIC

Rana A. Al-maroof1 Abstract This paper has as its primary goal investigating the errors made by Google Translate (GT) systems in translating theme-rheme structures from English to Arabic in selected UN news-headlines. The issues of theme- rheme sequence and patterns, interlinear translation and backgrounding/ foregrounding or nominalization are the focus of the paper. The idea behind the choice of UN headlines was to put more emphasis on short and most essential parts of the texts which attract the reader’s attention to go further and read more. Upon the qualitative and quantitative examination of the target language texts, the findings revealed that the GT systems had errors and non-errors in rendering theme-rheme structures from English to Arabic and that errors transpired in the translated forms.

Introduction

Attitudes towards machine translation (MT) have been unreliable. Therefore, the adoption of MT as a valid option for translation was tied to the effectiveness and purposes of MT in meeting the requirements of different organizational bodies (Abu-Ayyash, 2017). In addition to the problem of the effectiveness and purposes of MT, the variations in the language used between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT) is another crucial problem. Languages differ on numerous dimensions, including the order in which elements are generally arranged in a given phrase (Bettinsoli et al., 2015). The purpose of translation has a close relation with the communicative message of the TT. The communicative meaning of the text as a whole is realized through the meta-functions in the lexico-grammar of the clause called in Hallidayian’s terms thematic structure (theme + rheme). Halliday refers to the theme as ``the point of departure of the message'' which is carried by one clause with the rheme realizing the rest of the message (Flowerdew, 1998). In addition, the importance of theme-rheme structures lies in the cohesion it creates. The dictonomy of theme and rheme are the main components of the thematic organization in the description of text cohesion (Bene,1983). The significance of theme-rheme structure is not limited to the division of the clause into theme-rheme but rather in its ability to group the text under one dominant topic. Thus, by

1 Alburaimi University College, Oman 251

looking at recurrence and interconnections between themes and rhemes, sentence themes can be grouped together under superordinate themes. These superordinate themes may be considered the topic of the stretch of discourse (Todd, 1998). Moreover, the theme has various forms based on the production, consumption, distribution of texts and the type of the genre and style (Rogers, 2004). The present study has as its goal investigating to what extent MT systems can render texts from English to Arabic when such texts include forms that have different rules, or grammatical representations, in the two languages. The theme-rheme structures that have been selected to serve the purpose of this study are acknowledged to be an area of dissimilarity between English and Arabic as far as sequence is concerned. Therefore, our intention in the current paper was to investigate the types of errors perpetrated by MT systems in the rendition of theme-rheme translation from English to Arabic. The target forms have been fed into GT system within their natural occurrences or formal context (UN headlines). Methods and Data To conduct the present study UN headlines are chosen in English along with their Arabic counterparts. The reason behind the choice of such text -type was to focus on headlines as they attract the attention of reader encouraging him/her to go further and read the whole text. The second reason is to focus on the problematic issues that GT yield in the reflection of thematic analysis giving suggestions for further recommendations. The research questions that are part of this study are:

1. How can MT account for Arabic variation in word order and thematic structure? 2. Is MT based on interlinear translation? 3. How are the concepts of backgrounding and foregrounding or nominalization altered by MT? Findings and Discussion This part has been divided into three subsections based on the reflection of errors in the process of translation. They are categorized into 1) the theme sequence and patterns, 2) the theme and interlinear translation, and 3) the nominalization and backgrounding or/ and foregrounding of the theme. Theme Sequence and Patterns

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Subject (S), object (O), and verb (V) are considered to be building blocks of sentences, yet languages vary systematically with regard to the standard order in which they are mentioned, and only a small percentage of languages do not have a predominant word order (Bettinsoli et al., 2015). A predominantly exciting feature of Arabic from theme and rheme is the distinction between clauses and sentences that have VSO word order and others with SVO word order. This is English-Arabic specific feature rather than Arabic - English specific feature in translation because it usually makes no difference to the standard English word order which places the subject before the verb whereas an Arabic text has the verb first or something else first Hervey et al. (2016). Both English and Arabic house significant disparity regarding word order in the two languages. Arabic sentences are generally of two types: verbal and nominal. The first type contains a verbal element (V) in its prediction resulting in the (VSO) pattern. The second type is the nominal clause which has an adjective or a noun complement (C) predicated of another nominal element acting as the subject (S) (Aziz,1988). In addition, the word order that is syntactically unmarked in Arabic is VSO. It involves the raising of the verb over the subject. However, English is different from Arabic in that it is SVO language where the subject is the essential element. The most striking fact is that the Arabic language has the SVO pattern. Thus, the element of topicalization or focalization is clearly illustrated in both Arabic and English languages (Shlonsky, 997). In line with this argumentation, the linearity factors appear to affect the thematic organization and the word –order. In the (SVO) the themes tend to occur earlier in the sentence, while rhematic elements occupy the end position. However, there are cases where the rheme – theme pattern appears whenever the sentences start with verbal elements (Aziz, 1988). The GT seems to be able to produce non-errors in the translation of the following extract as it renders a word order that is used in the Arabic language, though the unmarked one is preferable: Extract (1)

ST/4.Secretary-General Strongly Condemns Attacks on United Nations Compound in Somalia. األمين العام يدين بشده الهجمات على مجمع األمم المتحدة في الصومال

Both English and Arabic sentences start with the topical theme (Secretary –general/ yielding no influential difference in the translation as the marked word order of (األمين العام (SVO) is used in Arabic in the GT. However, the rheme reflection is different. The English part

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has the adverb (strongly) that is part of the theme in English, but it is part of the rheme in the appears as part of the rheme in Arabic. Even though (بشدة) Arabic counterpart. The Arabic word the adverb is part of the rheme in the Arabic counterpart, the translation is still acceptable and yield the same level of interest in the mind of the readers, and both attract attention to go further. Extract (2)

ST/34. Human Rights Defenders Give Voice to Voiceless, Shield Powerless against Injustice, Says Secretary-General at Award Ceremony المدافعون عن حقوق اإلنسان يعطون صوتهم إلى صوت ال صوت لهم ، درع عاجز ضد الظلم ، يقول األمين :MT العام في حفل توزيع الجوائز

The importance of thematic structure is its ability to structure the language as a message in terms of consistent clauses in a text (Jalilifar, 2009). The failure to achieve the inconsistent message clauses may render the message. The example given above is a clear illustration of the inconsistency in clause sequence that affects the theme-rheme organization. The usage of the marked Arabic word order in the translation of the theme-rheme sequence yields problem at the cohesion level. The verbal group in English sentences appears as an adjunct in the ST text, and the GT applies the rule of ST to the TT. The usage of marked word order does not serve the theme-rheme sequence in Arabic. Accordingly, a better suggestion will be to use the syntactically unmarked word order to yield a significance theme-rheme sequence. The focalization or topicalization will be more significantly represented in the suggested translation as follows:

يقول األمين العام في حفل توزيع الجوائز ان ألمدافعون عن حقوق اإلنسان يعطون صوتهم إلى صوت لمن ال صوت لهم ويكونون درع عاجز ضد الظلم.

The shift of rheme to be the first part in Arabic gives a coherent translation where the verb (says) is topicalized to be the initial part yielding (rheme-theme)sequence in Arabic instead of the theme-rheme) sequence in the ST. The second shift is the shifting of the (Secretary- General at Award) which is situated as an adjunct in the ST, and it appears after the verb (says) immediately yielding both the unmarked word order (VSO) and rheme-theme sequence. Extract (3) ST/64. Secretary-General Welcomes Launch of Intra-Yemeni Consultations in Sweden, Urges Parties to Engage in Good Faith, without Preconditions.

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األمين العام يرحب بإطالق مشاورات داخل اليمن في السويد ، ويحث األطراف على المشاركة في حسن النية :MT ، دون شروط مسبقة The GT is incapability to reflect the two different variations of word order and theme sequence is reflected in the TT. The headline has two parts; the first part is translated with the marked word order SVO as it is in the ST and the theme-rheme sequence. This stands in contrast with the way of translating the second part yielding the (VO) and rheme-theme sequence. GT should be able to account for variations of theme-rheme sequence that is based on word order difference. However, there are instances when the VSO is found in Arabic translation. The translation gives the impression that the sentences are loosely linked and that the multiple ideas are not expressed clearly in the headline. Consider the following example: Extract (4) ST/6.When Cooperation Works, World Wins, Secretary-General Says in 2019 New Year Message, Calling for Greater Efforts to Confront Climate Change Threat عندما ينجح التعاون ، يفوز العالم ، يقول األمين العام في عام 2058 رسالة السنة الجديدة ، داعياً إلى بذل .MT المزيد من الجهود لمواجهة خطر تغير المناخ The table below statistically illustrates the fact that the GT cannot account for the variation in the word order of English and Arabic. Thus, most of the translated sentences have as its theme the subject. This increases the opportunity of applying for the (SV) word order instead of the (VS) which is the most prominent word order within the Arabic verbal clauses. The high percentage of (SV) which is around (39%) and (155) occurrences is clear evidence for the inability of GT to adopt the Arabic grammatical rules and implement them in the TT.

Table (1) Types of Theme Sequence Types of Theme-sequence No. of Frequency Occurrences (SV) Theme-Rheme 145 93% Patten in TT (VS) Rheme-Theme 11 7% Pattern in TT Total 156 100%

Theme Patterns According to Hervey et al. (2016), thematic patterns can be analyzed using two different approaches. The first one is called cline where it is possible to think of theme being a continuous progression throughout the sentence from the most predictable information to the most unpredictable information. The elements in this cline are sometimes said to differ regarding their ‘communicative dynamism.' The second technique is to analyze the theme-rheme as 255

discrete chunks. This paves the way to bigger chunks of themes that have rheme as essential components. Each chunk can be further analyzed into the theme (theme-within-rheme‚), as being rheme (rheme-within-rheme‚). The following extract has two clauses, and the arrangement of theme should be made based on the effect of the communicative dynamism that the translation can create. Extract (5)

ST /33. United Nations Enriched by Use of Arabic Language, Says Secretary-General, at Event Marking International Day. األمم المتحدة تثري استخدام اللغة العربية ، يقول األمين العام ، في مناسبة االحتفال باليوم الدولي MT

The literal translation that ignores the rheme-theme pattern leads to odd translation. The headline has two clauses. The most important theme is the speaker, Secretay –General. The secondary theme is the United Nations. A better Arabic translation would be :

يقول األمين العام ان األمم المتحدة تثري استخدام اللغة العربية في مناسبة االحتفال باليوم الدولي.

The emphasis on chunk approach in translation altered the theme patterns from the more accepted one (which is rheme-theme –then-theme-rheme) to an odd translation with the sequence( theme-rehem then rheme-theme).This altered GT scattered leader’s attention among two different themes and ignored the importance of moving from the more well-known information to the least unfamiliar information in theme patterns. The information presented in seems too important األمم المتحدة تثري استخدام اللغة العربية) the rhematic subordinate clause beginning to the overall development of the text to be backgrounded in this way. GT from English to Arabic is based on literal translation where the themes are literary translated from English to Arabic without adhering to the rules of the Arabic language. This implies that the chunk approach is used as the GT deals with the statement concerning parts or chunks. This makes the similarities between the patterns of themes higher and lessens the instances of differences. This stand in contrast with the non-literary translation. In line with this argumentation, Aziz states that Arabic has some similarities with English as far as thematic organization is concerned, but Arabic is different from English. Arabic allows more freedom in its paragraph structure and favors more than one pattern (Aziz,1988). The analysis of the data has shown that theme patterns in both languages tend to be similar as in the following:

Extract (6)

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ST/65. Commission on Limits of Continental Shelf Concludes Forty-Eighth Session لجنة حدود الجرف القاري تختتم الدورة الثامنة واألربعين:MT

The usage of the theme-rheme pattern in both English and its counterpart in Arabic has ignored the variation again in Arabic word order. Though most of the sentences in ST have SVO pattern, few examples in TT have VSO yielding theme-rheme pattern and ignoring the rheme-theme pattern that can be reflected by the use of VOS. A statistical analysis is given to show the frequency of occurring of the theme-patterns.

Table (2) Types of Theme Patterns Theme Patterns No. of Frequency occurrences Cline Pattern of 100 64% Translation Chunk Pattern of 56 36% Translation Total 156 100%

Theme and Interlinear Translation

Interlinear translation is an English translation which closely mirrors the structure and wording of the Arabic. Interlinear translation is only employed where the purpose of the translation is to shed light on the structure of the ST. It is mainly used in descriptive linguistics, where the writer is discussing examples from a language or languages which he or she does not expect the reader to know; the interlinear translation provides a gloss which preserves the structure of the original (Hervey et al., 2016). Extract (7) ST/63. Marking Universal Declaration of Human Rights Anniversary, Secretary- General Says Challenge Remains Translating Document into ‘Reality for All’ بمناسبة الذكرى السنوية لإلعالن العالمي لحقوق اإلنسان ، يقول األمين العام إن التحدي ال يزال يحول وثيقة /MT الترجمة إلى "الواقع للجميع."

From the previous example, it is evident that GT is adopting interlinear translation as far as thematic structure is concerned. The altered Arabic form preserves the structure of the ST. The theme has more than one constituents which are the adjunct first and the subject as a second constituent. Though the interlinear translation is preferred in descriptive text, it seems it adds

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the oddness to the translation of the headlines. Headlines are usually short sentences or phrases that are meaning –condensed; thus, they need special attention in translation. The fact that the theme has two parts gives us a freestyle in translation where the adjunct could be placed later to lessen the degree of oddness. In line with this argumentation, Harvey et al. (2016) suggest that one strategy for dealing with unpredictable foreground information, which is conveyed by a rhematic subordinate clause in translation in Arabic, is to translate the Arabic rhematic subordinate clause as a separate sentence in English. This is because these sentences are informationally independent. Accordingly, a better translation will be:

يقول األمين العام بمناسبة الذكرى السنوية لإلعالن العالمي لحقوق االنسان ان التحدي مازال جليا في تحول وثيق الترجمة الى واقع يفهمه الجميع.

The suggested translation follows two important translation approaches that are neglected by GT. The first one is to avoid the interlinear translation by adopting an idiomatic translation. The GT depends highly on word-to-word translation that closely mirrors the word-to-word structure of ST. The second is to apply the rheme-theme pattern reflecting the VSO in Arabic.

Table (3) Types of Theme Translation Types of Translation No. of Occurrences Frequency Interlinear 118 76% Translation Non-Interlinear 38 24% Translation Total 156 100%

The higher frequency of the inter-linearity is an illustration of the fact that GT is unable to account for the difference in structures in Arabic. Therefore it applies the same English grammatical rules following precisely the same sequence of structures that are found in the (ST). Theme and Backgrounding/Foregrounding or Nominalization Foregrounding and backgrounding operate somewhat differently in English and Arabic concerning grammatical and thematic structures. These different foregrounding– backgrounding conventions may give rise to strikingly different textual structures (Dickins, 2010).On the other hand, nominalization adds a higher degree of flexibility of information structure by increasing the range of grammatical subjects and hence the options for the unmarked theme. Nominalization pays attention to the writer's choice and the relationship between events (Francis, 2002). The theme-rheme pattern puts more emphasis on the 258

foregrounding concept where the themes are the core, and it is called ‘theme bouncing’ (Al- Qinai, 2000). Foregrounding and backgrounding are usually connected by the given and new information that is closely related to the theme-rheme concept. In this respect, Eslami & Eslami- Rasekh, (2007) state that: “ The given information is the information which has already been mentioned somewhere in the text, or it is shared or mutual knowledge from the immediate context.” In other words, theme typically contains familiar, old or given information. A theme provides the settings for the remainder of the sentence – Rheme. Rheme is the remainder of the message in a clause in which Theme is developed, that is to say, rheme typically contains unfamiliar or new information. New information is knowledge that a writer assumes the reader does not know but needs to have in order to follow the progression of the argument. The boundary between Theme and Rheme is simple: The theme is the first element occurring in a clause; the remainder clause is rheme.”(P166) Extract (8)

ST/56.Solutions to World’s Problems Lie in Upholding Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Secretary-General emphasizes in Observance Message. إن الحلول لمشكالت العالم تكمن في تأييد اإلعالن العالمي لحقوق اإلنسان ، يؤكد األمين العام في رسالة االحتفال/MT

is placed as a word-to-word translation. The other ان Here the Arabic clause introduced by clause that carries the background information or the well-known information is placed by the end. This example and the previous ones do not illustrate the tendency of Arabic to make use of multiple subordinate clauses introducing rhematic but foregrounded information. A better إن الحلول ) translation will be altered whenever interlinear translation is avoided, and the clause is particularly commonly used by the end, not at the ( لمشكالت العالم تكمن في تأييد اإلعالن العالمي beginning. This is supported by the fact that in most cases subordinate clauses in rheme position (i.e., towards the end of the phrase or sentence) convey information which is both backgrounded and relatively unpredictable (Hervey et al., 2016). Extract ( 9 ) ST/71.Solutions ‘at Our Fingertips’, Secretary-General Tells E-Mobility Event, Urging Governments to Embrace Clean, Decarbonized Transport. MT/ حلول "في متناول يدينا" ، األمين العام يحكي حدث التنقل اإللكتروني ، حث الحكومات على احتضان النقل النظيف والخالي من الكربون 259

creates a kind of ambiguity in the translation. The fact that the translation ايدينا‘ The word does not follow the correlation between theme and given information. A better interpretation ,.and referred it again by backgrounding the same information ’األمين العام will be to start with that is, a nominalization occurs in the thematic structure of the clause, where it will be typically foregrounded as the focalized part in the information structure, it can then be backgrounded as theme and given in the following clause (Banks,2005). This more literal translation sounds slightly odd because the information presented in the rhematic subordinate clause beginning seems too important to the overall development of the text to be backgrounded in this way. However, in some cases, it seems that the machine translation is capable of creating the association of given and new information with the theme-rheme sequence. The theme contains given information, and the thematic element is indefinite carrying new information (Aziz, 1988). Consider the following example: Extract (10) ST/5.Secretary-General Appoints Robert Piper of Australia as Assistant Secretary- General, United Nations Development Coordination Office األمين العام يعين روبرت بايبر من أستراليا كأمين عام مساعد ، مكتب األمم المتحدة للتنسيق اإلنمائي .MT

The machine translation, in this case, reflects the given-new and theme-rheme represents both the theme and the given information. The ’ األمين العام ‘ organization. The subject .represents the new information ’ يعين روبرت بايبر من أستراليا كأمين عام مساعد‘ rhematic part which is According to Robertson & Nunn (2010), the problem of the double Rheme is a significant factor in the Un news headlines. Double rheme means a sentence has two Rhemes with one of the Rheme not mentioned previously. That’s new information; therefore, the foregrounding information has been implemented. Consider the following example: Extract (11) ST/21.Security Council 2206 Committee Calls upon Member States to Observe Implementation of Travel Ban, Asset Freeze and Arms Embargo Concerning South Sudan مجلس األمن 2202 لجنة تدعو الدول األعضاء إلى مراقبة تنفيذ حظر السفر وتجميد األصول وحظر األسلحة فيما يتعلق MT بجنوب السودان There are three Rhemes in this clause. One Rheme is ‘calls upon members.' The other Rheme is ‘freeze’ and the third one is ‘embargo concerning South Sudan.' The previously used rhemes are mentioned for the first time. Each one carries new information that has had no previous mention. Yet the foregrounding is not applied in this translation. In line with this

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argumentation appears the nominalization process where the emphasis is on what is internalized and actualized not on what is happening. In this respect, Francis (2002), states that nominalization freezes the processes and makes them static. The text is no longer about what is happening, but what is being internalized and actualized by society as to the status of what has already happened. The events are less important than the relationship among events. Thus, the writers are obliged to think of text- creation. The table below shows the frequency of occurrences of each approach in the translation process. Recommendations for Machine Translations The main recommendations that are based on the previous qualitative and quantitative analyses are:First, the GT program should be taken into consideration that the rheme-theme sequence is a must in Arabic as it reflects the syntactically unmarked word order (VSO). The constant use of the (SVO) may be due to the importance of the theme as a point of departure. Within the clause, the function of Theme is precisely that of constituting its deictic element, in that it defines the speaker's angle on the ensuing content (Downing,1991). Second, GT should be able to mix both cline and chunk approaches and adopt whichever one seems more appropriate for the particular problem in hand. Moving from background information to the least common information should be emphasized. Third, the nominalization approach is more dominant than the backgrounding and foregrounding processes because the headlines are constructed in a way to put emphasis on the event themselves not on the relationships among events.

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References

Al-Qinai, J. (2000). Translation quality assessment. Strategies, parametres and procedures. Meta: journal des traducteurs/Meta: Translators' Journal, 45(3), 497-519. Abu-Ayyash, E. A. (2017). Errors and non-errors in English-Arabic machine translation of gender-bound constructs in technical texts. Procedia Computer Science, 117, 73-80. Aziz, Y. Y. (1988). Theme-rheme organization and paragraph structure in standard Arabic. Word, 39(2), 117-128. Banks, D. (2005). On the historical origins of nominalized process in scientific text. English for Specific Purposes, 24(3), 347-357. Bene, E. (1983). Current Trends in Textlinguistics. Edited by WOLFGANG U. DRESSLER (Book Review). Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 50(2), 225. Bettinsoli, M. L., Maass, A., Kashima, Y., & Suitner, C. (2015). Word-order and causal inference: The temporal attribution bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 60, 144-149. Dickins, J. (2010). Junction in English and Arabic: Syntactic, discoursal and denotative features. Journal of Pragmatics, 42(4), 1076-1136. Downing, A. (1991). An alternative approach to theme: a systemic-functional perspective. Word, 42(2), 119-143. Eslami, Z. R., & Eslami-Rasekh, A. (2007). Discourse markers in academic lectures. Asian EFL Journal, 9(1), 22- 38. Flowerdew, L. (1998). Corpus linguistic techniques applied to textlinguistics. System, 26(4), 541-552. Francis, G. (2002). Labelling discourse: an aspect of nominal-group lexical cohesion. In Advances in written text analysis(pp. 97-115). Routledge. Hervey, S., Dickins, J., & Higgins, I. (2016). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method: Arabic to English. Routledge. Jalilifar, A. (2009). Thematic development in English and translated academic texts. Journal of Universal Language, 10(1), 81-111. Robertson, P., & Nunn, R. (2010). The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly March 2010 Volume 12, Issue. Rogers, R. (2004). An introduction to critical discourse analysis in education. In An introduction to critical discourse analysis in education (pp. 31-48). Routledge. Shlonsky, U. (1997). Clause structure and word order in Hebrew and Arabic: An essay in comparative Semitic syntax. Oxford University Press. Todd, R. W. (1998). Topic-based analysis of classroom discourse. System, 26(3), 303-318.

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INTEGRATING MNEMONIC DEVICES IN LEARNING LITERATURE

Ghaouar Nesrine1 Abstract At the university level -especially the first year- students of English as a foreign language find themselves faced with modules that they find difficulty in assimilating their content. One of these modules is ‘the literary texts’ that represents the historical background of the British literature. Students face difficulties in remembering names which affect their understanding of the lessons. Mnemonic devices are memory strategies that ease the storage, recall and the retrieve of information such as acronym, chaining, loci, and keyword method. There are strategies based on imagery and others on organization. They should be clear, funny, and unusual. In fact, effective memorization is based on making links. Hence, this work aims at highlighting the significant role of integrating the mnemonic devices for an effective learning of literature. After a short questionnaire about students’ attitudes towards the literary texts module, an experiment was designed in the study skill session to a group of first year students of English- Badji Mokhtar University- Annaba –Algeria. The teacher asked the students to bring a lesson from literary texts that they found full of names and difficult to remember. The students chose the lesson of ‘The ’. The integration of the mnemonic devices went through different stages till the students became comfortable in using these strategies. By the end, it became a game-like learning of literature and proved its efficiency for the majority of the students. Furthermore, teachers of literature need to gain awareness of the mnemonic devices and integrate them along the explanation of the lessons to ease the understanding of this last. Keywords: Memory, mnemonic devices, literary texts, Study skills. Introduction Effective learning is assured by using different learning strategies; memory strategies are one of them. Raising learners’ awareness of these strategies and integrating them will enhance positively the storage, recall and retrieve of information. Learners need to gain awareness that there is no one way- repetition- in order to remember lessons. In fact, effective memorization of the lesson is based on creating links between the new learned material and what is already known or being familiar with. Memory Definition According to Baars & Gage (2010), Memory can be defined as a lasting representation that is reflected in thought, experience, or behavior (p.305). Sternberg & Sternberg (2012) defined memory as the means by which we draw on our knowledge of the past to use this knowledge in the present. They explain that according to one model, memory is conceived as involving three stores: a sensory store is capable of holding relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods; a short-term store is capable of holding small amounts of information for somewhat longer periods; and a long-term store is capable of storing large amounts of information virtually indefinitely.

1 Badji Mokhtar University, Algeria. 263

For Woolfolk (2004), the capacity of sensory memory is very large, but it is fragile in duration; it lasts between one to three seconds (p.240). Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience (2013) explains the difference as follows: Sensory Memory, which can further be divided into Echoic and Iconic Memory, has the smallest time span for accessibility of information. With Short Term and Working Memory, information is accessible seconds to minutes after it is first encountered While Long Term Memory, has an accessibility period from minutes to years to decades (p. 81). Awh, Vogel & Oh (2006) draw attention to the interactions between attention and working memory as they recognize attention as a “gatekeeper” for working memory” ( p. 202). Rueda, Pozuelos , and Cómbita (2015) define attention as the selection mechanism that serves to choose a particular source of stimulation, internal train of thoughts, or a specific course of action for priority processing, and is closely connected to consciousness (p. 184) . According to Cottrell (2008, p. 300), there are four stages in the memory process:

a. Taking in information: noticing or attending to information, and absorbing it. b. Retaining it: in short term memory c. Encoding it: interacting with the information in working memory so that the brain can store it in long term memory. d. Recalling it: retrieving or remembering information, whether on purpose, by accident, or in dreams.

Mnemonic Devices Mnemonics is the use of strategy to help memory (Matlin, 2003, p. 162). She refers to mnemonics using imagery and mnemonics using organization. They should be simple, clear, and vivid. It should be unusual, funny, or personal. They are as follows: Rhymes Set what you need to remember to a common rhyme.

Examples:

-"In fourteen hundred and ninety-two Columbus sailed the ocean blue."

- Remember the ABC song to memorize the alphabet.

Loci

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Greek and Roman orators who had to remember long speeches used the method of "loci" to trigger their memories. You visualize a room or route that is familiar to you. Then place each item you wish to remember in a location along that route and "pick it up" as you take a mental walk around that room. Imagine yourself walking through the location, selecting clearly defined places--the door, sofa, refrigerator, shelf, etc. Imagine yourself putting objects that you need to remember into each of these places by walking through this location in a direct path. Chaining: (for ordered or unordered lists) Create a story where each word or idea you have to remember cues the next idea you need to recall. If you had to remember the words Napoleon, ear, door, and Germany, you could invent a story of Napoleon with his ear to a door listening to people speak in German. The Image-Name Technique: (for remembering names) Simply invent any relationship between the name and the physical characteristics of the person. For example, if you had to remember Shirley Temple's name, you might ingrain the name in memory by noticing that she has "curly" (rhymes with Shirley) hair around her temples. Acronyms Acronyms are words made up of the first letters of other words. As a mnemonic device, acronyms help you remember the first letters of items in a list, which in turn helps you remember the list itself. Examples:

 HOMES: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior (Names of the Great Lakes)  ROY G. BIV: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet (Colors of the spectrum)

Acrostics Acrostics are phrases made up of words beginning with the first letter of other words. As mnemonic devices, acrostics support recall by helping you remember the list of keywords.

Examples: The following are examples of popular mnemonic acrostics:

 My Very Educated Mother Just Sent Us Nine Pizzas: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto(Planets in order from the sun)  Richard Of York Gave Battle in Vain: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet(Colors of the spectrum)  My Dear Aunt Sally: Multiple, Divide, Add, Subtract (Mathematical order of operations)  We Just Like Rushmore: Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, Roosevelt (American Presidents on Mount Rushmore) 265

 FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

The Keyword Method: (for foreign language vocabulary) First, after considering the foreign word you need to remember, select a key word in your language that sounds like the foreign word. Next, imagine an image which involves the key word with your native language meaning of the foreign word. For example, consider the Spanish word "cabina" which means "phone booth." For the English keyword, you might think of "cab in a ... ." You could then invent an image of a cab trying to fit in a phone booth. When you see the word "cabina" on the test, you should be able to recall the image of the cab and you should be able to retrieve the definition "phone booth." Effective Memorisation Ruph (2007, p. 29) sees that the origins of many difficulties in university stem from inappropriate memorization strategies: difficulty selecting what is essential to remember, to summarize, to synthesize; insufficient information organization; rote learning of material that we poorly assimilate; the belief that understanding is sufficient to retaining; the lack of concrete and personal examples, lack of reference to our own reality; absence of rehearsal or revision exercises; tardy revision exercises, etc. Effective memorization refers to the effective storage of information in long term memory following Dembo’s (2004, p. 47) ideas:

1. Learning involves getting information into long-term memory. 1. There can be no learning without attention. 2. Memory is enhanced when the content is meaningful. When you learn something, try to relate it to something you already know. 3. Meaningful learning facilitates both organized storage and retrieval of information. 4. Many students use only rehearsal strategies in learning. As a result, they have difficulty understanding and recalling complex information. 5. Elaboration increases learning by linking new content to existing knowledge. It provides additional ways of remembering information. 6. Elaboration strategies include mnemonic devices, paraphrasing, summarizing, creating analogies and examples, writing notes in one’s own words, explaining, and asking question. 7. It is difficult to learn unorganized definitions, dates, names, and ideas without organizing the information. 8. Organizational learning strategies promote learning by imposing order on new content. Classifying, outlining, and representations or mapping are examples of such strategies.

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9. How information is organized and elaborated influences one’s ability to retrieve it when needed.

The Study Study Skills is a module about the strategies and the techniques that enable students to make the most efficient use of their time, resources, and academic potential. These skills are important not just for academic learning, but also for everyday life. “Study skills” is based on studying less and learning more. Therefore, mastering the skills for studying and learning increases learners’ self-efficacy and empowers them to change their approach and try different strategies. Improving students’ learning skills can be assured by making simple changes in how they approach their study. The aim behind this module is not only to develop learners’ skills but also to develop self awareness, self-confidence, and even better behavior and personality. Improving students’ learning skills can be assured by making simple changes in how they approach their study. The module is three hours a week (1h.30 lesson + 1h.30 TD)

After presenting the lesson of “Memorization” with its different strategies, the following steps were followed:

1. Students provide their own examples using the mnemonic devices. 2. Then, they choose a lesson in study skills module and apply mapping, or chaining or loci to memorize that lesson. 3. After, students divided into groups of 4 or 5, select a lesson from any module that they find difficult to memorize and apply one of the mnemonic devices.

Since the great majority of the students affirm they have problems in memorizing the lessons of “literary texts”. In groups, they took the lesson of “The Iliad”, and try to use any of the mnemonic devices to remember the lessons’ sections about containing the list of characters the Achaeans, the Trojans and their allies, the Gods, and the themes discussed. Here are some of student’s answers: Acronyms: The Achaeans The Gods of the Trojans and their Allies

2AHK NOP 2M / IHAHAHAAA AH2P / PAPH/ PHAP PHOKMA MAN HAHAHA I2A A: Andromache A: Achilles I: Iris H: Hektor 267

A: Agamemnom H: Hades P: Piam H: Helen A:Aphordite P: Paris K: Kalchas H: Hera N: Nestor A: Appollo O: Odysseus H: Hermes P: Patroklos A:Ares M: Myrmidons A:Artemis M: Menelaos A: Athena

The Sentence Method

 For the Torjan and their Allies  Hektor Piam Andromache Paris Her Pearls are precious

 Paris Piam Andromache Hektor Preparing, Practising at home

 The achaians  Patroklos, Myrmidons, Agamemnom, Menelaos, Helen, Odysseus, Nestor, Kalchas, Achilles. Peter, marry and me having one night around Kuwait.

 The Gods:  Iris Athena Ares Hermes Appollo Hera Hades Artemis Aphordite I am a human, all human have an awareness.

The method of loci:

 For remembering the GODS

When the parents Athena and Aphordite were in the kitchen, the twin girls Ares and Iris were preparing the table in the garden. Then, the boys Artemis,Appollo, and Hermes start to sing in the living room while the little children Hades and Hera were playing video games in their room.

 For remembering the themes of the Ilyad

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I was in the sitting room watching the documentary film of “ Human life and its creation” and eating pop corn. Then, when I went to bed, I red the book of “the glory of war”. When I wake up the next morning, I heard too much noise in the kitchen between my brothers, here I remembered The chapter of “Military Glory over Family life”. The Chaining method

 For the the achaians’ characters:

Today is Kalchas’ birthday. Achilles and Agamemnom prepared a surprising party for him, they invited all the friends: Helen, Odysseus, Nestor, Myrmidons and Menelaos. The biggest surprise was when Patroklos brings fireworks.

 For remembering Gods a. Aphrodite the jealous one between the Gods wanted to kill Apollo who was the furious and the stronger one. However, Ares was so intelligent; he invited all Gods for a lunch. There was Athena the goddess of wisdom, Artemis, Apollo, Hades and Aphrodite. He put the poison in their dishes and became the only leader of the sky. b. Appolo and Athena are new couple. Last Friday turned one year of marriage. So they invited Ares, Aretmis, Hades to share with them this special day. To their surprise, Aphrodite, her brother, came the same day from abroad with a very special gift.  To remember The Trojans and their allies a. Paris is a widower with three children two children: Anromache and Priam. They liked a lot their cat Hector. b. When I went to amphi 10, I found Hector playing cards with Priam and Anromache; while Paris was talking on the phone. c. Hector and Paris have two children Anromache and Priam. d. To make the Torjans and their Allies cake, you have to put 3 cups of Paris sugar and one peeled Hektor. Blend them together to get a Priam dough. Finally, spray white Anromache on the top.

Key words Method:

 To remember the character Paris Link it with Paris the Capital of France.  To remember the character Agamemnom : aga: the first “ letters of Agatha English name, then même nom French words)  “Viele” is a germanic word that means a lot in English language. It remind me the animal in Arabic pronunciation ‘ fI:L” 269

 The word “chieb” in German means weird. It reminds me/ chi:b/ in Arabic the white hair.  Appolo the God of prophecy reminds me the clothes marl POLLO  Athena reminds me the Greek capital Athena.

Findings and Suggestions At the start of integrating the memory strategies in the session of study skills, students were not motivated as they involve thinking and imagination. Some said,” I am not an imaginative person”, “I do not know how to make the links”, “I am not used to memorize like this”, “This is difficult”. For others, “I liked these strategies”, “I liked using them”, they are innovative” and “They are very useful”, “I enjoy using them”. The application of the strategies was not effective from the first session, and even if students understood the strategies, they did not know how to apply them. After practice- four sessions- and using the motivated students’ examples, tension became less. Students felt at ease by listening to their classmates’ examples and especially the funny ones. By discovering the merits of using the mnemonic strategies in the other modules, students became more relaxed in using them. By doing so, students understood that when they take care of their memory, their memory will take care of them. Hence, it is advisable that all teachers, whatever the module they teach, need to gain awareness of the mnemonic devices and teach their students explicitly or implicitly to use them. They are good weapons in front of the number of new concepts, words and information that they want to recall but they do not know how. In addition, most of the time when they rely only on repetition information will become part of the short term memory and be forgotten after a period of time. Conclusion For an effective learning, students need to enhance their power of memorization; Mnemonic devices can be the clue. They are based on learners’ mental abilities as thinking and imagination. Then, as teachers are the source of inspiration, literary texts teachers should gain awareness of the different memorization strategies that would lessen the difficulty of the lessons and develop certain comfort in the classroom. Then, let’s our students to take care of their memory and their memory will take care of them.

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References Awh, E., Vogel, E.K. & Oh, S.H. 2006. Interactions Between Attention and Working Memory. Neuroscience 139 , 201–208 Baars, B. J & Gage, M.N. 2010. Cognition, Brain, and Consciousness. Elsevier Ltd. Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience. 2013. Wikibooks.org Cottrell, S. 2008. The Study Skills Handbook. Palgrave McMillan. Dembo, M. H. 2004 .Motivation and Learning Strategies for College Success. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Matlin, W. M. 2003. Cognition ( 5th Ed). John Wiley &Sons. Inc. Rueda, R. M. Pozuelos, J. P., and Cómbita, M. L. 2015. Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention. AIMS Neuroscience, 2 (4), 183–202. Ruph, F. 2007. University Learning Strategies: A Guide to Reflective Thinking. Université du Québec en Abitibi- Témiscamingue (UQAT) Sternberg , J. R & Sternberg, K. 2012. Cognitive Psychology (6th Ed). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Woolfolk, A. 2004. Educational Psychology (9th Ed). Pearson Education, Inc.

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INVESTIGATING STUDENTS’ SELF-REGULATED LEARNING THROUGH THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Ghaouar Nesrine1 Aouaidjia Soumaia2

Abstract The most important goal of higher education is to develop lifelong learners who are self-directed, self- aware, and independent. These learners are aware of their strength and weaknesses. They know which strategies to retain, modify, or change in order to attain academic success; they are self-regulated learners. The present study aims to find out about the degree of self-regulation of students of English at Badji Mokhtar - Annaba University, and its relatedness to their academic outcomes. It takes first year students as a population of study and seeks to examine their study patterns, learning beliefs and processes in the module of Linguistics. It adopts a questionnaire and testing as research instruments. The questionnaire, addressed to the research sample, aims at indentifying learners’ main areas of strengths and weaknesses during the three-step cycle of learning when undertaking the given classroom tasks, namely, in planning, performance and evaluation. The questionnaire items detail the self-regulated components like students’ self-efficacy beliefs, the different strategies adopted in setting goals, self-monitoring progress and self-reflecting afterwards. These prove to be decisive factors in the successfulness of students’ academic endeavors. Besides, students’ testing scores in linguistics come to support the questionnaire results in revealing that students’ self-regulated learning patterns mark the boundaries between the high and the low achievers and subsequently, corroborating its relatedness with their academic performance and achievements in the module of linguistics. Finally, some suggestions will be proposed for developing self- regulated University learners. Keywords: self-regulated learning, social cognitive theory, self- direction.

Introduction With the shift a focus from teacher centered classroom to learner centered classroom, learner becomes the center of interest. The aim was to develop learners who are intrinsically motivated, autonomous, and self-regulated. Self-regulation implies learners’ management of their learning. This management entails behavior, motivation and learning strategies. In fact, different theories were interested in examining self-regulation; however, this article will focus on the social cognitive theory of self-regulated learning with the ideas of their pioneers Bandura and Zimmerman. Hence, it will attempt to present an overview of self-regulated learning processes, cycle and learning strategies. 1. Social Cognitive Views of Self-Regulated Learning According to Bembenutty, White, and Vélez (2015), Bandura introduced social cognitive theory as a reaction to previous theories that emphasized that individuals are subjected to

1 Badji Mokhtar University, Algeria 2 Badji Mokhtar University, Algeria 272

environmental influences, which reduces their behaviors to stimulus control through reinforcement and punishment. Bandura emphasized that individuals learn within a social context through interactions with their environment and by observational learning (p.11). Bandura’s Triadic reciprocality represents human functioning as involving complex reciprocal interactions under the control of the individual. Social cognitive theory considers individuals to be agents of change who develop and adapt with the intention to influence their own functioning and goals while maintaining control over their outcomes and environment. According to Zimmerman (1989a), triadic account of human functioning focuses on the separate but interdependent contributions of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. Social cognitive theory emphasizes the relationship between social processes as modeling or verbal persuasion and self-regulated learning. In addition, environmental factors, such as the nature of the task and setting, have been systematically studied (p.13).Similarly, Schunk (1989) sees that self-regulated learning is not only influenced by learners’ personal processes as cognition and affect but also by environmental andbehavioral aspects. Bandura (1971, cited in Zimmerman, 1989 a) emphasizes motivation and self-awareness in self regulated learning. First, motivation is linked with outcome expectations and recognizes the existence of another motivational construct, which is self- efficacy. Bandura 1986 defines self efficacy as the beliefs in one’s capabilities to execute the competences needed to exercise control over events that affect one’s welfare (p. 1). He adds that people beliefs in their capabilities affect what courses of action they choose to pursue, how much effort they will mobilize in a given endeavor, how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles and failure, whether their thoughts patterns take self-hindering or self-aiding form, and how much stress they experience in coping with environmental demands (p.1). Moreover, Cervone , Mor, Orom, Shadel and Scott ( 2011,p.465) clarify that Bandura (1977) outlined four sources of self-efficacy information, that is, four types of psychosocial experiences that influence perceptions of efficacy for coping with encounters: 1. firsthand behavioral experience, or mastery experience; 2. observation of others’ experiences, that is, vicarious information conveyed via modeling; 3. evaluation of one’s own emotional and physiological states, which is important because physical state is commonly of much relevance to one’s immediately subsequent capabilities; and

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4. verbal persuasion, that is, speech acts by others that may boost or lower one’s ownself-appraisals. Second, self-awareness involves one or more of a number of self-perceptive states, such as self-efficacy, that emerge from specific self observation responses. Schunk (1989) suggests that self-observation is most helpful when it focuses on the specific conditions under which learning occurs, like the time, place, and duration of performance. This last can be realized through self-recording diaries or progress worksheets. Moreover, Schunk (1989) highlights that social cognitive theory made the distinction between enactive and vicarious learning. The first refers to learners’ actual performance as they learn from their own experiences. The second refers to learning through observing models, watching TV or reading. He further pinpoints that effective learning includes both enactive and vicarious learning. He also highlights that social cognitive theory, also, made the distinction between declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge. The first refers to facts and texts (the what), the second refers to rules (the how); while the third deals with when to use the declarative and the procedural knowledge (the when and why). For modeling, Schunk (1989) explains, “Modeling refers to cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes that derive from observing others” (p. 86).

2. Key Self regulation Processes

Bandura (1986 cited in Zimmerman, 1989a) has identified three sub- processes in self- regulation: self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction. These are not assumed to be mutually exclusive, but rather to interact with each other. He explains, Self-observations are assumed to prompt learners to self-evaluate, and these cognitive judgments, in turn, are assumed to lead to a variety of personal and behavioral self-reactions. Self-judgments refer to comparisons of existing performance levels, as self-observed, with one's learning goals (p. 12). Furthermore, Schunk (1989) reports Bandura’s four sub-processes involved in observational learning through modeling. First, observer attention is crucial for effective perception of the environment. Second, retention refers to the storage of the modeled information in memory and cognitive rehearsal. Third, production refers to the overt behavior resulting after modeling. Finally, positive motivation results from vicarious or enactive learning. It follows the cognitive social model that starts with learners’ beliefs which include

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their learning goals and their beliefs about their self-efficacy. This last influences learners’ self-regulatory processes that include observation, judgment and reaction as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Social Cognitive Model of Self-regulated Learning (Schunk, 1989, p. 88)

Schunk further expalins that learners’self efficacy for learning is influenced by their experiences, abilities, and attitudes towards learning. He further explains thethree subprocesses as follows:  self-observation is used to determine how well one is progressing toward one's goals (p. 89)  Self-Judgment sub-process refers to comparing present performance level with one's goal. Self-judgments can be affected by such factors as the type of standards employed, the properties of the goal, the importance of goal attainment, and the attributions made for one's performance.  Self-reactions to goal progress exert motivational effects on behavior (Bandura, 1986). The belief that one is making acceptable progress can enhance self-efficacy for continued improvement (p. 92). However, Self-regulation does not automatically develop as people become older, nor is it passively acquired from the environment. The sub-processes of self-regulated learning are altered during development, and interventions differ in their effects on the acquisition of self- regulatory skills (p 99). 3. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Properties According to Bembenutty, White, and Vélez (2015), Social cognitive theory is based on four core properties of human agency which are intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness as follows(p.13):

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 Intentionality involves proactivity and specific planning measures for how one will pursue goals. For example, how willing is a college student to set aside 2 h to complete a homework assignment rather than going out to a party with his friends?  Forethought involves goal setting while considering outcomes. An example of the forethought core property is when a student independently turns off his cell phone in order to avoid a distracting call since he knows that chatting with his friend will preclude him from completing the homework within the time frame of his homework schedule.  Self-reactiveness involves self-monitoring one’s goals and maintaining control over the plans to attain those goals. In the case of the homework, the student periodically evaluates the quality of the homework while he is working on the task in light of the standards and rubrics provided by the instructor.  Self-reflectiveness involves self-examination of outcomes, thoughts, actions, feelings, behavior, and personal efficacy. For instance, a student would be careful to pay close attention to his evaluations and reactions to the complete. ( Table 1)

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Table 1: Social Cognitive Theory’s Core Properties of Human Agency (Bembenutty,White, and Vélez, 2015, p 13) 4. Self-regulatory Learning Cycle Zimmerman, Bonner, and Kovach (1996. p. 11) refer to the following self-regulatory cycle that involves four interrelated processes as follows:  Self-evaluation and monitoring occur when students judge their personal effectiveness, often from observations and recordings of prior performances and outcomes.  Goal setting and strategic planning occur when students analyze the learning task, set specific learning goals, and plan or refine the strategy to attain the goal.  Strategy-implementation monitoring occurs when students try to execute a strategy in structured contexts and to monitor their accuracy in implementing it.

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 Strategic-outcome monitoring occurs when students focus their attention on links between learning outcomes and strategic processes to determine effectiveness. ( Figure 2)

Figure 2: Self-regulatory learning cycle. They explain the steps as follows: 1. The first step in the cycle involves evaluating one’s current level of learning on a task. As students begin to study an unfamiliar topic, they have only a vague sense of the effectiveness of their approach. Keeping performance records can greatly improve the accuracy of a learner’s self-evaluations For example, often students are unaware of how much study time they waste until they keep a 2. The second step in the cycle involves analyzing the learning task, setting goals, and planning or refining a learning strategy. 3. The third step involves implementing the learner’s strategy choice, which depends on previously used strategies, feedback from peers or teachers, and self-monitoring. 4. The fourth step involves expanding the learner’s monitoring to include performance outcomes associated with strategic variations to determine effectiveness. For example, a student who uses a grouping strategy to memorize key concepts in geography will learn that meaningful categories, such as lakes, deserts, and mountains, will work better than arbitrary categories (p.12).

Furthermore, Zimmerman (1989a, p.337) provides the following Table 2 for Self regulated Learning Strategies.

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Table 2: Self-regulated Learning Strategies (Zimmerman, 1989a, p.337)

The Study The aim of the present research is to investigate students’ self-regulated skills, encompassing their metacognition, self-concept, self-monitoring, motivation, strategy formation and volitional control strategies in their learning practices. The research tool is an adapted version of the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) designed by Weinstein, et al. (1987). It is an as a diagnostic self-report questionnaire with 24 statements for inquiring students’ self-regulated study practices and attitudes. It aims at measuring how students use learning strategies in academic environments as well as identifying learners’ areas of strengths and weaknesses when undertaking given classroom tasks. The self-report items are measured on a 5 point Likert scale from 1-strongly agree to 5- strongly disagree. The second research instrument is students’ testing scores in the module of Linguistics, which is used to support the questionnaire results about the link between students’ self-regulated learning patterns and the boundaries between the high and the low achievers in learning. 280

A sample of 39 university students of both genders were randomly selected from the overall population of first year EFL students at the department of English at Badji Mokhtar university of Annaba – Algeria. Their ages range from 18 to 22years.They report about their learning patterns and beliefs as well as the test scores in the course of introduction to Linguistics as a unit of measure. Discussion a) Metacognition When analyzing participants’ metacognitive awareness presented in Table 3, we observe that about half of the respondents (51.28%) seek to establish a link between the subject content and previous knowledge and experience, while one third (35.90%) is undecided. Around 23.70% of the participants do not find an interest in relating the different themes under study.

Metacognition St A U D St rongly gree n- isagre rongly Agree decided e Disagree 1. I try to see 20 3 3 5 0, how what I am studying ,51% 0,77% 5,90% ,13% 00% would apply to my everyday living 2. I try to find 30 5 5 5 2, relationships between ,77% 1,28% ,13% ,13% 56% what I am learning and what I already know 3. I try to relate 28 5 1 2 0, what I am studying to ,21% 1,28% 5,38% ,56% 00% my own experiences 4. I try to 10 2 2 2 0, interrelate themes in ,26% 5,64% 5,64% 3,08% 00% what I am studying Table 3: Students’ Metacognitive skills

Metacognition refers to “knowledge and beliefs about thinking and the factors affecting thinking” which regulate “the articulation of strategy and knowledge”. It includes three types: knowledge of self, knowledge about various cognitive tasks and strategy knowledge. All of the items below identify aspects of cognitive self-awareness, based around students’ ability to articulate new knowledge in terms of already understood concepts.

b) Self-Concept

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From the below table, we note that participants ‘responses are mixed between confidence and worry as to the quality of their performance in tests. Answers for item 6 reveal that more than half of the respondents (56.41%) show positive self-concept when undertaking examinations, while around (43.59%) in item 8 feel confused and worried about their performance and results. Around (20. 51%) tend to neutral as to how they evaluate themselves as learners.

Self-Concept S A U D S trongly gree ndecide isagree trongly Agree d Disagre e 5. I worry that I will 2 3 7 2 1 fail the exam or course 0,51% 3,33% ,69% 5,64% 0,26% 6. When I begin an 2 3 1 2 2 examination, I feel pretty 3,08% 3,33% 0,26% 3,08% ,56% confident that I will do well 7. Worrying about 1 3 1 3 2 doing poorly interferes 2,82% 3,33% 7,95% 0,77% ,56% with my concentration on tests 8. I get so nervous 2 2 2 2 7 and confused when taking 3,08% 0,51% 0,51% 0,51% ,69% an examination that I fail to answer questions to the best of my ability Table 4: Students’ self-concept

Self-concept is a central component of self-regulation since it unveils issues of students’ self-awareness at an affective rather than cognitive level as presented in the below items. For students who do not see themselves as intelligent or able enough resort to self-handicapping strategies. The fear of failure and lack of confidence can lead to intellectual defensiveness, which can in turn be detrimental to the development of self-regulatory skills.

c) Self-Monitoring

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As observed in the below table, we find mixed responses as to how to keep updated in class assignments. This shows a lack of consistency in undertaking regular revisions and monitoring own progress.

Self-Monitoring S A U Di S trongly gree n- sagree trongly Agree d Disagre ecided e 9. I am up-to-date in 7, 3 2 15 0 my class assignments 69% 0,77% 5,64% ,38% ,00% 10. I compare class 28 2 1 20 1 notes with other students to ,21% 5,64% 0,26% ,51% 0,26% make sure my notes are complete 11. I review my notes 20 3 2 7, 7 before the next class ,51% 3,33% 5,64% 69% ,69% 12. I test myself to be 23 5 1 7, 2 sure I know the material I ,08% 1,28% 2,82% 69% ,56% have been studying Table 5: Students’ self-monitoring skills

Self-monitoring proves to be a key SR component that depends on metacognition since it involves students’ active assessment of their own performance. It encompasses key cognitive processes essential to the development of SR strategies such as self-observation, inner speech or self-recording, and the ability to monitor one’s own performance, through planning, and comparing with others. Failure to attend to this set of skills can have detrimental effect on the learners’ performance as well as outcomes.

d) Motivation Concerning the overall importance of attending class in item 13, we can note that the majority of respondents (61,54%) acknowledge the importance of academic studies whereas (15.38%) are neutral. About (17,95%) prefer rather not be in class which is likely to influence their motivation to learn this subject. Mixed responses are presented for items 14 and 15 as around 55% and 41% respectively show high motivation and commitment in accomplishing the tasks at hand.

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Motivation S A U D S trongly gree n- is- trongly Agree decided agree Disagre e 13. I would rather 5 1 1 3 2 not be in school ,13% 2,82% 5,38% 3,33% 8,21% 14. I only study the 7 7 2 3 1 subjects I like ,69% ,69% 3,08% 8,46% 7,95% 15.When work is 1 3 1 2 1 difficult I either give up or 7,95% 0,77% 0,26% 8,21% 2,82% study only the easy parts 16. I tend to spend 0 1 3 3 1 so much time with friends ,00% 2,82% 0,77% 3,33% 0,26% that my coursework suffers Table 6: Students’ motivation Motivation results from the actualization of self-concept as the difficulty in maintaining interest in learning can be attributed to poor self-concept, which may result from other factors, including inadequate appraisals from teachers. It is also manifest in an overall weak attitude towards a learning situation. Hence, students with poor motivation tend to articulate a preference for other activities, and show reluctance to approach problems that might prove to be challenging for them. e) Strategy Formation As regarding strategy formation skills, a quite high percentage of respondents (71.80%), (79.49%) and (92.31%) for items 17, 18 and 19 respectively show that they employ a variety of strategies in their learning tasks. Equal responses (25%) are found for item 20 where students show lack of mastery of the subject material while (30.77%) are neutral.

Strategy Formation S A U D S trongly gree n- is- trongly Agree Disagree 284

d a ecided gree 17. I make drawings or 2 4 2 1 2 sketches to help me 8,21% 3,59% ,56% 2,82 ,56% understand what I am % studying 18. I learn new words 2 5 1 0 0 or ideas by visualizing a 3,08% 6,41% 7,95% ,00 ,00% situation in which they occur % 19. I translate what I 5 3 5 2 0 am studying into my own 3,85% 8,46% ,13% ,56 ,00% words % 20. When I study, I 5 2 3 2 5 have trouble figuring out just ,13% 5,64% 0,77% 5,64 ,13% what to do to learn the % material Table 7 Students’ strategy formation skills Strategy formation involves cognitive learning strategies that include rehearsal, elaboration, and organisational strategies, memorization through clustering, imagery, use of mnemonics making sketches and so on. For instance, the deeper cognitive processes of transforming information and creating new pieces out of existing information can be more successful than the strategy of rehearsing material. In order to reach successful learning, strategy formation has to come from the learner rather than dictated by a teacher or program. Students’ abilities to find out personalized ways to learn new material are indicative of successful strategy formation.

F) Volitional Control Strategies Participants’ responses regarding volitional control strategies could be observed in table 8. Around the majority (84.49%) of the participants show from high to fair commitment to their learning tasks, as shown in item 21; whereas in item 22 around (60 %) suffer from procrastination issues. Besides, more than half of the participants (61.54%) and (56.41%) show good time management skills and concentration in items 23 and 24 respectively. We can also notice that about the same percentage of respondents (20.51%) are undecided about the range of strategies to adopt.

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S U D S Volitional Control trongly Andeci isagr trongly Strategies Agree gree ded ee Disagree 21. Even when study materials are dull and uninteresting, 2 1 I manage to keep working until I 1 3 0,51 5,38 0, finish 7,95% 8,46% % % 00% 22. When it comes to 2 1 studying, procrastination is a 3 2 0,51 2,82 7, problem for me 3,33% 5,64% % % 69% 23. When I decide to study, 2 1 I set aside a specific length of time 1 4 0,51 2,82 0, and stick to it 2,82% 8,72% % % 00% 2 1 24. I concentrate fully when 3 2 0,51 2,82 2, studying 3,33% 3,08% % % 56% Table 8 Students’ volitional control strategies

The volitional processes are responsible for enacting and protecting decisions. They differ from the motivational processes, which mediate the formation of and promote decisions. Students show high mastery of strategies devoted to control their efforts when they are able to avoid distractions or procrastination and stay on task; to set aside specific lengths of time; and to combine these with reward mechanisms to ensure their effort regulation.

Test Scores The test results of the research sample were collected on a regular classroom evaluation that was undertaken during the first semester of the academic year 2018-2019. Following participants’ answers, the teacher researcher graded the test on a 20-point score scale. As a result, the student participants were grouped into three marked performance groups according to their test scores: High-achieving students, low-achieving students and average performers, as depicted in the following table. 286

High achievers Low achievers Participant T Average learners Test Participant Test

s Participant Test score score core 3 10.75 2 5,00 1 4 11,00 6 7.50 19.25 5 10.25 11 3.25

8 7 11.75 13 2.25 12.25 18 9,00 15 7.50 9 20 11,00 25 1.75 26 3.25 16.75 21 11.50 10 24 9.50 27 3.25

18.50 28 9.50 29 2,00 12 1 31 10.75 30 3.75 7,00 34 11,00 37 7.50 14 35 10.75 39 4.25

18.25 36 9,00 16 18.50 17

18.25 19 12.25 22 14.75 23 14.25 32 18.50

33 12.50 38 1 9,00

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Table 9 Participants differential test scores

Suggestions The results from this empirical research identified a number of learning deficiencies in students’ performance that prove to be tightly linked to self- regulation components and processes, namely motivation. The final section in this research paper seeks to suggest study skills assistance to help students remedy to these learning difficulties and optimize their academic performance. The following suggestions, addressed to students who scored low on the subject, are adopted from the LASSI Subscales-low Score Suggestions (Mc. Mahon & Luca, 2001). They mainly revolve around: 1. Improving learners’ attitude through working on higher-level goal setting and reassessing the role of school in the learner’s future career. 2. Honing motivation by working on setting goals as a major step for individual assignments. 3. Enhancing time management skills to learn how to plan a schedule and deal with distractions and procrastination. 4. Managing anxiety through acquiring techniques for coping with anxiety and reducing worry in order to optimize focus. 5. Enhancing concentration by adopting related techniques and setting priorities through attention focusing as well as eliminating interfering thoughts, emotions, and situations. 6. Focusing on information processing by learning and mastering the methods to use to help in the organization of the learning tasks. 7. Learning more about how to identify important information through the selecting of main ideas so that to focus attention and information processing strategies on appropriate material. 8. Expanding the use of study aids that are available for educational purposes and exploring ways to create personalized aids. 9. Raising students’ awareness of the importance of self-testing and the need to learn specific methods helping review academic material and to monitor comprehension.

10. Elaborating test strategies through learning more about preparation for tests as well as the characteristics of different types of tests and the appropriate way to answer them.

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Furthermore, the Self-regulation Strategy Development (SRSD) provides another way of addressing learners’ actual performance. It is defines as “an academic practice that involves teachers’ use of explicit instruction to teach students relevant strategies to help improve their academic skills”(WWC Intervention Report, 2017). The teacher, in this situation, introduces specific strategies to learners by instructing them on how to monitor and evaluate their use through self-regulation, and then proceeds by modeling both strategy use and self-regulation skills to ensure that students have memorized the strategy and can apply it correctly on their own. The SRSD instruction typically encompasses six stages that can be combined, reordered, and modified, depending namely on students’ needs as well as the content area. It includes: 1. Developing background knowledge about the learning strategies after identifying the learners’ skill deficiencies and helping students learn and apply the strategy. 2. Discussing the selected strategy in light of students’ performance in order to identify potential areas for improvement and enhance their motivation to use the strategy. 3. Modeling the strategy by using techniques like think-aloud processes and providing positive self-statements as well as by discussing the strategy’s advantages and challenges in order to improve it. 4. Introducing goal-setting concepts to students to help them set individual targets to improve their learning performance. 5. Helping students memorize the steps required to apply the strategy through using mnemonic devices such as paraphrasing and resorting to prompts for low achieving students. 6. Supporting the strategy by gradually shifting the responsibility for applying the strategy to students along with using constructive feedback and offering positive reinforcement. Another area of interest in the research literature lies in good feedback practice as it proves to offer facilitating tools to self-regulation in academic settings. According to Nicole and Macfarlane-Dick (2006), good feedback practice is broadly defined as any measure adopted for the purpose of strengthening students’ capacity to self-regulate their own endeavors. It helps: 1. Clarify what good performance is through defining the learning goals, criteria, and expected standards. This helps students not only understand but also own the goals, and ultimately become able to assess their personal progress. (Sadler, 1989) 2. Enhance self-assessment and reflection in learning; 3. Deliver substantial information to students about their own learning; 4. Encourage teacher –students’ discussions about learning;

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5. Increase positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem; 6. Provide opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance; 7. Teachers to gather information that can be used to shape the teaching practice. In order to ensure that students benefit from good feedback in academic activities, Sadler (1989) identified three necessary conditions, claiming that students should be aware of: 1) What good performance is by possessing a clear understanding of the concept of learning goal or standard? 2) How to relate their current performance to good performance? 3) How to address and ultimately bridge the gap between current and good performance? According to Sadler (1989), students are able to compare their actual performance with a standard and take measures to close the gap only when they ‘already possess some of the same evaluative skills as their teacher’. In other words, it is not sufficient for teachers to improve the quality of feedback messages, but they also need to focus on honing self-assessment skills in students. Sadler (1986) contends that students are already generating their own feedback, which explains how they can make significant progress in learning even with an impoverished external feedback as in large classes. Conclusion As a way of enhancing learners’ academic performance, assessing self-regulated learning proves to be a fundamental element of research in the field of tertiary education. It allows delve into learners’ particular learning patterns, strengths and weaknesses in a dynamic and continuous process in specific contexts. It provides substantial data for a better understanding of the multifaceted nature of learning and ultimately equip the students with suitable academic skills to become more self-reliant, independent learners.

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References Bandura, A. 1986. From Thought to Action: Mechanisms of Personal Agency. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 15(1), pp. 1-17. Bembenutty, H.,White, M. C., and Vélez, R.M.2015. Developing Self regulation of Learning and Teaching Skills among Teacher Candidates. Springer Briefs in Education. Cervone, D. , Mor, N., Orom, H., Shadel,W. G., and Scott, W.D. 2011. Self-Efficacy Beliefs and the Architecture of Personality: On Knowledge, Appraisal, and Self-Regulation. In Vohs, K.B. and Baumeister, R.F. Handbook of Self-Regulation Research, Theory, and Applications (pp. 461-484). The Guilford Press. Macklem, G. L. 2015. Addressing Student Motivation, Self- Regulation, and Engagement in Learning. Springer International Publishing Switzerland McMahon, M. and Luca, J. 2001. Assessing student's self-regulatory skills. In Meeting at the crossroads. Retrieved from http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5839&context=ecuworks Nicol D. J. and Macfarlane‐Dick D. 2006. Formative assessment and self‐regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice, Studies in Higher Education, 31:2, 199-218, DOI: 10.1080/03075070600572090 Nilson, B. L.2013. Creating Self- regulated Learners.. STYLUS PUBLISHING, LLC. Paris, G.S. and Paris, A.2001. Classroom Applications of Research on Self-Regulated Learning SELF- REGULPAATREIDSEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST, 36(2), 89–101 Sadler, D.R. 1989. Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science18: 119-144. Retrieved from http://michiganassessmentconsortium.org/wp-content/uploads/Formative-Assessment- and-Design-of-Instructional-Systems.pdf Schunk, D. H. 1989.Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulated Learning. In.In Zimmerman, B. J & Schunk, D. H. (Eds) 1989. Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement (pp. 83-110). Springer-Verlag. Schunk, D. H. 1989.Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulated Learning. In.In Zimmerman, B. J & Schunk, D. H. (Eds) 1989. Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement (pp. 83-110). Springer-Verlag. WWC Intervention Report.(2017) . Self-Regulated Strategy Development. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/InterventionReports/wwc_srsd_111417.pdf Zimmerman, B. J . 1989 a. Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement.In Zimmerman, B. J & Schunk, D. H. (Eds) 1989. Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement (pp. 1-26). Springer- Verlag. Zimmerman, B. J. 1989b. Title: A Social Cognitive View of Self-Regulated Academic Learning A Definition of Self-Regulated Learning A Social Cognitive View of Self-Regulated Academic Learning. Journal of Educational Psychology Bandura & Kupers Bandura & Schunk Schunk & Rice, 81, 22–663. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.215.2089&rep=rep1&type=pdf Zimmerman, B. J. 2002. Becoming a Self-RegulatedLearner: An Overview. Theory into Practice. 41(2), pp. 64- 70 Zimmerman,J.B, Bonner,S and Kovach, R.1996. Developing Self-Regulated Learners. American Psychological Association.

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Appendix Self-report Questionnaire Dear student, This is a self-report questionnaire that aims to investigate self-regulated learning skills. Please read carefully the statements about your learning activities, and then answer with: Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree (SD) or Neutral (N) Thank you  Dr. Nesrine Ghaouar & Ms. Soumia Aouaidjia Department of English Language Badji Mokhtar - Annaba University, Algeria

1) Metacognition. 1. I try to see how what I am studying would apply to my everyday living 2. I try to find relationships between what I am learning and what I already know 3. I try to relate what I am studying to my own experiences 4. I try to interrelate themes in what I am studying

2) Self-Concept 5. I worry that I will fail the exam : course 6. When I begin an examination, I feel pretty confident that I will do well 7. Worrying about doing poorly interferes with my concentration on tests 8. I get so nervous and confused when taking an examination that I fail to answer questions to the best of my ability

3) Self Monitoring 9. I am up-to-date in my class assignments 10. I compare class notes with other students to make sure my notes are complete 11. I review my notes before the next class 12. I test myself to be sure I know the material I have been studying

4) Motivation 13. I would rather not be in school

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14. I only study the subjects I like 15. When work is difficult I either give up or study only the easy parts 16. I tend to spend so much time with friends that my coursework suffers

5) Strategy Formation 17. I make drawings or sketches to help me understand what I am studying 18. I learn new words or ideas by visualizing a situation in which they occur 19. I translate what I am studying into my own words 20. When I study, I have trouble figuring out just what to do to learn the material

6) Volition Control Strategies 21. Even when study materials are dull and uninteresting, I manage to keep working until I finish 22. When it comes to studying, procrastination is a problem for me 23. When I decide to study, I set aside a specific length of time and stick to it 24. I concentrate fully when studying

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THE ROLE OF ART COMMUNICATION IN TEXT ANALYSIS

Yermek Adayeva1

Introduction Literature subject is of great importance in forming personal, communicative competence of students. The main direction of the national education model of Kazakhstan is to perceive human as the fundamental value of society, whereas the content of education in our curriculum is directed to the formation and development of a conscious citizen and establishment of aesthetic taste of students through the study of selected literary works. It is known that the works of the Kazakh literature of the Soviet era had been analyzed on the basis of then main stream method – the socialist realism method. There should not be any authoritarian views between the contemporary Kazakh literary works and the readers like that in the Soviet era. It is necessary to hold onto this principle in teaching modern Kazakh literature with innovative methods. However, it is a prominent issue to teach today's students who use a wide range of information technologies to be accustomed to reading books, poetry and prose texts, i.e. reading the artistic texts. This, of course, depends on many factors. Among them there is a lack of time for students to study artistic works; the question what kind of model of future life they would like to create for themselves, etc. Therefore, one way to solve this problem is to make sure that students have the opportunity to engage in creating a new artistic space. In this way, it is important to identify the type of artistic communication that is the basis of the artwork being studied. Determining the various communicative relationships that have influenced the birth of a certain piece of literature will be part of the scientific character of the teaching and will form the students' independent research. Tasks aimed at identifying art communication in the literary education system will be another stimulus for getting acquainted with the text. What is Art Communication? Let's have look at it. Communication between the author who wrote the literary piece and the reader is called art communication. Communication here is realized through artistic texts. Since it is art communication, here exist its addresser and addressee. The addressee in the art communication

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is the reader, and the addresser is the author. Scholars comment: "Artistic communication is a dialogue between the reader and the author on the basis of artistic text, ideas and impressions (Yu. B. Borev, B. P. Goncharov, V. Nestorov, T. N. Radionova, M. P. Safetskaya, O. Fukasi, S. A. Chakovskii, E. A. Shamokova and others)" (Gorban, 2010). Because art communication is also founded on dialogue, scholars who study the issue of dialogues have dwelled on the communicative capabilities of the art text. For example: Based on the Dialogism concept in the novel structure of the outstanding scholar M. Bakhtin (Bakhtin, 1979), we identify following types of dialogism in the text - content dialogue; - dialogue of consciousness and personality; - chronotopic dialogue; - genre dialogue; - style dialogs, etc. It is these dialogues that enables us to more deeply understand the problematic-thematic part of the literary piece, to characterize the psychological state of the characters, to consider the socio-historical context. In order to increase students' interest in reading the art work as mentioned above, it is important to understand all the aspects of art communication. The emergence of various theoretical approaches to interpretation of texts (hermeneutics, receptive aesthetics, critique of readers' reaction, etc.) has affected the emergence of general art communication over the past decade. This process was related to the interpretative paradigm shift that began in the 20th century sixties, i.e. the attention shifted from the author and the text to the reader. The text analysis suggested the creation of new interpretative predictions - artistic communication models between the author, the text and the reader. The goal of any linguistic communication is to carry out an ultimate intention. The purpose of communication in the artwork is to interpret the author's communicative ideas, goals, and positions. The author's position in any artistic text is aimed at the formation of the aesthetic taste of the reader, the formation of moral values and spiritual values of them. To influence the reader, the author uses a variety of methods, language tools. Before analyzing literary texts, we need to understand the purpose of that author. Now, how is this communication going to be realized? Let's talk about that. 1. Artistic communication begins with the creative process of artistic texts and its influence on the audience.

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2. The art content in the text that is meant to be conveyed in this process is encoded and encrypted. 3. When the recipient receives the text, this meaning is decoded. While gradually (consistently) accepting the text as speech product, art content begin to form in the reader's mind. It is necessary to distinguish between explicit and implicit options of reading while interpreting the content of the literary text. First of all, it is appropriate to let students to determine the author's views on the topic and the author's position in the work's title. For this purpose, it is also aimed to create an enthusiasm for the work, and problem-solving questions lead to a careful reading of the text. For example, it is necessary to draw attention to the supplementary information in the title of the well-known Kazakh writer T. Esemkulov's post modernistic "Treasure of Bektory". In order to be able to analyze the problem in the theoretical perspective, the teacher should introduce theoretical information about intertext phenomena in his lecture. It is also helpful to write an abstract on the features of the phenomenon of intertext, allusion, reminiscence phenomena used to evaluate and analyze modernist texts from works of postmodernism theorists. Then, in order to develop students' research curiosity, it is desirable to find out from the text the ways of intertextualism methods such as allusion, reminiscence, quotes. It can be questioned as follows: Who is the Bektory? Is it possible to compare Bektory image in the story "Er Tostik" and the one in "Treasure of the Bektory"? What word in the phrase "Treasure of the Bektory" is emphasized in the text? What are the ways in which the writer uses his skill to build the image of the Bectory? Find and explain phrases that describe Bektory in the text. What are the typical artistic methods used in a fairy tale? Are there any contradictory aspects in perception and understanding of both images? How did the writer develop the image according to postmodernism poetry? What are the functions of the Angel and the Archangel in the work? Why does the writer find it necessary to renew the image of Bectory? In the dialogue around such guiding questions, it is necessary to draw attention to the fact that the author's personal myth plays two types functions in postmodernist poetry. The author myth both serves to generate mythology and to reverse the mythology, that is, though fully coinciding with the mythological worldview, it completely disregards the mythological semantics. That is to say, intertextualism generate a shadow of the mythological world, that students can find themselves.

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4. Artistic communication is carried out through and understanding the artistic work in the historical, social and cultural context. This aspect of art communication assumes understanding of the historical reality, author's position, meanings of artistic text, cultural code, artistic concept of the work depicted by the author. 5. Artistic communication considers not only the content of the work, but also its value. The latter reveals the importance of the work for mankind and shows the creativity of the author in introducing the basic idea in the work and the use of artistic means. The communicative approach to the literary text depicts the author and the reader's speech and thinking. "The communication approach depends on linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Linguistic factors include communication tools. Extralinguistic factors include the knowledge, attitudes and goals of the communicators to understand the text (Dake, Baths, 1989). The peculiarity of the artistic communication as a means of forming the personal qualities of students is in organization of polysubject interaction based on the value-content perception of the artwork. The art communication organized in such a way strengthens the axiological and hermeneutic aspects of the author's understanding and appreciation of the artistic image. Polysubject art communication is a wide range of interaction of subjects in the educational process (Chugaeva, 2013). In the center of the process is a personality of the student, who establishes value and content relationships with the author and the character of the art work, himself / herself (internal dialogue), students in the classroom (external dialogue). The teacher here is the organizer of artistic communication that promotes the development of the value- content communication of the student in the process of perceiving the art work, but not the intermediary or the interpreter between the text and the student. The composition of the art communication includes: "me - the world of artistic reality", "me - others (author and characters of the art work", "me - for me", "me - for others" and so on) value-semantic relations. Deploying and implementing these relationships can help students develop self- awareness skills, self-awareness and self-expression, and promote personality traits. For example, "me - the world of artistic reality" is aimed at recognizing and understanding the life reality in the art text. In this case, the student understands the author's thoughts and communicates with the author on a bilateral basis. Defines the similarities and differences between the author and himself in recognizing and understanding the world.

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The value-semantic relationships of "me and others" are aimed at understanding the author's perception of the world and the artistic aesthetic approach to the world. It is related to the structuring the self-disclosure strategies in creative conditions. Students learn to make self- presentation in the dialogue with the author and heroes of art work. While "me - for myself" value-semantic relation is related to the self- reflection and recognizing his own personality traits in the art communication, . Thus, by developing empathy and reflection mechanisms as a set of values-semantic attitudes, they try to define their own values, to be self-aware, to be self-aware in the creative process. Recognizing his own peculiarities, he tries to change or develop his own "me". And the art work attains a new meaning and continues its literary life. This organization of the learning process allows the author to be regarded as an addresser of the artistic message, the artistic compositions to be regarded as a transmitter of the author's thoughts that invites the readers for creative unity, and the readers to be regarded as addressees who can read the artistic compositions in the context of the individual personality. As a result, students are deeply aware of the essence of artistic creativity and recognize themselves as an interested subject. Thus, pedagogically organized literary communication in literary classes is a means for forming a personality, its value-content bases and creative talent. Further developing the artistic communication, we use the Teaching through the Project Method to allow our students to have a deeper mastery of contemporary Kazakh literature. This method often takes students to the whole semester to complete and submit it to the Turnitin system to let the teacher check. Students receive basic education and qualifications not from the teacher but from their own personal search. Thirdly, in teaching modern literary process, to increase their interest in text analysis, creative methods are used for the development of students' creative abilities along with a variety of projects. Fourthly, in order to enhance the students' interest in the discipline, the artwork and communication, we also use one branch of multimedia technology such online applications as Google Document, Thinklink, Kahoot, Playposit, as well as social networks. All the techniques used are aimed at presenting new phenomena and characteristics in modern Kazakh literature. For example, in order to explain the artistic nature of M. Magauin's work "Kaskyr-Bori" (The Wolf), which is essentially complex from a content-form stand point, and of postmodernist characteristics, we concentrate our students on creating the art space mentioned above.

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We work on self-cognition and understanding by opening artistic communication as a set of value-semantic communication. To do this, students can offer the following types of communication: - Me – Mukhtar Magauin - Me – Kokdauyl - Me – Readers - Me – Batu - Me – for myself According to the 1st Communication, acquainting with the author's artistic solution students compare it with similarities and differences in their own world views. The analysis continues in this style. There is also a series of additional tasks to enhance students' empathy and self-reflection. They include making a new name for the work, writing an epigraph, creating a social and psychological portrait of the writer, etc. As a result, students try to discover the artistic nature of the work through the communication. The students identify author's thoughts, the system of content and values, and they engage in bilateral dialogues with the author To conclude, in the process of mastering the content of modern Kazakh literature subject, the artistic communication, which is the means of forming the personality of students, is important. Besides, ideas for the complete development of personality in the literature class should be reflected in the content and organization of the learning process.

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References

Gorban E. (2010). Features of Artistic Communication in the Aspect Of Generative Competence. Bulletin of the KASU, № 2. Bakhtin M. (1979). Aesthetics of Literary Creativity: M. Creative Literature, p. 412 Dake, T. A. Baths. (1989). Language. Cognition. Communication. Moscow: Progress, p.310. Chugaeva I. G. (2013). Art Communication as A Means of Forming the Personal Identity of High School Students in The Classroom of World Artistic Culture: Author of Dissertation, Candidate of Pedagogy - Ekaterinburg: Ural State Pedagogical University, - 24 p.

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SOCIOLINGUISTIC ISSUES OF LANGUAGE CONTACT IN KAZAKHSTAN

Zhanar Baiteliyeva1

Introduction Multilingualism is a concept widely spread in the vast multi-ethnic geographical space. The situation in Kazakhstan reflects this concept. Today, more than 130 nationalities live in Kazakhstan. The majority of people of Slavic origin mainly speak only one language, whereas the majority of Kazakhs speak two languages. Multilingualism is prevailing among Uighur, Uzbek, Dungan, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Tajik, Tatar, and other ethnic groups. In German, Korean, and Chechen communities, multilingualism is also more frequent phenomenon. Due to the recent government attention to the knowledge of multiple languages, multilingualism is growing among the Kazakhs, too. According to the 1989 data, in the former Soviet Union, 73 mln people (23.4%) were bilingual; the Russian language was the second language of 61 mln people. A small group of them were multilingual (polyglot) (B.Hasanov, 2013). Multilingualism is often a process of using a combination of more than three languages in a social relationship. "Multilingualism" sometimes refers to many languages. In this case, the issue is not about the process, but rather about language information. Linguistic science at the turn of the century is characterized by a special interest in the problem of linguistic contact caused by the dynamic development of modern society, integration and globalization phenomena, as well as the expansion of interethnic contacts in the world community. Questions of language contact are of particular importance in realities of Kazakhstan society, where the linguistic picture represents a unique linguistic space. Social aspect of the language contact is defined by frequent interaction of languages in different economic, political and other types of ethnic and language groups. The language contact appear as a result of constant interaction between representatives of multilingual groups. Results of the contact are differently shown on various language levels depending on degree of ingression of their elements into the global integral structure. To understand how and

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in what direction the contacting languages change, we need to view this process on different levels. We have been interested in theme "Language contacts in Kazakhstan", and started to make a research. Reason for that was 10 year work experience has been in the Kazakh-Turkish University. At that position we get used to communicate in several languages together such as Kazakh, Russian, Turkish and English languages. Hence, we have started noticing differences in that 4 languages. It was quite interesting experience, which made to dig deeper in that area. Language contact in Kazakhstan is known as a huge topic. As a part of that topic, it was decided to get Nazarbayev University students' everyday language as an example and make an article with analyzes. Thus, we have recorded 3 conversations in different situations with a student. The primary aim is to gather information about what languages students prefer to use and how different situations affect to their language choosing process. Therefore, as we know language contact appear as a result of constant interaction between representatives of multilingual groups and speakers may use both languages simultaneously or separately. In that case, a comparative survey can systematize various language levels depending on a degree of ingression of their elements into the global integral structure as an issue of language contact in the higher educational institutions where professional subjects are taught in the English language. Rationale and significance of the proposed research is current language policy in Kazakhstan. This language policy supports trilingual education (Kazakh, English, and Russian). By decree №110 dated 29 June, 2011, the first President of the Republic of Kazakhstan approved the state program on the use and development of languages in the Republic of Kazakhstan for the years 2011-2020. The main objective of this program is to maintain an effective language policy that will preserve the languages of all ethnic groups living in Kazakhstan and ensure the extensive use of the state language as an important factor strengthening the national unity. The state program on the development and use of languages in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011-2020 consists of 3 stages: • 2011 – 2013; • 2014 – 2016; • 2017 – 2020.

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Various programs was developed in this direction. Although trilingual education system hasn’t been fully implemented into the education system, these three languages are currently in use in some education institutions. Studying the current usage of these languages can help to identify their functions and to use the results of this study in implementing trilingual policy in the future. Therefore, we decided to conduct our research on this topic. For this we need data on the usage of these languages by people in different situations. Such data was obtained by recording the words of the student in one day at the university and during weekend. In the future it is planned to study socio-linguistic aspects of language contacts in all higher education institutions in Kazakhstan whose language of instruction is English. In other words, this article is a part of a big plan. The major purpose of this study is to identify the functions of Kazakh, Russian, and English languages which are widely used in Kazakhstan. More specifically, to identify how, where and how much these languages are used by students of Kazakh nationality, who graduated from Kazakh schools.

Literature review Language contact is inextricably linked with the processes of social development. Currently, language contact is becoming global and comprehensive, due to both globalization and integration processes in politics and economics, and the rapid pace of development of international communication. In modern linguistics, this issue is given special attention, as a result, researchers identify a separate linguistic paradigm, the scope of which is the study of processes and results of language interaction in a particular geopolitical context, taking into account the historical and social conditions of communication of people speaking different languages. This paradigm has received such names as "the theory of language contact", "contactology" (Vereschagin EM; Kostomarov V.), “linguistic contactology” (Lekov I.), “contact linguistics” (Goebl H.). It is well known that language contact and mutual influence occurred since ancient times, however, in linguistic science this direction is relatively new, which was formed only by the end of the XX century. The term “language contact” was first proposed by A. Martinet (A. Martinet) and became widespread after the publication of the well-known work “Languages in contact” by W. Weinreich. However, we emphasize that as far back as 1926 in his article “On the concept of language confusion” L.V. Scherba used the term "language contact", the work of which is referred to his research by W. Weinreich (Weinreich U. Languages in Contact. - N.

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Y, 1953 (1st ed.)). Nowadays problems of multilingual have been were studied in research Claire Kramsch (2009), Claire Kramsch and Anne Whiteside (2014), Mahire Yakup (2014) etc. Theoretical issues of language contacts of Kazakh linguistics were studied by E.Suleimenova (1996, 2002), Z.Akhmetzhnova (1989, 2012), M.M.Kopylenko (2010), A.E.Karlinsky (1990), D.Akynova (2014) and others. The purpose of our research is to study the socio-linguistic aspects of language contacts in Kazakhstan. We are aiming to start the study with the languages of NU students. Similar studies in Kazakhstan were carried out in line with the Kazakh-Russian and Russian-Kazakh switching of codes due to the current language situation, the specificity of which is determined by the interaction of these two functionally powerful languages. In addition, this problem was studied either in the context of other phenomena of linguistic contacts (interference, borrowing, problems of mastering a second language, etc.), or within certain aspects of the code switching phenomenon. New geopolitical conditions in the Republic of Kazakhstan have led to the promotion of English as one of the components of the communicative language space of the country, with the result that the phenomenon of Kazakh-English code switching is now becoming an objective and unavoidable phenomenon representing the specifics of newly emerging language contacts. The wide use of the capabilities of the three languages is most noticeably manifested in the speech of young people, since it is they who actively participate in the process of speech creation, changing and modifying the linguistic space D.Akynova (2014).

Research questions What languages prefer students to use and how different situations affect to their language choosing process? How and in what direction the contacting languages change?

Method Sample / Participants This research was involved recording NU student with other people on campus for one weekday and one day of weekend with family. For the record, we only used the student’s conversation and language choices in different situation. It was identified that one student is needed to carry out this study who graduated from the Kazakh school. 2 days were recorded on Dictaphone. On one working day he was recorded conversations with people in order to gather the information for research of students’ speaking

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in Nazarbayev University. Also after then, he was interviewed and was received questionnaires from his friends. They are students of NU too. Instruments (s) The student's conversations were recorded on a dictaphone for research. Then there were interviews with this student. The researcher developed a questionnarire. The questionnarire included 10 questions. A group of students helped the researcher answering these questions. Data collection procedures Researcher found Kazakh student who graduated from the Kazakh school for the research. He is open and communicative student. He actively participates in various activities at the university. In most cases he is master of ceremonies. It is useful for analysis that a student is communicative. Therefore, he was invited he, and he accepted the invitation. Then was wrote his conversation on the Dictaphone one day of the student spent at the university, and one day spent in the family. Purpose: to determine which languages he uses in different situations, then analyzed them. After analyzed the audio researcher took interviewed the student. On the interview was asked him why he used the specific language on specific situations. Also received questionnaires from his friends. They are students of Nazarbayev University too. Day 1 (working day) From the morning the student was take a Dictaphone with him. He was recorded the conversion with everyone he meets. Before recording, the student was warn him/her that the conversion will recorded. The student continued recording the conversation with his friends, sellers in shops and etc. As it said above, he was warn that the conversation is recorded. Day 2 (weekend) On weekend the student continued recording the conversation with his family. As it said above, he warn all that the conversation will recorded. When the student was finished, he was bring me all recordings. Researcher wrote a script for them. Finally, Researcher was interpreted the recordings.

Results and Discussion According to the audio recording, a student who graduated from Kazakh school used different languages in 3 situations.

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The dominant language in NU is English. Kazakh language courses are taught as a native and second language. Courses in Russian are not taught at all. Researcher analyzed the audio and then interviewed the student. The student was asked a question why he used the specific language on specific situations. Student use of languages in different situations: 1) With friends he speaks in Russian and used English slang. 2) With family he speaks in Kazakh and Russian. 3) With taxis he speaks in Kazakh. From an interview with a student, you can determine: 1) Most of the friends of this student have graduated from Russian school, so it is easy and comfortable to talk with them in Russian. And the reason for adding slang in English is that everyone speaks fluent English. Thus, they understand each other better. This student could not speak English with students from other university except NU. 2) In the family, he speaks with mother in Kazakh, and with sister speaks in Russian. Her mother demanded from him to speak her native language, and spoke with her sister in Russian and Kazakh because she graduated from Russian school. 3) In the third case, he explained why he spoke with a taxi driver in the Kazakh language: first, he saw that he was Kazakh, and secondly, many taxi drivers come from the countryside. We chose to analyze only the answers to two questions: "In your opinion, what language will be more prestigious in Kazakhstan in the future?" and “What language do you not plan to use in the future?” The content of the remaining questions shows the number of languages that they speak, at what level they speak in these languages, where they studied these languages, etc. Group of students to the question "In your opinion, what language will be more prestigious in Kazakhstan in the future?" Most of the students indicated English, that is 56.25%, 37.5% - Kazakh, 18.75% - Russian. As a result of this short survey, the majority of students indicated that Kazakh is the second after English in the future in Kazakhstan. To the question “What language do you not plan to use in the future?” 25% of students showed Kazakh, 12.5% showed Russian. 100 percent of students were planning to use the English language. Of course, given the fact that all respondents are fluent in English, one can understand that they associate their future with English. Nevertheless, the fact that the Kazakh language is not included in the list of languages that should not be used, makes you wonder.

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Conclusions In conclusion, we claim that multilingualism is the need of the globalizing world. We appreciate the trinity of languages as the phenomenon strategically significant for our independent country. To meet the needs of the society, we find important the knowledge of the Kazakh, Russian and English languages. It should also be emphasized that in the language policy, the role of the state language – the Kazakh language – is especially significant. Thinking above, we consider truthful that in pursuing a trilingual policy, we need to pay more attention to the following: Firstly, every responsible person in charge of language policy should periodically monitor the progress of language policy in the country. Secondly, the mass media should provide more accurate information about the three languages, their functions and status in our country. People should get all the details. Otherwise, there is a danger of replacing the function and reputation of three languages, especially the Kazakh language. Thirdly, in the schools with three languages of instruction, the balance of disciplines studied in each language should be determined and the persons responsible for the priorizing the Kazakh language should constantly monitor this situation.

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References Akhmetzhanova Z. (1989). Функционально-семантические поля русского и казахского языков. - Алма-Ата. Akhmetzhanova Z. (2012). Язык в социальном, культурном и коммуникативном контексте. – Алматы: Елтаным. Claire Kramsch (2009). The Multilingual Subject. Oxford University Press. Claire Kramsch, Anne Whiteside (2007). Three Fundamental Concepts in Second Language Acquisition and Their Relevance in Multilingual Contexts // the Modern Language Journal, Vol.91, Focus Issue: Second Language Acquisition Reconceptualized? The Impact of Firth and Wagner, pp.907-922. Goebl H. (1997). Kontakt linguistik: ein internationales Handbuch zeit-genossischer Forschung 2 Bande. - Berlin. - P. 1310-1317. Khassanuly, B. (2013). The State Language: the Society and the Youth. Almaty. Kopylenko M.М. (2010). Избранные труды по языкознанию. Алматы: Институт языкознания. Karlinsky A.E. (1990). Основы теории взаимодействия языков. Алма-Ата: Ғылым. Mahire Yakup (2014). Code-Switching among Uyghur-Chinese bilinguals: a linguistic analysis // International Scientific Theoretical Conference “Life in Sciences: Native Language and the Turkic World”. Almaty, November, pp. 245-249. Martinet A. (1972). Распространение языка и структурная лингвистика // Новое в лингвистике: Языковые контакты. Вып. VI. - М.: Прогресс. -С. 81-93. Suleimenova E., Shaimerdenova N. (2002). Словарь социолингвистических терминов. Алматы: Қазақ университеті. Suleimenova E. (1996). Казахский и русский языки: основы контрастивной лингвистики. Алматы: Демеу. Scherba L.V. (1974). Языковая система и речевая деятельность. Ленинград. The state program on development and use of languages in the Republic of Kazakhstan for the years 2011-2020. http://adilet.zan.kz/kaz/docs/U1100000110 The explanatory dictionary of terms of linguistics. (2005). Almaty. "Dictionary". ISBN 9965-409-88. Vereschagin E.M., Kostomarov V. (1990). Язык и культура: Лингвострановедение в преподавании русского языка как иностранного. 4-е изд., перераб. и доп. М.: Русский язык. Weinreich U. (1953). Languages in Contact. N.Y, (1st Ed.).

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LOCAL LANGUAGE IN MULTILINGUAL LANDSCAPES OF TOURIST DESTINATION CITIES IN INDONESIA

Khristianto Khristianto1

Introduction Urban space is “several urban areas and their related multicentric municipalities forming a whole in a single stretch” (Oct 13, 2016 www.insee.fr/en/metadonnees /definition/c1074). The space like this is never empty; it is tied unto property, history, and power. The space always belongs to a certain party. In a city, an urban space is premium commodity which defines the users who can take. Only those with power can claim the space there. In Yogyakarta, the space like this is can be seen in Jalan Malioboro area. The area makes a single stretch shaping a place of commercial districts combining the shopping centers and the public area. To display a billboard in the area, a product should spend at least 340 million/year in 2012 ([email protected]). The space, thus, implies a power to which controls and also does control the people (Blommaert: 2013). The power here controls the needs of the public and dictates the brands to satisfy them. Rowland (2012:503) defines linguistic landscape as “an ideologically loaded space shaped by both local and global forces and displaying a full range of communicative modalities. It exists in an authentic, dynamic and public mega-text. It serves real-world purposes; it is constantly changing; and it is accessible to all”. The displays in the public room is a result of negotiation in the market place. It truely reflect a genuine perception of the public toward the languages and the community as the users. In their ends, the money is always the major player. “Real world purposes” are mostly about the capital and how to make it worthy to spend, meaning gaining much more benefits. The study is to reveal the usual urban scene, from a linguistic perspective, seeing the normality from a critical point of view. In another term, this kind of study is referred as metrolingualism, of which aims is to disclose the correlation dynamics of ‘language use and space in urban area’ (Pennycook & Otsuji: 2014). Method The data source of this study is Google map® of satellite imaging, especially the street view mode. From the data taken in Oktober 24, 2018, the pictures in the menu were recorded

1 Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto, Indonesia. 309

in June 2018. The data include all the displays clearly seen in the pictures around Jalan Malioboro. The displays are ads billboard, commercial shop signs, and public signs (see Landry & Bourhis: 1997). The data are categorized into the source, the codes, and the visibility level from the perspective of ecolinguistics (Hult: 2012), emphasizing the relation between the language and the environment and promoting the live and vitality of the languages. The “ecology movement” does not only study and describe “the potential losses” of language but also make efforts to prevent them (Hornberger, 2002, p. 33). Findings Based on the analysis, the description of findings can be divided into three points: the local domain, Yogyakarta and Denpasar landscapes. The displays in the landscape imply the power of the actor(s) / the human agency behind. They can be broadly categorized into the corporate (bottom up) and the public/government (top down). Javanese in Yogya Display Yogyakarta has many interesting historical places, such as temples, beaches, Keraton, Malioboro, and Beringharjo traditional market. The traditional market is the oldest, the biggest, and the most popular market in Yogyakarta. Even many people come to Yogyakarta only for visiting Malioboro Beringharjo traditional market. The position as a tourism center affects the use of language in the city itself. In Yogyakarta, particularly along Malioboro Beringharjo, there are 163 signs displayed along the street. Among the signs, Bahasa Indonesia appears in 136 signs, English is presented in 84 signs meanwhile Javanese is only identified in 15 signs. They include directions, shop names, place names, warning, announcements, commercial advertisements, and traffic signs.

Pic.1 Multilingualism in a display

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Malioboro, or even Yogyakarta, has something different from other cities in the way it presents no monolingual signs along the street. The public signs are always in multilingual or at least bilingual presentations. The languages present in them are Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese and English. Thus, they reflect the informational and symbolic functions. Informational function here is to guide the people in the place about the direction and others. For this purpose, Bahasa Indonesia is used to serve the people coming from different regions in this country. Symbolic function is bidirectional. The first is indexical for telling the public that the community there use the language. The second, it has a certain function of exotism show as a part of tourism industry, cultural tourism. The use of Javanese letters in the landscape will elicit the feeling of a different world, making a certain sensation that you are not in your place; this of course is specially designed for foreign tourists who visit this place for its grand cultural heritages. The bilingual signs for direction are certainly more symbolic than functional—especially bilingual pair of Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese (Pic.2 a and b) which is only alphabetical bilingualism. It emphasizes Yogyakarta as a special territory with its Javanese kingdom who still has a strong status in Indonesia. As a tourism destination, this is a uniqueness to sell for those coming from other areas, though they surely do not understand the symbol. For Indonesians, they can easily get the meaning from the Indonesian signs.

Pic 2. Bilingual sign for direction

Another sign presenting English and Indonesia (Pic.2 c) is not so formal. It is temporary as it is indicated from the material and the location. The warning is directed to public passing the street. The languages used here cover all visitors, including those coming from other countries. The sign is purely functional to prevent the passers by from any accident due to the on-going road construction. In fact, the official directional signs are always in the combination of Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese letters. This fact has been confirmed by other studies (Erika:

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2018). He also asserts that the similar mode is also found in other places in Indonesia like Bandung, Bali, and Solo.

Balinese in Denpasar Bali is the busiest tourist destination in Indonesia. The visits of foreign tourists there are almost a half million each month (see https://www.balihotelsassociation.com/media- centre/stats/). They come from various countries in the world. This fact asserts their position as the most important region for tourism industry in the country. This makes Bali as a good place to represent the global exposure, and explore its local language position in its landscape. The area to focus in this study is Jalan Pantai Kuta (Kuta Beach Street) in which the most complex signs are found. The multilingualism in Bali is very obvious. Various languages copresent in a sign. Some signs even have four different languages. As it is seen in Pic 3, Bahasa Indonesia, English, Chinese, and German languages are displayed according to their importance level. The first language is printed bigger and thicker and the other three are designed quite the same. Bahasa Indonesia is the priority in the sign, since domestic tourists are the most dominant. They are from other regions in Indonesia and most of them do not share their tradition and culture with Bali. That is why such an instruction is very important for them.

Pic 3. Four languages in a sign

English there is like a universal language, assuming that most of foreign visitors understand the language wherever they are from. It also means that the people from English countries are the biggest number, especially those from Australia---roughly more than 243,878 people only in January and February in 2019. A similar reason is also identified in the the use of Chinese, which is not the case with German language. Since the country only contribute 18,570 visitors in the same periode, meanwhile Chinese takes a quite big share as a single country, 240,471.

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Pic 4. Signs with Chinese language

Chinese is the most rampant foreign language in Bali landscape after English. Like in the Pic 4, it is used in commercial signs. The user is different from the previous sign (the govermental or top-down sign); these signs represent private use. Thus, the owner of the products intentionally target a particular groups, Chinese tourists. Two languages are chosen as the marketing languages, Chinese and English. English functions more as the branding; and the Chinese plays to inform the target market. Actually, an Indonesian word is also there, but only the brand which is more influenced by the place, rimba means “jungle” in Indonesia. The big question is, then, where is the local language? Along Jalan Pantai Kunta, there is no sign employing Bali language elements. Almost all the signs there are in English and few is in Bahasa Indonesia. This partly proves that the spot is more dominated by foreign visitors than the domestic. At least, they are more important and potential customers for the products displayed there. In other words, they do not need a local language to sell the commodities, like cigaretes, hotel, drinks, cafes, tourism packages, and many others. So, is there no Balinese use? Fortunately, the government still uses it in the names of the places for which they put two alphabets, Balinese and Latin (Indonesian).

Pic 5. Balinese language signs

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As the case in Yogyakarta, the use of Balinese is more symbolical and tourism functional. Besides, it has a certain mission of language ecology; the goverment has an intention to preserve the local culture. This has in turn contributed to the tourism industry. Bali, besides its beautiful natures, is visited by the world for its cultures and traditions which are seen obviously from the housings, temples, and monuments. The language is one of the factors supporting the protection of the heritages. There is a difference of language order between the road signs and the temples. It seems that Bahasa Indonesia is more important than the Balinese alphabet in the road. In the contrary, it is not the priority in the holy places. In fact, Balinese language is the language used in their religious activities. Table 1 The languages of Bali landscapes Category Subcategory Language Monolingual Indonesian, English Bilingual Indonesian-English, English-Arabic, English-Russian, English-Chinese, Indonesian-Balinese Multilingual Three Indonesian-English-Viatnamese, languages Indonesian-English-Chinese, Indonesian- English-Japanese Four Indonesian-English-Japanese- languages Chinese, Indonesian-English-Japanese- German

As an international tourist destination, Bali presents much more English signs than any other language, even it exceeds the number of Indonesian signs. English appears a lot in monoligual signs like Indonesian. However, it dominates the bilingual signs. It always appears in any kind of bilinguals, except for the roads and the place names in which the bilingual signs are between Indonesian and Balinese. English is always there to pair the signs in other foreign languages. The rampant use of English can be seen in the figures below.

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The language presence in signs

English Indonesian Chinese Balinese Others 1% 1% 26% 4%

68%

Discussion The displays in the bustling areas of the two tourism centers in Indonesia have shown minimum role of local languages. In fact, English as a global language increasingly takes their place, even the place of our national language. Surely, the fact in the linguistic display does not reflect the language use in the communities. However, their impresence in the dispay is a sort of negative campaign telling the young generation that the languages are not important. With the ecolinguistic view, there should be efforts to take to maintain the local languages and to prevent them from the lost (Hornberger, 2002, p. 33). In Malioboro, Yogyakarta, there is a commercial display employing Javanese (Pic 1) language, “Jogja kuto pelajar, Belanja ning Bukalapak regane wajar” (Jogja is a student city, shopping in Bukalapak is normally cheap), making it like a funny rhyme. Such a presentation of Javanese language in a public display will elicit a pride among the communities, especially the young. It sends a message that the language is useful, beautiful, and prestigious. In turn, it triggers more creativities by making use of the code. In the landscape, other products will consider the local language to be one of the options to take for selling their items. Though, in the context of the ads above, the main target is the young people in Yogyakarta. Bukalapak, an online shop, wants to convince the people there to buy the products from them via their gadgets, rather than bustling down town and they still can get cheap prices from. Thus, the local language is used because the target market is the local people. Learning from the growing use of Chinese language in Bali, we believe that economic power determines the position of the language. Chinese is taken since the Chinese visitors are important target market. Their number is big and they bring lots of money from their country. The products displayed in the premium spots in Bali are not cheap; only those with a certain level of financial power can afford—Chinese tourist make a significant part. This reflects the landscape as “an ideological space” in which the power of local and global forces play (Rowland, 2012:503). The power here refers more to economy. Thus, the key is empowering the economic status of Indonesian people to make them “important” for the products. 315

However, a direct strategy can be applied by the governement to interest the product owner in using the local language. It is by implementing “reward” or “punishment” mechanism through tax arrangement in which they can give a certain cut of taxes for the ads displaying local language. In another, they may fine the ads showing no local content by putting additional charge. With this, the industry will seek the local creatives to design interesting promos by employing Javanese or Balinese. The emergences of local languages in the ads of the corporates, in turn, will be an effective campaign for the languages for other commodities and for other local creatives in the cities. It will dramatically lift up the prestiges and the pride of the languages.

Conclusion Based on the analysis, it has been proved that the local language position in the linguistic landscape is weak. Their number is very few. They are only chosen by the government in top- down signs in a very limited domain, in the names of the road and of the place. There is only one product employing Javanese language to be the marketing language. Balinese is never adopted by any company. This means the local language is considered not worthy in the ads. If this tendency is not tackled, it can be dangerous for the language pride among the language community—especially among the young users. Thus, the government should take a real and direct measure to persuade the product owners, so they will be interested in making use of the local language in their promos. Acknowledgements

The author is very grateful to the University of Muhamadiyah Purwokerto, to provide the facilities in attending the ICLEC 2019, Istanbul, in which this article was presented.

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References Blommaert, J. (2013) Ethnography, superdiversity and linguistic landscapes: Chronicles of complexity. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Erikha, Fajar. 2018. “Konsep Lanskap Linguistik Pada Papan Nama Jalan Kerajaan (Râjamârga): Studi Kasus Kota Yogyakarta” in Paradigma Jurnal Kajian Budaya Vol. 8, No. 1. Universitas Indonesia: Jakarta. Hult, F. M. (2009). Language ecology and linguistic landscape analysis. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 88-104). New York, NY: Routledge. Landry, R. and Bourhis, R.Y. (1997) Linguistic landscape and ethnolinguistic vitality: An empirical study. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 16 (1), 2349. Pennycook, A. & Otsuji, E. (2014) Metrolingualism: Language in the city. London/New York: Routledge. Rowland, L. (2012) The pedagogical benefits of a linguistic landscape project in Japan. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 16(4), 494-505. Undang-Undang No. 24 Tahun 2009 Negara Republik Indonesia. Internet sources: https://www.balihotelsassociation.com/media-centre/stats/ accessed on 20 April 2019. www.insee.fr/en/metadonnees /definition/c1074 accessed in (Oct 13, 2018) [email protected] accessed in (Oct 13, 2018)

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ÇOCUK GELİŞİMİ BÖLÜMÜ ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÇOCUK SEVME DÜZEYLERİNİN SOSYODEMOGRAFİK DEĞİŞKENLER AÇISINDAN İNCELENMESİ (LİSE ÖRNEĞİ)

Nazan Kaytez 1 Safiyye Mutlu 2

Giriş Temel yaşamsal güdülerin ardından gelen ve insan için vazgeçilmez bir gereksinim olan sevgi, öğrenilen ve öğretilen en güzel şey olarak ifade edilmiştir (Ercan, 2014). Özmen (1999) ise sevgiyi, ilgi ve hoşgörü ile diğer bireylerin hakkına saygı göstermek, onları korumak; kişinin kendisini aşarak, doğa, çevre ve tüm canlılara karşı duyarlı ve sorumlu olması şeklinde tanımlamıştır (Dereli İman, 2014). Bu ifadelerde yalnızca bireyin sevme yetisinden değil sevginin nasıl kazanılacağından ve sevgi nesnesinden de bahsedilmektedir. Çocuklar, “kinsizlik, masumiyet, saflık ve çocukluk sevinci ile karakterize edilen” en samimi sevgi nesneleridir (Öztürk, 2018). 16 ve 17. yüzyılda bazı toplumlarında çocuk sevgi nesnesi olarak görülmez ve erken yaşlarda çalışmak zorunda bırakılarak hayata atılırken (Özyurt, 2011) bizim toplumumuzda çocuk sevgisinin, eskiden beri önem taşıdığı ifade edilmektedir (Onur, 2007). Sevgi dolu, doğaya, canlılara ve tüm bireylerin haklarına saygı gösteren, duyarlı ve sorumlu nesilleri yetiştirecek toplumların da çocuk sevgisiyle dolu toplumlar olması gerekmektedir. Fromm (1995), Sevme Sanatı adlı kitabında çocuğun yaşamı için çok önemli olan iki durumdan bahsetmektedir. Bunlardan ilki çocuğun büyümesi için gerekli olan bakım ve sorumluluk, ikincisi ise ona yaşam sevgisi aşılayacak olan tutumlardır. Çocuklar sevilmeyi ve sevmeyi öncelikle çevrelerindeki bireylerden öğrenirler. Yetişkinler çocuklara nazaran sevme ve sevilme ihtiyaçlarını biçimlendirebilir ya da belli öznelere yönlendirebilirler. Ancak çocuklar için sevgi yaşantıları, içine doğdukları koşullar ile belirlenmektedir. Çocuklar için sevgi daha çok “sevildiğim için seviyorum” şeklinde kendini gösterirken, yetişkinlikte bu “sevdiğim için seviliyorum” halini almaktadır. Bu nedenle bir çocuğun bakımı, gelişimi ve eğitiminden sorumlu her birey sevgi duygusuna ve bilgisine sahip olmalı ve bunu çocukların hayatında etkili bireyler olmak için kullanmalıdır (Ercan, 2014; Fromm, 1995). Özellikle, söz

1 Çankırı Karatekin University, Turkey. 2 Çankırı Karatekin University, Turkey. 318

konusu eğitim olduğunda başarı ancak sevgi dolu eğitimciler ve öğrenmeye teşvik edici bir ortam ile mümkün olmaktadır (Dereli İman, 2014). Ercan (2014) koşulsuz çocuk sevgisini, “koşulsuz ilgili olmak, özen göstermek, korumak ve kollamak, empati ve iletişim kurmak, çocuk gelişimiyle ilgili bilgilere sahip olmak” şeklinde ifade etmekte, eğitimciler ve çocuklarla çalışanlar için bunun gerekli olduğundan bahsetmektedir. Bununla birlikte çocuk sevgisinin varlığından bahsedebilmek için çocuklara yönelik olumlu duygu, düşünce ve davranışların kazanılmasının gerekliliğini vurgulamaktadır. Bu nedenle çocukla çalışan ya da çalışmayı düşünen kişilerden, alan bilgisinin yanı sıra bir takım kişisel özelliklere de sahip olmaları beklenmektedir. Mesleklerini severek yapmaları, çocuklara karşı ilgili ve olumlu tutuma sahip olmaları, özellikle de çocukları sevmeleri bu beklentilerden en önemli olanlarıdır (Can, 2004; Gültekin, 2015; Kızıltepe, 2002; Şen ve Erişen, 2002). Barnett ve Sinisi (1990) çocuklarla ve çocuk bakımı ile ilgili çalışan bireylerin tutumlarına ilişkin yapılan çalışmalardan bahsetmiş ve “çocuk sevgisi” gibi çocuk yetiştirme ile ilgili daha genel ifadeler içeren, aynı zamanda vazgeçilmez olan tutumların daha az dikkat çektiğini belirtmişlerdir. Bireylerin çocuklar ve çocuklarla bir arada olma konusundaki temel inanç ve isteğinin göstergesinin onlara yönelik tutumları olduğundan bahsetmişlerdir. İlgili literatür incelendiğinde lise öğrencilerin kariyer tercihlerinde etkili olabilecek etmenlerin “ilgi, değer, mesleğin kazancı gibi bireysel; ailenin beklentisi, sosyoekonomik düzey gibi çevresel etmenler” olduğu belirlenmiş ve bu şekilde gruplanmıştır (Ulaş ve ark., 2017). Mesleki tercih yapmak üzere olan lise öğrencilerinin özellikle üniversite öğreniminde çocukla ilgili bir bölümde okumak isteyen öğrencilerin çocuk sevme düzeylerini etkileyen değişkenlerin belirlenmesinin önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. Çocuklarla çalışması beklenen meslek adaylarının çocuklara ve çocuklarla ortak zaman geçirmeye ilişkin istek ve ilgilerinin belirlenmesi önemlidir. Bu nedenle çocuklar ve onların eğitimi ile ilgili meslek adaylarının çocuk sevgisi düzeyinin bilinmesinin, meslek yönelimi ve meslek mensubu kişilerin profilini anlamak açısından önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bu düşünceden hareketle bu araştırmada, çocuk gelişimi bölümü öğrencilerinin çocuk sevme düzeylerinin bazı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmanın amacına uygun olarak şu alt problemlere cevap aranmıştır:  Öğrencilerin çocuk sevme düzeyleri yaş, doğum sırası, kardeş sayısı, anne-baba öğrenim durumu, sosyoekonomik düzey, aile durumu, sınıf düzeyi ve okul başarısı gibi değişkenlere göre farklılaşmakta mıdır? 319

 Öğrencilerin çocuk sevme düzeyleri yeniden aynı bölümü tercih edip etmeyecekleri, üniversitede tercih etmek istedikleri bölüm, staj deneyimlerinin olması, staj veya teorik derse ilişkin tercihleri gibi durumlara göre farklılaşmakta mıdır? Yöntem Araştırmanın modeli Bu araştırma, tarama modelinde betimsel bir araştırma olup çocuk gelişimi bölümü öğrencilerinin çocuk sevme düzeylerinin sosyo-demografik değişkenler açısından incelenmesi amacıyla yapılmıştır. Araştırmanın evren ve örneklemi Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu Çankırı il merkezinde bulunan Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı’na bağlı bir lisede Çocuk Gelişimi bölümü okuyan öğrenciler oluşturmuştur. Çankırı ilinde sadece tek bir lisede çocuk gelişimi bölümü bulunmaktadır ve bu durum araştırmamızın sınırlılığıdır. Bu doğrultuda veri toplama araçlarını tam olarak dolduran ve araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılmayı kabul eden toplam 122 öğrenci (%100 kadın) araştırmanın çalışma grubunu oluşturmuştur. Araştırmaya alınan öğrencilerin demografik özelliklerine ilişkin frekans tablosu Tablo 1’de verilmiştir. Tablo 1: Araştırmaya Alınan Öğrencilerin Demografik Özelliklerine İlişkin Frekans Tablosu

Özellikler n % Yaş 14 6 4,9 15 32 26,2 16 84 68,9 Doğum sırası İlk 41 33,6 Ortanca 43 35,2 Son 38 31,1 Kardeş sayısı Tek çocuk 2 1,6 2 kardeş 32 26,2 3 kardeş ve üzeri 88 72,1 Anne öğrenim durumu Okuryazar/ilkokul 86 70,5

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Ortaokul 21 17,2 Lise 11 9,0 Üniversite 4 3,3 Baba öğrenim durumu Okuryazar/ilkokul 44 36,1 Ortaokul 36 29,5 Lise 37 30,3 Üniversite 5 4,1 Sınıf düzeyi 1 52 42,6 2 10 8,2 3 36 29,5 4 24 19,7 Okul başarısı Zayıf 5 4,1 Orta 82 67,2 Yüksek 35 28,7 Yeniden seçme şansı olsa aynı bölümü seçer miydi? 80 65,6 Evet 42 34,4 Hayır Üniversitede tercih etmek istediği bölüm Alanımla ilgili 54 44,3 Farklı bir alan 34 27,9 Kararsızım 34 27,9 Anaokulunda staj deneyimi var mı? Var 25 20,5 Yok 97 79,5 Staj mı teorik ders mi tercih eder? Teorik 27 22,1 Staj 95 77,9

Veri toplama araçları

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Kişisel Bilgi Formu: Öğrencilerin yaş, doğum sırası, kardeş sayısı, anne-baba öğrenim durumu, sosyoekonomik düzey, aile durumu, sınıf düzeyi, okul başarısı, yeniden aynı bölümü tercih edip etmeyecekleri, üniversitede tercih etmek istedikleri bölüm, staj deneyimlerinin olması, staj veya teorik derse ilişkin tercihleri ile ilgili sorular yer almaktadır. Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeği: Barnett ve Sinisi (1990) tarafından insanların çocuklara yönelik tutumlarını ölçmek amacıyla geliştirilen ölçeğin Türkçeye uyarlaması Duyan ve Gelbal (2008) tarafından yapılmıştır. Ölçekte çocuk sevme durumunun belirlenmesine yönelik 7’li likert tipinde 14 madde yer almaktadır. Ölçeğin iç tutarlılık katsayısı 0.92’dir. Test tekrar test güvenirlik katsayısı 0.85 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Ölçekten alınabilecek en yüksek puan 98 en düşük puan ise 14’tür. Ölçekten alınan yüksek puanlar çocuklara karşı daha yüksek sevgi düzeyinin göstergesi olarak kabul edilmiştir (Duyan ve Gelbal, 2008). Veri toplama yöntemi Araştırma için Çankırı İl Millî Eğitim Müdürlüğünden yazılı, okul müdürlerinden ve ders öğretmenlerinden sözlü olarak izinler alındıktan sonra, araştırmaya alınan öğrencilere araştırmanın amacı hakkında bilgi verilmiş, onayları alınmış ve gönüllü olarak katılmayı kabul edenlere veri toplama araçları verilmiştir. Veriler sınıf ortamında öğrencilerle yüz yüze görüşülerek toplanmıştır. Verilerin değerlendirilmesi ve analizi Araştırmanın amacına yönelik toplanan veriler değerlendirilmiş ve istatistiksel analizleri SPSS 16,0 istatistik programında yapılmıştır. Öğrencilerin çocuk sevme düzeyi puanlarının normal dağılım gösterip göstermediği Kolmogorov-Smirnov testi ile belirlenmiştir. Buna göre, puanların analizinde nonparametrik testlerden Mann Whitney U ve Kruskal Wallis testleri kullanılmıştır. Farklılığın anlamlı olduğu durumlarda, farkın hangi gruptan kaynaklandığı Mann Whitney U testleri ile saptanmıştır (Büyüköztürk, 2012). Bulgular Bu bölümde araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular tablolar halinde sunulmuştur. Tablo 2: Araştırmaya Alınan Öğrencilerin Yeniden Aynı Bölümü Tercih Edip Etmeyecekleri, Üniversitede Tercih Etmek İstedikleri Bölüm, Staj Deneyimlerinin Olması, Staj veya Teorik Ders Tercihlerine Göre Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden Aldıkları Puan Ortalamalarına İlişkin Mann Whitney U Testi sunulmuştur.

Tablo 2: Araştırmaya Alınan Öğrencilerin Yeniden Aynı Bölümü Tercih Edip Etmeyecekleri, Üniversitede Tercih Etmek İstedikleri Bölüm, Staj Deneyimlerinin Olması, Staj veya Teorik Ders

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Tercihlerine Göre Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden Aldıkları Puan Ortalamalarına İlişkin Mann Whitney U Testi Sonuçları

Tablo 2’ye göre araştırmaya alınan öğrencilerin Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden aldıkları puanlar yeniden seçme şansları olsa tercih etmek istedikleri bölüm, üniversitede okumak istedikleri bölüm ve anaokulunda staj deneyimlerine göre anlamlı bir farklılık gösterirken (p<.05), staj veya teorik ders tercih durumlarına göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermemektedir (p>.05). Tablo 3: Araştırmaya Alınan Öğrencilerin Yaş, Doğum Sırası, Kardeş Sayısı, Anne-Baba Öğrenim Durumu, Sınıf Düzeyi ve Okul Başarısına Göre Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeği’nden Aldıkları Puan Ortalamalarına İlişkin Kruskall Wallis Testi Sonuçları

Sıra Test n Ortalama İstatistiği Yaş 14 6 66,50 X2= ,187 15 32 62,55 sd=2 16 84 60,74 p=,911 Doğum sırası İlk 41 54,94

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Ortanca 43 63,21 X2= Son 38 66,64 2,318 sd=2 p=,314 Kardeş sayısı Tek çocuk 2 47,50 X2= ,428 2 kardeş 32 63,50 sd=2 3 kardeş 88 61,09 p=,807 ve üzeri Anne öğrenim durumu İlkokul 86 61,15 X2= Ortaokul 21 51,40 1,439 Lise 11 62,05 sd=2 p=,487 Baba öğrenim durumu İlkokul 44 64,44 X2=,621 Ortaokul 36 60,47 sd=3 Lise 37 60,00 p=,892 Üniversite 5 54,10 Sınıf düzeyi 1 52 56,67 X2= 2 10 86,00 6,247 3 36 59,04 sd=3 4 24 65,44 p=,100 Okul başarısı Zayıf 5 29,60 X2= Orta 82 64,07 4,568 Yüksek 35 60,03 sd=2 p=,102

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Tablo 3’e göre öğrencilerin Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden aldıkları puanlar yaş, doğum sırası, kardeş sayısı, anne-baba öğrenim durumu, sınıf düzeyi ve okul başarısı gibi değişkenlere göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermemektedir.

Tartışma Araştırma sonucunda yeniden seçme şansım olsa yine aynı bölümü seçerdim diyen öğrencilerin çocuk sevme düzeyleri anlamlı olarak yüksek bulunmuştur. Çocuk gelişimi bölümü öğrencilerinin bölüm tercihlerine ilişkin görüşlerinin mesleki tercihlerini de etkileyeceği düşünülmektedir. Araştırmaya alınan öğrencilerin seçme şansları olsa yine aynı bölümü tercih etmek istemeleri alana ve kariyer yönelimlerine ilişkin tutarlı olduklarını ve çocuklarla çalışma konusunda istekli olduklarını göstermektedir. Durmuşoğlu Saltalı ve Erbay’a (2013) göre bireylerin mesleki tercihlerini, çocuk sevme düzeylerini de dikkate alarak yapmaları önemlidir. Seçme şansım olsa aynı bölümü okurdum diyen öğrencilerin çocuk sevme düzeylerinin yüksek çıkması mesleki tercihlerini bilinçli olarak yaptıklarını göstermektedir. Öğrencilerin üniversitede alanlarıyla ilgili bir bölüm tercih etme durumlarına göre Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların anlamlı bir farklılık gösterdiği belirlenmiştir. Duyan ve Gelbal (2008) tarafından üniversite çocuk gelişimi bölümü öğrencileriyle yapılan çalışmada Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların farklı bölüm öğrencilerinden daha yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur. Öğrenciler, ilgili bölüm tercihlerini çocuklara karşı tutumlarını da göz önüne alarak yapmaktadırlar. Özellikle çocuklarla ilgili meslek gruplarına ait bölümleri tercih edecek olan öğrencilerin, çocuk sevme düzeylerini tercihlerine yansıtmalarının doğal olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bunun yanı sıra öğrencilerin ilgi ve tutumlarını meslek tercihlerine yansıttıkları belirtilmektedir (Ulaş ve ark., 2017). Öğrencilerin anaokulunda staj deneyimi olma durumlarına göre Barnett Çocuk sevme ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların anlamlı düzeyde farklılık gösterdiği bulunmuştur. Çay ve Şanal (2016) öğretmenler ve öğretmen adaylarıyla yaptıkları çalışmada öğretmenlerin çocuklara karşı ılımlı yaklaşım ve tutum içinde olmalarının, işini yaparken mutlu olmalarının, çocukla birlikte ve bireysel vakit geçirmeleri ve çocukların ihtiyaçlarının farkında olmalarının, olumlu öğretmen öğrenci ilişkisinin en önemli unsurları olduğunu (Bin Dahari ve Sabri Bin Ya, 2011; Dereli İman, 2014); çocuklarla iletişim kurmak ve birlikte vakit geçirmenin çocukları anlamaları ile eş değer olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Staj yapan öğrencilerin çocuklar ile çalışma deneyimlerinin olmasının, onları anlama, empati kurma ve sevme düzeylerini olumlu etkilediği düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca Gökdoğan ve Sarıgöz (2012) mesleki eğitim alan öğrencilerle 325

yaptıkları çalışmada öğrencilerin uygulamaya gittiklerinde okulda öğrendikleri bilgileri uygulama imkânı bularak başarma duygusu yaşadıklarını ve alanlarına ilişkin motivasyonlarının arttığını belirtmişlerdir. Öğrencilerin staj veya teorik ders tercih etme, sınıf düzeyi ve okul başarısı durumlarına göre Barnett Çocuk Sevme ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği bulunmuştur. Bunun nedeninin çalışmaya dahil edilen öğrencilerin çoğunun 1. ve 2. sınıf düzeyinde olması ve bu nedenle staj uygulamasına henüz gitmemeleri (n=97, n=25) olduğu düşünülmektedir. Araştırmanın anaokulunda staj deneyimine sahip olma durumuna göre anlamlı bir sonuç göstermesi de bu bulguyu destekler niteliktedir. Öğrenciler staj uygulamasını deneyimlemedikleri için bu konudaki tercihlerinin çocuklarla ilgili tutumlarını etkilemediği görülmektedir. Aynı şekilde okul başarısı düzeylerine ilişkin görüşlerinin de teorik eğitim ile sınırlı olduğu ve çocuklar ile deneyimlerine yansımadığı düşünülmektedir. Öğrencilerin yaş, doğum sırası ve kardeş sayısı durumlarına göre Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği bulunmuştur. Ercan (2014) öğretmenlerle yaptığı çalışmada öğretmenlerin yaş ve çocuk sayıları ile çocuk sevgisi puanları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olmadığını belirlemiştir. Araştırmamızın çalışma grubunu oluşturan öğrencilerin yaş düzeyleri de 14 ve 16 arasındadır. Öğrencilerin yaşları birbirine çok yakın olup, çocuk sevgisinin yaş düzeyinden bağımsız olarak çocuklara ilişkin deneyimlere dayandığı düşünülmektedir. Bununla birlikte Gelbal ve Duyan (2010) öğretmenlerin yaşlarının ilerledikçe mesleki deneyimleri ile çocuk sevgisi puanlarının arttığını saptamışlardır. Buradan yola çıkarak çocuklarla elde edilen deneyim ölçüsünde çocuk sevgisinin arttığı, bunun yaştan ziyade deneyim ve birlikte geçirilen vakit ile ilişkili olduğu söylenebilir. Yine öğrencilerin doğum sırası ve kardeş sayısı durumu ile çocuk sevme düzeyleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık olmamasının kardeşleriyle ortak yaşantılarının akranlık, arkadaşlık ve kardeşlik duyguları içerisinde olduğu ve yetişkin-çocuk ilişkisini deneyimlemek için yeterli olmadığı düşünülmektedir. Öğrencilerin kardeşleriyle ve doğum sıralarıyla çocuk sevme düzeylerinin, kardeşleriyle yaş farkları ve aile içindeki rollerine ilişkin değişkenlerin dâhil edilerek araştırılmasının bu konuda daha aydınlatıcı olacağı düşünülmektedir. Öğrencilerin anne ve baba öğrenim durumlarına göre Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği bulunmuştur. Ebeveynlerin öğrenim düzeyinden çok çocuklarına karşı sevgi dolu bir tutum içerisinde olmalarının daha önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. Ailesi ile sevgi dolu iletişim kuran öğrencilerin çocuklara karşı da sevgi dolu olacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu nedenle öğrenim durumundan çok algılanan anne-baba

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tutumu gibi değişkenlerin daha önemli olacağı düşünülmektedir. Lise öğrencileri ve öğretmen adaylarıyla yürütülen bazı çalışmalarda da çocuk sevme düzeyleri ile anne baba öğrenim düzeyi arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olmadığı ortaya konulmuştur (Doğan ve Çoban, 2009; Özcan ve Eranıl, 2018). Sonuç ve Öneriler Araştırma sonucunda çocuk gelişimi bölümü öğrencilerinin çocuk sevme düzeylerinin yaş, doğum sırası, kardeş sayısı, anne-baba öğrenim durumu, sınıf düzeyi ve okul başarısına göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği ancak yeniden aynı bölümü seçme, üniversitede tercih etmek istediği bölüm, anaokulunda staj deneyimi olması durumlarına göre anlamlı bir farklılık gösterdiği bulunmuştur. Bu sonuçlara göre şu önerilerde bulunulabilir:  Öğrencilerin çocuk sevme düzeyleri farklı değişkenler açısından incelenebilir.  Araştırmacılar tarafından ilgili mesleklere yönelen öğrenci profiline ilişkin farklı konularda araştırmalar yürütülebilir.  Çocuk gelişimi bölümü öğrencilerinin çocuk sevme düzeylerini etkileyen değişkenler belirlenerek meslek tercihi konusunda öğrencilere rehberlik ve danışmanlık hizmetleri sunulabilir.  Mesleki eğitim personeli tarafından Çocuk Gelişimi bölümü öğrencileri için çocuk sevgisini pekiştirebilecekleri etkinlikler düzenlenebilir.  Çocuklar ile ilgili çalışma alanına sahip meslekleri tercih edecek öğrencilerin çocuklarla daha fazla vakit geçirerek mesleki uygulamaları deneyimleyebilecekleri farklı ortamlar sunulabilir.

Kaynaklar Barnett, M.A., Sinisi, C.S. (1990). The initial validation of a liking of children scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(1&2), 161-167. Bin Dahari, Z., Sabri Bin Ya, M. (2011). Factors that in fulence parents’ choice of pre-school education in Malaysia: an exploratory study. International journal of Business and Social Science, 2 (15), 115-128. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2012). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı: İstatistik, araştırma deseni, SPSS uygulamaları ve yorum (Onyedinci baskı). Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayınları. Can, N. (2004). Öğretmenlerin geliştirilmesi ve etkili öğretmen davranışları. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16(1), 103-119. Çay, Y., Şanal, M. (2016). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının ve Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Çocuk Sevme Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Uluslararası Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(6): 134-142. Dereli-İman, E. (2014). “Okul öncesi öğretmen adaylarının çocuk sevgisi ve öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin motivasyonlarının incelenmesi.” Kuramsal Eğitimbilim Dergisi, 7(4), 482-505. Doğan, T., Çoban, A.E. (2009). Eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları ile kaygı düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 34(153), 157-168. Durmuşoğlu-Saltalı N, Erbay F. (2013). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin konuşma, dinleme ve empati becerilerinin çocuk sevme davranışı açısından incelenmesi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), 14(1), 159-174.

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Duyan, V., Gelbal, S. (2008). Barnett çocuk sevme ölçeği’ni Türkçeye uyarlama çalışması. Eğitim ve Bilim, 33(148), 40-48. Ercan, R. (2014). Öğretmenlerde çocuk sevgisi. Turkish Studies, International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 9(8), 435-444. Fromm, E. (1995). Sevme Sanatı. (Yurdanur Salman, Çev.) İstanbul: Payel. Gelbal, S., Duyan, V. (2010). İlköğretim öğretmenlerinin çocuk sevme durumlarına etki eden değişkenlerin incelenmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education), 38, 127-137. Gökdoğan, O., Sarıgöz, O. (2012). Meslek Yüksekokulu Öğrencilerinin “Mesleki Uygulama Dersi” ile İlgili Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. Batman University Journal of Life Sciences, 1(1), 1091-1100. Gültekin, M. (2015). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin ideal öğretmen algısı. Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 10(11), 725-756. DOI Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8624 Kızıltepe, Z. (2002). İyi ve etkili öğretmen. Eğilim ve Bilim, 27(126),10-14. Onur, B. (2007). Çocuk, Tarih ve Toplum. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. Özcan, M., Eranıl, A. K. (2018). Meslek seçimi kapsamında: anne baba tutumu ve öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutum. Uluslararası Türkçe Edebiyat Kültür Eğitim Dergisi, 7(2), 1291-1304. Özmen, F. (1999). Etkili eğitimin gerçekleştirilmesinde duyuşsal alanın önemi –sevgi eğitimi-. Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 9(1), 193-198. Öztürk, A. O. (2018). Sevgi Edebiyatı. İstanbul: Hiperyayın. Sf:148 Özyurt, C. (2011). Çocukluk Sosyolojisi. K. Canatan ve E. Yıldırım (Ed.). Aile Sosyolojisi içinde s. 155-181. İstanbul: Açılım Kitap. Şen, H. Ş., Erişen, Y. (2002). Öğretmen yetiştiren kurumlarda öğretim elemanlarının etkili öğretmenlik özellikleri. G.Ü. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(1), 99-116. Ulaş, Ö., Demirtaş-Zorbaz, S., Dinçel, E. F., Çiffiliz-Kınay, G., Coştur, R. (2017). Özel okulda öğrenim görmekte olan lise öğrencilerinin meslek seçimini etkileyen etmenler. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 17 (1), 441-456.

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İNGİLİZCE TEKERLEMELERİN UYARLANMASI VE İNGİLİZCE DİL BİLGİSİ ÖĞRETİMİNDE KULLANILMASI: ÖĞRETMEN VE ÖĞRENCİ GÖRÜŞLERİ

Ercan Tomakin1

GİRİŞ İngilizce tekerlemelerin uyarlaması, ülkemizdeki yabancı dil öğretim problemini çözmeye yönelik öneriler bağlamında değerlendirilebilir. Yabancı dil öğretim problemi ise gümümüzde en çok konuşulan eğitim problemlerinden biridir. Bu bağlamda, önce gümümüz eğitim problemlerine, sonra da yabancı dil öğretim problemine kısaca değinilecektir. Bugünkü Milli Eğitim (ME) sistemimizin ilkeleri ve hedefleri, Cumhuriyetin ilk yıllarında tespit edilmiştir. O zaman çıkarılan kanunlar ile süreç içinde sonradan çıkarılanlar günümüze kadar eğitim sistemimize yön vermeye devam etmiştir. Ancak geçen bir asırlık zaman dilimi içerisinde dünyada ve ülkemizde çok ciddi gelişmeler, sosyal, siyasal, ekonomik, bilimsel, teknolojik ve kültürel değişmeler yaşanmıştır. Toplumun önünde giderek, onları eğitmesi ve 21. yüzyıla hazırlaması gereken eğitim sistemimiz, onun önünde bir engel olduğu anlayışı giderek yaygınlaşmaktadır (Özyılmaz, 2017). Şüphesiz son 15 yılda Türk ME sistemi ile ilgili çıkarılan kanunlar, derslik ve bina sayılarındaki artış, ikili öğretimdeki azalma, öğretmen atamaları, sınıflarda ve okullarda bedava internet, sınıflara bilgisayar ve akıllı tahta, öğrencilere ücretsiz tablet verilmesi ve öğretim programlarının iyileştirilmesine rağmen, neredeyse eğitim sistemiyle ilgili olan herkes eğitimden şikâyet etmektedir. Bu şikâyetler arasında lise ve üniversiteye giriş sınavlarında öğrencilerin Türkçe, Matematik ve Fen sorularına verdiği ortalama (Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı 5 soru, Matematik 5 soru, Fizik soru 1, Kimya 1 soru, vd) doğru cevap sayısının düşük olması (URL-1), uluslararası sınavlardaki (PİSA ve TİMMS) başarı durumumuz en çok eleştirilen konulardan biridir (Çelebi ve diğ. 2014). Eğitim sistemimizin sorunları yaygın olarak konuşulmasına rağmen, Google Scholar ile yapılan taramada bu konuyla ilgili sınırlı sayıda makaleye rastlanmıştır. Örneğin, Tan (1989) çalışmasında Türk eğitiminde kalite sorunu, Uluğ (1998)Eğitim sisteminde değişime yapısal uyum sorunları, Gedikoğlu (2005) Avrupa Birliği sürecinde Türk eğitim sistemi: sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri, Gül (2008) Türkiye’nin eğitim sorunları, AKP’nin eğitime bakışı ve çözüm önerileri, Yeşil ve Şahan (2015) öğretmen adaylarının Türk eğitim sisteminin en önemli sorun,

1 Ordu University, Turkey. 329

neden ve çözüm yollarına ilişkin algılarını makale olarak yayınlanmıştır. Ayrıca, Özyılmaz, (20017) Türk ME sisteminin sorunları ve çözüm arayışları adlı kitabında okul öncesi dönem, ilköğretim, ortaöğretimin dönemlerinin sorunlarını ve bunların çözüm önerilerini ayrıntılı olarak açıklamaktadır. Yukarıda bahsedilen çalışmaların dile getirdiği sorunlardan bazıları şunlardır. • Tan’a (1989) göre hedeflerin seçimi, öncelik sıralaması, öğretmen adaylarının seçimi ve eğitimi, öğretmenlerin istihdamı, merkeziyetçi yapı, çift tedrisat genel sorundur.

• Uluğ (1998) iç ve dış etkenler, siyasal erkin etki ve denetimi, öğretmenlerin istihdamı, merkeziyetçi ve müdahaleci yönetsel yaklaşım, öğrencilerin ilgi ve yetenekleri doğrultusunda yönlendirilmesi, (öğretim) programları sorundur.

• Gedikoğlu (2005) okul öncesi, temel eğitim (ilköğretim), ortaöğretim ve yükseköğretim açısından okullaşma oranlarının Avrupa’dan düşük olması, partiler üstü bir eğitim politikasının olmaması, hükümetlere göre değişen politikalar, ezberci eğitim anlayışı, öğretmen yetiştirme ve yabancı dil öğretimini sorun olarak saymaktadır.

• Gül (2008) eğitimin cinsiyet ve bölgeler arası farkları, barınma (yurt) sorunu, nitelik- kalite yetersizlikleri, mesleki eğitim, finans ve özelleştirme sorunlarını dile getirmektedir.

• Yeşil ve Şahan (2015) eğitim anlayışı, eğitim programı, öğretmen, eğitim planlamasını temel sorun olarak görmektedir.

• Özyılmaz’a (2017) göre okulöncesi, ilköğretim, ortaöğretimin sorunları, ezberci sistem, araç-gereç materyal eksikliği, öğretmen yetiştirilmesi, öğretmen ve bina eksikliği, eğitimde verimlilik, öğrencilerin ilgi ve yeteneklerine göre yönlendirilmemesi, mesleki ve teknik alanların ihmal edilmiş olması, bilgi üretmek yerine soyut konuların ezberletilmesi, öğrencilere kendilerini gerçekleştirme imkânı verilmemesi, mevzuatın esas alınması sorundur.

Yukarıda belirtildiği gibi, tekerlemelerin uyarlanması ve İngilizce dil bilgisi öğretiminde kullanılması yabancı dil öğretim problemini çözmeye yönelik amaç olduğu için burada yabancı dil nedir? ve yabancı dil öğretim problemleri inceleyen çalışmalara kısaca değinilecektir. Yabancı dil, konuşan kişinin ana dili olmayan dil… ikinci dildir (Crystal, 1998, s.121). Bir ülkenin yerli olmayan dilini ifade etmek için kullanılır (Crystal, 1998, s.372). Yabancı dil öğretimini inceleyen çalışmalar ise şunlardır: König (1989), Acat ve Demiral ( 2002), Oğuz

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(2002), Işık (2008), Tok ve Arıbaş (2008), Aydın ve Zengin (2008), Haznedar (2010), Çelik ve Arıkan (2012), Paker (2012), Suna ve Durmuşçelebi (2013), Can ve Can (2014). Dil bilgisi öğretimi ile ilgili yapılan çalışmalar ise şunlardır: Günday (2018), Dolunay ve Savaş (2018). Bu çalışmalarda bahsedilen yabancı dil öğretim sorunları şunlardır: Osterloh’a (1982, s.45) göre yazılı anlatımın önündeki en önemli engel “Kuran-ı Kerimdir, sanayileşmiş memleketlerde yazılan bir metnin “nesnel” olan içeriğinin ön planda olması (s.168), kültürel farklılıklar (s.169) ve iletişimsel davranışların farklı olması (s.191) (akt. Konig, 1989). Oğuz’a (2002) göre üniversitelerdeki öğretim elemanlarının (Yrd. Doç. Dr., Arş. Gör) yabancı dil öğrenmede zorluk çekmesi, (% 77.95), yurt dışında bulunma imkânının olmaması, üniversitelerde etkili yabancı dil kurslarının düzenlenmemesi, yeterli zaman ayıramama, çeşitli yetersizlikler, dil yeterliliğini belirleyen ölçütlerin yüksek olması, yabancı dil öğrenme alanının geniş olması, uzun süre ara verme, kendi kendine çalışamama, temel dil bilgilerinde eksiklik, ders yükünün fazla olması, vd. Acat ve Demiral’ın (2002) çalışmasında yabancı dil bir araç – örnek, iş bulma- olarak öğrenilmektedir. Ayrıca, başarılı olamama kaygısı ve uygun ortam eksikliği, başarı beklentisinin yüksek olması, aile ve arkadaş çevresi, erkeklerin daha fazla motivasyon sorunu yaşaması araştırmanın temel bulguları arasındadır. Işık’ın (2008) belirttiği sorunlardan bazıları: yabancı dil öğretmen yetiştirme sistemi, dil planlamasındaki eksiklikler, akademik ders içeriklerinin masa başında yapılması, kendi öz kültürümüze uygun İngilizce kitap, materyal ve malzemenin olmamasıdır. Tok ve Arıbaş (2008) Avrupa ülkeleri ve Türkiye’de öğretilen birinci ve ikinci yabancı dile başlama yaşları ile İlköğretim ve Ortaöğretimde dil öğrenmeye ayrılan toplam süreleri karşılaştırmıştır. Onlara göre yabancı dil öğretimi birinci sınıfta başlamalı, dil dersinin haftalık ders saati artırılmalı ve dil öğretim programlarının geliştirilmesi için okullara yetki verilmelidir. Aydın ve Zengin (2008) yabancı dil öğretiminde kaygı, kaygı türleri ve ülkemizde yapılan kaygı ile ilgili çalışmaların derlemesini yapmışlardır. Haznedar (2010) İngilizce öğretmenlerinin %33’ünün Eğitim Fakültesi mezunu olmadığını ve dil yeterlilikleri (TOEFL, KPDS, vb.) ile ilgili elde net bilginin olmadığını, %70’nin işitsel dilsel, %33’ünün dilbilgisi-çeviri yöntemini kullandığını, öykülerin neredeyse hiç tercih edilmediğini, ölçme-değerlendirmenin çoğunlukla (%98,9) yazılı sınav şeklinde yapıldığını, materyal olarak çoğunlukla öğretmen kitabının kullanıldığını (%84,60), hizmet-içi

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eğitim kurslarının etkin düzenlenmediğini, dil eğitiminde standartların saptanmadığını belirtmektedir. Paker’e (2012) göre pratik konuşamama, çoğu akademisyenin sadece okuduğunu anlama düzeyinde dil bilmesi, öğretmenlerin çoğunun dil bilgisi öğretmeye çalışması, dinleme ve yazma sınavlarına çok az yer verilmesi, sınıfta kullanılan dilin iletişimsel olmaması, merkezi sınavların (KPDS, ÜDS, LYS, SBS, vd) sadece okuma becerisini ölçmesidir. Çelik ve Arıkan’ın (2012) çalışmalarında çok az öğretmen (%8) kendilerini çocuklara yabancı dil öğretimi için yeterli görür ve öğretmenlerin %40’ı lisans programlarını teoride yeterli, uygulamada yetersiz görmektedir. Suna ve Durmuşçelebi (2013) yabancı dil öğretimiyle ilgili çalışmaların literatür taramasını yapmıştır. Yukarıdaki atıflara ilaveten Bayyurt (2012), Bayraktaroğlu (2012) ve Şahin’in (2013) çalışmalarında belirtilen sorunları belirtip genel sorun olarak şunları önermiştir: yabancı dil öğretim politikası ve programı olmaması, yabancı programların olduğu gibi alınması, dil bilgisi ağırlıklı yöntemin kullanılması, öğrencilerin dile yeteri kadar zaman ayıramaması, motive eksikliği, dilin kullanım alanının olmaması ve ölçme-değerlendirme yöntemlerinin eksikliği. Can ve Can’a (2014) göre ikinci yabancı dile günlük yaşamda ihtiyaç duyulmaması ve etkili olarak kullanılmaması, pratik yapma imkânın olmaması, yabancı dil öğretiminde ana dil kullanımı, öğretmenlerden kaynaklanan sorunlar (alan dışı öğretmenler), derslerin ezber ağırlıklı olması, araç-gereç materyal eksikliği, yabancı dil öğretiminin yeterince önemsenmemesi, eğitim sisteminin sürekli değişmesi ve bazı ailelerin ikinci yabancı dili gereksiz görmesini sorun olarak saymaktadır. Sonuç olarak görülmektedir ki sanki yabancı dil öğretiminin durumu “bir dokun bin ah işit” deyimi gibidir. Bu bağlamda, yabancı dil öğretiminin bir parçası olan dil bilgisi, tekerleme ve tekerlemenin etkisi ve önemi konularına kısaca değinilecektir.

DİL BİLGİSİ (Grammar) ve ÇEŞİTLERİ Dil bilgisi, bir dile ait yapının sistematik bir analizidir (Crystal, 1998, s.138). Dil bilgisi, kabaca bir dilin, daha uzun anlam birimlerini ifade etmek için sözcükleri birleştirme ve işleme yöntemi olarak tanımlanabilir (Ur, 2001, s.4). Dil bilim kitaplarında geçen İngilizce dil bilgisinin yaygın çeşitleri şunlardır: Betimsel (descriptive grammar), kuralcı (prescriptive g.), kuramsal (theoretical g.), üretimsel (performance g.), yetisel (competence g.), üretimsel (generative g.), evrensel (universal g.), geleneksel (traditional g.), dnüşüşümsel

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(transformational g., karşılaştırmalı (comparative g), resmi (formal g.), kavramsal (notional g.), (Crystal 1993), (Crystal 1998); konuşma dil bilgisi (spoken g.) ve yazılı (written g.) (Thornbury, 1999). Dil Bilgisi Öğretimi Dil bilgisi öğretimi ile ilgili görüşler genelde üç veya dört çeşit öneri şeklindedir. İngilizce dil bilgisinin açık şekilde öğretilip öğretilmemesi tartışmasında Ur (2001) şunu söylemektedir. “Hiç şüphe yok ki kural bilgisi –açık veya örtük- dile hâkimiyet için gereklidir. Sözcüklerin nasıl yan yana gelmesi gerektiğini bilmediğiniz sürece onları kullanamazsınız (Ur, 2001, s.4). Cross’a (1995) göre dil bilgisi üç şekilde öğretilebilir: Bunlar, tümdengelim, tümevarım ve seçmeli yöntemdir. Günday’a (2018) göre ise dil bilgisi etken (aktif) ya da edilgen (pasif) şekilde öğretilebilir, ancak dil becerilerini kullanarak dil bilgisi öğretmeye çalışan aktif (etken) yöntem daha yararlıdır. Thornbury (1999), Cross (1995) gibi, tümevarım ve tümden gelim yöntemlerini önermektedir. Nunan’a (2001) göre dil bilgisi bağlam (context) içinde öğretilmelidir. Celce-Murcia (2015) ise açık öğretme (tümdengelim, tümevarım) ve örtük öğretme yöntemlerini önermektedir (akt. Dilber, 2015). Diğer öneriler ise görev temelli (task- based) dil bilgisi öğretimi (Richards, (2002), bilinç yükseltme yöntemi (Ellis, 2002), bağlamsal dilbilgisi (Thornbury, 1999) ve kapsayıcı çerçeve (Ur, 1998, akt. Dilber, 2015). TEKERLEME Çoğunlukla basmakalıp, birbiriyle uyumlu hazır söz kalıbı, çoğunlukla masalların başında bulunan uyaklı giriş, saz şairleri arasında deyiş yarışı (Türk Dili Kurumu, (TDK) (URL- 2), hızlı ve doğru olarak söylenmesi zor sözcük veya sözcük grubudur (Oxford Learners’ Dictionary (OLD) URL-3) ve hızlı söylendiğinde sesletimi zor cümle, cümlecik veya kafiyelerdir (McArthur, 1992). Tekerlemeler, sadece komik değildir, çocuğun dilini geliştirir. Benzer ve tekrar eden seslerden oluşur, ancak dil ve kelime gelişimine katkı sağlar. Bu da onların net telaffuz ve konuşma modeli oluşturmasına yardım eder (URL-4). Burada, kullanılan konuşma modeli kavramı (speech model) ile dil bilgisi öğretimi örtüşmektedir. Çünkü her dil bilgisi kuralı bir modeldir ve her tekerlemede bir veya birkaç tane dil bilgisi kuralı içermektedir. Tekerlemeler, halk kültürünün yaşayan en güzel örneklerindendir ve uyaklı bir şeklide söylenir. Türk dilinin en ince yanlarını göstermesi bakımından bir dil gösterisi gibidir. Daha çok çocuklar tarafından kullanılır ve söyleyeni belli değildir. Çocukların, büyükler gibi, ayıplanma korkusu olmadığı için bu tekerlemeleri söylerler (Ezgin, 2007).

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Tekerlemeler, hayal gücünün genişliğini ve dildeki sesleri kullanabilmenin yansımasını gösterir. Tekerlemelerde zıt kutuplar aynı anda ifade edilir. Tekerlemeler “acaba” diye düşünülen, bazen çekinilerek söylenen anlamsız gibi görünen düşünceleri yansıtır. Daha çok çocuklar tarafından uyaklarla elde edilen, ses ve sözcük benzerliğine göre sıralanan ve anonim ürünlerdir (Bahar, 2008). Tekerlemeler, tek cümle, iki beyit, bir kıta veya daha uzun olabilir. İngilizce tekerlemeler, sadelik ve anlaşılabilirlik açısından anlaması kolay ve zor olanlar diye iki gruba ayrılabilir. Kolay anlaşılanlar: Günlük kullanılan sözcük ve cümlelerden oluşur, yazıldığı anlamda kullanılır ve herkes kolayca anlayabilir. Örnek, Baa, baa black sheep, have you any wool? Yes sir, yes sir, three bags full….(URL-5). Zor anlaşılanlar: bunlar, yabancı yer ve kişi adları ve deyim içerir ve yabancı kültüre ait değer, inanış ve olayları anlatır. Bu nedenle uyarlanmasının yararlı olacağı düşünülmektedir. Örnek, Doctor Foster, Went to Gloucester, He stepped in a puddle, Right up to his middle, and He never went there again (URL-6). Tek cümleden oluşanlara ise şunlar örnek verilebilir. Seven snails sit singing silly songs. She sells seashells by the sea shore. Tekerlemenin Önemi ve Etkisi Tekerlemenin önemini ve etkisini en iyi kendimiz küçükken ve oyun oynarken öğrendiklerimiz ile bugünkü çocuklarla ilgili yaptığımız gözlemler göstermektedir. Örnek, evden dışarı parka oyun oynamaya giden 3-5 yaşındaki çocuk okur-yazar değildir. Onun oyun arkadaşları da okur-yazar değildir. Ayrıca, parkta bir öğretmen, akıllı tahta, tablet ve bilgisayar yoktur. Eğitim-öğretimde kullanılan herhangi bir materyal de bulunmamaktadır, ama çocuklar parkta tekerleme, mani, bilmece, vb. şeyleri öğrenerek eve gelirler. Bu öğrenme nasıl oluyor diye sorgulamak ve bu öğrenmeyi örneğin yabancı dil öğretimine aktarmak / uyarlamak yararlı olabilir. Öğrenilen tekerlemenin uzun süre unutulmadığı pek fark edilmemektedir. Bu etki, yazarın dikkatini çekmiştir ve üç kuşağın -kendisi, çocukları ve babası- yıllar önce okur-yazar olmadığı yaşlarda öğrendikleri ama hala bildikleri (söyledikleri) tekerlemelerle örneklendirilebilir.

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Katılımcılar Süre (Yıl) Öğrenilen Tekerlemeler Yaklaşık Portakalı soydum, Başucuma koydum,… 15 sene

önce Oo piti piti Karamela sepeti,… 10 sene

önce Yağmur yağıyor, seller akıyor, Arap kızı camdan bakıyor Yaş 20, Yaş 9, Yaş 5 sene önce 15 Yağ satarım, bal satarım, Ustam ölmüş, ben satarım… Yaklaşık Doktor doktor kalksana. 50 sene Lambaları yaksana… önce Eveli eveliyken kediler berber iken Yaş 54 horozlar imamken, ben anamın beşiğini tıngır mıngır sallarken, … Gök çatladı, 72’sinin ödü patladı, Yaklaşık Önden gitti baş toklu 80 sene Arkadan gitti beş toklu 10’nu verdim kasaba, önce 10’nu da katmam hesaba,…

URL-7 (Tekerleme, Çobanın Hesabı olarak bilinmektedir). Yaş 90 Yukarıdaki örneklerde görüldüğü gibi, öğrenilen tekerlemeler uzun bir süre akılda kalmakta ve unutulmamaktadır. Bu örneklerde olduğu gibi, kulağa hoş gelen ve uyaklı tekerlemeler İngilizce dil bilgisi öğretiminde kullanılabilir. İngilizce tekerlemelerdeki özel isim ve yer isimleri Türkçe isimlerle değiştirilerek daha anlamlı hale getirilebilir. Ayrıca, bu tekerlemelerdeki fiiller, sıfatlar, zarflar vd. uyarlanabilir. Sadece İngilizce tekerlemeler değil, Türkçe tekerlemeler de uyarlama yapılmamaktadır. Örneğin, “portakalı soydum, başucuma koydum, ben bir yalan uydurdum…” tekerlemesini neredeyse bütün çocuklar bilmektedir. Ayrıca, bu tekerleme anaokullarında da öğretilmektedir, ancak bu güne kadar bir öğretmenin “portakalı soydum …,” yerine “elmayı soydum başucuma koydum …”, sonra “armudu soydum başucuma koydum, …”, şeklinde uyarlama yaptıktan sonra “evet çocuklar, portakal, elma, armut,… bunların hepsine meyve denir, deyip tüme varım şeklinde ders anlattığı pek duyulmamıştır. Aynı şekilde, meyveler, bu tekerleme ile tümden gelim şeklinde de öğretilebilir. AMAÇ Etkisi uzun süren ve düzenlenince daha anlaşılır hale gelen İngilizce tekerlemelerde nasıl uyarlama yapılabileceğinin gösterilmesi bu çalışmanın genel amacını oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmanın özel amacı ise: 335

- İngilizce bazı tekerlemelerde örnek uyarlama yapmak, - Bu uyarlamalara karşı öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşlerinden genel bir kanı sunmak, - Katılımcıların çocukken öğrendikleri tekerlemelerden kısa örnekler sunmaktır.

YÖNTEM Yaklaşım ve Yöntem: Çalışmada nitel yaklaşım kullanılmıştır. Nitel yaklaşımda amaç herhangi bir şeyi bulmak ve ortaya çıkarmaktır (Robson, 1995). Yöntem olarak ise örneklem (case study) kullanılmıştır. Bu yöntem bir konu hem derinlemesine araştırıldığında hem de net bir alan ile sınırlandırıldığında (bounded) kullanılmaktadır (Adelman ve dig. (1995). Veri Toplama: Veri toplama aracı olarak görüşme tekniği ve belge analizi kullanılmıştır. Görüşme, “sözlü iletişim yoluyla veri toplama tekniğidir” (Karasar 2005, s.165). Görüşmeler, yüz yüze ve yarı yapılandırılmış olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Katılımcılar: Nitel araştırmalarda genellikle amaçlı (purposive) veya uygun (convenient) örneklem seçimi yapılmaktadır (Robson, 1995). Görüşmede, gönüllü İngilizce öğretmenleri ve çoğunlukla İngilizce bölümündeki öğrencilerle görüşülmüştür. Bu görüşmede, İngilizce tekerlemeler iki değişik şekilde (ortamda) anlatılmıştır. Öğrenme Ortamı 1: İngilizce tekerlemelerden örnekler herhangi bir değişiklik yapılmadan birkaç kez söylendi, açıklandı (çevirisi yapıldı). Öğrenme Ortamı 2: İngilizce aynı tekerlemelerde özel şahıs isimleri, yer isimleri ve dil bilgisi yapılarında uyarlama yapılarak birkaç kez söylendi. Veri Toplama ve Kodlama: Belge analizi, araştırılması hedeflenen olgu veya olgular hakkında bilgi içeren yazılı materyallerin analizini kapsar (Yıldırım ve Şimşek 2005, s.187). Katılımcılardan bu iki anlatım şekli arasındaki farkı yazılı olarak ifade etmeleri istendi. Toplanan data kodlandı (Strauss ve Corbin, 1990, s.61) ve gruplandırıldı (axial coding) (s.96). BULGULAR Tekerlemelerin Uyarlaması Uyarlama kısmında öncelikle katılımcılara İngilizce üç tekerleme üzerinde değişiklikler yapılarak bunların daha anlaşılır hale getirilmesi ve İngilizce hangi dil bilgisi yapılarının öğretilebileceği gösterilmiştir. Bunlar, Baa, baa black sheep, …, Doctor Foster, … ve Seven snails… tekerlemeleridir. Baa, baa blask sheep tekerlemesinin normal hali şöyledir. Black Sheep Tekerlemesi • 1- Baa, baa, black sheep (BBBS) • 2- have you any wool? • 3- Yes, sir, yes sir, three bags full • 4- One for my master, one for my dame 336

• 5- And one for the little boy who lives, • 6- down the lane, BBBS tekerlemesi genellikle yukarıdaki şekilde öğretilmektedir. Bu tekerleme üzerinde bazı değişiklikler yapılarak birçok dil bilgisi konusu öğretilebilir. Bazı internet sitelerinde sadece renklerle ilgili uyarlama bulunmaktadır, ancak bu bildiride bizim önerdiğimiz uyarlamalar şimdiye kadar yapılmamıştır. Önerilen uyarlamalar şunlardır: Birinci satırdaki “black …” yerine, diğer renkler öğretilebilir. İkinci satırdaki “have you…”, “wool” yerine sınıf içi materyaller kullanılarak daha anlamlı hale getirilebilir. Örnek, …have you any pen/pencil/book…? Üçüncü satırdaki “three” yerine, diğer sayılar, tekil çoğul, sayılabilen ve sayılamayan nesneler öğretilebilir. Dördüncü satırdaki “…my…” iyelik sıfatı yerine diğer şahıs zamirlerinin aldığı iyelik sıfatları öğretilebilir. Ayrıca, “master, dame” sözcükleri yerine aile üyeleri ve diğer isimler öğretilebilir. Beşinci satırdaki “…boy ….lives” ile İngilizce geniş zaman üçüncü tekil şahıs kullanımı ve “the little boy who lives …” yapısı ile de sıfat cümlesi (relative clause) öğretilebilir. Son olarak altıncı satırdaki “down ...” yerine diğer temel edatlar öğretilebilir. En pratik olan şey şudur: her defasında sadece bir sözcüğü (yapıyı) değiştirmek daha iyi olur. Bu öneri aynı zamanda yabancı dil öğretim ilkelerinden “her defasında bir yapıyı öğretin” [teach one thing at a time] (Demirel, 2006) önerisiyle de uyumludur. BBBS tekerlemesi üzerinde yapılabilecek uyarlamalar Tablo 1 de özet ve toplu olarak gösterilmiştir. Baa, baa, black sheep, yerine baa baa white / brown sheep, … have you any wool? yerine have you any pen / pencil?... Yes, sir, yes sir, three yerine …one bag full, / two / three bags full bags full, One for my master, one yerine your brother… / his mother, / for my dame her father, … And one for the little boy yerine …the boy… sleeps, the boy who lives who plays… down the lane, yerine ...near the lane, ...behind the lane, … Tablo 1. Baa, Baa Black Sheep Uyarlama Tablosu Doctor Foster (DF) Tekerlemesi Bu bildiride uyarlaması yapılan diğer bir tekerleme Doctor Foster’dır. Bu tekerlemede yabancı yer adı, yabancı özel isim ve yabancı bir kültüre ait olay anlatılmaktadır. Yabancı yer,

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isim ve kültüre ait unsurlar Türk öğrencilere anlamsız gözükmektedir. Tekerlemenin aslı ve kültürümüze uyarlanmış örnekleri aşağıdaki gibidir. Tekerlemenin aslı: Doctor Foster, Went to Gloucester, In a shower of rain, He stepped in a puddle, Right up to his middle, And he never went there again. DF’nin sadece ilk iki satırı uyarlanarak ülkemize ve kültürümüze ait birçok şey öğretilebilir. Örnek, yabancı isim ve yer adları Türk isim ve yer adlarıyla değiştirilerek daha anlaşılır hale getirilebilir. İsimlerin bulunduğu il ve ilin bulunduğu bölgenin eşleştirilmesi etkinlik olarak düzenlenebilir. Doctor Rıdvan Doctor Ercan Doctor Hasan Doctor Çakır Went to Van Went to Tercan Went to Horasan Went to Diyarbakır. Hikâye ve fıkralardaki milli kahramanlar kullanılarak kafiyeli olduğu il öğretilebilir. Ayrıca o ilde yetişen ürünler ile ilin eşleştirilmesi etkinlik olarak düzenlenebilir. Temel & Dursun Karagöz & Hacivat Nasreddin Hoca Deli Dumrul … Went to Samsun Went to Yozgat Went to Buca Went to Torul …

Türkçe isimlerle İngilizce meslekler kafiyeli olarak eşleştirilerek etkinlik düzenlenebilir.

Baker Bekir Dentis İdris Police Halis Mechanic Malik … Went to Diyarbakır Went to Bitlis Went to Kilis Went to Bilecik … DF tekerlemesi İngilizce –dili geçmiş zamanda yazılmıştır. Bu tekerlemede yapılan özel isim, yer adı, il ve meslek uyarlamalarına ilaveten, yeni bir dil bilgisi kuralı -Present Perfect Tense’in “been to, gone to” yapıları öğretilebilir. Şöyle ki: Doctor Foster went to Gloucester yerine, Doctor Rıdvan gone to Van, Doctor Hasan been to Horasan, Seven Snails (SS) Tekerlemesi Tek cümlede ifade edilen bu ve benzeri tekerlemeler aynı ses ile başladığı için söylemesi zordur. İngilizce tek cümlede ifade edilen onlarca tekerleme bulunmaktadır ve bu tekerlemeleri

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anlaşılır hale getirmek için uyarlama yapmak yararlı olabilir. Altı sözcük ve tek cümlede ifade edilen tekerleme uyarlanarak aşağıdaki İngilizce dil bilgisi yapıları öğretilebilir. Seven snails sit singing silly songs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 • 1- İngilizce sayılar, tekil ve çoğul konuları öğretilebilir. Örnek, one snail, two snails, … one snail sits singing silly song. two snails sit singing silly songs, • 2-İsimler (hayvanlar) öğretilebilir. • Örnek, snail, snake, squirrel, cat, dog, one snake sits singing silly song. two snakes sit singing silly songs, • 3- Fiiller öğretilebilir. • Örnek, sit, speak, sleep, stay… one cat sits singing silly song. three cats sleep singing silly songs, • 4-Ortaç (sıfat-fiil) öğretilebilir. • Örnek, singing, sleeping, speaking, … one dog sits sleeping silly song. four dogs sits speaking silly songs • 5-Sıfatlar öğretilebilir. • Örnek, silly, ugly, good, bad, … one squirrel sits singing good song. five squirrels sits singing good songs, • 6-İsimler öğretilebilir. • Örnek, poems, play, one poet speaks singing useful poem. six poets speak singing useful poems Öğretmen ve Öğrenci Görüşleri

Öğrenci Görüşleri BA Lisesi, 9-D sınıfında 27 kişi olmasın rağmen, çalışmanın amacı ve çalışmaya katılım ile ilgili etik kural açıklandıktan sonra sadece 3 öğrenci istekli olarak katıldı. Bu öğrenciler Ö1, Ö2, şeklinde kodlandı ve dile getirilen ortak görüş delil olarak aktarıldı. Ö1 ve Ö3 kafiyenin önemli olduğunu belirttiler. Ö1 devamla “kafiyeli olduğu zaman daha akılda kalıcı oluyor, Ö3 ise “uyaklı anlatıldığında dilime takılıyor ve kalıcı oluyor” demiştir. Ö2’ye göre anlatılıp geçildiğinde [uyarlanmadığında] pek etkili olmamaktadır. BA Lisesi 11-F dil sınıfında dönem sonu olduğu için okula gelen 6 öğrencinin hepsi çalışmaya gönüllü olarak katıldılar ve görüşlerini yazılı olarak ifade ettiler. Öğrencilerin ortak olan görüşleri bir kavram altında toplanarak belirtilmiştir. Örneğin, Ö7 ve Ö10 kafiyenin önemini şöyle belirtmişlerdir. “sadece anlatılıp geçildiğinde kalıcılığı olmuyor, değişiklikler yapılıp kafiyesi kavrandığında kalıcılığı oldukça artıyor” (Ö7), “kafiye, okuma hızını, akıcı konuşmayı ve akılda kalıcılığı sağlıyor” (Ö10) demişlerdir. Ö9 ve Ö10 tekerlemenin hızlı konuşmaya etkisini belirttiler. “Tekerlemeler telaffuzu, hızlı (Ö9) ve “akıcı konuşmayı” (Ö10) etkilemektedir. Tekerlemenin eğlenceli olduğunu belirten üç öğrenci bulunmaktadır. Örneğin, “ilk etkinlik bilgisel, ikinci etkinlik daha eğlenceli” (Ö4), “kuralları eğlenceli bir şekilde

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hatırlattı” (Ö5), ve “içlerinde en kalıcı olan ikincisi, … kulağa hoş geliyor” (Ö9) demişlerdir. En fazla görüş tekerlemenin kalıcılığı üzerine belirtilmiştir. Bu görüş bildiri 3.1.’de belirtilen Tekerlemenin Önemi ve Etkisi başlığı ile de uyumludur. Öğrencilerin görüşleri şöyledir: “İkinci etkinlik daha …kalıcıydı” (Ö4), “etkinlik hafızadan çıkmayacağı için kalıcıydı” (Ö5), sadece anlatıldığında kalıcılığı olmuyor, değişiklik yapıldığında… kalıcılığı artıyor” (Ö7), “…değişiklik telaffuzu ve kalıcılığı sağlıyor” (Ö8) ve kafiye “akılda kalıcılığı sağlıyor” (Ö10) demişlerdir. İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı (İDE) ikinci sınıftan 5 gönüllü öğrencinin ortak görüşü 2. öğretim şeklinin (uyarlamanın) yararlı olduğu şeklindedir. Bu öğretim şekli, Yöntem – Öğrenme Ortamı 2 alt başlığı altında açıklanmıştır. Dört öğrenci (Ö11, Ö12, Ö13) ve Ö14) “bence ikinci şekil” diyerek görüş belirtmeye başlamışlardır. Öğrenciler bunun sebeplerini ise şöyle açıklamaktalar. “Bu şekilde aklımda daha çok kalıyor” (Ö11), “aklımda daha kolay kalıyor” (Ö12), “uyarladığımız kelime beynimize kazınır” Ö13, “farklı bir dilde olan tekerlemeler, ana dilde anlaması zorlaşmaktadır, kendi dilimize uyarlandığında daha anlaşılır ve öğretici olmaktadır” Ö14, “kendimize göre uyarlanan hali daha etkili olur” (Ö15) demişlerdir. İDE dördüncü sınıftan görüşülen 11 gönüllü öğrencinin ortak görüşüne göre tekerlemenin genelde telaffuz ve kafiye bakımından yararlı olduğu belirtildi. Tekerlemenin telaffuza etkisi şöyle belirtilmiştir: “Telaffuz için yararlı” (Ö16), “telaffuz ve bazı seslerin öğretilmesinde yararlı” (Ö19), “telaffuzu öğretmek ve bazı öğrencileri derse çekmek için yaratıcı” (Ö22) demişlerdir. Tekerlemenin öğrenilmesinde kafiyenin etkisi şöyle belirtilmiştir. “Çocuğun farklı kelimelerin uyarlamasını öğrenmesi güzel” (Ö17), “kafiye uyumu etkili, bir no’lu tekerleme (6.1.1. BBBS) diğerlerine göre daha etkili” (Ö18), “kafiye uyumu ileri seviye İngilizce için kolay, ama başlangıç seviyesi için okuması zor olabilir” (Ö20), “Ercan …Tercan, çok yaratıcı, bayıldım” (Ö23), “kafiyeler çok iyi…gayet yaratıcı” (Ö24) ve “ses uyumu çocukların dikkatini çekiyor” (Ö25) demişlerdir. Bir öğrenci ise “çocukların bilişsel gelişimine ve dikkati toplamasına yardım eder” (Ö26) demiştir.

Öğrencilerin Çocukken Öğrendikleri Tekerlemeler Katılımcı yabancı dil bölümü (üniversite) öğrencilerine çocukken, okuma yazma bilmeden önce öğrendikleri ve hala hatırladıkları (bildikleri) tekerlemeler soruldu. Eğer hatırlıyorlarsa birkaç satır veya tamamını yazmaları istendi. Bu öğrencilerin hepsi hatırladığı (bildiği) bir tekerleme yazdı. Bu yazılan tekerlemelerin bazılarının ortak olduğu görüldü. Bu 340

öğrencilerin yaşlarının ortalama 18 ile 20 olduğu kabul edilirse, yaklaşık 15 önce öğrendikleri tekerlemeler şunlardır. Öğrencilerin Okulöncesi Öğrendikleri Öğrenci Tekerlemeler Kodları One, two, three, four, five, I caught a fish alive, Ö11 Ö12, Ö15 Portakalı soydum, başucuma koydum, Ö13, Ö17, Oo piti piti, karamela sepeti, Ö21 Yağ satarım, bal satarım Ö14 Al şu takatukaları takatukacıya götür, Ö16, Ö25 Bir berber bir berbere gel beraber berber, Ö18 Bu yoğurdu sarımsaklasak da mı saklasak, Ö19 Şu köşe yaz köşesi şu köşe kış köşesi, Ö20 Oo, iğne battı, canımı yaktı, tombul kuş, Ö22 What a pitty, for a kitty, 341ol ive in a big city, Ö23 Bu tarlaya bir sinik kekere mekere ekmişler, Ö24 Karga karga gak dedi, çık şu dala bak dedi, Ö26 Tablo 2. Tekerleme ve Öğrenci Kodları Tablosu Öğretmen Görüşleri Gönüllü iki İngilizce Öğretmeni (İÖ) ile görüşme yapılmış ve her iki öğretmen olumlu görüş belirtmişlerdir. İÖ-1 BAL lisesinde çeşitli sınıflarda İngilizce dersine girmektedir. Ona göre “ilk etkinlik (Öğrenme Ortamı 1) öğrencinin ilgisini çekmiyor ve ne olduğu anlaşılmıyor. İkinci etkinlik, öğrenciyi de kattığı için dikkat çekiyor, kültürel uyarlama mizahla karıştığı için (bzk. Nasreddin Hoca, went to Buca) ilgi uyandırıyor. Dil bilgisi yapısı, kelime öğretimi ve akıcı konuşma için kullanılabilir. Tekerlemeler kafiye içerdiği için oldukça akılda kalıcı; üstelik eğlenceli. Örneğin, wish clause yapısını öğretirken I wish you were a fish in my dish sürekli kullandığım bir yapı. Dil öğretiminde ayrıntılı dil bilgisi kuralları vermek yerine, cümle öğretimi yoluyla dil öğretilmeli. Her öğrettiğim yapıyı (kuralı) örnek bir cümlede ezberletiyorum. Tekerleme kullanmak da buna benziyor. Oldukça faydalı olabilir” demiştir. İÖ-2 ÇPAL İlköğretim okulunda İngilizce derslerine girmektedir ve onun görüşleri şöyledir. “Tekerlemenin uyarlanarak ders sürecinde kullanılması öğrenciyi derse etkin şekilde katabilmek için faydalı olabilir. Tekerlemelerin uyarlamasına ileri seviyelerde öğrenciler de dahil edilebilir. Özellikle kelime öğretmede klasik yöntemler dışında motive edici ve akılda kalmayı kolaylaştırıcı bir yöntem olabilir. Bilinen kelimelerden yola çıkarak yeni kelimeler öğretilebilir ve dil bilgisi yapılarının öğretilmesini kolaylaştırır” demiştir. SONUÇ VE TARTIŞMA

Bu çalışma İngilizce tekerlemelerin uyarlaması ve dil bilgisi öğretiminde kullanılması, öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşlerinin ortaya çıkarılmasını amaç edinmiştir. Çalışma öncelikle Türk eğitim sistemi ve yabancı dil öğretim çalışmalarının yazın taramasını yapmıştır. Bu taramada, 341

Türk eğitim sisteminin sorunlarını az sayıda çalışmanın dile getirmiş olduğu görülmüştür. Ayrıca, yabancı dil öğretim sorunlarını ise yaklaşık 10 çalışma dile getirmiştir. Bu bağlamda çalışmamızın konusu olan İngilizce tekerlemelerin uyarlaması ve dil bilgisi öğretiminde kullanımına benzer bir çalışmanın yapılmadığı görülmüştür. Çalışma amacına uygun iki öğrenme ortamı öğrencilere ve öğretmenlere sunulmuştur. Birinci öğrenme ortamında İngilizce tekerlemeler birkaç kez söylendi (açıklandı) ve konu bitirildi. İkinci öğrenme ortamında ise İngilizce iki tekerlemenin her satırı (BBBS ve DF) ve bir tekerlemenin (SS) her sözcüğü uyarlandı, değiştirildi. Sonra öğretmen ve öğrencilere hangi öğrenme ortamının daha etkili olduğunu yazılı olarak ifade etmişlerdir. Ayrıca, dil bölümünde okuyan öğrenciler, ilkokula gitmeden –okur-yazar- olmadan önce öğrendikleri ve hala bildikleri tekerlemeleri yazmışlardır. Yapılan incelemede 9. sınıf öğrencilerin hepsi tekerlemede kafiyenin önemini, tekerlemenin telaffuzu, hızlı ve akıcı konuşmayı etkilediği belirtmişlerdir. 11. sınıf dil öğrencileri ise tekerlemede, telaffuz, kalıcılık ve eğlenceli yönü belirtmişlerdir. İDE ikinci sınıf öğrencileri ise ikinci anlatım (uyarlama yapılmış) şeklinin etkili olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. İDE dördüncü sınıf öğrencileri ise tekerlemelerin genelde kafiye ve telaffuz bakımından etkili olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. Son olarak her iki İngilizce öğretmeni tekerlemenin kullanılması ve uyarlanmasına karşı olumlu görüş ifade etmişlerdir. İngilizce tekerlemelerin uyarlaması, eğitim bilimlerinde ve yabancı dil öğretiminde kullanılan “bilinenden bilinmeye öğretim ilkesi” ile örtüşmektedir. Bu ilkede, öğrencinin önceki bildikleri sözcük, kavram ve konuları kullanarak yeni konu anlatılır. Başka bir ifadeyle, bu ilkede, öğrencinin ev ve çevresindeki nesneler kullanılarak öğretim yapılır. DF tekerlemesinde görüldüğü gibi, şahıs ve yer adı yabancıdır. Ayrıca, tekerleme İngiltere’de bir olaydan esinlenerek ortaya çıkmıştır. Gerçekte, yabancı dilde öğretilen her şey yabancıdır, ancak Başkan (1978) ve Işık’ın (2008) belirttiği gibi, yabancı olan unsurların uyarlayıp Türk ismi, Türkçe yer adları ve Türk kültürüne ait değerler katmak tekerlemelerin (İngilizce metinlerin) anlaşılmasını kolaylaştırır. Ayrıca, tekerlemenin çıkış nedenini öğrencilere anlatmak onlarda ilgiyi artırabilir. Bu bilinmezse tam tersi de olabilir. Örneğin, Türkçe öğrenen bir yabancıya “kazan doğurdu” veya “kazan öldü” denirse, bu pek anlam ifade etmeyebilir çünkü yabancının bu iki ifadeyi anlaması için Nasreddin Hoca karakterini ve biraz da fıkralarını bilmesi gerekir.

ÖNERİLER

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• Tekerlemeler, ses benzerliği, ikilem ve tekrar taşıdığı için akılda kalıcılığı sağlamaktadır.

• Tekerlemelerin uzun süre akılda kalma etkisi vardır.

• Tekerlemeler, sadece küçüklerin değil, büyüklerin de öğrenebileceği halk kültürünün unsurlarıdır.

• Tekerlemeler sözlü olarak ve birlikte söylediğinde daha etkili olmaktadır.

• Tekerlemeler sayesinde İngilizce dil bilgisi kuralları örtük ve kalıcı şekilde öğretilebilir.

• Tekerlemelere Türkçe uyarlama yapılarak hem tekerleme daha anlamlı hale getirilebilir hem de kendi kültürümüze ait değerler öğretilebilir.

• İngilizce ders kitaplarında her ünite içinde mutlaka bir tekerleme olmalıdır.

• Öğretilmek istenen İngilizce her dil bilgisi konusu için mevcut tekerlemeler arasında kulağa hoş gelen bir tane seçilip kullanılabilir.

• Öğretilecek dil bilgisi konusuna uygun tekerleme yoksa İngilizce kafiye sözlüğü (rhyming dictionary) kullanılarak yeni tekerleme yazılabilir.

• Yabancı dil (İngilizce) öğretmenlerine tekerleme, tekerleme uyarlama, kafiye, kafiye sözlüğü ve kafiyeli tekerleme yazma konusunda hizmet-içi kurs ve seminer düzenlenebilir.

• Yabancı dil öğrenenlere de kafiye ve tekerleme yazma konusunda bilgi verilebilir, böylece dil öğrenenler öğrendikleri konuya uygun kendi tekerlemelerini yazabilirler.

KAYNAKLAR Acat, M.B. & Demiral, S. (2002). Türkiye’de yabancı dil öğretiminde motivasyon kaynakları ve sorunlar, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 31, 312-329. Adelman, G., Jenkins, D. & Kemmis, S. (1984). Rethinking case study, in Bell, J. Et al. (eds.) Conducting Small- Scale Investigations in Educational Management. London: P.C.P., s.93-102. Akalın, S. & Zengin, B. (2007). Türkiye’de halkın yabancı dil ile ilgili algıları, Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 3(1), 181-199. Aydın, S. & Zengin, B. (2008). Yabancı dil öğretiminde kaygı: bir literatür özeti, Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 4(1), 81-94. Bahar, İ. (2008). Tekerlemeler, İlköğretim İçin M.E.B. Tavsiyeli 100 Temel Eser. İstanbul: Kumsaati Yayınları. Can, E. & Can, C. I. (2014). Türkiye’de ikinci yabancı dil öğretiminde karşılaşılan sorunlar, Trakya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(2), 43-63. Çelebi, N. (2014). Neoliberal eğitim politikaları ve eğitimde fırsat eşitliği bağlamında uluslararası sınavların (PISA, TIMSS ve PIRLS) analizi, Tarih Kültür ve Sanat Araştırmaları Dergisi 3(3), 33-75.

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Çelik, S. & Arıkan, A. (2012). Öğretmen yetiştirme programlarının İngilizce Öğretmen adaylarını İlköğretimde İngilizce öğretimine ne kadar hazırladığına yönelik nitel bir araştırma, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 32, 77-87. Cross, D. (1995). A Practical Handbook of Language Teaching. UK: Phoenix. Crystal, D. (1993). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, (Third Edition). Oxford: Blackwell. Crystal, D. (1998). The Penguin Dictionary of Language, (2nd Edition). UK: Penguin Books, Ltd. Crystal, D. (1998). The Cambridge Enclopedia of Language, (Second Edition). Cambridge: CUP. Demirel, Ö. (2004) ELT Medhodology. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Dilber, E. (2015). Dilbilgisi Öğretimi (içinde) Dil Öğretimi (ed.), Nilüfer Bekleyen, Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 371-390. Dolunay, S.K. & Savaş, Ö. (2018). Çoklu zeka kuramı destekli dil bilgisi öğretimi, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 18(3), 1433-1455. Ezgin, A. (2007). Tekerlemeler, (Derleme). 100 Temel Eser, İstanbul: Tebessüm Yayınevi. Gedikoğlu, T. (2005). Avrupa Birliği Sürecinde Türk eğitim sistemi: sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri, Mersin Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1), 66-80. Gül, H. (2008). Türkiye’nin Eğitim Sorunları, AKP’nin eğitime bakışı ve çözüm önerileri, Toplum ve Demokrasi,2(3), 181-196. Günday, R. (2018). Yabancı dil eğitiminde etken (aktif) ya da edilgen (pasif) yolla dilbilgisi öğretimi, International Journal of Languages Education and Teaching, 6(1), 436-445. Haznedar, B. (2010). Türkiye’de yabancı dil eğitimi: Yönelimler ve öğretmenlerimiz, International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 11-13 Kasım, Antalya. Işık, A. (2008). Yabancı dil eğitimimizdeki yanlışlar neden kaynaklanıyor? Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 4(2), 15-26. Karasar, N. (2005). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel. König, W. (1989). Türkiye’deki yabancı dil öğretimi sorunları, dışardan bir bakış, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 4, 67-172. McArthur, T. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP. Nunan, D. (2001). Teaching Grammar in Context,(in) English Language Teaching in its Social Context. (eds.) C. N Candlin & Neil Mercer, London: Routledge, s.191-199. Oğuz, A. (2002). Üniversitedeki öğretim elemanlarının yabancı dili geliştirme güçlükleri, Eğitim ve Bilim, 27 (125), 17-27. Özyılmaz, Ö. (2017). Türk Milli Eğitim Sisteminin Sorunları ve Çözüm Arayışları. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Paker, T. (2012) Türkiye’de neden yabancı dil (İngilizce) öğretemiyoruz ve neden öğrencilerimiz iletişim kurabilecek düzeyde İngilizce öğrenemiyor? Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 32, 89-94. Philips, S. (1993). Young Learners. Oxford: OUP. Robson, C. (1996). Real World Research. Oxford: Blackwell. Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research, Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage Publications. Suna, Y. & Durmuşçelebi, M. (2013). Türkiye’de yabancı dil öğrenme-öğretme problemine ilişkin yapılan çalışmaların derlemesi, Türkiye Sosyal Politika ve Çalışma Hayatı Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3(5), 7-24. Tan, H. (1989). Türk eğitiminde kalite sorunu, Marmara Üniversitesi, Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 1, 129-139. Thornbury, S. (1999). How to Teach Grammar. England: Longman. Tok, H. & Arıbaş, S. (2008). Avrupa Birliğine uyum sürecinde yabancı dil öğretimi, İnönü Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(15), 205-227. 344

Uluğ, F. (1998) Eğitim sisteminde değişime yapısal uyum sorunları, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 4, 153-166. Ur, P. (2001). Grammar Practice Avtivities, Cambridge: CUP. URL-1 https://www.takvim.com.tr/ (erişim tarihi, 18.07.2019, mobile). URL-2 http://sozluk.gov.tr/ (erişim tarihi, 29.05.2019). URL-3 https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/tongue-twister? (erişim tarihi, 29.05.2019). URL-4 https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/easy-and-popular-tongue-twisters-for-kids. URL-5 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dttq5p0xUM, (erişim tarihi, 30.05.2019). URL-6 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aXW4aYOD86U, (erişim tarihi, 30.05.2019). URL-7 http://kenansahbaz.com/cobanin-hesabi/ Kaynak: Zülfikar Aksoy – Adana (erişim tarihi, 29.05.2019). Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2005). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara: Seçkin.

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THE ROLE OF ART COMMUNICATION IN TEXT ANALYSIS

Yermek Adayeva1

Literature subject is of great importance in forming personal, communicative competence of students. The main direction of the national education model of Kazakhstan is to perceive human as the fundamental value of society, whereas the content of education in our curriculum is directed to the formation and development of a conscious citizen and establishment of aesthetic taste of students through the study of selected literary works. It is known that the works of the Kazakh literature of the Soviet era had been analyzed on the basis of then main stream method – the socialist realism method. There should not be any authoritarian views between the contemporary Kazakh literary works and the readers like that in the Soviet era. It is necessary to hold onto this principle in teaching modern Kazakh literature with innovative methods. However, it is a prominent issue to teach today's students who use a wide range of information technologies to be accustomed to reading books, poetry and prose texts, i.e. reading the artistic texts. This, of course, depends on many factors. Among them there is a lack of time for students to study artistic works; the question what kind of model of future life they would like to create for themselves, etc. Therefore, one way to solve this problem is to make sure that students have the opportunity to engage in creating a new artistic space. In this way, it is important to identify the type of artistic communication that is the basis of the artwork being studied. Determining the various communicative relationships that have influenced the birth of a certain piece of literature will be part of the scientific character of the teaching and will form the students' independent research. Tasks aimed at identifying art communication in the literary education system will be another stimulus for getting acquainted with the text. What is Art Communication? Let's have look at it. Communication between the author who wrote the literary piece and the reader is called art communication. Communication here is realized through artistic texts. Since it is art communication, here exist its addresser and addressee. The addressee in the art communication is the reader, and the addresser is the author. Scholars comment: "Artistic communication is a

1 Instructor, Nazarbayev University

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dialogue between the reader and the author on the basis of artistic text, ideas and impressions (Yu. B. Borev, B. P. Goncharov, V. Nestorov, T. N. Radionova, M. P. Safetskaya, O. Fukasi, S. A. Chakovskii, E. A. Shamokova and others)" (Gorban, 2010). Because art communication is also founded on dialogue, scholars who study the issue of dialogues have dwelled on the communicative capabilities of the art text. For example: Based on the Dialogism concept in the novel structure of the outstanding scholar M. Bakhtin (Bakhtin, 1979), we identify following types of dialogism in the text - content dialogue; - dialogue of consciousness and personality; - chronotopic dialogue; - genre dialogue; - style dialogs, etc. It is these dialogues that enables us to more deeply understand the problematic-thematic part of the literary piece, to characterize the psychological state of the characters, to consider the socio-historical context. In order to increase students' interest in reading the art work as mentioned above, it is important to understand all the aspects of art communication. The emergence of various theoretical approaches to interpretation of texts (hermeneutics, receptive aesthetics, critique of readers' reaction, etc.) has affected the emergence of general art communication over the past decade. This process was related to the interpretative paradigm shift that began in the 20th century sixties, i.e. the attention shifted from the author and the text to the reader. The text analysis suggested the creation of new interpretative predictions - artistic communication models between the author, the text and the reader. The goal of any linguistic communication is to carry out an ultimate intention. The purpose of communication in the artwork is to interpret the author's communicative ideas, goals, and positions. The author's position in any artistic text is aimed at the formation of the aesthetic taste of the reader, the formation of moral values and spiritual values of them. To influence the reader, the author uses a variety of methods, language tools. Before analyzing literary texts, we need to understand the purpose of that author. Now, how is this communication going to be realized? Let's talk about that. 1. Artistic communication begins with the creative process of artistic texts and its influence on the audience.

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2. The art content in the text that is meant to be conveyed in this process is encoded and encrypted. 3. When the recipient receives the text, this meaning is decoded. While gradually (consistently) accepting the text as speech product, art content begin to form in the reader's mind. It is necessary to distinguish between explicit and implicit options of reading while interpreting the content of the literary text. First of all, it is appropriate to let students to determine the author's views on the topic and the author's position in the work's title. For this purpose, it is also aimed to create an enthusiasm for the work, and problem-solving questions lead to a careful reading of the text. For example, it is necessary to draw attention to the supplementary information in the title of the well-known Kazakh writer T. Esemkulov's post modernistic "Treasure of Bektory". In order to be able to analyze the problem in the theoretical perspective, the teacher should introduce theoretical information about intertext phenomena in his lecture. It is also helpful to write an abstract on the features of the phenomenon of intertext, allusion, reminiscence phenomena used to evaluate and analyze modernist texts from works of postmodernism theorists. Then, in order to develop students' research curiosity, it is desirable to find out from the text the ways of intertextualism methods such as allusion, reminiscence, quotes. It can be questioned as follows: Who is the Bektory? Is it possible to compare Bektory image in the story "Er Tostik" and the one in "Treasure of the Bektory"? What word in the phrase "Treasure of the Bektory" is emphasized in the text? What are the ways in which the writer uses his skill to build the image of the Bectory? Find and explain phrases that describe Bektory in the text. What are the typical artistic methods used in a fairy tale? Are there any contradictory aspects in perception and understanding of both images? How did the writer develop the image according to postmodernism poetry? What are the functions of the Angel and the Archangel in the work? Why does the writer find it necessary to renew the image of Bectory? In the dialogue around such guiding questions, it is necessary to draw attention to the fact that the author's personal myth plays two types functions in postmodernist poetry. The author myth both serves to generate mythology and to reverse the mythology, that is, though fully coinciding with the mythological worldview, it completely disregards the mythological semantics. That is to say, intertextualism generate a shadow of the mythological world, that students can find themselves.

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4. Artistic communication is carried out through and understanding the artistic work in the historical, social and cultural context. This aspect of art communication assumes understanding of the historical reality, author's position, meanings of artistic text, cultural code, artistic concept of the work depicted by the author. 5. Artistic communication considers not only the content of the work, but also its value. The latter reveals the importance of the work for mankind and shows the creativity of the author in introducing the basic idea in the work and the use of artistic means. The communicative approach to the literary text depicts the author and the reader's speech and thinking. "The communication approach depends on linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Linguistic factors include communication tools. Extralinguistic factors include the knowledge, attitudes and goals of the communicators to understand the text (Dake, Baths, 1989). The peculiarity of the artistic communication as a means of forming the personal qualities of students is in organization of polysubject interaction based on the value-content perception of the artwork. The art communication organized in such a way strengthens the axiological and hermeneutic aspects of the author's understanding and appreciation of the artistic image. Polysubject art communication is a wide range of interaction of subjects in the educational process (Chugaeva, 2013). In the center of the process is a personality of the student, who establishes value and content relationships with the author and the character of the art work, himself / herself (internal dialogue), students in the classroom (external dialogue). The teacher here is the organizer of artistic communication that promotes the development of the value- content communication of the student in the process of perceiving the art work, but not the intermediary or the interpreter between the text and the student. The composition of the art communication includes: "me - the world of artistic reality", "me - others (author and characters of the art work", "me - for me", "me - for others" and so on) value-semantic relations. Deploying and implementing these relationships can help students develop self- awareness skills, self-awareness and self-expression, and promote personality traits. For example, "me - the world of artistic reality" is aimed at recognizing and understanding the life reality in the art text. In this case, the student understands the author's thoughts and communicates with the author on a bilateral basis. Defines the similarities and differences between the author and himself in recognizing and understanding the world.

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The value-semantic relationships of "me and others" are aimed at understanding the author's perception of the world and the artistic aesthetic approach to the world. It is related to the structuring the self-disclosure strategies in creative conditions. Students learn to make self- presentation in the dialogue with the author and heroes of art work. While "me - for myself" value-semantic relation is related to the self- reflection and recognizing his own personality traits in the art communication, . Thus, by developing empathy and reflection mechanisms as a set of values-semantic attitudes, they try to define their own values, to be self-aware, to be self-aware in the creative process. Recognizing his own peculiarities, he tries to change or develop his own "me". And the art work attains a new meaning and continues its literary life. This organization of the learning process allows the author to be regarded as an addresser of the artistic message, the artistic compositions to be regarded as a transmitter of the author's thoughts that invites the readers for creative unity, and the readers to be regarded as addressees who can read the artistic compositions in the context of the individual personality. As a result, students are deeply aware of the essence of artistic creativity and recognize themselves as an interested subject. Thus, pedagogically organized literary communication in literary classes is a means for forming a personality, its value-content bases and creative talent. Further developing the artistic communication, we use the Teaching through the Project Method to allow our students to have a deeper mastery of contemporary Kazakh literature. This method often takes students to the whole semester to complete and submit it to the Turnitin system to let the teacher check. Students receive basic education and qualifications not from the teacher but from their own personal search. Thirdly, in teaching modern literary process, to increase their interest in text analysis, creative methods are used for the development of students' creative abilities along with a variety of projects. Fourthly, in order to enhance the students' interest in the discipline, the artwork and communication, we also use one branch of multimedia technology such online applications as Google Document, Thinklink, Kahoot, Playposit, as well as social networks. All the techniques used are aimed at presenting new phenomena and characteristics in modern Kazakh literature. For example, in order to explain the artistic nature of M. Magauin's work "Kaskyr-Bori" (The Wolf), which is essentially complex from a content-form stand point, and of postmodernist characteristics, we concentrate our students on creating the art space mentioned above.

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We work on self-cognition and understanding by opening artistic communication as a set of value-semantic communication. To do this, students can offer the following types of communication: - Me – Mukhtar Magauin - Me – Kokdauyl - Me – Readers - Me – Batu - Me – for myself According to the 1st Communication, acquainting with the author's artistic solution students compare it with similarities and differences in their own world views. The analysis continues in this style. There is also a series of additional tasks to enhance students' empathy and self-reflection. They include making a new name for the work, writing an epigraph, creating a social and psychological portrait of the writer, etc. As a result, students try to discover the artistic nature of the work through the communication. The students identify author's thoughts, the system of content and values, and they engage in bilateral dialogues with the author To conclude, in the process of mastering the content of modern Kazakh literature subject, the artistic communication, which is the means of forming the personality of students, is important. Besides, ideas for the complete development of personality in the literature class should be reflected in the content and organization of the learning process.

References

Gorban E. (2010). Features of Artistic Communication in the Aspect Of Generative Competence. Bulletin of the KASU, № 2. Bakhtin M. (1979). Aesthetics of Literary Creativity: M. Creative Literature, p. 412 Dake, T. A. Baths. (1989). Language. Cognition. Communication. Moscow: Progress, p.310. Chugaeva I. G. (2013). Art Communication as A Means of Forming the Personal Identity of High School Students in The Classroom of World Artistic Culture: Author of Dissertation, Candidate of Pedagogy - Ekaterinburg: Ural State Pedagogical University, - 24 p.

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USE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING FOR READING IN KAZAKH LANGUAGE

Shalabayeva Gulzhamilya1

Use of Problem-based learning for Reading in Kazakh language

In the conditions of openness of world education, academic mobility of students and teachers, educational technologies known in the USA and Europe are actively penetrating the educational space of Kazakhstan. At the same time, teachers are trying to find analogues and the effectiveness of the use of foreign technologies in Kazakhstan's educational practice. In this regard, at present, in the educational practice of Kazakhstani universities, interest is being focused on those learning technologies that are becoming a way to implement new approaches in education: competence, student activities, student-centered education. Students educated for the world of the 21st century must develop habits of thinking, researching, and problem solving to succeed in a rapidly changing world. Proper use of new technology helps the development of students' cognitive interests and creative abilities. In today's rapidly changing world, modern teaching methods aimed at developing certain practical skills among students are becoming increasingly popular. Today relations of a language and a social life of people calculate a number of underlying affects. Therefore the Kazakh language as a native or second language has a different position in student’s priorities. The main goals of this paper are highlight key tasks and principles of methodology and what are the advantages of the problem-based learning in Kazakh language teaching. In learning Kazakh language four skills should be mastered deeply, namely Listening, Speaking, Writing and Reading. Reading is one of the most important skills of them for developing necessary communicational instruments. Students and teachers, however, tend to worry that not all important knowledge will be acquired in-process Reading. To explore this issue we considered Reading with a problem-based approach.

1 Instructor,Nazarbayev University

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Reading is also very useful for students. By doing reading activity, students would know about the world without having to go around the world. They also can improve their knowledge and find any information needed through reading. However, in fact, with in Language learning process Reading is not as easy as what students think because it is not only reading a sentence and saying it out to others. They need to understand and comprehend about what they are reading in order to catch the content and meaning from their reading source (Gibran, 2016). However, reading something in different language is not easy at all because students of Nazarbayev University speak three languages: for many of them Kazakh language is a native language but for them Russian language is a language of communication. And learning language is English. Therefore, it is difficult for them to rebuild from one language to another and translation takes a lot of time. Therefore, it is important for us to apply different technologies to interest in the language. Also for effective work the teachers does not need too dominates the activity in the classroom during the reading work. But the lack of participation may give also bad result and influence to students’ reading comprehension. Therefore, it is a must for the teacher to choose the better method in the learning process. The teacher should suit the appropriate method in order to make the learning process run well. By applying the appropriate method to the students, it will increase their understanding about what they are reading. Before exploring in detail the practical application, need to dwell a bit on the theoretical aspects of this technology. What is the Problem-based learning? Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a learning model that is based on the problem where students are asked to find solutions through investigation. Problem based learning is a style of learning in which the problems act as the context and driving force for learning. All learning of new knowledge is done within the context of the problems (Gibran, 2016). PBL is well established in medical education. It started at the McMaster University in Canada in the 1960s. Since then it has spread across other practice-based, health related disciplines such as nursing, social work, dentistry, veterinary science, nursing, etc. PBL is now being adopted in other ‘professional’ disciplines such as architecture, law, management, and engineering and there is an increasing trend for it to be used within other disciplines. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Problem-based learning? In PBL, the main method of solving a problem is group discussion. As usual in a group discussion there is a student leader leading the discussion, while other students participate in

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the rest of the group’s work, sharing responsibilities among themselves: one student records, another student controls time, etc. Do not underestimate the impact of time and resources. Sometimes group work takes most of the lesson and needs support and the right direction of students by an instructor. Group work often suffers from the non-participation or incomplete participation of students. Therefore, the right strategies must be created to deal with groups or students who do not work. Some students may not to take seriously the need for self-study, reading material. Therefore, you should clearly define the results and commitment. Working in groups, students are guided how to find answers to the problems which have been determined to finish. PBL promotes self-motivation and facilitates more enjoyable and effective learning. Students think problem based learning is a more interesting, stimulating, and enjoyable learning method. It also offers a more flexible and nurturing way to learn. The effectiveness of Problem-based learning in the Kazakh language In the era of globalization in the modern world, students need to gain not only knowledge, but also to be taught how to adopt and master the essential skills of XXI century such as problem solving, analytical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and ethics. In this connexion, Problem based approach is the most optimal and modern solution in teaching and learning language. Problem based approach is based on the principle of students’ motivation in learning process, which is one of the important aspects during the class. A distinctive feature of the organization of this approach to the lesson is an independent problem solving, development of students’ creative and critical thinking. PBL is well used in language learning process while reading and analyzing the reading material. While working with fiction texts students would have to analyze facts, motives and arguments in order to solve different problematic situations. While solving the problem student could face difficulties in expressing thoughts in the given language, which are the incentives in finding the missing information in the text. Therefore, students would return to the text again and again, which would make them to read paragraphs many times highlighting the important moments and taking notes. In case of Problem-based learning through Reading, students not only could master the language, but also could learn to use language tools to interpret the content of the texts, create their own speeches, which could express their positions.

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It should be noted that the use of PBL while working with the text is particularly relevant because such texts (including artistic) are the products of speech activity, which provides cultural or national information, reflected in the traditions, customs and behaviors of people. Therefore, for the student - text is an important source of language learning and understanding culture, life, traditions of the people. During the PBL, one important requirement is to use the problem-oriented assignments. During the process of learning the system of various problem communicative tasks could be used: role-playing games involving the creation of situations of communication; discussions - which includes the discussions of controversial issues, the exchange of opinions and ideas. Discussion based learning is one of the distinctive methods in PBL. During the discussion, students have the opportunity to exchange information, express their critical opinions, to find solutions to the problems and situations. As a result of active work in the discussions, they can clearly state the understanding of the read text in their own words, positively give themselves to the general atmosphere of the class. Plus, by the end of the discussion of a topic or text, each student answers questions such as “What did I understand from this?” (i.e. “What conclusion did I draw?”) And “What do I need to work on?” (i.e. “What do I need to improve?”). In the process of Problem-based learning at the Intermediate Level, the classical method of working with pretext, text, and post-text tasks also works well. Each stage has its own goals and objectives, as well as worked out exercises and tasks that are supposed to solve these problems. If at the first stage, students are tuned into reading, enter into a situation, make assumptions about the content of the text, then at the second stage they analyze the text in detail, separating facts from opinions, and also draw arguments and evidence from the text to their subjective judgments. At the final stage of the work, students should be able to give their own assessment of the presented facts and events, give an assessment of the cognitive value of information, and conduct a comparative analysis of the expected result with that obtained from the text. It is very important to draw equivalents of problems and events from the text with life, to consider and analyze similar situations between countries, cities, the social environment, and generations and even look at the problem in the future. This gives students the opportunity to look at the problem from the outside, discuss and offer their own solutions to problems and situations. This type of work may continue in Writing Tasks in the form of writing an argument essay or review. Thus, when reading through PBL, students can develop not only oral, but also

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written speech. This suggests that PBL, as a type of new technology, can be effectively used at all levels of language skills (Listening, Writing, Speaking and Reading). Problem-based learning is not just a technology implemented in the educational process, but a special type of educational process in class. Since our lessons aim to teach students a language, we cannot fully use Problem-based learning technology, but only some of its elements. Such as, for example: group discussions, discussions, questions and answers, debates, prediscussion and postdiscussion, etc... And this also gives its results. The main thing in the group is a positive relationship and responsibility, stimulating each other. It is noteworthy that in studying the course, an assessment is made of the participation of each student in group discussions. In this case, the student will evaluate his activity and the activity of all the other members of the group. Students can evaluate the quality of their preparedness for the lesson, active participation, and the quality of their participation. Thus, when reading in the Kazakh language, using the problem-based approach has many advantages. As for the lessons of the Kazakh language for the Intermediate Level, the use of PBL for reading has given good results. With the help of these problem tasks in the classroom, students actively discuss the materials they have read and express their own opinions. Reading does not frighten them as it used to do; now they read texts with interest and understanding. When analyzing and parsing the materials they read, students forget that there were situations and problems in the texts. As they transfer all these problems to real situations, they simulate their role and situations by modeling them. This allows students to develop both the imagination and feelings. With the help of reading materials, students discuss problems, independently work out ways of solving problems that help to develop conversational speech and critical thinking of students. In the classroom, problems can be structured through brainstorming or asking questions for the audience (prediscussion) or discussing the material (postdiscussion). In a word, teachers should be interesting, creative and create the comfort situation in the class. Only then can you get results and enjoyment from work. Based on the above, we can say that reading with the help of PBL improves students' experience in learning a language. The application of this method will influence student’s achievements in the end of the language learning process. Problem-based learning is an exciting alternative to traditional classroom learning. With Problem-based learning, the teacher presents students with a problem, not lectures or assignments or exercises. Problem-based learning involves learning through tackling problems.

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Although the problems, or tasks, may not always have a ‘solution’, Problem-based learning nevertheless provides a rich learning environment in which students identify what needs to be studied and learnt from examining the problems confronted.

References Gibran A. J. (2016). The use of Problem-based learning method in Reading comprehension. Journal of English Language Teaching, 5(3) Nurtazin S.T., Bazarbayeva Zh.M., Esimsiitova Z.B., Yermekbayeva D.K. (2013).Innovation method of Problem- based learning (PBL). Scientific Journal “Advances in modern science”,#5 (pp.112-114) from https://www.natural-sciences.ru/ru article. Pozdeeva S.I. (2016). Problem and Problem-Based-learning: the comparative analysis. Siberian Pedagogical Journal, #2 (pp.95-99)

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BENEFITS OF SHORT STORIES IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

Vjosa Vela1 Lumturije Bajrami2

Introduction Learning vocabulary is a huge part of learning any language. Short stories could improve the way ELLs learn their vocabulary. However they don’t seem to have enough attention in the language learning classrooms. Teachers believe that stories need more time, ignoring the fact that short stories can help the students to become competent in reading, writing and in building vocabulary. Therefore integrating short stories in teaching English language may enhance learning and make it more enjoyable for learners. Using short stories can also help students know more about the target culture. The themes, plots, settings, and characters motivate students to know what happens in the story. They can learn new vocabulary words both intentionally and incidentally through reading and discussing the story by using various activities. As stated above, short stories are suitable for teaching a foreign language; however, teachers must choose appropriate materials according to their students' language ability. Otherwise, reading could be a very difficult task for them. In this regard, Hişmanoğlu (2005) argues: "When selecting the literary texts to be used in language classes, the language teacher should take into account needs, motivation, interests, cultural background and language level of the students" (p. 57). In fact, it is necessary for teachers to learn to know and understand their students in order to guide activities in a meaningful way, which can contribute to guaranteeing the success of academic work. In coherence with the previous assertions, the use of short stories in English classes is a way to find methods that motivate students' language learning because stories provide numerous benefits for teaching; the language used in these stories is commonly understandable for students and facilitates their engagement in reading. Likewise, Kohan and Pourkalhor (2013) mention some advantages of teaching English through short stories: "they make the students' reading task easier, they help students to be more creative, they raise cultural awareness, they reduce students' anxiety and help them feel more relaxed, they manage

1 High Lector, South East European University 2 High Lector, South East European University 358

universal language and they involve fiction" (p. 3). In fact, these ideas guide teachers' work with meaningful activities that contribute greatly to students' learning. In addition, Pardede (2010) found in his research that short stories are interesting to use as material for personal enjoyment and also help students achieve better mastery in the development of language skills. Hence, teachers can implement activities that involve student motivations as a way to improve their language acquisition. When students are immersed in a story, language is seen as a natural process through which they can identify the functions of words in the sentences. Sakthivel, Phil, and Kavidha (2010) observe that "by reading a piece of literature learners can understand the diverse use of words, phrases, phrasal verbs, multiple meanings, idioms, among others" (p. 230). These arguments evidence how teachers can use short stories because they encourage interactive language work which is both meaningful and interesting for students. Selection of short stories It is important to select stories that are at the ‘instructional level’ for the majority of students in the class. An instructional level text is one in which a student is able to read at least

90% of the words accurately and understand no less than 75% of the overall content. If the text is too difficult, the teacher will spend too much time explaining vocabulary and scaffolding student learning. Students will spend too much time focusing on word recognition and will struggle to understand the meaning. Keeping this key element of extensive reading in mind all the short stories that the teacher selected were appropriate to the level of students.

Types of materials Graded Readers: Most people agree that exposure to a second language is the key to effective learning. However, it is also vital to success that learners feel motivated, that they enjoy learning the language and that anxiety levels are as low as possible. Graded Readers meet the needs of today’s language learners by maximizing reading opportunities in an enjoyable, relaxing and accessible way. They are short books and audio books, encompassing both fiction and non- fiction genres, which have been specially written or adapted with the language learner in mind, so they will find them quick and easy to read. Finishing a novel in another language will give your students a real sense of achievement, and will motivate them to go on reading more and

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more. Then, of course, the more they read, the more their language proficiency increases, the more confident they feel and the more motivated they are. When reading a text in another language, we know that learners can face certain difficulties. These include: • Complex or unfamiliar vocabulary or grammar, or a lack of context for unfamiliar items • Unfamiliar content • Complex text organization • Unfamiliar text type

(Scott Thornbury, Beyond the Sentence, 2005, Macmillan)

Graded Readers can overcome these problems by controlling language and content and, as their name suggests, by being graded into levels of difficulty. They are available by major publishers (e.g. Cambridge University Press, Heinemann, Oxford and Penguin)

Stories and articles chosen by the teacher:

While choosing short stories teachers should keep in mind the following guidelines:

1. The style should include repetition, without being monotonous. 2. New vocabulary should not occur at the same place as difficulties of structure. 3. The text should break in sections that are not too long. This is to give the reader a feeling of accomplishment when completed. 4. Authors should be chosen with less complex structure and less extensive vocabulary range. 5. The subject matter should be of real interest to the students and suitable for their age level. Rivers (1981) suggests the subject matter should be as close as possible to the type of material the students would read in their first language.

Conclusion

To sum up, the previous discussion illustrates the various studies that reflect up the importance of building vocabulary through reading short stories. It also shows that reading short stories has many advantages not only for enhancing vocabulary, but also for building up the critical and creative thinking of the students.

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References

Hişmanoğlu, M. (2005). Teaching English through literature. Journal of Language and Linguistic studies, 1(1).54. Kohan, N. & Pourkalhor, O. (2013). Teaching Reading Comprehension through Short Stories in Advanced Classes. Asian Journal of Social and Humanities, 2(2), 52-60 Pardede, P. (2010). Short stories use in language skills classes: Students' interest and perception. In Proceedings of the 4th International Seminar. Bringing Linguistics and Literature into EFL Classrooms (pp. 1-17). Rivers, W.M. (1968) Teaching Foreign Language Skills, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sakthivel, V., Phil, M. and Kavidha, N. (2010). Is Literature a Viable Medium for ESL Acquisition? In M.S. Thirumalai (ed.), Language in India, 10(1), 228-233. Thornbury, S. (2005) Beyond the Sentence, 2005, Macmillan.

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