tural understanding oftural understanding the new and generations, cul and skills communication have not the do tries in trained state institutions in coun Muslim the Meanwhile, non-. with behaving of ways and relations gender of realm the in fall marily their political and cultural which pri circumstances, into account takes that guidance spiritual for mands de latter The youth. Muslim the and imams the of expectations religious the between gap cultural a is There countries. European different the in ed ofthe the majority new generations or born educat to appeal not does of type this Nonetheless, Ramadan. of month the for imams sending like aid, direct through as well as organizations of kinds withconnections their nationals through different to maintain 1970s Islam used 1980s, states and the In Turkey, Morocco, . as and such immigrants, Muslim of origin of countries the from comes Europe in influence Islamic of strand first The condition. minority to the related adjustments local time, same at the and thinking Islamic of trends global flects re Europe in landscape Islamic the respect, this In Islam. radical of favour” “in or “against” being than broader is and centuries) not (if decades several for ongoing been however has battle West.” This “the and “Islam” between battle the as radical as is Muslims among Islam true the for battle the that fact the on light have shed Iraq and Syria beyond (ISIS) State Islamic the of visibility and atrocities The University Religion, Peace and World Affairs, Georgetown Senior Research Fellow attheBerkley Centerfor Professor ofReligionandPolitics, Universityof Cesari Jocelyne Islam European in Trends Religious FutureThe of Islam ------most nationalist ideologies have been on the wane. that considering when especially a concept, as tive Ummah the make ideas and ple peo of circulation the as well as communication for 18th to Today, the back avenues century. various the – dates loyalties ethnic or national, cultural, cific of the Community of Believers ( Believers of Community the of unity the emphasize that movements transnational political or to religious refers – which pan- all, new; after not are Islam of forms transnational course, Of global. to tend be also figures ligious re of types new these of forms influential most The CDs. and tapes, cassette magazines, as such diums availability of new technological communicative me and thepublic increased education programmes to attributed be can and Internet, the predates trend the blogosphere, and over airwaves worldwide. This on stadiums, sports in Islam for speak and masses and thebusinessman, autodidact, who mobilize the ingly challenged by the engineer, the student, the increas are Medina, or al-Azhar of the as ways. Therefore, religious such established figures, normative and authoritative both in Islam of half be on to speak right the claim who actors of crease in to the have contributed communication of forms Eickelman, 1996). Both education mass and new and (Pescatori studies many of subject the been has and phenomenon, anew means by no is authorities countries and Europe. The proliferation of religious Muslim both in legitimacy religious of contenders ical establishment, and who posit themselves as cler traditional the of part not are who figures ligious re from comes influence Islamic of type second The sari 2013) young women vis-à-vis this kind of leadership. (Ce the of critique the of virulence by the surprised often Iwas Europe, across Muslims with interviews my numerous During women. young of particularly, all the more effec more the all Ummah) over spe ------

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 81 The Future of Islam Keys IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 82 The Future of Islam Keys As to Muslims. guidance of form superior most the fer edents of the pious forefathers ( forefathers pious the of edents prec to the according interpreted when Hadith, and ‘an Qur the that contend They Western. deemed are that concepts and ideas all reject habism Wah of Adherents away with. done be all must and culture, Text; the and customs, believer the between come can nothing Islam, of pretation ous schools juridical ( vari the of contributions historical to the recourse no with text, revealed to the relation adirect as fined de be can practice Orthodox contempt. in held are and historical approaches interpretationscal alike Mysti tradition. Islamic to the approaches critical of rejection by its 1932. characterized is Wahhabism in creation its upon Kingdom Saudi the of trine doc official the became ‘an Qur the of terpretations (1703-1792). Wahab Abdel Ibn in Wahab’s literalist Muhammad of teachings the with Peninsula Arabian the in 18th the in century emerged tradition, lamic Is the of interpretation aspecific as Wahhabism, Fundamentalism Global different positions vis-à-vis modernity. have but Islam of interpretations global dominate trends Both Brotherhood. Muslim the hand, other the on and movements Wahhabi/Salafi the hand, one the on between drawn be must A distinction diversity. cultural and tional na transcends that unity aMuslim and text revealed the on emphasis an place they that sense the in ist fundamental are which of influential most the forms, Tahrir). ut- Hizb that, before and, ISIS of exception notable the (with them of most for goal amajor longer no Islamist,” although the restoration of the is “pan- as movements to these Irefer reason, this For 1 Prophet Muhammad’s death. habis argue, was lost over the centuries following Wah meaning,” “true whose sources” to the ing by “return Arabia seventh-century of conditions the to relation in ways life of contemporary formulating Jerusalem in 1953 by Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, a Palestinian Sunni scholar. Sunni aPalestinian al-Nabhani, Taqiuddin by 1953 in Jerusalem seeks the “Islamization of societies,” of “Islamization the seeks A pan-Islamic political organization whose goal is to reestablish the Islamic Caliphate by peaceful means. The organization was created in in created was organization The means. peaceful by Caliphate Islamic the reestablish to is goal whose organization political Apan-Islamic

a stringently revivalist movement, Wahhabism 1 The The imagined Ummah madhab

). In this literalist inter literalist ). this In takes on a variety of of avariety on takes al- al-salih

which entails entails which ), of ), ------what ought agood Muslim to be the image standard ofbecomes for women – the Salafi norm often head covering, for beard men; niqab Wahhabi – white codes dress tunic, Even do not most if Muslims follow Islam. Sunni of doctrine orthodox global the as but many among interpretation one as not beliefs its ing impos in succeeded has movement The world. lim Mus the throughout generally more and States, ed Unit the and Europe in followers their for reference of points (d. 1999) shared the are Al-Albani and Kingdom, Saudi the of 1999), Grand fatwas The world. the around by Muslims followed now are but dom king Saudi to the limited longer no are pretations inter Salafi audiences. have today of different Islam Salafi global the and period Wahhabi original The include the number of institutions funded by the not do estimates to these note that important is It schools countries. in Islamic 2,000 Muslim-minority and 202 colleges, 1,500 , centers, ic approximately financed” 210 or“wholly partly Islam Yaqin, al- Ain magazine, Saudi official the 2002, as back far As sites. Internet multilingual of multiplication the lamic Studies chairs in universities; American and Is of Toronto, financing afew;and the just to name Washington, Zagreb, Lisbon, , Chicago, Milan, Mantes-la-Jolie, Madrid, Malaga, Edinburgh, in centres Islamic new of building the in resulted dawa this West, the In individuals.” organizations, andof mosques, schools, publishers, network amassive for funding provided and grants, and awards gave out world, the of languages jor ma the all in literature Wahhabi distributed “widely internationally in a number of organizations that investing began 1970s, the In Arabia nopoly. Saudi mo religious to this contributed have certainly State Saudi the of resources financial considerable The estimated that the Saudi royal family has has family royal Saudi the that estimated of Sheikh Abdul Aziz Ibn Baaz (d. Baaz Ibn Aziz Abdul Sheikh of (proselytization) (proselytization)

------

– and classifies classifies – and leisure work, – family, life of aspects various the separates that aworldview is ments move these in common Also one. ways anegative al is depravity, moral with associated tomatically au West, the of image the and infidels, and Muslims into divided is world the trend, to this According net proselytization. Inter the dominates Islam of interpretation revivalist Salafi the level, grassroots at the interpretations ic Islam different many of presence strong the Despite to be. ought Muslim agood what of image standard the becomes often norm Salafi – the women for men; for niqab beard covering, head tunic, – white most do Muslims not follow Wahhabi codes dress their Islamic practice by Wahhabi standards. Even if ings means that even non-Salafi Muslims evaluate popularity. The of widespread diffusion Salafi teach its for reasons main the of one is offers Salafism that forms of knowledge, the to easy access theology new to produce means the and education gious culturea minority both lacking institutions for reli In by statistics. measured be simply cannot influence the Muslims, American and European of case the In practice. religious Muslim on by Wahhabism exerted influence precise the to gauge difficult extremely is It languages into twenty translated Qur the of 138 copies million produced had plex com the 2000, By recitations. ‘anic Qur of cordings re audio and video are as Braille, in available are ‘an Qur the of year. Copies each ‘an Qur the of ies cop 10 million 30 and between produces complex the Abdulaziz, bin Fahd King now-deceased the of website to the According Medina. in ‘an Qur Holy the Printing for Complex Fahd King the opened Arabia Saudi of 1984, in Kingdom the example, For shows. television satellite of airing the or websites, of creation the handouts, of circulation the through whether message, their to spread media on heavily rely also They thought. Islamic of guardian gitimate le sole the as Wahhabism of promotion touted the contrib has effort propagation massive 1980s. This 1970s the in Kingdom and the of outside tions struction institu of and Islamic mosques, schools, - con the in dollars over $75 invested billion alone Fahd King countries. Muslim-minority in causes Islam-related various on billion over $80 spent dom King Saudi the estimates, to some According izing. within that Saudi Wahhabi Arabia finance proselyt sources other or entirety its in Government Saudi ‘an ‘an ------

present and for gold standard lifepast” in the essentialized, functioning “epic an as isidealizedstay and in Medina, of the during Prophet, especially his it existed as Islam during the time lary (especially when talking about the West) and West) and the about talking when (especially lary vocabu same the using discourse, jihadi with ties similari contain fact in do versions These West. the in Muslims young among particularly movements, jihadi of development the and violence of leashing un the with correlation have anecessary scripture, of reading anachronistic an on based Islam, of sions Today, the burning question is whether these ver ratist in relation stance to public institutions. asepa maintain must believer the that holding tion, fundamentalist movements reject political participa Additionally, is constantly reaffirmed. superiority male and schools, and spaces public both in bidden for are interactions Mixed-gender community. the in (or daughters, and participants ers, nonparticipants) moth wives, as roles female also but dress, only not regulates behaviour female of interpretation ritanical pu This questioned. be never may and absolute as presented – are body entire the covering garment and a long (face loose covering) niqab – namely The rules determining proper dress for women women. of status the regarding inflexibility extreme their is Salafis to all common characteristic Another things have already come to pass.” come have already things good the all and good, is everything era, this “in day, for present the for basis the as serves period this of aspect smallest The present. the in life for ard stand gold and past” “epic an as functioning ized, essential and idealized is Medina, in stay his during especially Prophet, the of time the during existed it as 2005). Islam Fadl El (Abou forbidden’)” is (‘What ‘ of Culture “The interpretation of trum spec particular this called has Fadl El Abou Khaled thus, and innovation, an is Prophet the of time the during happen or exist already not did that haram between opposition to the according everything (forbidden) and (permitted). Everything Everything (permitted). Mamnu ------’ .

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 83 The Future of Islam Keys IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 84 The Future of Islam Keys movement has become divided over the question of of question over the divided become has movement the fact, In Brothers. Muslim fate all of the means no by are violence of to tactics recourse the and zation radicali Political Maghreb. the and East Middle the Egypt, from movements Islamist other all by almost temporarily, only if another, or point at one adopted have been which action, of modes of spectrum vast Nasser). The Brotherhood Muslim has covered a during the political repression under Gamal Abdel example for (like activity underground of a period workity to candidacy, political through and passing evolved from socio-educative or health-related char continually has vision political movement‘s The ment. , of gitimacy Text, le the revealed to the a return emphasize ings teach Its movement. pan-Islamic the of apart been has Brotherhood Muslim the inception, its From modernity. of circumstances to the adapted jurisprudence of aform away to – as construct text ijtihad on – rely Brothers Muslim the however, of followers Salafists, to Wahhabi-inspired Contrary of jurisprudence. of reference, and refuse to follow school a particular point their – as Prophet the of companions and lims Mus of generations first – the Salaf the consider ers Broth Muslim the of today, of followers Salafists the Like Brotherhood. Muslim the of by some example, for exemplified, is stance This cultures. of rejection there is also religious activism that does not require a Salafis, and Wahhabis the like to groups contrast In Brothers Muslim the of Approach Inclusive The tradition. Islamic the of transmission not and action at political aimed are they as study this in both omitted have deliberately We level. global to the have brought which ISIS, and al-Qaeda are here exception obvious The pan-Islamists. not —are Hezbollah or Hamas as —such jihadis of majority the note that We should groups. to radical attraction their in decisive more are youths, these of education and socialization political of level the as such factors, Other jihadis. sume, however, that all Salafis eventually become as not must One jihadism. and Salafism tween be exists feel youth many connection the explain may This terminology. religious same even the often the power to interpret the revealed revealed the to interpret power the and political and social engage social and political and ------in among youngparticularly Muslims development of jihadi movements, unleashing of violenceand the correlation withhave the anecessary anachronistic reading of scripture, on an these based versions of Islam, burningThe question iswhether ethical heritage. This “re-evaluative” approach mani- and religious its of preservation the with together try, stitutional and political environment of the host coun- in the for respect on based is behaviour of code Its activist movement with a devoutly religious outlook. an as origins historical its with reconnected has hood Brother Muslim the context, pluralistic and cratic demo new to their response In Islam. of bodies tive representa of creation the for actors governmental with discussions of forefront at the have been and live, they which in countries respective by the Islam involved in the struggle representation for of official are leaders of generations Both Britain. of Council in prominence organizations such the as Muslim achieved has class middle educated the from ation past decade, however, a new, European-born gener the In countries. Muslim within movements position op in training their received Asia, Southeast or East Middle the of class middle educated urban the from tual homogeneity. generation The first all of leaders, ganizations display a social remarkable and intellec or these all of leaders The Brothers. Muslim the from organizations who derivedifferent their inspiration civically-oriented activities, as there are a number of ferred terrain for the redeployment of this movement’s pre the have become States United the and Europe and their jihadi opponents. sequence of these struggles between nation-states con adirect is al-Qaeda, as such groups, jihadi tain cer of mobilization global The world. Arab-Muslim confrontations with of the regimes authoritarian the their in radicalized became and –developed yya) violence (such asthe Islami Egyptian-based Jamaat of use political the legitimate that those – i.e., groups Jihadist ends. political for ameans as violence the West ------ity, on the other hand, is defined as the capacity to capacity the as defined is hand, other the ity, on Reflexiv distance. emotional achieving of that is set, mind acontemporary and method acultural both as irony, of purpose The level. personal at the politanism arereflexivity the two distinctive features of cosmo incompatibleposedly worlds and Irony cultures. and mindset to and ability navigatecertain sup between to a refers cosmopolitanism context, particular this In mopolitan.” “cos term, the with identified be may and Muslims, intellectual elite, as well as numerous individual the of members certain and groups Sufi acterizes char outlook This contexts. different in cultures with by hybridization also but by inclusiveness only not characterized Islam global of forms also are There Islam Cosmopolitan Turkey, Morocco, Tunisia). and Algeria, (e.g., origin of country ‘doxa’ the their of to uphold countries, Muslim by certain to Europe sent leaders cratic bureau the from differs also elite pan-Islamist The from. come they countries Muslim the of traditions the to tend reproduce they country; home Islamic usuallyleaders use cultural models taken from their Parochial town. the or neighbourhood to the limited is influence of sphere whose leaders, ‘parochial’ eliteThis pan-Islamist should be distinguished from (FIOE). Europe in tions Organiza Islamic of Federation the of initiative the 1997 in in on created Research, and Fatwa for Council European the of president the currently is 1980s. He early the West in the in living Muslims to interested become in condition the of minority first the of one was he Lebanon, of Mawlawi Faysal 1973. in Sheikh with Along University Al-Azhar from Studies; he received his doctorate in jurisprudence Islamic on focused was 1926, education entire his in Egypt in Born al-Jazeera. on televised debates in participation his for famous became Qaradawi (1984), Extremism and Rejection between ing Awaken Islamic including works, 50 than more of author The process. the in soul their losing without life, secular and Islam of demands the to reconcile want who trend this of followers the inspiring figure is Qaradawi theSheikh most prominent religious cational, charitable, athletic, and cultural activities. edu various of organization the in part, in itself, fests ------can convert into these Sufi groups. Sufi into these convert can but families Muslim in up grow not did who dividuals in urban middle-class more attract groups of kinds to note however, these that important is It a member. to become Muslim to be one require not do groups these of some since force even greater an gained and In the philosophies. West, this syncretism has rituals of terms in syncretism of apraise and tions, tradi and faiths to other proximity their mankind, hu of universality the on emphasis an place them of Most groups. Sufi among notably most tices, gence and development syncretic of certain prac emer the in seen be can cosmopolitanism This numerous individual Muslims the intellectual elite, well as as of members groupsSufi and certain contexts. Thisoutlook characterizes hybridization with cultures in different by inclusiveness but also by characterized not only also are formsThere of global Islam is another component of the process. which pluralism, cultural and religious of appreciation, even an or acceptance, an with combined be must the criteria of cosmopolitanism, this individualization to Thus, cient, condition ofmeet cosmopolitanism. suffi not but anecessary, is individualization words, other matter. In individual an as choice religious and tradition, Islamic the with identification ty, emotional mentalist emphasize ones, the search for authentici rent including transnational forms funda of Islam, cur to all note however that important is It practice. growing in on choice religious individual emphasis ing and practice. Here, secularization means a significant of part the secularization of Islamic think in visible theis increasingly West and constitutes a it world, Muslim the in present also is Islam global to other cultures. Although a approach cosmopolitan to approach adialogic as well as system, belief own a implies stance the cosmopolitan relativism of one’s then, individual, the For others. of values the for room to make order in one’s beliefs own contextualize ------

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 85 The Future of Islam Keys IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 86 The Future of Islam Keys rope and America, by generating aheretofore-un by generating America, and rope including contexts, tional those and political of Eu na different with messages Islamic of hybridization the of process the accelerates globalization cultural however, time, same At the systems. belief other of rejection systematic the as defined minimally is that extremism religious for asynonym be not need talism, fundamen or Islam, of texts fundamental to the turn are as insofar radicals and fundamentalists tween be drawn be must However, adistinction world. Muslim the of parts all in and Europe in followers many so have gained Salafism) of forms rigid and (Wahhabism message Islamic the of terpretations in conservative more the that a context such in is It entity. oppressive and adestructive as essentialized been has aWest which combating for a resource as upon called be can Islam why and how derstand to un difficult not is It beyond. West and the in tics plex relationship between religion, society and poli- com the for accounts insufficiently “radicals” and “moderates” between opposition the that strates demon trends by Islamic taken forms of variety The Conclusion thought. lamic Is contemporary to dominate continues which set, tofort the break vicious circle of the apologist mind ef a significant nevertheless is it But suspect. might more and conservative more conformist than one large, by and remain, Muslims Western and ment, move a fringe much very still certainly is it though actively involved in thought, reforming al Islamic tions or They leadership. are the ones most associa religious of world the from than — rather to Islam converts and activists as well as lectuals, intel other and academics —students, sphere tual intellec the from drawn commonly more are leaders in their English-language Cosmopolitan versions. —at least circulate can slogans and controversies, ideas, which in exchange for a space creating rently cur is which West, the in elite Muslim the of ment seg aspecific of afeature also is Cosmopolitanism ------References grow. can radicalism which on fundamentalism global of appeal the to undermine crucial is contexts European different in Islam about especially and gion C E C in termsin of rituals philosophies and traditions, of and apraise syncretism proximity to other faiths and of theiruniversality humankind, of on the them emphasis place an notably groups. Most among Sufi syncretic most practices, certain the and development emergence of in seen be cosmopolitanismThis can A the forefront for of of education or Islam transmission at the not is elite Muslim educated the that fact the and differences class is reason second The Arabia. Saudi of power soft the in West and the in education of institutions Islamic strong of lack the in lies reason One Islam. about education and to transmission comes it when especially one, cosmopolitan over the to prevail seems trend conservative the Nonetheless, tolerance and respect of the Other. Other. the of respect and tolerance conditions for on reflection seen the necessary i b e e c ou sa sa masses. In these conditions, education on these In conditions, reli masses. kel co, 2005. co, Extremists the from Islam pean Islam pean 2013. MacMillan, Palgrave Democracies. Liberal in Muslims of Exploration Princeton: 1996. press, Princeton University ri ri

E ma - Euro of Handbook (ed). , Jocelyne Islam: An , Jocelyne. West Why the Fears l -F n , D.F. J. and a dl , Khaled. , Khaled. . Oxford University Press, 2015. Press, University . Oxford P The Great Theft: Wrestling Theft: Great The e sca tori . Harper San Francis San . Harper . Muslim Politics - - .