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Vinyl Chloride This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 215 VINYL CHLORIDE Please note that the layout and pagination of this pdf file and the printed EHC are not identical. The corrigenda published by November 30, 2004 for this EHC are incorporated in this file Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization, and produced within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals. World Health Organization Geneva, 1999 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), established in 1980, is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Labour Organisation (ILO), and the World Health Organization (WHO). The overall objectives of the IPCS are to establish the scientific basis for assessment of the risk to human health and the environment from exposure to chemicals, through international peer review processes, as a prerequisite for the promotion of chemical safety, and to provide technical assistance in strengthening national capacities for the sound management of chemicals. The Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC) was established in 1995 by UNEP, ILO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, WHO, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (Participating Organizations), following recommendations made by the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development to strengthen cooperation and increase coordination in the field of chemical safety. The purpose of the IOMC is to promote coordination of the policies and activities pursued by the Participating Organizations, jointly or separately, to achieve the sound management of chemicals in relation to human health and the environment. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Vinyl chloride. (Environmental health criteria ; 215) 1.Vinyl chloride – analysis 2.Vinyl chloride – toxicity 3.Vinyl chloride – adverse effects 4.Environmental exposure 5.Occupational exposure I.International Programme on Chemical Safety II.Series ISBN 92 4 157215 9 (NLM Classification: QV 633) ISSN 0250-863X The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions, and reprints and translations already available. ©World Health Organization 1999 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. Computer typesetting by I. Xavier Lourduraj, Chennai, India ______________________________________________________ CONTENTS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR VINYL CHLORIDE 1. SUMMARY .... .................................................... 1 1.1 Identity, physical and chemical properties, and analytical methods ................................................. 1 1.2 Sources of human and environmental exposure ........... 2 1.3 Environmental transport, distribution and transformation .... .................................................... 3 1.4 Environmental levels and human exposure .................. 4 1.5 Kinetics and metabolism in laboratory animals and humans .... .................................................... 6 1.6 Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems .... .................................................... 7 1.7 Effects on humans ... .................................................. 10 1.8 Effects on other organisms in the laboratory and field .... .................................................. 11 2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS.............. 13 2.1 Identity .... .................................................. 13 2.2 Physical and chemical properties................................ 14 2.3 Conversion factors... .................................................. 16 2.4 Analytical methods.. .................................................. 17 2.4.1 General analytical methods and detection .... .................................................. 17 2.4.2 Sample preparation, extraction and analysis for different matrices ....................... 17 2.4.2.1 Air.................................................. 17 2.4.2.2 Water ............................................. 25 2.4.2.3 PVC resins and PVC products ....... 25 2.4.2.4 Food, liquid drug and cosmetic products ......................................... 26 2.4.2.5 Biological samples......................... 26 iii EHC 215: Vinyl Chloride ______________________________________________________ 2.4.2.6 Human monitoring......................... 26 2.4.2.7 Workplace air monitoring.............. 27 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE .... .................................................. 29 3.1 Natural occurrence... .................................................. 29 3.2 Anthropogenic sources ............................................... 29 3.2.1 Production levels and processes .................... 29 3.2.1.1 Production of VC........................... 31 3.2.1.2 Production of PVC from VC.......... 32 3.2.1.3 PVC products................................. 34 3.2.2 Emissions from VC/PVC plants .................... 35 3.2.2.1 Sources of emission during the production of VC ..................... 35 3.2.2.2 Emission of VC and dioxins from VC/PVC plants during production...................................... 37 3.2.3 Accidental releases of VC ............................. 38 3.2.3.1 PVC plant and transport accidents ........................................ 38 3.2.3.2 Leakage and discharge from VC/PVC plants .............................. 39 3.2.4 VC residues in virgin PVC resin and products .... .................................................. 40 3.2.4.1 VC residues in different PVC samples .......................................... 40 3.2.4.2 VC residues in PVC products ........ 40 3.2.4.3 VC formation as a result of heating PVC................................... 41 3.2.5 Other sources of VC ...................................... 42 3.2.5.1 VC as a degradation product of chlorinated hydrocarbons............... 42 3.2.5.2 VC formation from tobacco ........... 48 3.3 Uses .... .................................................. 49 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSFORMATION ................... 50 4.1 Transport and distribution between media.................. 50 4.1.1 Air .... .................................................. 50 4.1.2 Water and sediments...................................... 50 iv ______________________________________________________ 4.1.3 Soil and sewage sludge.................................. 51 4.1.4 Biota .... .................................................. 53 4.2 Transformation .... .................................................. 54 4.2.1 Microbial degradation ................................... 54 4.2.2 Abiotic degradation ....................................... 64 4.2.2.1 Photodegradation ........................... 64 4.2.2.2 Hydrolysis...................................... 72 4.2.3 Other interactions .......................................... 73 4.3 Bioaccumulation .... .................................................. 73 4.4 Ultimate fate following use ........................................ 74 4.4.1 Waste disposal............................................... 74 4.4.2 Fate of VC processed to PVC........................ 75 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE .... .................................................. 76 5.1 Environmental levels .................................................. 76 5.1.1 Air .... .................................................. 76 5.1.1.1 Outdoor air..................................... 76 5.1.1.2 Indoor air ....................................... 82 5.1.2 Water and sediment ....................................... 82 5.1.3 Soil and sewage sludge.................................. 87 5.1.3.1 Soil................................................. 87 5.1.3.2 Sewage sludge ............................... 87 5.1.4 Food, feed and other products ....................... 87 5.1.5 Terrestrial and aquatic organisms................ 100 5.2 General population exposure ...................................
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