RIRDC Completed Projects in 2007-2008 and Research in Progress as at June 2008

RIRDC Publication No. 08/074

FODDER

RIRDCInnovation for rural Australia

RIRDC Completed Projects in 2007-2008 and Research in Progress as at June 2008

FODDER CROPS

December 2008 RIRDC Publication No 08/074 © 2008 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved.

ISBN 1 74151 663 3 ISSN 1440-6845

RIRDC Completed Projects in 2007-08 and Research in Progress as at June 2008 – Fodder Crops Publication No. 08/074

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances.

While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct, the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication.

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Senior Research Manager Contact Details Dr John de Majnik Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6271 4138 Fax : 02 6271 4199 Email: [email protected].

In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.

RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6271 4100 Fax: 02 6271 4199 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in December 2008 Printed by Union Offset Printing, Canberra

ii Foreword

The objective of the Fodder Crops R&D Program is to facilitate the development of a sustainable and profitable Australian fodder industry.

The Fodder Crops Five Year R&D Plan 2004-2009 addressed seven major research objectives:

Objective 1: New Products and Markets Objective 2: Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation Objective 3: Agronomy: Plant Nutrition, Disease, Weed, Pest and Micro-organism Management Objective 4: and Production, Processing and Transportation Objective 5: Improved Fodder Quality Objective 6: Industry Bio security and Environmental Management Objective 7: Industry Communication and Information Flows.

RIRDC produces Research in Progress summaries of continuing projects and those completed during 2007-2008. Our intention is to: • give stakeholders early access to the results of ongoing and completed work to inform their decisions; and

• inform researchers of results to shape research directions.

The complete report on all programs is on our website at http://www.rirdc.gov.au

This report is an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1800 research publications, which are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online thorough our website:

• http:// www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/index.html • purchases at http://www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii

FODDER CROPS RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

PROJECT PAGE PROJECT TITLE RESEARCHER ORGANISATION No No

Crop agronomy – nutrition, disease, weed, pest and micro-organism management Fungicides for managing diseases and quality PRJ-000636 Mr Patrick Redden Rural Directions Pty Ltd 1 in export oaten hay

FODDER CROPS COMPLETED PROJECTS

PROJECT PAGE PROJECT TITLE RESEARCHER ORGANISATION No No

Crop agronomy – nutrition, disease, weed, pest and micro-organism management PRJ-000656 Prediction of ARGT risk in southern Australia Dr Barrie Purser BSC Nominees 2

Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation Development of improved varieties for hay South Australian Research and PRJ-000562 Dr. Pamela Zwer 4 production: National program II Development Institute Development of improved oat varieties for hay South Australian Research and PRJ-000440 Dr. Pamela Zwer 5 production: National program III Development Institute

Hay and Silage Production, Processing and Transport Industry practices to meet mandatory export PRJ-000642 Dr John Black John L Black Consulting 6 market standards

Improved Fodder Quality Quantifying fodder quality assessments using Prof John University of Southern PRJ-000785 8 machine vision Billingsley Queensland Fodder quality specifications, identifying Dr Dean Revell PRJ-000518 predictors of fodder quality across animal The University of Adelaide 29 Ms Sarah Pain species

Industry Communication and Information Flows Technology transfer of BMP/QA systems for Mary-Anne New South Wales Department PRJ-000514 11 quality lucerne hay production Lattimore of Primary Industries Australian Bureau of PRJ-000806 Australian Fodder Atlas Mr Peter Martin Agricultural and Resource 12 Economics (ABARE)

iv FODDER CROPS COMPLETED PROJECTS prior to 2007–08

Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation PROJECT PROJECT TITLE RESEARCHER ORGANISATION PAGE No Development of research protocols for the Mr Michael Agrilink Agricultural AAB-1A 13 export hay industry Faulkner Consultants Pty Ltd Development of improved oat varieties for hay South Australian Research and SAR-50A Dr. Pamela Zwer 14 production: national program I Development Institute South Australian Research and SAR-54A Improve vetch varieties for fodder production Mr. Rade Matic 16 Development Institute South Australian Research and SAR-53A Update of growing oat hay book Dr Pamela Zwer 18 Development Institute Evaluation of potential fodder and IPB-2A Dr Ross Downes Innovative Plant Breeders 19 grass crops for dryland hay production Development of improved oat varieties for hay South Australian Research and SAR-31A Pamela Zwer 20 end-use Development Institute Development of disease resistant, high South Australian Research and SAR-8A yielding oat cultivars with enhanced quality for Pamela Zwer 21 Development Institute hay production

Hay and Silage Production, Processing and Transport Colin Peace, Australian Fodder Industry Performance based standards assessment of Chris Blanksby, ARR-1A Association and ARRB Group 23 vehicles for the transport of hay and Steve Patrick, Rob Ltd Di Cristoforo Best practice super conditioning to produce RDP-2A Mr Peter Baker Rural Directions Pty Ltd 24 quality export oaten hay

Improved Fodder Quality Development of an integrated R&D project to JLB-3A Dr John Black John L Black Consulting 27 specify fodder quality - Stage 2 Fodder quality specifications, identifying UA-64A predictors of fodder quality across animal Dr. Dean Revell The University of Adelaide 29 species Development of an integrated R&D activity to JLB-1A Dr. John Black John L Black Consulting 30 specify fodder quality

New Markets and Products Developing sustainable fodder crop systems Mrs Sarah Department of DAW-103A 32 with new annual Wickham (WA) Testing and simulation of hay bale loading on Dr Peter F ROA-1A Roaduser Systems Pty Ltd 34 semi-trailers Sweatman Further testing and simulation of hay bale Dr Peter F ROA-2A Roaduser Systems Pty Ltd 35 loading on semi-trailers Sweatman PTP-14A Australian Fodder Industry Production Atlas Arthur Stubbs Primary Tasks Pty Ltd 36

Industry Communication and Information Flows Rapid detection of Rathayibacter toxicus in Department of Agriculture DAW-116A Dr Dieter Palmer 37 hay (WA) A publication on fodder systems for Australian KDI-6A Mr M. Evans Kondinin Group 38 farming NSW Agriculture, The Haymaker – extension technology for lucerne DAN-88A Mr Ian Collett Tamworth Centre for Crop 39 management Improvement

Crop agronomy – nutrition, disease, weed, pest and micro-organism management Pierre Fievez and Associates & PFA-1A & Review of diseases of hay: current and Mr Pierre Fievez & NSW Department of Primary 40 DAN-229A future management Dr Gordon Murray Industries v

Industry Bio Security and Environmental Management Eureka! Agresearch (Vic) Pty EAV-1A Chemical use in fodder crops Mr Anthony Flynn 41 Ltd

Plant Disease, Weed, Pest and Micro-organism Management Development of an R&D strategy for quality G. R. Steed & Associates Pty GRS-1A Dr. Graham Steed 43 hay production Ltd Field testing microbial inoculants for hay UQ-82A Dr. Peter Dart The University of Queensland 44 preservation Sulla and other species for southern UWA-30A Dr Mike Ewing University of Western Australia 46 Australia Development of a quantitative ELISA for CSA-3A Dr Khin A Than CSIRO Animal Health 47 screening fodder for corynetoxins

UQ-25A Microbial inoculants for hay Peter Dart University of Queensland 49

Quality Standards Department of Natural Objective measurement of fodder quality DAV-187A Mr. Peter Flinn Resources & Environment 50 across animal species (Vic) National forage conservation project - reliable NSW Agriculture, Wagga DRD-4A Dr. AG Kaiser 52 laboratory tests for silage Wagga Agricultural Institute Objective specification of the quality of hays S Baker, R Dynes, CSJ-1A CSIRO Animal Production 53 and fodder B Purser & D Henry A uniform objective system for quality DAV-104A Peter Flinn Agriculture Victoria 54 description of Australian fodder products Development of exports of oaten hay to Japan CPF De Lima & R DAW-28A Department of Agriculture 56 - alternative shipping methods Nussey Establishment of annual ryegrass toxicity South Australian Research & SAR-2A (ARGT) testing services and protocols for the Alan McKay 58 Development Institute Australian export hay industry

R&D Management Monitoring and Review Assessment of the extent, nature and source KAK-2A of support for a R&D levy for the Australian Mr Colin Simpson Kakadu Pastoral Company P/L 59 fodder industry

Other Related Projects An evaluation of the fodder potential of tree UQ-23A R.C. Gutteridge Department of Agriculture 60 legume species

Fodder Crops Publications 61

vi Research in Progress − Crop agronomy – nutrition, disease, weed, pest and micro-organism management

Project Title Fungicides for managing diseases and quality in export oaten hay

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000636 Start Date: 01-Apr-2007 Finish Date: 30-May-2009 Researcher: Mr Patrick Redden Organisation: Rural Directions Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8842 1103 Fax: (08) 8842 1766 Email: [email protected] Objectives The objectives of this research are to improve the quality, colour and yield of export oaten hay by: • evaluating the effectiveness of a range of registered and non-registered fungicides on controlling septoria, stem and leaf rust and/or bacterial leaf blight in oaten hay • determining whether control of leaf diseases leads to improvements in visual and chemical hay quality and hay yield and • calculating the cost effectiveness of fungicide use, including as a precautionary application. Current Progress Two small plot trials were established in both Western Australia and South Australia to assess the efficacy of various fungicides (registered and non- registered) for controlling leaf diseases in oaten hay. Despite every effort being made to encourage good quantum of multiple leaf diseases through inoculation with rust spores, spreading of infected straw, using susceptible varieties, and sowing into oat stubble, only Septoria Blotch occurred in Western Australian sites. Low levels of Bacterial Blight were present in the South Australian trials. In WA, no statistically significant improvements were recorded for hay yield or hay quality except some leaf colour improvement from applying the various treatments. However reductions in leaf area infected with disease were observed from applications of Tilt®, Opus®, Tilt Xtra®, Amistar Xtra®, and Bravo®. In SA, the trial at Giles Corner was drought affected, limiting the usefulness of data from this site. The remaining site at Manoora showed no significant improvements in hay yield, colour, or quality from the use of fungicides. A further two small plot trials were established in Western Australia to investigate the response of released and non-released oat varieties to foliar propiconazole (Tilt®) application. Once again, efforts were made to encourage multiple disease infection, yet only Septoria Blotch was prevalent in the trials. Varieties varied in their reaction to Tilt® and showed significant reductions in leaf area infected with septoria. Yet this disease control was not translated into significant improvements in hay yield or quality, despite some improvement in hay colour. This seasons’ trials have been sown recently and involve two fungicide trials in SA and WA, and a further two variety response trials in WA.

1 Completed Projects − Crop agronomy – nutrition, disease, weed, pest and micro-organism management

Project Title Prediction of ARGT risk in southern Australia

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000656 Start Date: 01-Sep-2006 Finish Date: 30-Nov-2007 Researcher: Dr Barrie Purser Organisation: BSC Nominees Phone: (08) 9622 1161 Fax: (08) 9622 8510 Email: [email protected] Objectives To ‘map’ quantitatively the incidence of the causative bacterium of the corynetoxin responsible for Annual Ryegrass Toxicity (ARGT) with respect to location, distribution of the bacterium by location over time, and with respect to weather patterns and weather incidents, in order to provide a framework for use to predict likely incidence of ARGT and thus later to provide export hay and domestic fodder producers a tool to manage the risk of incidence of ARGT. Background ARGT became a significant problem for the Australian oaten hay export industry in 1996 when deaths of some in Japan were diagnosed as being caused by ARGT and were traced to hay purchased from a Western Australian hay exporter (Masters et al., 2006). This led to voluntary testing in Australia of all oaten hays destined for export for the causative organism Rathayibacter toxicus, and since 2005 this testing has become compulsory. The testing for presence of R. toxicus in export hay was initiated to minimize the risk of contamination with ARGT of export hay consignments. Annual Ryegrass Toxicity (ARGT) refers to poisoning of from ingestion of pasture, hay or which contain toxins a class known as corynetoxins, which are related to tunicamycins (Edgar et al., 1982). Research A dataset was developed including detailed information from growers, ARGT export hay EIA analyses by the Department of Agriculture and WA (DAFWA) over six hay-growing seasons from 2000 to 2005 and interpolated data from SILO providing weather information to a resolution of five km. SaTScan was used to determine spatial (geographic) distribution of ‘hot spots’ of incidence of ARGT. Pearson pair-wise correlations were made to confirm the use of a truncated dataset and multivariate analyses were used to evaluate possible weather variables as predictors of the incidence and intensity of R. toxicus for a focus group of growers centred around the most common ‘hot spot’ in each year. Outcomes A comprehensive database of incidence and intensity of R. toxicus in export hays in southwestern Australia from 2000-2005 has been established. It comprises ca. 44% of export hay samples tested each year by DAFWA. The spatial (geographic) distribution and intensity of R. toxicus over the six years has been plotted. There was a steady 2.8% pa. increase in the proportion of hay samples testing negative to the presence of R. toxicus. Analysis of the data suggests that weather conditions leading to short hay-growing seasons may enhance the risk of ARGT.

2 Implications The proportion of hay samples testing negative for presence of R. toxicus in the growing seasons 2000 to 2005 was between 63 and 81% and increased steadily by 2.8% pa., indicating that the industry is better managing the ARGT problem. The results suggest that a late start to the season and/or weather conditions leading to early maturity in spring (low rainfall and high temperatures) would increase the risk of presence of R. toxicus and thus ARGT and appropriate measures to manage this increased risk could be invoked by the industry. The results provide a template to be tested more fully for weather events as predictors of ARGT incidence and intensity. Publications Baker S.K. and Purser D.B. (in press) Prediction of ARGT Risk in Southern Australia RIRDC Publication No 08/119.

3 Completed Projects − Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Development of improved oat varieties for hay production: National program II

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000562 Start Date: 1/01/2007 Finish Date: 6/11/2007 Researcher: Dr Pamela Zwer Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute Phone: (08) 8303 9485 Fax: (08) 9303 9378 Email: [email protected] Objectives As part of the National Oat Breeding Program improve oat varieties for export and domestic hay production. The national scope of the program will ensure oat hay varieties are adapted to the southern region of Australia. Industry interaction in the breeding program is essential for identifying breeding priorities for hay variety development. Background Oat hay is a significant proportion of both export and domestic markets with significant growth particularly in the export sector. The export oat hay industry has grown from about 100 000 tonnes (t) in 1993 to over 600 000 t in 2005. In 1993, there were two main varieties, Marloo and Wallaroo, in South Australia where the majority of export hay was produced. At that time, only SARDI was breeding oat hay varieties. Western Australia focused on milling and feed oat varieties, so growers had to experiment using grain varieties for hay production. Today there is significant export hay production in Western Australia, 300 000 t, South Australia, 210 000 t, and Victoria/New South Wales, 115 000 t. As the industry grows it is essential that a consistent supply of high quality oat hay can be sourced for their markets. Research Data collected for hay and grain yield, hay and grain quality, disease resistance, and agronomic traits were summarised and advanced breeding lines promoted to stage 2, stage 3, stage 4, and stage 5 hay trials. Outcomes Lines for 2007 hay trials were selected, trials designed, prepared, and trials sown. Implications Breeding for improved hay varieties will continue for the 2007/2008 year. Publications Zwer P., S. Hoppo and P. McCormack 2007. Development of Improved Oat Varieties for Hay Production: National Program II. RIRDC Publication No. 07/162.

4 Completed Projects − Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Development of improved oat varieties for hay production: National program III

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000440 Start Date: 1/07/2007 Finish Date: 30/06/2008 Researcher: Dr Pamela Zwer Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute Phone: (08) 8303 9485 Fax: (08) 9303 9378 Email: [email protected] Objectives As part of the National Oat Breeding Program, improve oat varieties for export and domestic hay production. The national scope of the program will ensure oat hay varieties are adapted to the southern region of Australia. Industry interaction in the breeding program is essential for identifying breeding priorities for hay variety development. Background Oat hay is a significant proportion of both export and domestic markets with significant growth in both sectors. The export oat hay industry has grown from about 100 000 tonnes (t) in 1993 to over 700 000 t in 2005. In 1993, there were two main varieties, Marloo and Wallaroo, in South Australia where the majority of export hay was produced. At that time only SARDI was breeding oat hay varieties. Western Australia focused on milling and feed oat varieties, so growers had to experiment using grain varieties for hay production. Today Western Australia and South Australia produce a significant proportion of export hay. As the industry grows it is essential that a consistent supply of high quality oat hay can be sourced for their markets. Research Data collected for hay and grain yield, hay and grain quality, disease resistance, and agronomic traits were summarised and advanced breeding lines promoted to stage 2, stage 3, stage 4, and stage 5 hay trials. Outcomes Lines for 2008 hay trials were selected, trials designed, seed prepared, and trials sown. The advanced breeding line SV950137-6-3 was named Tungoo and seed is being multiplied for release. Implications Breeding for improved hay varieties will continue for the 2008/2009 year. Publications In press.

5 Completed Projects − Hay and Silage Production, Processing and Transport

Project Title Industry practices to meet mandatory export market standards

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000642 Start Date: 01-Dec-2006 Finish Date: 30-Nov-2007 Researcher: Dr John Black Organisation: John L Black Consulting Phone: (02) 4753 6231 Fax: (02) 4753 6295 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To ensure that shipments of hay/straw from Australia consistently meet mandatory standards for product purity in importing countries. • Review the likely need to replace methyl bromide as a pre-shipment fumigant, assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative procedures and recommend future research if replacement of methyl-bromide is necessary. Background Shipments of hay and straw from Australia in 2006 were 730 000 tonnes, worth $220 million. A Japanese Ordinance proclaimed in May 2006, allowed action against importers of animal feeds, including hay and straw, if a violation was detected in Maximum Residue Limits (MRL) values for 60 chemicals. If residues for any one of the listed compounds in a shipment of Australian fodder exceed its MRL, the rate of monitoring will be increased dramatically. A further breach is likely to result in severe impediment to ongoing shipments. The project was initiated by the Australian Fodder Industry Association (AFIA) to develop a process to minimise this risk. Methyl bromide (MB), an ozone depleting substance, is used to fumigate fodder pre-shipment. MB is not to be phased-out for this purpose until 2015 under the Montreal Protocol. The project reviewed the likelihood of change in phase-out time and the status of alternative fumigants or practices to reduce MB emissions Research A preliminary risk assessment (PRA, values between 1-25) was conducted on the Japanese list and on chemicals in all products registered in Australia for use on oat, or crops. Hay and straw samples (266) were collected from the 2006-07 harvest and analysed for residues of 70 chemicals. A risk management protocol was developed to minimise export of contaminated fodder. The status of MB as a pre-shipment fumigant was determined by consultation and review. Outcomes Two chemicals were given a PRA score of 25, and 28 chemicals a score of 12 or more. These chemicals were considered to have high potential risk for fodder contamination. Twelve chemicals or chemical combinations were used, but not registered in Australia for oat crops. Twelve chemicals used do not have Australian MRL values and are designated ‘nil detect’. Residues were found in fodder samples for seven of these chemicals. A moderate number of samples contained residues for bromoxynil and clopyralid; some for which there was no spray diary record. A web-based AFIA ChemCheck system for input of spray records by grower was developed to prototype stage. It contains a near completed database of all products registered for use on oat, barley or wheat crops. ‘Alerts’ are produced whenever a spray application, chemical or harvest date is considered a potential risk. An interface with spray equipment is being developed. MB appears unlikely to be phased out as a pre-shipment fumigant before

6 2015, unless requested by the importing country. However, the EU and UN have discussed a cap on MB pre-shipment use and have encouraged parties to the Montreal Protocol to seek alternatives or recapture technologies. More costly alternatives are potentially available and recapture technology is feasible. Implications AFIA should consider working with nominated Organisations to get appropriate MRL values and/or registration status for 24 specified chemicals and/or combinations. Hay exporting companies through AFIA should continue funding implementation across the fodder industry of the AFIA ChemCheck system to minimise the risk of exporting contaminated fodder. AFIA and the export fodder industry should consider, for environmental and community perception reasons, whether to adopt alternative practices for the pre- shipment use of MB. Publications Black J. (2008). Fodder Industry Practices to Meet Export Market Standards. RIRDC Publication No. 08/102.

7 Completed Projects − Improved Fodder Quality

Project Title Quantifying fodder quality assessments using machine vision

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000785 Start Date: 01-Sep-2006 Finish Date: 31-Jul-2007 Researcher: Professor John Billingsley Organisation: University of Southern Queensland Phone: (07) 4631 2513 Fax: (07) 4631 1870 Email: [email protected] Objectives This project will develop a prototype machine vision to quantify fodder quality. The low cost camera based device would give an assessment of those properties that could be determined from image analysis techniques for specifying visual aspects of fodder quality. Background As part of a previous project, UA-64A, a need was identified for a more objective grading system. As a step along that path, the use of machine vision for measuring some of the characteristics of a sample of hay was proposed. Research This project has identified algorithms for measuring colour, stem widths and stem to leaf ratio for a given sample of oaten or lucerne hay. 163 different samples of hay were analysed using a camera and computer system. The camera was mounted inside a light proof box and fluorescent lights affixed inside to provide invariant lighting conditions. A suite of algorithms was developed and tested for the measurement of the physical characteristics. Outcomes A prototype system has been developed, tested and deployed for external testing. The measurements by the system are repeatable and the system as a whole is robust and low cost. The recorded measurements may be used as part of a standardised grading system throughout the fodder industry. Implications The objective, repeatable measurement of the physical characteristics of fodder provides a valuable tool for growers, exporters and researchers. The added benefit of a low cost system means that multiple units may be deployed easily, allowing greater access and the ability to build towards an objective standard grading system for fodder crops. Publications Billingsley J. and Dunn M. (in press). Quantifying Fodder Quality Assessments using Machine Vision. RIRDC Publication.

8

Project Title Fodder quality specifications, identifying predictors of fodder quality across animal species

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000518 Researcher: Dr Dean Revell Ms Sarah Pain Organisation: The University of Adelaide Discipline of Agricultural and Animal Sciences Roseworthy Campus ROSEWORTHY SA 5371 Phone: (08) 9333 6492 Fax: (08) 9383 7688 Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Objectives Provide accurate predictions of the acceptability (preference) of fodders by animals based on the chemical, including volatile, and physical 'profile' of the fodder. Background The daily rate of food intake is the single most important factor affecting animal performance and productivity. The immediate response in feed intake when a new feed is offered, which can be quantified by a ‘preference value’ for the feedstuff, has important consequences to animal production and health. For both lactating dairy cows and performance , for example, it is important to avoid periods of low intake, as this can have immediate and sometimes longer-term consequences to animal performance. The chemical and physical characteristics of hays influence feed intake and animal performance but, until now, there had not been a study of sufficient scale to adequately relate a range of traits of hays to animal preferences. Research 105 oaten hays offered to lactating Holstein-Friesian dairy cows and Thoroughbred horses, and 70 lucerne hays offered to Thoroughbred horses were used in this study. The intake rate and preferences for all the hays were quantified in a series of tests replicated over time and with different animals, amounting to about 8,500 individual preference tests. Each ‘trial’ hay was offered, in separate tests, with four ‘standard’ hays that covered a range of qualities. Statistical analyses were undertaken to ensure the findings reported are robust and have relevance to industry. A suite of chemical (nutritive value) traits and physical traits were quantified for the hays. An assessment of the ‘odour profile’ was included in the characterisation of the hays. These traits were then related to hay preference values and equations generated to predict hay preference values. A prediction of hay preference directly from the near infrared reflectance spectra (NIRS) was also developed. Outcomes Overall, the average preference value of an oaten hay (i.e., that obtained using the comparisons with all four standard hays) could be predicted from a range of nutritive value traits, typically the contents of acid detergent fibre (ADF), hemicellulose, crude protein and water soluble carbohydrates - with a correlation co-efficient of about 79% with cows and 61% for horses . With lucerne hays offered to horses, the correlation co-efficient increased to 74%. ADF and crude protein contents tended to have the biggest influences on preference values with both cows and horses. The digestibility (IVD) of oaten hay was nearly as accurate in predicting preference values as using the four nutritive value traits of ADF, hemicellulose, crude protein and water soluble carbohydrates. Physical traits of oaten hays could also be used to predict preference values, although not as accurately as the nutritive value traits or IVD. Of the physical traits, shear energy had the largest effect. The use of NIRS to directly predict preference values was encouraging, with the best calibration yielding a co-efficient of variation of 61-81%, depending on the hay

9 (oaten or lucerne) and the animal (cows or horses). Implications These results will allow members of the hay industry to better predict the acceptability (preference value) of hays for dairy cows or horses. The identified predictors of hay preference values are commonly measured traits, so there is a good opportunity for industry to develop prediction equations for their own use. Publications Pain S.J., Franklin-McEvoy J., Cox A., Revell D.K. (2005). The odour profile of feedstuffs as modulators of feed preference in herbivores. Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition in Australia 15, 229-236. Pain S.J. and Revell D.K. (in Press) Fodder Quality Specifications: Identifying predictors of preference between hays. RIRDC Publication.

10 Completed Projects − Industry Communication and Information Flows

Project Title Technology transfer of BMP/QA systems for quality lucerne hay production

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000514 Start Date: 1/07/2002 Finish Date: 4/04/2008 Researcher: Mary-Anne Lattimore Organisation: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries Phone: 02 6951 2695 Fax: 02 6951 2620 Email: [email protected] Objectives To improve the efficiency and profitability of Australian lucerne hay production and improve market access to producers by means of a Best Management Practices (BMP) extension package for growers and advisors. Background There is increased demand for quality export and domestic hay to be produced in Australia. The industry currently faces problems in producing exportable quantities of high quality lucerne hay due to competition from a sometimes higher domestic price and because many growers do not achieve potential yields or quality. Producers and the industry require strategies to improve the efficiency and profitability of production, so that they can consistently meet the market requirements and environmental constraints. Successful growers are already achieving high yields and quality. Adoption of best management and benchmarking programs by growers can substantially improve the profitability and efficiency of agricultural industries (eg Australian Rice Industry). This project aimed to provide best management strategies for producers. Research The aim of this project was to gather existing information and BMP on lucerne from Australia and the USA and to develop an extension guide for Australian lucerne hay producers. A study tour examined lucerne () hay production in the USA. Focus groups and case studies with Australian hay producers, researchers and other industry people in key locations, Australia gathered Australian lucerne hay experience. The project had a close association with the Australian Fodder Industry Association. Outcomes The outcome is a BMP manual “Lucerne Hay Know-How” covering both irrigated and dryland lucerne hay production for producers and advisers throughout Australia. The manual provides strategies for producers to become more efficient, productive, profitable and sustainable. Implications Widespread adoption of practices outlined in “Lucerne Hay Know-How” will lead to increased yield, quality and profitability for producers; a better supply of high quality hay for domestic and export markets; enhanced export market access; and a more profitable and stable lucerne hay industry. Publications Lattimore MA 2008. Producing Quality Lucerne Hay – A guide for lucerne hay producers, across Australia. RIRDC Publication No. 08/101.

11 Completed Projects − Industry Communication and Information Flows

Project Title Australian Fodder Atlas

RIRDC Project No.: PRJ-000806 Start Date: 30-Jun-2006 Finish Date: 31-Jul-2007 Researcher: Peter Martin; Ms Veronica Rodriguez Organisation: Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE) Phone: (02) 6272 2277 Fax: (02) 6272 2001 Email: [email protected] Objectives To provide the Australian fodder industry with a compendium of currently existing information on fodder production, trade and utilisation and to expand information on fodder use in a key fodder industry - the Australian dairy industry. Background The Australian Fodder Industry is a publication was commissioned by RIRDC and the Australian Fodder Industry Association to updates and expands basic statistics on the Australian fodder industry, outline the key trends in fodder production, utilisation and trade and provide greater understanding of the fodder industry structure and operation. The publication is the replacement for an earlier RIRDC publication 00/122 Atlas of the Australian Fodder Industry published in 2000. Fodder is defined for this publication to be hay and hay products together with silage. Research Data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics agricultural census and surveys for the period 1998-99 to 2005-06 together with ABARE farm survey data for the broadacre and dairy industries have been used to document fodder production, trade and use at national, state and regional level. Longer term trends in key fodder variables have been analysed as has fodder trade and use by industry (dairy industry, feedlot industry, industry, broadacre farms, exporters etc). Statistics on international trade in fodder are also presented and discussed. Outcomes The publication highlights the increase demand for purchased fodder by Australian livestock industries over the past two decades, the rise fodder exports to now account for a large part of the total Australian fodder market and reduction in onfarm hay and silage stocks over time. Implications The publication highlights the key role the fodder industry plays in underpinning Australian livestock industries and as an agricultural export. Publication will require update periodically to incorporate the latest available data. Publications Martin, P., (in press) Australian Fodder Industry, RIRDC Publication, June 2008.

12 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Development of research protocols for the export hay industry

RIRDC Project No.: AAB-1A Start Date: 01-Jul-04 Finish Date: 31-Jul-06 Researcher: Mr Michael Faulkner Organisation: Agrilink Agricultural Consultants Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8843 4282 Fax: (08) 8843 4292 Email: [email protected] Objectives To determine where inaccuracy occurs in the conduct of field research and develop a set of protocols for the conduct of field research, sampling procedures and the post sampling treatment of samples. Background Currently there is no standard protocol for conducting research into the hay industry. This has created doubts about the validity of results due to trial design and implementation, sampling error and the treatment of samples. Results obtained from research trials without proper procedures could be inaccurate or misleading, not comparable between treatments, sites, projects, and researchers and potentially wasteful of research funding and researchers time. Research This project aims to: • identify where error or variability can occur • survey researchers on their needs • promote to industry some research protocols • further research some of the methodologies themselves. Outcomes The research clearly demonstrates that methodology has a marked influence on research outcomes and variability. The survey results indicated researchers were not sure if their methodologies produced accurate results and the majority would like to operate with clearly defined protocols that are practical and inexpensive to implement. The field research indicated results could be biased by cutting height, growth stage at which samples are taken, time of the day the samples are taken and how the samples are treated after cutting. Additionally there are implications due to row spacing and inter plot spacing of field plots. Implications This project has indicated there is a need for cereal hay research to be conducted, using standard procedures and protocols. Results will be more meaningful to the industry when this occurs.

13 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Development of improved oat varieties for hay production: national program I

RIRDC Project No.: SAR-50A Start Date: 01-Jul-02 Finish Date: 31-Dec-06 Researcher: Dr Pamela Zwer Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute GPO Box 397 ADELAIDE SA 5001 Phone: (08) 8303 9485 Fax: (08) 9303 9378 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • A coordinated breeding program for the development of improved oat varieties for hay production in southern Australia including Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia. • New oat varieties characterised in major hay producing regions. • Rapid up take of new varieties by industry and growers. • Expansion of the breeding program to include late maturing oat populations. • Evaluate stage 3 (S3) advanced breeding lines for disease resistance, dry matter production, and quality. Background With the expansion of the export oat hay industry, there is increased demand for oat hay varieties with adaptation across a wide range of environments and more discerning quality than in the past. A National Oat Breeding Program was initiated to meet the challenge of improving oat varieties for hay production in the southern region of Australia encompassing Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, and southern New South Wales. The new breeding program is based at SARDI with a selection program, technical staff, and centre for oat quality research located in the Western Australia Department of Agriculture and Food. Evaluation of advanced breeding lines for hay production is conducted at three sites in Victoria. Research Parental lines were selected for crosses based on characteristics important to the export and domestic hay industries. Populations developed from the crosses were selected for higher dry matter production, a range of plant maturities, improved disease resistance, and enhanced hay quality. Crosses, F1, F2 and F3 population, and F4 headhills were grown in South Australia (SA). The next generation, F5, was sown in unreplicated stage 1 trials grown in SA and Western Australia (WA). Stage 2 trials were unreplicated and were assessed for adaptation, disease reactions, and appearance in SA and WA. Replicated stage 3 trials were sown in SA and WA, but only dry matter assessments were done in SA with the forage harvester. Stage 4 and stage 5 trials were sown in SA, WA, and VIC with dry matter assessments done in both states along with agronomic, disease reactions, and quality evaluation data collected. Outcomes Three improved hay varieties were released from research conducted in RIRDC funded projects SAR-8A, SAR-31A, and SAR-50A.

14 Implications The release of the first two improved oat hay varieties, Wintaroo and Brusher, generates net benefits of $33.3 million to producers. This represents a return to the Australian economy of $41.36 for every $1 spent on this research project (RIRDC Publication No 05/169). Publications Annual Oat Newsletter. Zwer P., Hoppo S. and McCormack P. (2007). Development of Improved Oat Varieties for Hay Production: National Program. RIRDC Publication No 07/054 (web only).

15 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Improve vetch varieties for fodder production

RIRDC Project No.: SAR-54A Start Date: 01-Jul-2004 Finish Date: 31-Mar-2007 Researcher: Mr. Rade Matic Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute GPO Box 397 ADELAIDE, SA, 5001 Phone: 08 8303 9377 Fax: 08 8303 9378 Email: [email protected] Objectives To provide farmers and end uses with improved vetch varieties for hay and silage. This will be achieved by introducing new Vicia species with genetic versatility. In addition, present material will be retested, which had been discarded from grain trials because of late maturity and/or robust plants types that are prone to develop chocolate spot around pod maturity. Varieties will be bred and selected from different Vicia species to meet targeted traits such as high dry matter production, leaf retention, disease resistance, better palatability, later maturity, more shoots soft stems and ability to grow well in a crop mix with ryegrass or . Background Farmers perceive vetch as a reliable, versatile legume for hay/silage, grain, pasture and green manure and Vetch hay/silage is a very valuable feed for most livestock. Vetches in crop rotations can be used to manage cereal diseases, grass weeds, improve soil fertility and contribute to increased yield and protein content in the following crops. Vetches are potentially adapted to most areas of Australian farmland. From 1999 to 2005 the area sown to vetch was well over 200 000ha annually. Information from district agronomists indicated more than 65% of this vetch was used for hay/silage; the rest was used for grain, pasture and green manure If current trends in vetch sowing continue and they are reinforced by the development of better cultivars with less disadvantages in their management and adoption it is realistic to expect the area sown to double in the next few years. Research Common and purple vetch species were recognized as useful for hay/silage production in Australia. Germplasm was tested from glasshouse to replicated plots from this, material was identified to use in recombination of genes to produce the targeted characters. Optimum cutting time for hay/silage of common vetches is in flowering/early podding stage, and for purple vetch in full flowering stage, to maximise feeding value of the crop. Outcomes In a very short time the program selected seven lines that showed better dry matter production than all present varieties. 142 selected introductions from common and purple vetch species passed quarantine in 2005/06 these will be tested for hay/silage production. In addition, significant numbers of crossings/re-crossings have been done in the last three years targeting hay/silage characters. Implications This program, with very limited investment and time, has shown the potential to deliver better vetch varieties to Australian growers, exporters and livestock producers.

16 Publications Matic R., Nagel S., Young I., Kirby G. 2005. Vetch breeding in Australia and the effects of varying levels in grain mixes on lamb growth. Proceedings on 13-th Australasian Conference, New Zealand. Mihailovic V., Matic R., Mikic A. 2005. A comparative study on the forage yield of forage pea and common vetch. Proceeding on 8-th International Symposium of livestock feeds – Livestock and Veterinary Institute, Beograd, Serbia. Matic R., Nagel S., Kirby G., Smith K. 2006. Vetch Breeding and Vetch use in Australia. Proceedings on 8-th International Symposium of Forage Crops. Forage Crops Institute Novi Sad, Serbia. Matic R. (2007). Improved Vetch Varieties for Fodder Production. RIRDC Publication No 07/123 (web only).

17 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Update of growing oat hay book

RIRDC Project No.: SAR-53A Researcher: Dr Pamela Zwer Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute GPO Box 397 ADELAIDE SA 5001 Phone: (08) 8303 9485 Fax: (08) 9303 9378 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Provide a comprehensive guide to growing oat hay in southern Australia for hay processors and growers to ensure the availability of consistent high quality oat hay for export and domestic markets. • Identify research areas requiring additional investigation.

Background Oat hay is a significant proportion of both export and domestic markets. Annual production of fodder is 5.5 to 6.5 m tonnes worth $1.1 b at the farm gate. About 4 m tonnes are used as fodder on the farm and about 1.4 m tonnes is traded domestically with 40% used by the dairy industry, 25% for the horse industry, 20% for the beef feed lot industry, and 15% for miscellaneous uses. The export oat hay industry has grown from about 100,000 t in 1993 to over 600,000 t in 2005. The export hay industry is now worth at least $150 m annually. A consistent supply of high quality hay is essential for the industry to meet the challenges of increasing competition from North America, expansion into new markets, and maintenance of current markets. As the industry has grown many factors effecting hay quality have been identified. An understanding of those factors that can be modified by the grower will help to reduce the risk involved with producing first grade hay. Research The primary result is the publication of Producing Quality Oat Hay. Data presented in the book show conclusively the effects of different nitrogen rates and varieties on key hay quality traits; digestibility (IVD), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), water soluble carbohydrates (WSC), and shear energy. Outcomes The publication of Producing Quality Oat Hay and recommendations for future research funding. Implications Depending on the year growers risk losing from $50 to $100 a tonne for poor quality hay. The purpose of the book Producing Quality Oat Hay is to provide growers with new developments and current research on growing high quality oat hay to minimise this risk. The book also has information about quality parameters that are now used to determine the grade of the hay and more importantly how these quality traits affect the price of the oat hay. The release of improved oat hay varieties, agronomic studies on how variety, nitrogen, sowing rate, and sowing date affect hay quality, and the use of superconditioners to reduce the curing time are some of the highlights in Producing Quality Oat Hay. Future research priorities are outlined for growth favouring industry and growers in oat hay production. Publications Zwer P and Faulkner M (2006). “Producing Quality Oat Hay.” RIRDC Publication No. R06/002.

18 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Evaluation of potential fodder legume and grass crops for dryland hay production

RIRDC Project No.: IPB-2A Researcher: Dr Ross Downes Organisation: Innovative Plant Breeders Phone 02 62551461 Fax: 02 62553651 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To identify the varieties of grasses and annual fodder legumes best able to meet the demand for reliable production of quality hay in a range of environments.

Background In view of decreasing availability of irrigation for hay production, the increasing export market for hay, and changes in location of significant Australian markets for fodder, it is timely to examine opportunities to develop appropriate new fodder production practices especially using species widely used in other countries. Evaluation of new species and practices needs to be conducted in the context of problems such as herbicide-resistant weeds, rising water tables and increasing salinity, factors which are adversely threatening the environment and sustainable agricultural production. Research The characteristics and productivity of a large number of annual fodder legumes and grasses were investigated, and opportunities for their use examined in a range of environments. In addition to productivity, marketing and financial considerations, their potential contribution to soil fertility and ecological issues was considered. Outcomes An extensive range of fodder legume varieties, bred for adaptation to a range of local conditions is available and provide opportunities for increased quality hay production was identified. The more erect types are available to produce high quality hay for export. Twining types grown with grasses are not suitable for export markets but have potential, as hay or silage, to produce value added products such as meat and milk, in Australia. Suitable varieties of timothy and brome grass need to be developed before they can be used for export hay production. Findings were presented and discussed at meetings and field days attended by producers, hay marketers and researchers. Implications Production and conservation of fodder of winter-spring growing annual fodder legumes under dry land conditions has two significant benefits. Water is used more efficiently than in irrigated summer crops and limited water resources will be available for other enterprises, and hay and silage is of much greater feeding value than dry feed in the field. Publications Reports in AFIA Conference Proceedings (1999, 2000, 2001). Web only report published. RIRDC Publication Number W05/107

19 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Development of improved oat varieties for hay end-use

RIRDC Project No.: SAR-31A Researcher: Pamela Zwer Organisation: South Australian Research & Development Institute GPO Box 397 ADELAIDE SA 5001 Phone: 08 8303 9485 Fax: 08 8303 9378 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Generate new oat populations and identify selections with improved hay end-use characters based on breeding priorities identified by growers and hay processors. Promote F5 and F6 oat lines currently in the program to advanced trials and make a decision about variety releases by 2003.

Background Oaten hay exports to Japan have increased from about 170,000 tonnes in 1997 to 500,000 tonnes worth about $183 million for Australia. The continued growth of this industry is dependent on meeting specifications of more discriminating export and domestic markets. Oat varieties with improved characters for fodder performance are needed by both growers and hay processors. This research program was designed to specifically improve oat varieties for hay end-use. Research Parental material were evaluated for increased dry matter yield, improved early vigour to compete with weeds, thin to medium stem diameter, plant colour, and a wider range of plant maturites. Disease resistance and hay quality were also important characters for selection of parental material. Crosses were made with introduced germplasm possessing desirable traits and adapted oat lines developed in the SARDI breeding program. Advanced breeding lines were evaluated in hay trials across South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia. Disease resistance, agronomic characters, hay yield potential, and hay quality were assessed. Data were summarised and used to identify improved oat varieties for hay end-use. Outcomes Germplasm, introduced from Canada, United Kingdom, USA, and Brazil, was evaluated for disease resistance and hay quality. Early generation material derived from the crosses are in the F2 , F3 , and F4 generations. Stage 4 hay trials consisting of 36 entries were sown at four locations for hay cuts and an additional two sites for disease assessment in 2001 and 2002 . Stage 5 hay trials consisting of 12 entries, a subset of the stage 4 trial entries, were sown at 6 sites in 2001and 13 in 2002. Agronomic data, disease reactions, and quality evaluations were used to promote the most promising lines to the next year. Line SV88083-4 was released as Wintaroo and is in commercial production in 2003. Line SV87103-109 was named Brusher and will be in limited commercial production in 2003. Breeder seed was developed for SV93072-43 and is being increased for release to AEXCO for commercialisation. Implications New oat variety releases for hay production are available to growers in 2003. Benefits from the release of improved hay varieties will influence growers, processors, and the customer. The availability of first grade hay with consistent palatability will provide a reliable supply of a quality product for processors to market domestically and overseas. Customers will benefit with a superior performing fodder. Publications Report to be incorporated with final report for RIRDC project SAR-50A.

20 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Breeding and Germplasm Evaluation

Project Title Development of disease resistant, high yielding oat cultivars with enhanced quality for hay production

RIRDC Project No: SAR-8A Researcher: Pamela Zwer Organisation: South Australian Research & Development Institute GPO Box 397 ADELAIDE SA 5001 Phone: (08) 8303 9485 Fax: (08) 8303 9378 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Generate new oat populations and identify selections with improved hay end-use characters based on breeding priorities identified by farmers and hay processors. Promote F5 and F6 oat lines currently in the program to advanced trials and make a decision about cultivar release by 2000. Background Oaten hay exports to Japan have increased from about 170,000 tonnes in 1997 to almost 400,000 tonnes in 1999. The industry was worth about $110 million in 1999 (delivered to Japan) and with the expansion of the market to 500,000 tonnes would be worth about $183 million for Australia. The continued growth of this industry is dependent on meeting specifications of more discriminating export and domestic markets. Oat varieties with improved characters for fodder performance, are needed by both growers and hay processors. This research program was designed to specifically improve oat varieties for hay end-use. Research Parental material were evaluated for increased dry matter yield, improved early vigour to compete with weeds, thin to medium stem diameter, plant colour, and a wider range of plant maturites. Disease resistance and forage quality, were also important characters for selection of parental material. Crosses were made with introduced germplasm possessing desirable traits and adapted oat lines developed in the SARDI breeding program. Advanced breeding lines were evaluated in hay trials across South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia. Disease resistance, agronomic characters, hay yield potential, and forage quality were assessed. Data were summarised and used to identify improved oat varieties for hay end-use. Outcomes Approximately 60 germplasm introductions were sourced from oat breeding programs and collections worldwide and used to produce 160 single crosses. Early generation material derived from the crosses are in the F2 , F3 , and F4 generations. About 900 F4 plots were sown from lines derived from 1997 single crosses. Stage 4 hay trials consisting of 32 entries were sown at three to four locations in 1998, 1999, and 2000. Stage 5 hay trials, consisting of 12 entries, a subset of the stage 4 trial entries, were sown at 11 sites in 1998, eight sites in 1999, and seven sites in 2000. Agronomic data, disease reactions, and quality evaluations were used to promote the most promising lines to the next year. Two advanced breeding lines, SV88083-4 and SV87103-109, were selected as new variety releases. Commercialisation of SV88083-4 is proceeding. SV93072-43 is being considered for variety release.

21 Implications New oat variety releases for hay production will be available to growers beginning in 2003. Benefits from the release of improved hay varieties will influence growers, processors, and the customer. The availability of first grade hay with consistent palatability will provide a reliable supply of a quality product for processors to market domestically and overseas. Customers will benefit with a superior performing fodder. Publications Zwer, P and Hoppo, S (2002). Oaten Hay Variety Development, RIRDC Publication No: R02/117.

22 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Hay and Silage Production, Processing and Transport

Project Title: Performance based standards assessment of vehicles for the transport of hay and straw

RIRDC Project No: ARR-1A Researcher: Colin Peace, Chris Blanksby, Steve Patrick, Rob Di Cristoforo Organisation: Australian Fodder Industry Association and ARRB Group Ltd Phone: +61 3 9881 1611 (Blanksby) Fax: +61 3 9886 3076 Email: [email protected] Objectives To assess proposed hay and straw transport methods, to develop guidelines for the transport of hay and straw that can be implemented in all States, so that there is understanding and consistency between regulatory bodies and the industry nation-wide. Background This report supersedes two previous RIRDC sponsored reports, number ROA- 1A (Testing and simulation of hay bale loading on semi-trailers) and ROA-2A (Further testing and simulation of hay bale loading on semi-trailers). Presentation of this work to the RTAs highlighted the need for some additional work to be carried out in order to maximise the chances of a scheme for hay and straw being implemented. Research The industry transports hay and straw bales of various sizes that cannot always be transported efficiently within prescriptive width and height regulations. However, Performance Based Standards (PBS) can be used to allow vehicles to operate outside these prescriptive regulations if they are able to meet certain levels of performance. ARRB used PBS methods to determine the performance capabilities of various loading configurations, providing a scientific approach to introducing a safety-oriented hay and straw truck- loading regime. Outcomes The performance of nine vehicles and five loading configurations were assessed. In general, performance was good, but the extra width of the payloads resulted in some standards being difficult to satisfy on geometric grounds. Good performance of the vehicles in a stability sense is most strongly attributable to the low mass of most of the loading configurations.

Implications ARRB considers that there is a case for negotiation between AFIA and regulatory bodies on the implementation of all the vehicle/loading scenarios investigated; with the exception of load configuration D. Publications Blanksby C., Patrick S. and Di Cristoforo R. (2008). Assessment of vehicles for the transport of hay and straw. RIRDC Publication No. 07/194.

23 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Hay and Silage Production, Processing and Transport

Project Title Best practice super conditioning to produce quality export oaten hay

RIRDC Project No.: RDP-2A Start Date: 01-Jul-2005 Finish Date: 31-Jul-2006 Researcher: Mr Peter Baker Organisation: Rural Directions Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8842 1103 Fax: (08) 8842 1766 Email: [email protected]

Objectives To identify and increase the adoption of 'best practice' processes in super conditioning and improve the quality of export oaten hay by: 1. Clarifying the role of super conditioning in the production of export quality oaten hay (versus no super conditioning). 2. Evaluating the effects of different super conditioners on crushing, moisture content, windrow positioning and windrow structure. 3. Quantifying the effect of the super conditioners on the quality of export oaten hay. 4. Developing a 'best practice' extension publication on the super conditioning operation. Background Super conditioning is a relatively recently adopted practice that is perceived to add value to the haymaking process when compared to cutting alone. It is being practiced by 70-80% of export hay producers with a variety of machine types. There is much debate amongst the farming and contracting community as to the effectiveness of differing mechanisms within machines. Currently there is only anecdotal evidence as to the performance of each, its influence on drying time and moisture content and the quality of the end product. Improving the quality of export oaten hay has the potential to increase farm and industry income levels. It is estimated that improving hay quality with correctly practiced super conditioning could increase grower income by 10- 20%. Although the focus is on export hay, project results will also be relevant to domestic hay producers, many of whom are yet to adopt super conditioning as a part of hay production. Research The objective of the trial was not to provide a recommendation as to the best machine, but rather to observe the different ways that the machines work, and the impact this has on the hay. The trial involved the use of 6 different super conditioners and 1 mower conditioner, and was conducted at paddock scale over 24 hectares. Two self- propelled super conditioners were used, along with 4 tractor-towed units, whilst the mower conditioner was also self-propelled. Three times of conditioning were used: 0 days after cutting (self-propelled machines), 2 days after cutting, and 4 days after cutting. Assessments conducted during the trial were: • degree of crushing of stems, knots and florets • windrow structure, including height, height off ground, windrow width, and windrow uniformity • windrow temperature and humidity

24 • moisture decline of the hay • fresh weight of the windrow • hay quality, including colour, Acid detergent fibre (ADF), Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), Water soluble carbohydrate (WSC), Digestible dry matter (DDM) • time from cutting to baling. Outcomes Machine Setup: • Factors to consider in setting up machines are: roller spacing, which will influence straw, knot and floret crushing. • Discbine fronts may cut cleaner and lower than sickle fronts, so may need to adjust to achieve sufficient clearance to reduce impact on high fibre contents. • Differing roller speeds and a tearing action are more aggressive in treating florets. They may disintegrate rather than be crushed. Windrow Structure • Windrow structure ie total height, width, height off ground really depends on how the machine and discharge chutes are set rather than the machine itself. Use these to adjust so that the windrow is positioned/shaped as you want it. • Crops that have been allowed to dry for a time after mower conditioning and before super conditioning sit higher, and maintain height better than those positioned straight after cutting. • Increased windrow width allows quicker drying but may also result in more bleaching. • Narrow windrows can protect colour but may take longer to dry. • Dense windrows take longer to dry than those that are more open. • A faster operating speed results in a less uniform windrow. This effect is exacerbated as super conditioning is delayed. Curing Time • Ensure that knots are crushed as curing time is reduced. The mechanism rather than the timing is important here. • Florets need to be crushed. It reduces dry down time, and prevents seed set. • Dryness of knots is the critical factor in making the time to bale decision. • Earlier super conditioning has the potential to dry hay quicker. • Dense compact windrows retain higher humidity and take longer to cure. • Reduced curing time can result in improved hay colour. Increased exposure to sunlight bleaches hay further. • The more aggressive the treatment the faster moisture is lost and the shorter the time to baling. Hay Quality • Super conditioning does not appear to result in a loss of yield compared to cutting alone, nor is yield influenced by time of super conditioning. • Super conditioning itself has no major influence on hay quality under ideal conditions (although this may change if adverse weather is experienced). Hay quality can be improved over hay that is mower conditioned only, if machine is set up correctly and conditions allow.

25 Implications Super Conditioner Machine adjustment and setting up is the most critical part in achieving quality export oaten hay, an operator needs to understand the impact of all aspects of setting up and operating the super conditioner. All machine types/mechanisms work in slightly different manners but are all capable of achieving the desired result for a hay producer. The key factors to consider are roller speed, roller gap, rear discharge chute adjustment and speed of travel. Operating the machine, roller pressures and height of cut and cutting system also need to be understood to meet the quality required as growers are often tempted to take that bit more to achieve a higher yield; however, it is mostly at the expense of quality. Producing export oaten hay is all about producing a quality product, super conditioning is part of the process to achieving this outcome, if this operation is carried out thoroughly considering all the factors in this report then super conditioning will assist in providing better quality export oaten hay. Publications Rural Directions Pty Ltd (2007). Best Practice Super Conditioning for Export Quality Oaten Hay Guide. RIRDC Publication No 06/119. Best Practice Super Conditioning for Export Quality Oaten Hay Guide – Tri- Fold Brochure.

26 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Improved Fodder Quality

Project Title Development of an integrated R&D project to specify fodder quality - Stage 2

RIRDC Project No.: JLB-3A Start Date: 01-Jul-2004 Finish Date: 31-Jul-2006 Researcher: Dr John Black Organisation: John L Black Consulting Phone: (02) 4753 6231 Fax: (02) 4753 6295 Email: [email protected] Objectives An integrated research program to produce a nationally uniform fodder quality specification system that is based on the determinants of fodder quality (preference, intake and digestibility) and is suitable for trading hay in the domestic and export industries for different end-users. An effectively coordinated R&D program that: • identifies the determinants of preference for cereal hays by dairy cows and horses and for lucerne hays by horses and allows assessment of the relative preference for any of these hay types by cows or horses • identifies the factors determining digestibility and intake of hays for , allows assessment of the feeding value of any hay for sheep and the ability to predict the feeding value of hays for lactating dairy cows, steers and horses • assesses the potential benefits to the fodder industry of image analysis methodology for quantifying hay quality traits that are currently assessed visually • facilitates the uptake by Australian laboratories of NIR calibrations and other rapid methods for measuring the quality of hays for different animal types • coordinates the activities of the AFIA Quality Evaluation Committee (QEC) to ensure that standard methodology is adopted by keeping the AFIA Methods Manual up-to-date and that similar analytical results are obtained across Australian laboratories by conducting ‘ring tests’. Background Conserved fodder is used for a wide range of different purposes and the fodder ‘quality’ characteristics that best meet the needs for each purpose also vary widely. The fodder production and end-user industries recognise that ideally the quality of each batch of conserved fodder should be defined in a way that can be used to assess its value for each purpose. Objective and accurate measurements of identified hay characteristics are needed if hay is to be priced appropriately for each end use. Research The research project has achieved the following: • identified major end-uses for traded hay and defined characteristics that should be measured for hay to best meet specific purposes • developed equations or NIR calibrations for rapid measurement of specified hay quality characteristics • initiated a project on machine vision to measure quantitatively hay characteristics that are currently assessed subjectively • published a Laboratory Methods Manual and distributed it to fodder testing laboratories • facilitated inter-laboratory ‘ring test’ comparisons to improve uniformity of

27 analytical results across laboratories. Outcomes Major outcomes include methods and equations for predicting the quality of any hay sample for specified end uses. A Laboratory Method Manual distributed to fodder testing laboratories and inter-laboratory ‘ring test’ comparisons initiated to improve uniformity across laboratories. Implications This project has established the basis for industry sectors to develop hay trading and pricing systems appropriate to their specific end-use. Methods and procedures have been established to reduce the variation between fodder testing laboratories in analytical results. Publications AFIA – Laboratory Methods Manual. Black J.L. (2007). Specification of Fodder Quality RIRDC Publication No. 07/124.

28 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Improved Fodder Quality

Project Title Fodder quality specifications, identifying predictors of fodder quality across animal species

RIRDC Project No.: UA-64A Start Date: 01 April 2003 Finish Date: 30 April 2006 Researcher: Dean Revell Organisation: University of Adelaide Phone: 08 9333 6492 Fax: 08 9383 7688 Email: [email protected]

Objectives Provide accurate predictions of the acceptability (preference) of fodders by animals based on the chemical, including volatile, and physical 'profile' of the fodder.

Current Progress This project showed that a predicted preference value for oaten and lucerne hays for dairy cows and horses can be generated using commonly measured traits, including chemical and physical properties of the hays, and the animal’s short-term intake of the hays. A total of approximately 8,500 preference tests were conducted with 85 oaten and 70 lucerne hays. A range of nutritive value traits, typically the contents of ADF, hemicellulose, crude protein and water soluble carbohydrates could account for up to about three-quarters of the variation in hay preference values. The in vitro digestibility of dry matter (IVD) of oaten hay was nearly as accurate in predicting preference values, whilst physical traits, although still related to preference, tended to account for less of the variation. The use of NIRS to directly predict preference values was also encouraging, with the best calibration model accounting for 61-81% of the variation, depending on the hay (oaten or lucerne) and the animal (cows or horses). In scoping the importance of odour compounds in determining hay preference values, over 100 volatile compounds were detected from the hays, with between 6 and 15 being related to animal preferences.

Publications Pain S.J., Franklin-McEvoy J., Cox A., Revell D.K. (2005). The odour profile of feedstuffs as modulators of feed preference in herbivores. Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition in Australia, Proceedings Volume 15, 229-236.

Pain, S.J. and Revell, D.K. (2007). Natural odorants can influence the preferences for lucerne hay exhibited by horses. Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition in Australia, Proceedings Volume 16, 27-33.

29 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Improved Fodder Quality

Project Title Development of an integrated R&D activity to specify fodder quality

RIRDC Project No.: JLB-1A Researcher: Dr. John Black Organisation: John L Black Consulting Locked Bag 21 WARRIMOO NSW 2774 Phone: (02) 4753 6231 Fax: (02) 4753 6295 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • An integrated R&D program to attain a nationally uniform method which delivers to the fodder industry in Australia a practical measurement system based on voluntary feed intake, palatability and choice preference which can be reflected in a fodder market grading system for domestic and export fodder.

Background The project has been the first phase of an integrated R&D program which is to deliver a national system for specifying the quality of hay for the domestic and export industries. Hay ‘acceptability’ (whether it is eaten or rejected when first offered) is an important characteristic of hays for export to the Japanese dairy industry and for the Australian horse industry. The aim of the research has been to provide a sound scientific base for identifying the major characteristics of hay that determine its preference, digestibility and amount eaten by different animal types. Rapid methods for measuring these characteristics based on near infra-red (NIR) and odour detection technologies are needed to allow quick assessment of the quality of any batch of hay prior to trading. Research Results from several experiments with sheep show that the total energy value (digestibility multiplied by intake) of cereal hays can be predicted from a laboratory measure of digestibility, crude protein content and the energy required to shear hay. These three characteristics account for around 75% of the variation observed in total energy intake of cereal hays by sheep. Results from a large experiment comparing preference, intake and digestibility of cereal and legume hays between sheep, lactating dairy cows, thoroughbred horses and steers showed that sheep cannot be used to determine hay preference for the other animal types. Considerable error is also likely to occur if intake and digestibility of hay for cattle and horses is predicted from results obtained by sheep. However, the rank order of hay quality remained relatively constant across the animal types. An experiment is in progress and will be continued during phase 2 of the project to determine the preference of approximately 100 samples of oaten hay for milking dairy cows and horses and 100 lucerne hays for horses. Rapid odour measurement technology and conventional chemistry are being used to identify characteristics of the hays that may influence preference by each animal type. There are clear differences in the odorous compounds released from hays with difference preference by dairy cows and horses. A Methods Manual has been produced to provide standard methods for chemically analysing hay and silage. Identical samples of hay have been sent to several laboratories across Australia and New Zealand to determine the variation in analyses between laboratories. Similar comparisons will be made across laboratories for NIR measurements of hay characteristics.

30 Outcomes The outcomes from both phase 1 and phase 2 of the project will be a specification system for predicting the quality of hay samples for different types of livestock. A methods manual outlining the procedures to be used for measuring hay quality characteristics has been produced and will be updated throughout phase 2 of the project. Implications The development of a quality specification system and technology for the rapid measurement of hay quality characteristics should allow hay buyers to purchase batches that best suit their specific needs whether for the maintenance of stock during drought, high producing dairy cows, feedlot cattle or for racing or recreational horses. The adoption of uniform analytical methods across laboratories should ensure that similar results are obtained for the analysis of hay samples anywhere across the country and assist in the acceptance of hay quality measurements as the basis for hay trading. Publications Black J. (2004). Research to support specification of fodder quality. RIRDC Short Report. No. 136. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

31 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – New Markets and Products

Project Title Developing sustainable fodder crop systems with new annual pasture legumes

RIRDC Project No.: DAW-103A Researcher: Sarah Wickham Organisation: Department of Agriculture (WA) Centre for Cropping Systems PO Box 483 NORTHAM WA 6401 Phone: (08) 9690 2000 Fax: (08) 9622 1902 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To measure feed quality indicators for new annual pasture legumes. • To determine the nutritive value of a feed and how that relates to livestock production. • To evaluate management and preservation methods on feed quality for new pasture legumes. • To increase awareness and adoption of fodder cropping systems based on newly developed annual pasture legumes. Background A number of new annual legume pasture species have been developed for the wheatbelt of southern Australia. Many of these species (e.g. French serradella, crimson , arrowleaf clover, balansa clover and Persian clover) have upright growth habits and lend themselves to fodder conservation. However, the ease of conservation and fodder quality of these new species is not well known. High value fodder crops provide farmers with a capacity to diversify production systems and intensify their animal production systems. Research Field experiments and on-farm participatory research was conducted over three years to evaluate a range of annual pasture legumes in monoculture and in mixtures with either Italian ryegrass or oats. Key measurements were biomass and nutritive value. The series of farmer demonstrations were established to test the technology at a paddock scale and feed was conserved as either hay or silage. Profitability of the various systems was measured and the suitability of these feeds for livestock production was determined using the GrazFeed (CSIRO) decision support computer-modelling program. Project results were extended to industry through a number of field days and through presentations at conferences and workshops. Outcomes Conserved fodder from annual legumes can improve the resilience of mixed farming systems in the wheatbelt of Western Australia. Multiple benefits arise from a direct contribution to filling seasonal feed gaps in summer and autumn (and drought proofing) together with benefits to the cropping system from weed management and improvements over time to soil health. Annual legumes produced conserved forage of consistently higher quality than standard oat treatments (being similar to lucerne) but rarely matched oats for overall biomass production. Consequently, legume monocultures were more valuable for animal production but less profitable to grow when the market is driven by biomass rather than quality. The ease of on-farm seed production of French serradella will make it one of the most economically attractive species for fodder conservation in the WA wheatbelt. Legume/oat and legume/Italian ryegrass mixtures (based on French serradella, crimson clover and rose clover) lifted productivity relative to legume monocultures and lifted nutritive value relative to oat monocultures.

32 Mixtures were more likely to be superior to grass/cereal monocultures in terms of biomass production and profitability. There is emerging interest in the WA wheatbelt for these fodder conservation systems but further extension and industry support is required to accelerate adoption. Implications This project has revealed the potential for new annual pasture legumes to be used as fodder crops in the dry wheatbelt of Western Australia. This will expand the range of cost-effective feed options for livestock producers to fill the summer/autumn feed gap and assist in drought proofing the farm business. The impact of this work will be greatest for on-farm or domestic markets; however, there is also the possibility of extending into the export market if foreign importers can be attracted to the higher quality fodder compared to oat monocultures. Publications Pugh, S and Glasson, G. 2005. New annual – quality and quantity for fodder conservation. Proceedings of Perth Agribusiness Sheep Updates Conference, 2005. pp 91-92 (Department of Agriculture and Food WA). Sarah Wickham, Revell C. and Liu A. (2007). Developing sustainable fodder crop systems with new annual pasture legumes. RIRDC Publication. No. 07/182.

33 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – New Markets and Products

Project Title Testing and simulation of hay bale loading on semi-trailers

RIRDC Project No.: ROA-1A Researcher: Dr Peter F Sweatman Organisation: Roaduser Systems Pty Ltd Phone: (03) 9334 7888 Fax: (03) 9334 7877 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To determine, by physical testing, the stability characteristics of various hay bale types when loaded onto semi-trailers with various stacking arrangements and load restraint techniques. To show, by computer simulation, that typical hay trucks loaded with various hay bale types can comply with the new Performance-Based Standards (PBS) for heavy vehicles developed by the National Road Transport Commission (NRTC).

Background In recent years there has been a significant increase in the volume of hay traded in Australia, which has seen an increase in the number of accidents involving vehicle rollovers or hay falling from trucks. As a consequence, enforcement officers have selectively focused load restraint and dimensional infringement notices on the hay transport sector, highlighting the inequity in the regulatory system that has different rules in each State. Research By testing the lateral rigidity of restrained semi-trailer loads of hay bales, computer simulation modelling of those loads on typical hay trucks was used to determine the effect of load movement on overall vehicle stability. This methodology was used to aid the development of consistent loading rules with a scientific basis that directly addresses stability concerns. Outcomes The research found that hay trucks have reasonably high roll stability, dependent mainly upon bale type and load height. Load shift was found to be small, even at high levels of lateral acceleration, provided that proper load restraints are used. The effect of load restraint method on roll stability was found to be of some significance and small but worthwhile benefits were found for some improved load restraint practices. The research also showed that certain stacking arrangements not allowed under current regulations are better performers than certain loads that are currently allowed. Implications This research project offers a solid scientific basis for consideration by State road authorities when revising current hay loading rules to allow more productive and efficient transport of hay bales on semi-trailers without compromising safety. Publications Sweatman, Dr Peter & Di Cristoforo, Robert (2003). Testing and simulation of hay bale loading on semi-trailers, (45 pgs) RIRDC Publication Number R03/120.

34 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – New Markets and Products

Project Title Further testing and simulation of hay bale loading on semi-trailers

RIRDC Project No.: ROA-2A Researcher: Dr Peter F Sweatman Organisation: Roaduser Systems Pty Ltd Phone: (03) 9334 7888 Fax: (03) 9334 7877 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To determine, by physical testing, the stability characteristics of various hay bale types when loaded onto semi-trailers with various stacking arrangements and load restraint techniques. • To show, by computer simulation, that typical hay trucks loaded with various hay bale types can comply with the new Performance-Based Standards (PBS) for heavy vehicles developed by the National Road Transport Commission (NRTC).

Background In recent years there has been a significant increase in the volume of hay traded in Australia, which has seen an increase in the number of accidents involving vehicle rollovers or hay falling from trucks. As a consequence, enforcement officers have selectively focused load restraint and dimensional infringement notices on the hay transport sector, highlighting the inequity in the regulatory system that has different rules in each State. Research By testing the fore-aft rigidity of restrained semi-trailer loads of hay bales by tilt testing, compliance with the national Load Restraint Guide was proven. This methodology was used to aid the development of consistent loading rules with a scientific basis that directly addresses stability concerns. Additional computer simulations were also carried out to prove compliance with additional Performance-Based Standards. Outcomes The research found that hay trucks are capable of satisfying the requirements of the Load Restraint Guide without excessive amounts of load restraint (i.e. rear gates and edge protectors). Load shift was found to be small in terms of the effect on axle load distribution under braking. The research showed that loads up to 4.6 m high and 2.7 m high can be justified. Implications This research project offers a solid scientific basis for consideration by State road authorities when revising current hay loading rules to allow more productive and efficient transport of hay bales on semi-trailers without compromising safety. Publications Sweatman, Dr Peter & Di Cristoforo, Robert (2004). Further testing and simulation of hay bale loading on semi-trailers, (40 pgs) RIRDC Publication Number R04/124.

35 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – New Markets and Products

Project Title Australian Fodder Industry Production Atlas

RIRDC Project No: PTP-14A Researcher: Arthur Stubbs Organisation: Primary Tasks Pty Ltd Unit 58/2, 247-255 Drummond Street CARLTON VIC 3053 Phone: 03 9844 1135 Fax: 03 9844 4554 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To map Australian fodder production patterns by defining volumes, location, nature, timing and quality of fodder produced, potentially for trade, and identifying major operators and organisations involved in production, trade and servicing.

Background Australian Bureau of Statistics data are currently the prime source of information on the fodder industry in Australia, however, except for export data, they are historical records, provide very limited categorisation and are focussed on total production. There is a general awareness of the major operators and organisations involved in fodder production, trade and servicing, and issues such as quality and prices, but this is usually very localised and has not been collectively documented. Fodder industry meetings since 1994 have agreed that measuring and mapping the industry was an important requirement. Research Desk research was undertaken to gather current data on fodder production statistics and logistics from national and State rural surveys and statistical databases, followed by communication and interview with key people and organisations involved in the fodder industry. Emphasis was placed on the current major trade supply channels to define the major market areas for immediate application, but also provide information on potential fodder products and areas. Outcomes An Australian Fodder Production Atlas was prepared giving the latest available information on fodder production by type, quantity, seasonal availability and general quality. The atlas makes reference to the recent background of commercial fodder production in Australia, from the commencement of the export hay trade, to give a historical perspective. In addition, information is provided on the main trade channels, significant operators in the domestic and export markets, fodder markets and prices. A survey procedure is also defined, based on key correspondents and operations, to enable updating of the atlas from time to time, as required. This is based on the AFIA playing a key role in future collection and communication of this information to the industry. Implications This atlas of fodder production, by type, quantity and quality, will complement recent fodder industry achievements in testing and description standards, and lead to better informed prediction and sourcing of hay supplies for the various domestic and export markets. Publications Stubbs A.K (2000). Atlas of the Australian Fodder Industry. RIRDC Publication Number R00/122.

36 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Industry Communication and Information Flows

Project Title Rapid detection of Rathayibacter toxicus in hay

RIRDC Project No.: DAW-116A Start Date: 01-Jul-2005 Finish Date: 30-Jun-2007 Researcher: Dr Dieter Palmer and Ms Anne Masters Organisation: Department of Agriculture (WA) Phone: (08) 9368 3674 Fax: (08) 9368 3427 Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Objectives The objectives of the research are to increase effectiveness and efficiency of the current Rathayibacter toxicus test and thereby reduce hay processing time, to facilitate a competitive hay export industry in Australia by: • significantly reducing the hay extraction time from 17 hours to less than 12 hours (manual) and <3 hours (mechanical) • shortening the laboratory testing time by modification of test reagents using improved technology • refining the accuracy and standardisation of the laboratory test for R. toxicus. Background Annual Grass Toxicity (ARGT) is a poisoning caused by ingestion of annual ryegrass contaminated with bacterium Rathayibacter toxicus. All hay destined for export from Western Australia and South Australia is tested for the presence of the bacterium using extracts collected by soaking hay samples in water. Extracts are tested using a laboratory test, the ARGT export ELISA, developed in the Animal Health Laboratories, Department of Agriculture & Food Western Australia. Sampling, extraction, testing and reporting is a lengthy process. Shorter extraction and testing times would reduce the time from sampling to storage of hay under cover. Research The test protocol was shortened by modifying a test reagent (antibody). Improved extraction procedures and the short protocol were validated with a large number of hay samples spiked with bacterial galls. This work showed that the manual extraction procedure could be shortened from 17 to 9 hours and the negative cut-off could be increased without compromising the safety of the hay. Mechanical mixing allowed further reduction of extraction time to 4 hours. Outcomes AQIS has approved the increased cut-off and shorter manual extraction time. The short test protocol is in use by both testing laboratories. Implications AQIS approval of the increased cut-off has enabled hay producers to export more hay. The shorter extraction time gives producers more time flexibility. The shortened test protocol permits earlier release of results, allowing removal of hay to storage quicker. Publications Samarasinghe, B (2006). Latest Developments in Annual Rye Grass Toxicity (ARGT) Testing, Western Oat Update, 2 (3): 4, Dec 2006. Masters A., Samarasinghe, B.T., Lowry N. and Palmer D.G. (2007). Rapid detection of Rathayibacter toxicus in hay. RIRDC Publication. No. 07/189.

37 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Industry Communication and Information Flows

Project Title A publication on fodder systems for Australian farming

RIRDC Project No: KDI-6A Researcher: Mr M. Evans Organisation: Kondinin Group 177 Great Eastern Highway Belmont WA 6104 Phone: (08) 9478 3343 Fax: (08) 9478 8853

Objectives To collect and disseminate information to Australian farmers to assist with fodder exports by: • conducting a reliability and performance survey of fodder handling equipment currently in use; and • collating information on innovative methods of handling fodder and presenting case studies of the most efficient methods and systems in Australia.

Background There are currently 46,000 properties producing fodder in Australia. The export fodder industry is centred around Western and South Australia and has a huge growth potential for markets in the Asian and Pacific area. Machinery problems are known to be costly in time and to cause a decline in nutritional value of conserved fodder. Research Methodology consisted of: • developing and distributing a questionnaire; • analysing data and writing reports; • making field visits and collating farm information including machinery modifications, equipment servicing and case studies of innovative fodder producers; and • publishing a manual. More than 450 fodder producers were contacted for information for the manual and considerable information obtained from machinery manufacturers. Outcomes A comprehensive manual based on the information gained from the research has been published. The manual titled Cut and Dried: the Complete Guide to Hay & Silage Management provides information on the total fodder production system for farmers across Australia with emphasis on "who is doing what and how they are achieving it". Implications Many farmers should significantly improve the quality of hay bound for export by taking advantage of equipment modifications and advice contained in Cut and Dried. Publications Kondinin Group (1994). Cut and Dried: the Complete Guide to Hay and Silage Management. Kondinin Group, WA. 424 pp.

38 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Industry Communication and Information Flows

Project Title Haymaker – extension technology for lucerne management

RIRDC Project No: DAN-88A Researcher: Mr Ian Collett Organisation: NSW Agriculture, The Tamworth Centre for Crop Improvement RMB 944 Calala Lane TAMWORTH NSW 2340 Phone: (02) 6763 1100 Fax: (02) 6763 1222 Objectives To raise the returns of irrigated lucerne hay production through: • A 30% increase in yield per unit area over three years by optimising water use and improved nutrition • A reduction in production costs per tonne as a result of improved efficiencies in energy use • An increase in the proportion of prime quality hay produced due to better pest control and improved haymaking techniques

Background This project was a continuation of the existing 1989 Peel and Upper Namoi Valley Irrigation Project based at Tamworth and Manilla, NSW. Field trials indicated that current irrigated lucerne hay production in the areas of the Peel, Upper Namoi and Hunter Valleys in NSW, and the Dawson-Callide, North Burnett and South Burnet districts in Queensland could be increased from 7.1 t/ha/year to 21 t/ha/year. Research The project used a multi-disciplinary format, relying on farmers’ irrigation and production records and computer analysis to evaluate and compare lucerne hay productivity. On-farm engineering and agronomic inspections by irrigation specialists and agronomists and the comparative analysis assisted growers to pin point deficiencies in their management and suggested the most appropriate improvements. Outcomes The HAYMAKER PROJECT has enabled initial evaluation of sub-surface drip irrigation technology for lucerne production. As a result there have been significant installations of this technology in lucerne production districts of Central Queensland and Northern NSW. Large improvements in water use efficiency and profitability have been achieved by many of the 54 cooperators at Tamworth/Manilla and 15 cooperators at Biloela in Central Queensland. The average gross margin of cooperators increased by almost $1200/ha over a four year period ending 1994/95. Note that drought and drastic water shortage severely curtailed the project in 1994-96. Results immediately prior to this period however, indicate a cost benefit ratio estimated at around 15:1 for the $64,000 RIRDC funding. Implications The project has been of significant value to Lucerne growers in the target areas and produced valuable slipover effects in other Lucerne hay producing localities of NSW, Victoria, South Australian and Queensland. An unexpected by very pleasing outcome of the project is its recognition by the Murray Darling Basin Management Commission who have contract staff to adapt HAYMAKER to other irrigated crops as Best Management Practice. Publications NSW Agriculture. (2001). How much water does my soil need?: Guidelines to efficient water use for irrigation farmers on the Peel, Cockburn and Manilla Rivers.

39 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Crop agronomy – nutrition, disease, weed, pest and micro-organism management

Project Title Review of diseases of oats hay: current and future management

RIRDC Project No.: PFA-1A & DAN-229A Researcher: Mr Pierre Fievez & Dr Gordon Murray Organisation: Pierre Fievez and Associates & NSW Department of Primary Industries Phone: Pierre (08) 6389 1666 or Gordon (02) 6938 1879 Fax: Pierre (08) 6389 2899 or Gordon (02) 6938 1822 Email: [email protected] or [email protected] Objectives of PFA- • Identify and prioritise current and potential disease limitations to oaten hay 1A yield and quality in the major production areas of Australia.

• In collaboration with Dr. Murray DAW-229A, review current disease management strategies. • In collaboration with Dr. Murray, identify research and extension required, chances of success, time frame and estimate likely cost. • Provide disease identification and control guidelines to alleviate threats to the industry. • Conduct Benefit Cost Analysis on R, D & E for key diseases. • Thoroughly review international and domestic literature on the important cereal diseases and those that are of importance to oaten hay in Australia. • In cooperation with projects PFA-1A, develop a priority list of the important diseases of oaten hay for the major production areas of Australia. • From the literature review (a), outline the management practices that may reduce the losses form those diseases. Current Progress The survey of growers, exporters and agronomists was conducted by Fievez (WA) and Faulkner (Eastern Australia).The oaten hay production areas of southern Australia were split using GRDC’s agro-ecological zones. The survey has identified a very low level of disease recognition skills and general knowledge of oat diseases across all sectors of the oaten hay industry. The foliar diseases of most concern are Septoria leaf blotch, rusts, barley yellow dwarf virus and bacterial stripe blight. Red leather leaf occurs in eastern Australia, but its significance is not fully understood. The disease has not yet been identified in WA. Fusarium diseases are important constraints in the mallee areas of SA and Victoria. The significance of the oat susceptible strain of take-all in SA in particular is still being assessed. Cereal cyst nematode and some of the root lesion nematodes are problems, particularly in SA and Victoria. In WA their importance is less well understood. Stem nematode has not been identified in Australia and maintaining this status is an ongoing priority. Annual ryegrass toxicity continues to be an expensive and frustrating industry issue. In the low rainfall areas, premature senescence of foliage due to climatic factors has a large impact on yield and quality. Existing disease control measures are being assessed, gaps identified and international data bases reviewed. Publications Murray G.M. (2007). Review of Diseases of Oats for Hay: Current and Future Management Part II: Identification and control options for the diseases of importance. RIRDC Publication No 07/122. Fiévez P., Faulkner M. and Murray G. (2006). Review of Diseases of Oats for Hay: Current and future management - Part I: Relative importance of diseases. RIRDC Publication No. 06/120.

40 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Industry Bio Security and Environmental Management

Project Title Chemical use in fodder crops

RIRDC Project No.: EAV-1A Researcher: Mr Anthony Flynn Organisation: Eureka! Agresearch (Vic) Pty Ltd PO Box 2006 WERRIBEE, VIC, 3030 Phone: (03) 9731 3286 Fax: (03) 9731 3285 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To collect and review data on the use of chemicals in fodder crops and to ascertain the risk of these chemicals on the industry in domestic or export markets.

Background Chemical residues are one of the greatest risks to fodder markets. Exceeding maximum residue levels (MRLs) will see Australian fodder banned from markets. This project was undertaken to help demonstrate that the Australian industry is pro-active in preventing chemical residues and provide data to establish the current position. Research Literature was reviewed for information on chemical residues in fodder crops. This included the MRL situation of major trading partners and competitors. A list was collated of all chemicals currently registered in Australia for use on major fodder crops and their associated MRLs. A sample of agronomists and farmers were interviewed in confidence to identify chemicals that may be used but are not registered. Outcomes Little relevant literature was found. The most relevant being comprehensive grain commodity residue surveys. A limitation of these was the relevance of the pesticides screened to fodder, there was a bias to products used in grain storage and few herbicides were tested. Despite this the surveys indicate that food commodities in Australia rarely exceed acceptable levels of pesticides. The biggest residue issue facing the fodder industry is that more than half of the products registered for use on fodder crops do not have an established MRL. It is illegal to have any residue of these chemicals in fodder and so it is very likely that illegal residues can be detected in fodder. Japan buys about 80% of Australia’s export fodder and is dramatically changing the way it deals with residues in food commodities and is likely to extend this to fodder. Growers need to be informed of these changes. The Japanese are instituting preliminary MRLs, usually based on the mean of MRLs of trading partners. As only the USA has MRLs for many fodder crops their MRLs will likely become the defacto standard. The USA, Canada and China are Australia’s major competitors in export fodder markets. Of these only the USA has MRLs for many chemicals used in fodder and this could put them at an advantage in supplying Japan.

41 Implications The fodder industry needs to address the lack of MRLs in most of the chemicals used in fodder production. Recommendations of how this can be approached were provided in this project. The opportunity exists for the fodder export industry to adopt relevant US MRLs while local MRLs are being established. This will largely protect the industry from potential bans. The industry should work with government agencies and R&D Corporations to generate MRLs for fodder crops. Publications Flynn A. (2005). Chemical use in fodder crops (86 pgs) RIRDC Publication Number R05/092.

42 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Disease, Weed, Pest and Micro-organism Management

Project Title Development of an R&D strategy for quality cereal hay production

RIRDC Project No.: GRS-1A Researcher: Dr Graham Steed Organisation: G R Steed & Associates Pty Ltd Phone: 02 60 327788 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To provide RIRDC, the Cereal Hay Industry and research providers with an agreed strategy for new agronomy R&D aimed at improved productivity for quality cereal hay production. • To involve all relevant groups in the development of this strategy and to effectively disseminate the ultimate plan to those groups.

Background The RIRDC Fodder Crops Program has worked with industry and Government groups to facilitate a voluntary R&D levy on cereal hay production. This R&D levy is combined with RIRDC core funds to facilitate the identification, development and conduct of a research program for agronomy for quality cereal hay production. This project is the first step in development of this R&D portfolio and provides clear priorities and guidelines for future R&D investment in agronomy – based projects aimed at improved productivity and quality in the cereal hay industry. Research Past and current R&D was reviewed and an industry workshop identified the key research gaps that should be addressed by a new research portfolio. These research projects were prioritised and tested at both the RIRDC Fodder Crop Technical meeting and the AFIA conference. Outcomes A list of “agronomy for cereal hay R&D projects” is identified. These projects are grouped into those that should be initiated immediately (fast track) and those that can be implemented over time in a series of RIRDC funding cycles. Implications • The RIRDC Fodder Crop Committee has a blueprint for an R&D portfolio consisting of a number of high priority projects. • The cereal hay industry will see immediate and future benefits from the levies they are contributing and successful outcomes from this research effort will improve productivity and enhance Australia’s reputation in international markets. Publications GR Steed & Associates, Development of an R&D strategy for quality cereal hay production, RIRDC Report available on request.

43 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Disease, Weed, Pest and Micro-organism Management

Project Title Field testing microbial inoculants for hay preservation

RIRDC Project No: UQ-82A Researcher: Dr. Peter Dart Organisation: The University of Queensland School of Land and Food Systems ST. LUCIA QLD 4072 Phone: (07) 3365 2867 Fax: (07) 3365 1188 Email: [email protected]

Objectives Stage 1: • To develop a commercial microbial inoculum for the preservation of hay and hay pellets that inhibits growth of spoilage fungi and thereby results in a superior product with a higher value in the market place. The inoculum will be available at a cost effective price and easy to use with little expenditure on application equipment. The product will potentially be available for export. Stage 2: • Final testing of a microbial inoculant, HayRite (TM), that preserves hay against fungus attack, before it is commercialised by the project collaborators, RIRDC, UQ and BioCare. The trials are essential for quality control of the product and will test different application regimes at several locations. The project will test the effect of the inoculated hay fed to animals on feed intake, weight gain and rumen function and assay the levels (if any) of residual antibiotics in the milk, blood and rumen fluid.

Background Losses of quality on baling of hay can be considerable if hay is preserved too dry because this will induce leaf shatter particularly for lucerne and clover hays. Bailing hay too moist, largely because of variable weather, can lead to spoilage through overheating and fungal contamination and rotting of the hay. Field trials with a microbial inoculant HayRiteTM have shown that it can improve hay quality when hay is baled at elevated moisture levels. The inoculant bacteria produces an antifungal antibiotic. The project has assessed the presence of any antibiotic residues on the hay that, when fed to animals, may result in a change in food intake, metabolism or can subsequently be detected in milk. The method of producing the inoculant for commercial use has been developed and is prepared as a powder. This product has been assessed for field use and has been tested for its efficacy on a range of crops in different locations and seasons. Animal feeding trials for residues in milk were conducted in collaboration with a dairy farmer and the Cobram milk factory that used the lab based Delvotest SP procedure. Other animal trials involving beef cattle and sheep have been conducted at UQ. There was no difference between treated and untreated hay without mould in feed intake, changes in the weight gain, and in the case of sheep, microbial protein production and antifungal antibiotic presence in rumen fluid and blood.

44 Research Extensive farm field trails have shown that HayRiteTM is effective in halting moulding in a range of hays that are baled at high atmospheric moisture levels and in wheat baled at high sap moisture. The treatment of hay with HayRiteTM fed to animals had no detectable effects on their health or intake. In the case of sheep, the treatment of hay with HayRiteTM at either baling or sprayed onto hay just before feeding had no deleterious effects on the health of either the ewes treated or their lambs born 3-6 weeks after feeding. There were some small beneficial effects of these HayRite on nutritive value and live-weight gains of ewes given HayRiteTM The substantial beneficial effects of treating hay with HayRiteTM during drying may be further enhanced by minor improvements in hay quality and animal performance fed these diets. Outcomes This project is in the final stages of developing a commercial inoculant to be known as HayRiteTM. The product preserves moist hay against fungal attack to give a superior quality fodder with a higher value in the market place. Field trials in SE Qld, NSW and in Victoria have shown that the inoculum is effective in preserving lucerne, , wheat and rye grass/clover hay. The inoculum can be stored under refrigeration for at least a year, it is not corrosive and application is simple using existing farm spraying equipment. The inoculum is most effective when applied at mowing. Animal intake is not affected by the inoculum. Farmer co-operators will test the inoculum again in the 2002 season before its commercial release in 2002/03. Implications HayRiteTM is a new product for hay preservation with advantages in the field and will be in cost over its competitors on the market in Australia and the rest of the world. Its use gives farmers a flexibility in operation that they desire to overcome the vagaries of the weather. It can be applied using readily available equipment that most farmers will already have. Use of HayRiteTM may also improve hay quality even if weather damage is not an issue, and treated hay should command a price premium. The product will potentially be available for export. Publications Brown S. and Dart P (2005). Testing hay treated with mould-inhibiting biocontrol inoculum (30pgs) RIRDC Publication Number R05/103.

45 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Disease, Weed, Pest and Micro-organism Management

Project Title Sulla and other forage species for southern Australia

RIRDC Project No: UWA-30A Researcher: Dr Mike Ewing Organisation: Centre for Legumes in Mediterranean Agriculture Phone: (08) 9380 1876 Fax: (08) 93801140 Email [email protected]

Objectives • Identify new legumes species and cultivars suited for use in a range of existing and innovative fodder production systems. • Work with the fodder industry to develop and demonstrate the productivity and quality potential and benefits of new fodder legumes and to identify constraints to their adoption.

Background Changes in farmer systems and new technology in the form of new legume cultivars has stimulated interest in their potential in fodder production and also the further development of new legumes legume species and cultivars with potential for use in such systems. Research The project involved a program of activities linking evaluation of plant and rhizobial genetic resources, evaluation of promising legume species and cultivars in field experiments and demonstrating legume productivity in a range of fodder production systems. The field evaluation and demonstrations were conducted on the farms of fodder producers and covered a wide range of soils and management systems. Outcomes Key outcomes included: • Demonstration that new available legume species and cultivars were highly productive in fodder systems (eg. Cadiz French serradella). • The release of Caprera crimson clover and Cefalu arrowleaf clover for use as dual-purpose /fodder plants on well drained soils. • Identification of elite accessions of a group of legumes (and their root nodule bacteria) that, with further testing, and will add to available fodder legume options (eg. sulla Hedysarum coronarium; purple clover). Implications The project has identified legumes that combine high productivity in fodder production systems, with adaptation to soil and climatic condition prevailing in high rainfall regions where fodder production is concentrated. Producers now have a greatly expanded array of legume options to include in their systems to cover the wide range of environmental conditions which they face and managerial systems that they impose. Publications Ewing, M, Poole, C, Skinner, P and Bennett, A (2001). Sulla and Other Forage Species for Southern Australia, RIRDC Publication Number R01/41 Ewing, M. A. (1999). New pasture species. Proc. of the 11th Australian Plant Breeding Conference, eds P. Langridge, A. Barr, G. Auricht, G. Collins, A. Grainger, D. Handford and J. Paull. Vol. 1, pp 86-90, CRC for Molecular Plant Breeding, University of Adelaide. Ewing M.A. (1999). Sulla and other forage species for southern Australia, AFISC Conference, August 1999, Adelaide SA.

46 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Disease, Weed, Pest and Micro-organism Management

Project Title Development of a quantitative ELISA for screening fodder for corynetoxins

RIRDC Project No: CSA-3A Researcher: Dr Khin A Than Organisation: CSIRO Animal Health Private Bag 24 (5 Portarlington Road) Geelong Vic 3220 Phone: (03) 5227 5731 Fax: (03) 5227 5555 Email [email protected]

Objectives • To demonstrate an enzyme-linked-immuno-sorbent-assay (ELISA) for screening fodder for corynetoxins that will be useful in quality assurance of fodder and help to ensure that corynetoxin contaminated fodder does not cause annual ryegrass toxicity (ARGT) in sensitive markets such as Japan.

Background Hay contaminated with corynetoxins causes ARGT in livestock, a problem found only in Australia. Oaten hay from Australia was responsible for several incidents of ARGT in Japan that led to export restrictions. Current QA of hay uses an ELISA for the bacterial source of the corynetoxins rather than the toxins themselves. While this has so far been successfully in preventing further incidents of poisoning it is an indirect way of ensuring that fodder is safe. Some hay that shows a strong response when assessed by the bacterial assay may be safe for stock. It was therefore considered desirable to establish a method for detecting and measuring the corynetoxins to allow better management of the problem. CSIRO had patented technology that was considered to be suitable for the purpose but this needed to be adapted for specific application to fodder. Research Antisera against the corynetoxins can be induced in sheep when they are injected with a modified form of the corynetoxins conjugated to a protein. Existing supplies of anti-corynetoxin antisera and newly generated sera where assessed for their suitability for use in a corynetoxin ELISA for application to fodder samples. The conditions for conducting the ELISA where optimised. This involved research into coating microtitre plates with toxin conjugates, selection of assay buffers and assay conditions. The potential for extractives from the fodder to interfere with the assay was also assessed. The solvent for extracting trace levels of toxin present was also selected bearing in mind cost, safety and efficiency. The ELISA was then validated against a confirmatory HPLC assay before it was applied to 110 fodder samples. Outcomes The assay was shown to be effective for application to fodder samples. It was found to be capable of measuring corynetoxin down to 40 parts per billion. It offers a means of determining the safety of fodder for stock. The corynetoxin ELISA will now need to undergo testing in several laboratories to ensure its usefulness to the fodder industry. An officer from Agriculture WA has been trained in its use. Similar training will be offered to SARDI. Inter-laboratory testing will be conducted by CSIRO to ensure that the ELISA meets acceptable standards for QA of fodder. Implications Following a period in which to prove its robustness and suitability for routine application to fodder samples, during which some fine tuning is anticipated, it will be available to the fodder Industry for use in assuring the safety of fodder with the potential to cause ARGT. It is expected to enable the fodder industry to better manage the problem of ARGT and to protect the industry from future

47 trade disruptions. The reagents and standards needed for the assay are specialised products and their future availability needs to be established if the assay proves to be important for the fodder industry. Publications Cao Y, Michalewicz A, Cockrum PA, Olsen V and Edgar JA (1999). Novel quantitative ELISA for corynetoxins. AFA’99: Society for Food and Agricultural Immunology’s 5th International Conference: Agri-Food Antibodies ’99; 1999 Sep 14-1999 Sep 17: Norwich, U.K. 1999 [Abstr]. Than KA, Colegate S and Edgar J (2002). Development of a quantitative ELISA for screening fodder for corynetoxins. RIRDC Publication No 02/118.

48 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Plant Disease, Weed, Pest and Micro-organism Management

Project Title Microbial inoculants for hay

RIRDC Project No: UQ-25A Researcher: Peter Dart Organisation: Department of Agriculture University of Queensland ST LUCIA QLD 4072 Phone: (07) 365 2867 Fax: (07) 365 2965

Objectives • To develop commercial microbial inoculants for use in hay making and hay pelleting. • To develop suitable inoculant carrier and delivery systems for field use.

Background Spoilable and mycotoxin producing fungi can develop on lucerne plant material during hay making if the water content exceeds 30%. Drying protects plant material from fungal attack but also increases leaf loss from shatter during movement of the material in hay making and baling. Microbial inoculants may prevent growth and development of spoilage fungi, and thus enable baling at higher water content. This would help reduce leaf loss and moulding, the major cause of loss of quality of hay. Research & Extensive collections of both leaf surface bacteria and spoilage fungi were Outcomes isolated from fresh and dried lucerne. Bacterial strains, which affected the growth of spoilage fungi were selected. Rifampicin resistant mutants of promising bacterial strains were selected to enable monitoring inoculant populations under field conditions. Inoculant survival on lucerne was studied before cutting, during drying, after cutting and after baling. Preliminary field trials were conducted to test the effects of bacterial strains on the spoilage of baled lucerne and promising results were obtained. Media and fermentation technology are being developed for the production of suitable commercial inoculants. The aim is to achieve high populations in liquid culture. Bio-Care is conducting collaborative trials on inoculant production in their commercial fermentors. Implications The conserved fodder industry in Australia is valued at about $600 million. It is estimated that 50% of the feeding quality can be lost during hay making. These inoculants would be an Australian development with potential to achieve a world-wide market. Publications Combined publication with RIRDC project UQ-82A. Testing hay treated with mould-inhibiting biocontrol inoculum. RIRDC Publication Number R05/103.

49 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Quality Standards

Project Title Objective measurement of fodder quality across animal species

RIRDC Project No.: DAV-187A Researcher: Mr. Peter Flinn, Stephanie Knott, Leo Cummins and Dawn Dalley Organisation: Department of Primary Industries (Vic) Phone: (03) 5573 0915 Fax: (03) 5571 1523 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To measure and compare the ranking of in vivo digestibility, total intake, preference and short-term intake rate of a series of hays across beef cattle, lactating dairy cows, horses and sheep, and to use the “standard” fodder samples obtained as a basis for a uniform objective procedure for specification of fodder quality.

Background Two earlier RIRDC projects (DAV-104A and CSJ-1A) led to broad industry agreement on the major indicators of fodder quality and the standard methods for their measurement, together with a set of 16 “standard” hays to calibrate laboratory estimation of digestibility. However, this work was confined to sheep. The dairy, beef and horse industries need to know if laboratory predictions of fodder quality based on sheep data can be applied across animal species. There is also an industry demand for rapid estimation of relative animal preference for hay. Research Preference and short-term intake rate were measured with dairy cows, sheep, steers and horses on a set of cereal and legume hays. The ranking of both measurements was compared and correlations were attempted with nutritive value estimates. A smaller set of hays was also fed to all four animal species for measurement of in vivo digestibility (DMD) and ad libitum intake (DMI), and comparisons made between the species. Outcomes Within each animal species, there were significant differences in preference between hays, but also some overlap. The preference ranking between hays was clearly different across animal species. There was a strong relationship between preference and short-term intake rate. For the specific set of hays studied, laboratory estimates of DMD and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) appeared to be better indicators of preference than either crude protein (CP) or water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC). In vivo DMD of the hays measured was the same for dairy cows as for steers, but values for horses were different to steers. Sheep DMD could be used with some confidence for predicting DMD of hay for horses and steers but not dairy cows. Ad libitum DMI of hay by steers was directly proportional to that for both dairy cows and horses, but sheep DMI could only be used to predict DMI of hay for steers. Implications This study was limited to relatively few hays, and the measurements need to be made on additional hays to increase confidence in the results. The results may also have been affected by the inherent variation within a given hay. For the hays studied, sheep could not be used as a model to estimate preference rankings of hay in dairy cows, steers or horses. Across a range of hay quality, DMD and NDF are likely to be useful predictors of preference. Future in vivo DMD measurements on hays intended for dairy cows can be made with steers, representing a considerable cost saving. DMD measurements on fodder using sheep could be used for steers and horses but not dairy cows. DMI measurements using sheep may be used for steers. A new set of hay “standards”, with measured in vivo DMD and DMI across four animal species, should be available as a basis for laboratory prediction of these parameters in unknown samples.

50 Publications Knott S.A., Cummins L.J., Dalley D., Flinn P.C., Kearney G. and Hannah M. (2002). Preference rankings for legume and cereal hays across livestock species. Animal Production in Australia 24: 320. Knott S.A., Cummins L.J., Dalley D., Flinn P.C., Kearney G. and Hannah M. (2002). The relationship between preference and short-term intake rate for legume and cereal hays. Animal Production in Australia 24: 321. Hannah M., Reynolds J., Kearney G., Flinn P.C., Knott S.A. and Dalley D. (2002). Determining hay preference in the presence of treatment competition. Proceedings GENSTAT Conference, Perth, WA. Flinn P., Knott S., Cummins L. and Dalley D (2005). Objective measurement of fodder quality across animal species, RIRDC Publication Number R05/088.

51 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Quality Standards

Project Title National forage conservation project - reliable laboratory tests for silage

RIRDC Project No.: DRD-4A Researcher: Dr. AG Kaiser Organisation: NSW Agriculture, Wagga Wagga Agricultural Institute Phone: (02) 6938 1852 Fax: (02) 6938 1809 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • Improve the accuracy of feed tests to assess silage quality for the dairy, fodder, lamb & beef industries

Background Feed testing is an important management tool within livestock enterprises to assess the nutritive value of feeds and formulate diets. Farmers can also use feed tests to assess the efficiency of their silage making operation. However present a special challenge for laboratories because they are a fermented feed and contain volatile compounds. Also it is assumed that laboratory methods and calibrations developed on other feeds can be applied to silages – no silage standards are available. Research A diverse set of 30 silages, covering a wide range of crops and digestibility, were fed to cattle and sheep at close to the maintenance (maintain liveweight) level of feeding, and digestibility was determined. After completion of this work the silages were subjected to a range of in vitro and other analyses to assess the accuracy of alternative laboratory methods for estimating in vivo digestibility. The errors associated with the measurement of DM content by oven drying, and determining silage N content on an oven-dried sample were also investigated. Outcomes While the animal feeding work has been completed, the laboratory work is continuing. The main findings to date are:- • Overall the differences between cattle and sheep were small. However digestibility was significantly higher in cattle for two silages, and higher in sheep for another two silages. • An equation, based on 70 silages, for predicting true DM from oven DM was developed. • There is a significant error when determining N content on oven dried silage, with the error varying between silages. Implications When this work is completed, feed testing laboratories will have access to more accurate tests for assessing the feeding value of silages, and to silages of known digestibility in cattle and sheep for calibration purposes. Publications More accurate laboratory tests for assessing silage silage quality. A.G. Kaiser and K.L, Kerr, Final report for DRDC Project DAN 100 (RIRDC Project DRD- 4A), October 2003. An evaluation of a range of laboratory procedures for predicting the in vivo digestibility of silages (2004). Kristy Bailes, M. Sc. Ag. thesis, University of Sydney.

52 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Quality Standards

Project Title Objective specification of the quality of hays and fodder

RIRDC Project No: CSJ-1A Researcher: Sue Baker, Robyn Dynes, Barrie Purser and David Henry Organisation: CSIRO Animal Production Private Mail Bag 5 PO Wembley WA 6913 Phone: (08) 9333 6000 Fax: (08) 9387 8991 Email [email protected],au; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Objectives • To provide the Australian hay industry (domestic and export) with simple and uniform quality standards based upon objective specification, and • To validate predictions against measured animal performance and to compare methods developed in this project with existing methods on the basis of cost, speed and accuracy.

Background The value of hays traded in Australia is about $600M, and of this hay exported mostly to Japan, Korea and Taiwan makes up about 11% of hay traded. Livestock producers understand that differences in hay and fodder quality should be reflected in animal performance. Despite this, prices paid for hays do not reflect likely performance of animals consuming them. The United States has been active in developing and putting in place quality standards for hays, and prices are based upon objectively measured hay quality. Objective, performance-based quality standards that are accepted by the industry will provide a sound basis upon which price differentials can be determined. Objective, performance-based quality standards will also enhance the ability of exporters of hay to capture and retain markets in the face of increasing competition from other exporting countries, particularly the United States. The livestock industries will benefit by an assurance that performance will be related to price paid for hay or fodder. Research Hay and fodder nutritive value is sometimes confused with hay and fodder quality (also known as feeding value). Nutritive value is determined by digestibility and efficiency of utilisation of nutrients, whereas feeding value is determined by nutritive value and voluntary feed intake. Thus hays and fodders of similar nutritive value can differ substantially in feeding value (quality). Biomechanical characters of hays reflect how difficult the hay is for the animal to chew, and are important in constraining voluntary feed intake by ruminants. Hay quality characters, including biomechanical characters, were evaluated to determine which of them best described the quality of the hays in terms of their feeding value, by feeding 35 cereal hays from 3 growing seasons to sheep. Outcomes Characters of hay that can be measured in laboratory analyses can be used as predictors of animal performance. The characters that best predict constraint to voluntary feed intake of cereal hays were shear energy (a biomechanical character), neutral-detergent fibre (NDF), and crude protein content. From a prediction of constraint to intake, voluntary feed intake can be predicted with acceptable reliability. It was confirmed that biomechanical characters can be predicted using near infra-red reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) (patents pending). Implications Adoption by the Australian hay and fodder industry of quality standards that reflect likely animal performance is important for the competitive of the industry and for customer confidence. Using this approach Australia is gaining an increasing market share it its export markets.

53 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Quality Standards

Project Title A uniform objective system for quality description of Australian fodder products

RIRDC Project No: DAV-104A Researcher: Peter Flinn Organisation: Agriculture Victoria, Pastoral and Veterinary Institute Private Bag 105, HAMILTON, VICTORIA 3300 Phone: (03) 5573 0900 Fax: (03) 5571 1523 Email: [email protected]

Objectives • To develop and implement a national uniform objective system for quality description of Australian fodder products, based on the needs and specifications of end-users, in order to facilitate effective marketing.

Background The fodder industry is worth approximately $700 million per year to Australia, but the industry is fragmented and has been operating without adequate quality standards. There is an increasing awareness of the need to trade hay and other fodders on the basis of their feeding value, i.e. in terms of animal performance, rather than on subjective criteria such as colour and aroma. Objective measurements of fodder quality are being increasingly used, but not all testing laboratories measure the same feed constituents or use the same testing procedures, which can cause confusion within the industry. Agreement is needed throughout the industry on the most important quality measurements, and uniform analytical procedures are required between laboratories for these measurements. Research A national meeting, with delegates representing all sectors of the fodder industry from producers through to end-users, was convened to seek agreement on the criteria needed for a uniform system of objective quality description. Two subsequent meetings were held between representatives of Australia’s major fodder testing laboratories to decide on detailed procedures for the agreed standard laboratory tests, and to arrange an ongoing quality assurance program. Sixteen different hays were selected and fed to sheep in order to measure in vivo digestibility and ad libitum intake. Quantities of these hays were set aside as “standards”, to be used as reference material for calibration of laboratory techniques to estimate digestibility (and hence metabolisable energy).

54 Outcomes The national forum resulted in agreement that the major quality criteria of fodder should be moisture, crude protein and metabolisable energy. The forum also led directly to the formation of the Australian Fodder Industry Association (AFIA), which is now recognised as the peak body for the industry and is in its fourth year of operation. Agreement has been obtained between the major fodder testing laboratories on uniform analytical procedures to measure moisture, crude protein and metabolisable energy, and a set of recommended methods will now be distributed and implemented. The sixteen hays fed to sheep covered a wide range of species and quality, with measured in vivo digestibility ranging from 49.7% to 68.7%. A financially viable mechanism has been recommended for the supply and distribution of these hay “standards” to approved laboratories. A new grading system for hay quality, based on metabolisable energy and protein content, has also been produced and was adopted by AFIA at its Annual Conference in 1998. It has also been accepted by the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association (NACMA) as a trading standard. Implications The hay “standards” produced will form the basis of a nationally uniform system for laboratory estimation of fodder quality. The agreement obtained among laboratories will result in an effective system of quality description, easily recognised and understood by the industry, and will lead to improved marketing of fodder products, both in Australia and on export markets. Buyers would get better value for money, and sellers would receive bonus payments for a higher quality product. Publications Flinn, P. et al., (2000). A Uniform Objective System for Quality Description of Australian Fodder Products, RIRDC Publication No R00/134.

55 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Quality Standards

Project Title Development of exports of oaten hay to Japan - alternative shipping methods

RIRDC Project No: DAW-28A Researcher: Dr CPF De Lima & Mr R Nussey Organisation: Department of Agriculture 3 Baron-Hay Court SOUTH PERTH WA 6151 Phone: (08) 9368 3494 Fax: (08) 9368 1204

Objectives • To investigate the technology of alternative packing and shipping methods for the export of oaten hay and cereal straw; • To investigate the fumigation requirements arising from these alternatives; • To investigate the economics of all stages in the marketing chain from farm gate to Japan; • To assess the market acceptance of the product in Japan.

Background From 1990 to 1993 Western Australia exported, per year, about 40,000 tonnes of fodder valued at approximately $10 million —around half of the total exported by Australia. It is conservatively estimated that this amount could be increased more than five times through improved packing and shipping. Alternative methods to be studied are: higher density compression and use of 20' (TEU) containers; and break bulk packing of fodder in units for shipping on conventional cargo vessels. Before new packing technologies can be introduced, the economics of all stages of the marketing chain from farm gate to Japan, and acceptance of the changes by the Japanese market, need to be assessed. Also insect fumigation requirements arising from changes in packing and shipping will need to be investigated. Research Trials of high-density compression of hay were carried out using facilities of Independent Wool Dumpers Pty Ltd at Fremantle capable of a maximum compression force of 250 tonnes. It was shown that 21.6 tonnes of fodder could be packed into a TEU container. There was some concern that moisture would be released from hay but after 30 days in plastic there was no evidence of condensation or mould formation. Moisture condensation was measured and instruments for analysing it surveyed. Feeding trials demonstrated suitability of the compressed fodder as cattle food. In a trial shipment of 13 tonnes to Japan there were no quarantine problems. Data on insect species infesting oaten hay were gathered. Enough species were found to justify fumigant concentrations used. Gas concentrations and gas-tightness were also measured. An economic analysis of on-farm prices, before-processing costs, after-processing costs, export prices and margins was made. Outcomes Analysis confirms that shipping costs pose a serious threat to the viability of WA's export-hay industry. While the study shows that it is possible to obtain high densities of fodder in 20' containers, changing to the smaller containers may only result in a minor export increase because the Japanese market appears to prefer 40 ' (FEU) containers.

56 Implications This study has indicated that a significant increase in exports of WA oaten hay would come only from developing break bulk shipping, but it is noted that support for this has, so far, been extremely disappointing. Publications De Lima, C.P.F., Emery, R.N. and Jackson, P. (1994). 'Improved procedures for fumigation of oaten hay in shipping containers', Proc. of the 6th International Working Conference on Stored-Product Protection, Vol 1, 7177. CAB International Wallingford UK.

57 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Quality Standards

Project Title Establishment of annual ryegrass toxicity (ARGT) testing services and protocols for the Australian export hay industry

RIRDC Project No: SAR-2A Researcher: Alan McKay Organisation: South Australian Research & Development Institute GPO Box 397 Adelaide SA 5001 Phone: (08) 8303 937 Fax: (08) 8303 9393

Objectives • To develop recommendations on sampling protocols for the export oat hay industry to minimise the risk of annual ryegrass infected with the bacterium Clavibacter toxicus contaminating hay and causing the poisoning of livestock known as ARGT.

Background Oat hay is an important export commodity. In 1996/97 about 225,000 tonnes worth $74 million was exported to dairies in Japan. Demand for Australian oat hay is increasing at about 10% pa. Most export hay is produced in South Australia and Western Australia. Three separate incidents of cattle deaths in Japan attributed to annual ryegrass toxicity (ARGT) associated with Australian hay, jeopardised the export market in early 1996. An interim protocol developed by a consultative group lead by Department of Primary Industries and Energy (DPIE) to test the remaining stored hay from the 1995 crop. This restored confidence in Australian hay, but the hay industry was warned trade would be suspended if more toxic hay was exported to Japan. To protect industry from the consequences of further outbreaks of ARGT in Japan, a collaborative project funded by RIRDC was established to develop sampling protocols to reject contaminated hay. Research There were two major components to the project. The first was to establish testing services in South Australia and Western Australia to enable hay samples to be tested for the bacterium. Research was then undertaken to assess different sampling strategies for stored and processed hay. Sampling strategies for hay crops and bales in the paddock were evaluated. These studies were conducted in collaboration with export hay processors and utilised a large proportion of the export hay crops. Outcomes Testing services were established in South Australia and Western Australia to process hay samples. Between June 1996 and June 1998, the services processed 24,192 hay and 4,879 paddock samples. Recommendations for sampling protocols were developed for consideration by the export oat hay industry, and areas where further research would be beneficial were identified. Implications The future of the export oat hay industry is vulnerable unless it adopts an effective sampling protocol to manage the risk of ARGT. This will require a strong commitment by all participants, backed up by an effective quality control system.

58 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – R&D Management Monitoring and Review

Project Title Assessment of the extent, nature and source of support for a R&D levy for the Australian fodder industry

RIRDC Project No: KAK-2A Researcher: Mr Colin Simpson Organisation: Kakadu Pastoral Company P/L “Kakadu” OAKLANDS NSW 2646 Phone: (02) 6920 8216 Fax: (02) 6920 8277

Objectives • Provide an assessment of the extent, the nature and sources of support for the proposed R&D levy for the fodder industry and provide an analysis of the basis for this support and any reasons for opposition. • Develop and implement a strategy for informing as wide a group of potential levy payers of the details of the scheme and provide them with an opportunity to comment on the scheme. • Ensure that the industry organisations and other participants in the industry agree to the coverage and details of the supporting evidence

Background The National Fodder Forum conducted in Melbourne in late 1995 highlighted, amongst other things, the need for R&D funding for the fodder industry. Following the formation of the Australian Fodder Industry Association (AFIA) in 1996 a strategic plan was developed involving consultation with a broad cross section of fodder industry players. Again this process demonstrated the need for fodder industry R&D. The AFIA committee subsequently developed a proposal to fund a R&D program with a levy on fodder production. It was intended that the collection mechanism be a 3% levy on the wholesale sales of baling twine and net wrap. This proposal was circulated in June 1996 to State based farmer representative bodies and the National Farmers’ Federation. This project is the culmination of the extensive consultation phase that followed. Research Consultations were scheduled with all of the state based farmer representative groups, and other industry organisations. Where possible grower meetings were arranged and informative discussions held. The rural media (both print and electronic) was used extensively in the promotion of the proposal in each state. Outcomes Such was the level of support for the proposal, a submission to the Federal Government in support of the levy was prepared and presented to Senator Troeth in July 1998. The submission was prepared in accordance with the Government’s 12 principles for new or varied levies and met all the requirements of those principles. Implications This project has identified significant support for the proposed compulsory levy on fodder production to fund fodder industry R&D. The benefits of agricultural R&D over the years has been well documented, and given the very low level of fodder industry R&D in the past, the potential returns to the industry are very large. These benefits will flow to all industries that rely on fodder as part of their production process thus multiplying the benefits to the nation considerably.

59 Completed projects — prior to 2007–08 – Other Related Projects

Project Title An evaluation of the fodder potential of tree legume species

RIRDC Project No: UQ-23A Researcher: Dr R.C. Gutteridge Organisation: Department of Agriculture University of Queensland QLD 4072 Phone: (07) 3365 2062 Fax: (07) 3365 1188

Objectives • To assess the nutritive value of the tree species in controlled pen feeding studies. • To undertake grazing studies to determine the liveweight gain potential of the three species for cattle. • To determine appropriate management strategies for the most efficient use of the species.

Background Over the past ten years increasing interest has been shown in the use of tree and shrub species as fodder. Some species offer advantages over herbaceous species in terms of superior persistence, higher yields, better liveweight potential, ease of management and ability to produce high quality fodder in periods of stress. Albizia chinensis and Tipuana tipu are tree legumes which have shown agronomic promise in initial screening trials. They are reported to grow over a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions. While they have not been widely recognised in Australia, the Queensland Department of Primary Industries have recognised their potential and included them in a regional program of browse species evaluation. They have been shown to be palatable but quantitative assessment of their nutritive value has not been carried out nor have they been evaluated under grazing. Research There were three major components to the evaluation of these species. The first was a study of their productivity and reaction to grazing in situ, the second was an assessment of their nutritive value in pen feeding studies. A third component was a study of the reaction of Tipuana tipu to a regular defoliation. Outcomes The tree legume species when fed in conjunction with signal grass (Bracharia Decumbens) are capable of producing moderate liveweight gains over extended periods. Average daily gains of up to 0.60 kg/head/day were achieved over a 6 month period which included the cool dry season from May to November. After 10 months grazing the trees did not show any obvious signs of permanent damage due to browsing by the cattle. Plant mortality in the 6 months after transplanting was relatively high for Tipuana but this may have been due to poor adaptation to the rather than a negative affect of grazing. Pen feeding studies demonstrated that goats readily consumed the dried leaf of both Tipuana and Albizia. Implications These trials have indicated that the three species are useful as fodder resources for ruminant livestock in a sub tropical environment and that further evaluation is warranted to help define their full potential.

60 Fodder Crops Publications

Title Publication No. Cost Fodder Industry Practices to Meet Export Market Standards 08/102 (2008, 71pgs) $15 Assessment of Vehicles for the transport of Hay and Straw 07/194 (2008, 89pgs) $25 Improved Testing for Annual Ryegrass Toxicity – Rapid 07/189 (DAW-116A) $0 Detection of Rathayibacter toxicus in Hay web only Developing Sustainable Fodder Crop Systems with New Annual 07/182 (2007, 104pgs) $25 Pasture Legumes Development of Improved Oat Varieties for Hay Production: 07/162 (SAR-57A) $0 web National Program II only Fodder Crops Research in Progress 07/012 (2007, 64pgs) Free Specification of Fodder Quality 07/127 (2007, 129pgs) $16 Improved Vetch Varieties for Fodder Production 07/123 (2007, 18pgs) $0 web only Review of Diseases of Oats for Hay: Current and Future 07/122 (2007, 52pgs) $16 Management Part II: Identification and control options for the diseases of importance Development of Improved Oat Varieties for Hay Production : 07/054 (2007, 229pgs) $0 web National Program only Review of Diseases of Oats for Hay: Current and Future 06/120 (2006, 61pgs) $16 Management Part I: Relative importance of diseases Best Practice Super Conditioning to Produce Quality Export 06/119 (2007, 64pgs) $16 Oats Fodder Crops R&D Program Research in Progress 06/073 (2006, 51pgs) Free Producing Quality Oat Hay 06/002 (2006, 84pgs) $30 Evaluation of the Fodders Crops and Pasture Programs: 05/169 (2005, 104pgs) $21 Benefit – Cost – Evaluation – Stage 2 Evaluation of the Fodders Crops and Pasture Seeds Programs: 05/168 (2005, 55pgs) $16 An Overview of All Projects – Stage 1 Testing Hay Treated with Mould-Inhibiting, Biocontrol Inoculum 05/103 (2005, 31pgs) $16 Chemical Use in Fodder Crops: Interim Report 05/092 (2005, 83pgs) $21 Objective Measurement of Fodder Quality Across Animal 05/088 (2005, 50pgs) $16 Species Fodder Legumes and Grasses: An Evaluation of Their Potential W05/111 (2005, $0 for Dryland Hay Production 46pgs) web only R & D Plan for the Australian Fodder Industry 2004-2009 04/126 (2004) Free Further Testing and Simulation of Hay Bale Loading on Semi- 04/124 (2004 40pgs) $21 Trailers Testing and Simulation of Hay Bale Loading on Semi-Trailers 03/120 (2003, 40pgs) $21 Development of Quantitative ELISA for Screening Fodder for 02/118(2002 33pgs) $16 Corynetoxins Oaten Hay Variety Development 02/117 (2002, 51pgs) $16 Sulla & Other Forage Species for Southern Australia 01/041 (2001, 29pgs) $16 A Uniform Objective System for Quality Australian Fodder 00/134 (2000, 45pgs) $16 Products Atlas of the Australian Fodder Industry 00/122 (2000) $26 Research to Support Specification of Fodder Quality SR-136 (short report) $0

To order any of these publications, please contact RIRDC on (02) 6271 4100 or download them free from our website at http://www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/

61 FODDER CROPS

RIRDC Publication No. 08/074

The RIRDC Fodder Crops R&D program aims to facilitate the The animal feeds industry in East Asia is estimated to be valued at US$10 development and maintenance of a viable fodder crops industry. billion, and it is perceived that a large untapped demand will enable the industry to develop many new opportunities. The fodder industry has been Fodder is defined as the wide range of crop and pasture species that are taking advantage of this market with exports increasing significantly in grown, harvested and lightly processed for farm use and domestic and recent years to around three quarters of a million tonnes. export trade. The fodder industry is large with an estimated 20,000 producers on 46,000 properties across all States producing between five The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) and seven million tonnes of hay and around two million tonnes of silage manages and funds priority research and translates results into practical per year. This production is traded as a wide range of fodder, including outcomes for industry. lucerne, clover, pasture, cereal and others. The gross value of production at the farm gate is estimated to be about 1.3 billion a year, which represents a Our business is about new products and services and better ways of 50% increase over the past 10 years. About 30–35% of fodder production producing them. is traded off-farm and this share has increased substantially during the last few years. Most of the information we produce can be downloaded for free from our website: www.rirdc.gov.au. Domestic fodder production is concentrated in Victoria and New South Wales with Western Australia and South Australia being the major RIRDC books can be purchased by phoning 02 6271 4100 or online at: exporting States. The largest domestic market users are the dairy industry www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop. (40%), horse industry (25%) and the feedlot industry (20%).

Contact RIRDC: Level 2 15 National Circuit Barton ACT 2600

PO Box 4776 This publication can be viewed at our web- Kingston ACT 2604 site—www.rirdc.gov.au. All RIRDC books can be purchased from:. Ph: 02 6271 4100 Fax: 02 6271 4199 Email: [email protected] www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop web: www.rirdc.gov.au

RIRDCInnovation for rural Australia