JPJLANNJING JHIli§1rO JRY

BULLETIN OF THE INTERNATIONAL PLANNING HISTORY SOCIETY

VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 * 2001 ISSN 0959-5805 JPllLANNJING HKSTORY

BULl.ETIN O' THE INTD.NAnONAL PI..A.NNING IDSTORY SOCIETY ]f L1U~1

BULLETIN OF' TIlE INTERNATIONAL I'LA NI'II 1NG IIISTORY SO C IETY EDITOR Or Kiki Katkoula Department of Urbul and Rqional Planning Or Mattc CllpSOn School or AJclUtccturc Dept. of History ArisIode University ofThc:ssalonika University oflulon ThcssaIonika S4OO6 705 Caslle SII'CIC1 0_ luton Tel: 3031 99'49'1 Fax: 3031 995576 LUI3AJ UK Or. Peter lukham Binningham School of PlanninJ TeI: 010582 489034 1 Fax: 010582 489014 University of Central Enaland E·mail: marlt.l:[email protected] PmyBUT Binninpam 8422SU EDITORIAL BOARD UK Tel: 0121331 '14' Or Arturo Almandoz Email: peter.lukJwn@uc:c:.IC.uk Depanammto de Planificacioo Urbana Univenidad Simon BolivlT Proressor John MuJlcr DepartmCflt of Town and Regional Plannini: Aptdo. 89000 Page 2 Cancas 1086 University of Witwatennnd NOTICES Venezuela l<>haru>abwg Tel: (058 2) 906 4037 / 38 PO Wiu20SO ARTICLES \3 E-mail: [email protected] South Africa Tel: Oil 71626054 1 Fax: 011 403 2519 PRACTICE 64 Or HalinI Dunin·Woyscth E-mail: 04 [email protected] Oslo SclIool of AJd\itccture Department or Uroen Planning Professor Oeoraio Piecinato REVIEWS 69 PO Box 271 3001 Orammm Facolta di Alchitettura Norway Univmita di Roma 3 Tel: 4722 20 83 161 Fax: 47 22 11 1970 Via Madonna dei Monti 40 00184 Roma Or Gcrhard FeIll lwy Lehmubl fIlr Planungslbeorie Tel: +3966788283 f Fax: +39 6 481 8625 Tedlnische HochsdIule AaclIen E-mail: [email protected] 052062 AIchen Scllintelstnssc I Or Picler Uyttenhove Oomony 64 ruc des Moines Tel: 0241 8005029 1 Fax: 0241 8888137 F·705017 Pori, Or R.obat Freestone F_~ PIMnin& and Urban Developrncn1 Program FIWlty oftbc: Buih Eavinlommt Professor S1cpbcn V. Ward PLANNING HlSTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 · 2001 • PAGE 1 Univcnity of New SoudI Wales School of P1annina; Sydney NSW 20052 Oxford Btootes University .....,U. "'""'- Td: Ol9JM (8)6 1 FIX: 029901 4SOS E-mail: [email protected] """""OlOOBP UK Or R.obat K. Home Td: 0186' 483421 1 FIX: 01865 413,,9 [)epIrtmeIIl of SuroeyinJ £..mail: [email protected] UniveniCy oIEu1: Loadon Proteaot ShuD·icbi WIlIDIbe "- Scieoce UniVCdity ofTokyo RMl2AS,UK YamuaId. Noda-tbi -Td: (0)201 $90 7722 xl'041 FIX: (0)208 849 3618 CJdba.keo278 E-aU: [email protected] 'Td;_ 114742.4 \501/'IX: 11 4712' 7133 NOTICES NOTICES

The Urban I-listory Association is pleased to announce the 2000 Cities of Tomorrow: been allocated. 'file lJeadhne Jor Sllbmission ofcompleled papers is 1st May 2002. Awards for Sc holarly Distinction The 10lh International All participants Wi ll be expected to regIster 2000 Urban l-tistory Association Award Andrew Wiesc, 'The Other Suburbanites: Conference of the International for the conference. Registration WIll appear for Best Book in North American African American Suburbanisation in the Planning History Society, on wwwJI)HS200Z.COIll History: North Before 1950', Journal ofAm erican History, 85/4, 1999, pp. 1495- 1524 12 - 14July,2001: How to Participate : you can participate Peter C. Baldwin, Domesticating the Slreet: fomlallyas: The Reform oJ Public Space ill Hart/oNI. 2000 Urban History Association Award Call for papers 1850.1930 (Ohio State University Press, for Best Dissertation in Urban History: I. Paper Prese nter The conference proceedings will take place 1999) If your paper proposal is accepted, the Michael Lcmer, Dry Man/wlIan: Class, in the University of Westmi nster's campus Academic Com mittee will group your paper 2000 Urban History Association for Best Culture allll Politics ill ProhibitiOIl·Era in the heart of London's West End and in with three or fou r others into a panel Article in Urban History: New York City, 1919-1933 (New York Letchworth Garden City. and le t you know by I st December University, 1999) 200 I.You wi ll be expected to send a copy Key note speakers include Andres Duany, of your paper to the other presenters. an architect and town planner whose work International Planning History Society Book Prize To participate thIS way: complete the paper focuses on the creati on of community. proposal foml and attach the abstract fonn; Shun'lchi J. Watanabe will give the Gordon and send by emall to lP I-I S2002.com The Intemational Planning History Society Nominatioll materials should be sent 10: Cherry Memorial Lecture. (IPHS) endeavours to foster the study of 2. Rou ndtable Organiser Planning History worldwide. It seeks to Pd. Dr. Dirk Schubert, T U Hamburg· Harburg, 107, Woellmerstra6c I , 20173 A roundtable is a structured dIscussion of a advance scholarship III the fields of lopic by a few selected IIIdividuals; they do urbanism, history, planning and the Hamburg, Germany. Tire deadline for receipt 0/ sllbmissions for not, however, present written papers. If you environment, focussi ng particularly on have an idea for a rountable it wi ll be your cities from the late nineteenth century. lire inallgllral prize is 15 December 200/.The prize will be awarded at the 10th responsLbilit y to org:lnise the contributors. conference of the International Planning To participate this way: email the From 2002 the IPHS at its biennial roundtable proposal fonn to IPHS2002.com conference will award a £250 prize for the History Society in LondonlLetchworth in most innovative book in planning history July 2002, with the winner also receiving complimentary conference registration. 3. Track Organiser published in the previous two calendar You may wish to take responsibility for a years. group of pane! sessions taking place during Further infonnation about the prize can be The conference themes will include the conference and takeresponsibilily for The book may be individually or joint. obtained from Dirk Schubert: compari son of the new and the old delivery of the panels. Email the Academic au thored. It must be published in English urbanisms. The IPH S encourages all urban Committee 10 volunteer for Track and based on original new research. Te1. +49-40-42878-3661, FAX +49-42878- scholars, practitioners, and observers to organi sation: Anthologies and edited works are 2472 consider how their work contributes to the broader project of understanding the past, ineligible. 4. Panel Moderator E-mail: [email protected] the urban conditions of the present and Panel moderators have many building better cities for the future. We Nominations are invited from publishers as responsibilities. the core of which is wen as from scholars. l bese will comprise ... encourage interdisciplinary contributions. establishing and maintaining an atmosphere a 400 word statement, a short CV of the conducive to the open and collegial All offers of papers and other contributions author(s), and 5 copies of the nominated exchange of ideas. To participate this way: book. (These materials will not be will be considered by the Academic Email the moderator: retumed). Committee. The Academic Committee will acknowledge receipt your propos:ll when it All forms and email addresses can be :llTives, and they will let you know by 1st December 2001 if your propos:l1 is accepted fOll"d al: www.lPHS200Z.com and to which of the conference tr:lcks it has ...

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University and the Royal Commission on Tel: +49 069 798-29007, Fax : +49 069 798- The 6th International table [see call for papers below]. You are the Ancient and Historical Monuments of 290 12 strongly recommended to stay in the Conferenc e on Urban History: Scotland. E-Mail: M.Gr:[email protected] University's Pollock Halls where most of You are invited to submit proposals for Ralf Roth Call for Papers the sessions will be held [again see below papers to the session organizers and above Historisches Seminar for details of booking and registration for all to come, take part and enjoy. Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat Power, Knowledge and Society in the conference.l There is also an excellent Gruneburgplatz I the City. selection of hotel accommodation in the If you wish to present a paper at a ny of 60)2) Frankfurt am Main City. the sessions, please send a one page outline Germany Te\. 0691798·)2627 Ed inburgh 5,6 and 7 Sept ember 2002 to thc appropriate session organizers, as The EAUH was established in 1989 with soon as possible and in any case before I Fax : 0691798·)2622 the support of the European Union. Our October, 2001. You will be notified of I-Iomcpage: hup:llwww.Ralffioth.de Ellropean Asmcialioll oJ Urban HistoriallS conference which takes place every two acceptance by the end of November. Home-address: Bettinastr. 45 , 6)067 years is the largest and most imponant Accepted paper givers must send their text Offcnbach a. M., Germany Intem:ltional Committee: Robert J. Morris meeting of urban historians in Europe and [max. six pages --420 words per page - 20 Tel/Fax: +49 069 8) 8) )8 85 (President/Edinburgh), Peter Clark is now noted for :lttracting urban historians minutes of speech}. This should bc done E-Mail: RallRothl @compuscrve.com (TreasurerfLeicester), Pim Kooij from across the globe. We expecl over )00 (Secretary/Groningen), Vera Bacskai before April )0, 2002. You must send one panicipanls from a wide range of Cities, Multiculturalism and Ethnicity: (Budapest), Marc Boone (Ghent), Donatel1:l copy to the session organizer. You must disciplines. Ex pressions of Identity a nd Municipal Calabi (Venice), Sergej Karpov (Moscow). send one copy 10 the conference org:lnizer. You must also register for the conference. I)olit ics, 19'-120'h ce ntury Denis Menjot (Lyon), Lars Nilsson The title of our con ference, Power, In order to ensure maximum effective (Stockholm), Heinz Reif(Berlin), Lydia Knowledge and Socie ty in the City, has Sapounakis-Dr:lc:lkis (Athens), Adriaan discussion we intend to place papers on the Or. Elfi Bendikat been chosen to celebrate the fact that Humboldt-Unrversitat zu Berlin 111 conference web site. Please send an Verhulst (Ghent). Clemens Wischerm:lnn Edinburgh in the 18 century was home 10 (Constanz). Toshio Sakata (Tokyo) electronic version, preferably by e mail Phil Fak I, Institut fur some oflhe most innovative thinking of the Geschichtswissenschanen Local Co mmittee attachment to the following by April , 2002: enlightenment and that Edinburgh in the Unter den Linden 6 Dr Graeme Morton, Or Adam Fox, Or 2 t I' century is home to the new devolved Stana Nenadic. (Dept of Economic and [email protected] D-I0099 Berlin, Gemlany parliament of Scotland. The title also Fax: +49)0 80404570 Soei:ll History, Edinburgh University) recognises both established and innovative Sessions and Organizers E-Mai l: el fi [email protected] Or Richard McKenny, (Oept of History, work by urban historians. Indeed one ofthe Edinburgh University), Or Pat merits of urban history is the manner in Dcnnison(Scottish History, Edinburgh Main Sessions Or. Marie-Claude B1 anc-Chaleard which it brings together such a range of Universite de Paris I 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne University), Or Miles Glendinning 13 hours 110 papers] methodologies. intellectual approaches, Centre d' Histoire soc iale du XXe siec1e (RCAMBS) periods, places and topics. As the list of Who was rUllning the cities? Elit es and 9 rue Malher, session topics indicates, there is no area of urban powe r structures, 1700·2000 75181 Pari s cedex 04. France our curiosity as urban historians which is E-Mail: Jean· excluded from this conference. You are invited to take p:ln in the Sixth Svcn Bec kert Louis.Cha\eardt@ univ.parisl.fr International Conference of the European Dunwalke Associate Professor The conference will not only appeal to Department of History, Harvard University Belween Cities and Urban Areas: What Association of Urban Historians (EAUH) academics and students but also to policy 210 Robinson, Cambridge. MA 021 39. Scale for Cities' HislO ry?f Entre villes et which takes place in Edinburgh from makers and a wide public interested in the USA regions urbaines: queUe echelle pour Wednesday 4th to Saturday heritage, evolution and problems of 21 " Te!: +01 (617) 495-0697, Fax: +01 (6\7) I' histoirc des villes? century urb:ln places. History is as much 7th of September 2002. The conference about the influence of the past in the 496-3425 begins with an informal reception on E-Mail: [email protected] Michele Dagenais present as it is about understanding the past. Departement d' histoire. Universite de Wednesday evening. On Thursday morning We are grateful to continued support from Marcus Grascr there will be an opportunity to see some of Habi !itand at the Zentrum fUr Nord­ Montreal, the Centre for Urban History in Leicester C. P. 6128. succursale Centre· Vi lie, the resources available for urban historians University and the Maison de Sciences de Amerika Forschung, in Edinburgh. The central part of the Johann Wolfg:mg Goethe-Universitat Montreal. Canada H)C )J7. I'Homme in P:lris as well as to the support E-Mail: [email protected] conference consists of two plenary lectures of the British Academy, the Faculties of Frankfurt am Main Postfach 11 19 )2, 0-60054 Frankfurt am CIa ire Poitras and :l wide variety of sessions, and round Arts and of Social Sciences in Edinburgh M:lin, Germany

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE 4 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2' 2001 • PAGE 5 NOTICES NOTICES

InSlllut National de la Recherche f-mail: Detler.Slcgfncd(rvt-onll11e.de. E-mail: crika.kllllpersfrvlel .uu.nl Ann Igll e SClentlfique - Urbanisation, detlerwlhum.ku.dk EkonOlnlsk-hl storiska mslltullOnen, 3465 rue Durocher, Montreal. Canada H2X Professor dr. Solvi Sogner Goteborgs UniverSllet, 2C6. Endangered Cities: Military Powers and Department of History, University of Oslo Box 720, S-405 30, E-Mail: \)oltr

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Patrizia DOllifazio 14 ruc Fabre d' Eglantlne - 75012 Pans. Mark Dorrian G illlio Ernesti Department of Architecture, Professor m Theories of Planmng, Dipartimento di Progettazione France Politecnico di Torino Tel. : + 33 1 43467829 UniverSIty of Edinburgh, IstLtuto Universllario di Architettura dl 20 Chambers Street, Edinburgh, EH 1 IJZ. Castello del Valentino E-mail: [email protected] Venezla Tel. +44 (0)\316502338. Fax. +44 (0)\31 G uido Z ucconi Viale Mattioli n. 39 6508019. Professor in History of Architecture, 10124 Torino Metropolis and Nationalism: The role of Email: [email protected] .uk Istituto Universitario di Architettura di fax: +39.0 \ \.5646599 the modern callilal in the national Via Parma n. 49 homoge nisation and consciousness of the John Lowrcy Venezia. Dcpartment of Architecture, Luca I'es 10153 Torino, Italy people. Un iversity of Edinburgh, Assistant Dean Tel.l Fax: +39.0 11 .2482711 E-mai l: [email protected] Stavros Dozos 20 Chambers Street, Edinburgh, EH I lJZ. Venice Intemational University Te!. +44 (0) 13! 6502338. Fax. +44 (0)\3\ Isola di San Servolo, Venice, Italy pa Irizi a .bon i [email protected] University of Leicester 6508019. TeI +39.041.27 19535, Fax Elena Cogato Lanza 63A Quecns Road E-mail: j\[email protected] .uk +39.041.271951 0 Ecole Poly technique Fcdcrale de Lausanne, Leicester, LE2 IT r. UK E-mail: [email protected]@;uav.il Dep:lrtement d'Architecture, Tel: 0(044)116-270-4018,0(044)797-03\- Ocvelollment of i\'lodernist )'Ianning Chaire de la I ere annee 5631 The unautho rised city: Making and Case Postale 555 E-mail: Dr. Ronnie Ell enblum brcaking regulations for modern urban CH - 1001 Lausanne Stavros [email protected] Department of Geography, space (18th-20th centuries). lel.004121 6936214 G raeme Morton fax. 0041 21 6936200 Department of Economic and Social The l-lebrew University of Jerusalem Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem, 91905, Israel Denis Bocquet E-mail: [email protected] History Fax : 972-2-5820549 Ecole Francaise de Rome Wi lliam Robertson Building E-mail: m ~ ronni @m scc . huji . ac .i l Palazzo Famcse. Piazza Famese 67 Citize ns, Money and Urban George Square Govcrnments in LaIc Medicval and Edinburgh EH8 9JY 00 186 Roma, Italy Cohabiter dans Ics villes Europeennes de Fax: +39 (0)6 6874834 Early Modern Europe Scotland I'epoque moderne et contemporaine (18 E-mail: [email protected] E-ma il : Graeme.Morton(@ed.ac.uk and 1ge) [email protected] Marc Boone FilillPO Dc I' icri Universiteit Gent Lost Cities/Lostldenlilies: Memories of OHvier Zeller Dipartimento di Progettazione E-ma il: [email protected] Urban Li fe in the Eastern Karel Davids professeur d'histoire modeme Architettonica Mediterranean \' Universitc Lyon 11 Politecnico di Torino, Viale Mattioli 39 Vrije Un iversiteit Amsterdam E-mail: [email protected] tresorier de la Societe fmncaise d'Histoire 10 125 Torino (Italy) Or. Nergis C ancfe urbaine Fax: +39 (0)1 16614876 Paul Jansscns Visiting Rese3rch Associatc, LSE responsable de I'axe "Histoire des Villes et E-mail: [email protected] Katholieke Univcrsitcit Brussel The European Institute c-mail pau [email protected] 3 Pond Cottages, Gold Hill East de leurs Populations", Centre Pierre Leon The value of practice and knowledge in Chalfont SI. Peter, BUCKS SL9 901, UK Professions medic ales, magistratures de E-mail: Olivier.Zeller@ ish-lvo n.cnrs.fr building the Second Postwar city TcI: (44) 01753882686, Fax: (44) 01753 sante el politiques sanilaires urbaines, 885341 Oliv;er F3ron XIVe-XVllle siccle. Centre Pierre Leon , C ristina Bianchetti E-mail: [email protected] Universite de Lyon 2. Universite degli Studi di Pescara. Olga Demetriou Brigittc Marin Email. Oliv;er.Faron@ ish-lyon.cnrs.fr DiAnnunzioi (Chieti) Social Anthropolgy, LSE, London. Directrice des Etudes pour l'Histoire Facolte di architettura 10, Defkalionos Str, Apt 101, modeme et contemporaine, Knowing the City: information, Viale pindaro n.42 Strovolos, 2019 Nicosia, Ecole fran~aise de Rome (Italic) cOllllllunication and underslan ding in 65127 Pescara Cyprus Piazza farnese, 67 - 00153 Roma, Italy the medicval and early modern city. fax: 085.63879 Tel.: + 39 06 68 60 1244 Tcl: +357-2-519041 E-mail: [email protected] Or V.A. I-Iarding Viale delle Rimembranze di Lambrate n. 15 Fax: +357-2-757554 Patrick Boucheron School of History, Classics, and 20 134 Milano, Italy E-mail: [email protected] Maitre de conferences d'histoire medievale, Archaeology, Tel. ! Fax: +39.02.26414494 Universitc de Paris I Pantheon- Sorbonne Birkbeck College, E-mail: [email protected] Shadows in the Enlightenment City: the (France) City-Image and the Rise of Romanticism Malet Street, London WCIE 7HX

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Round Tables: TeI: te! 020 763 1 6284 Maarlen Pra k The City as Laborator y for Landscape in office 020 7631 6299. Fax 020 7631 6552 Chair in Economic and Social History the 17th a nd 18th Centuries; 13 hours 10 to 14 pa pers E-maI l: [email protected] University of Utrecht La VI Ile, laboratoire du paysage XV ll e I maximu1l1IMedie\'al a nd Ea rly Modern James Amclang, Utrecht, The Netherlands XVllle siecies Universidad Autonoma de Madrid E-mail: [email protected] Donatella Calabi E mall [email protected] Or. Anja Viclorine Hartmann, Victoria Sanger, Ph.O Institute of European History Instructor, Southern Mcthodist University Un iversity of Venice Urban Cent res ill South a nd South East Alte Universi taelsstraSSe 19 in Paris CAST ELLO 5878, 30122 VENEZIA (Italy) Asia: Economy and C ulture 55 116 Mainz 26 Boulevard lules Ferry Germany 750 11 Paris, FRANCE fax 0039.041.715.449 phone 0030.041 .2571433 Or.I).P.!\1ishra, Phone: +49 (6131) 3939360 Tel l Fax: (33. 1) 48.07.83.44 Email [email protected] Dcpt of History, Fax: +49 (6131) 3930154 E-mail: vs3 [@columbia.edu Sambalpur University, E-mail : Anja.Viclorine. Hartmann@Uoi­ Industrial and Modern Burla-7680 19 (Dt-Sambalpur), Maioz.de G illes-Allloille Langlois Orissa India. Homcpage: http://www.iost-curo­ Docteur en histoire Docleur en urbanis1l1c Prof. Dr. Clemens Wi schennann Mailing Address history.uni_mainz.de/per/ieg-avh.htm Institut d'Urbanisme de Paris Un iversitlit Konstanz Dr. P.P.Mlshra, I, rue Samson Fachbereich Geschichte und Soziologie Near OSEB Guest House, Municipal Government and 7501] Paris-FRANCE D - 78457 Konstanz Burla-768017 (Dt-Sambalpur), Administration. Position and TEl.Ifax: 33(0)1 4581 21 13 Significance of 20th Century Urban E-milil: clemens.wischermann@uni­ Orissa, e.mail: [email protected] konstanz.de India [ lites Telephone: 0091-663-430217 Civic space in 19th and 20th-ce ntury Methodology a nd Historiography: E-mail: [email protected] Or. Jilrgell Priamus urban societies Leiter des Instiuts fur Stadtgeschichte Studying the European [email protected] C it y: National a nd Comparath'e Consulting the citizen: negotiation and Gelsenkirchen Dr Heonk Stenius negation in urban policy making. Wissenschaftspark Renvall Insti tute Approaches Munscheidstr. 14 PB 59 Peter Clark (Helsinki) and Donatella Calabi l\'1arja ::llla Niemi 0-45886 Gelsenkirchen 00014 Helsinki University E-mail: [email protected] Department of History, E-mail: hcnrik.steniuS®helsinki. fi (Venice) All offers of paper to Professor Peter Clark, 33014 University ofTampere, Finland [email protected] Tel. +358-3-2 15 6525; Fax. +358-3-215 Or. Steran Goch : Department of History Pol itikwissenscha ftler, wissenscha ftlicher 6980 Un ioninkatu 38 Mitarbeiter des Insli tuts fUr Stildtgeschichte PO Box 59 E-mail: [email protected] or in Gelsenkirchen, Privatdozeot an der 00014 University of Helsinki marjaana.n [email protected] Fakultlit fUr Sozialwissenschaft der Ruhr­ FI NLAND Lucy Faire Universitlit Bochum Email: [email protected] Department of Geography E-mail: Ste fan [email protected] Loughborough University, ... Leiccstershire LEII 3TU, UK The Administrative Town: European E-mail : [email protected] Regional Capitals Rituals Take O\'er Oenise McHugh E-mail: [email protected] Dietrich Poec k NeH Raven Eichenweg 3 Department of Hislory D 48 161 Milnster-Roxel School of Humanilies, Languages and Law Germany Kedleston Road E-mail: poeck@uni .muenster.de Derby,DE22 1GB, UK From Patrician Power to Common Fax: +44 (0)\332622736 C itizell ship? Trallsformations of the city E-mail: [email protected] state in the aftermath of the French Revo lution

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The gardson behind the fa~ades: the development of Town and Country in the A celebration in honour of John Potsdam as the second residence of the Prussian United Kingdom: Confrontation W. R e~s: A symposium to mark or Confusion? the 501 anniversary of John W. monarchy. Reps' associaiton with Corn ell UVHC: Ulliversite de Unive rsity. Va lell ciellll es et fill Hainallt ­ KATHERfNEARNTZ Cambresis, Faculty of Arts Co m ell University, Bames Hall, School of Geography and Environmental Sci ences, 111 (FLI-ASH) 14,h amI / 5 September, 2001 University of Binning ham, Edgbaston , J5 - J6 March 2002 Binningham B I 5 2rr. U.K. Professor Emeritus John. W. Reps, of email: K.M.A [email protected] Comell University, is a National Planning From the Call for Papers: Pioneer qhose books include The Making Inlroductioll grouped around the castle being in good of Urban America published in 1965. This The transf011l1ation of Potsdam, Germany frOI11 condItion, 20 we re damaged and the rema10der 'A culture In which urban life is more often symposium wiJ1 explore the contributions an isolated collection of approximately 200 abandoned (Sello, 1888). Although the change than not demonised has inf1uenced the of John W. Reps to planning history and houses surrounding a small , relat ively in the town 's status brought w1th it renovat ion UK 's choices in teons of town planning. education. Speakers include Professor unimportanltown palace to the second hl rgcst of the palace and the construction of homes for What IS presented as the ideal city, from the Reps and other prominent urban historians: town in the Marches of Brandenburg, prefclTed courtiers, sigmficant development was not to rus In urbe dreamed up for Regent 's Park to residence of many of the Hohenzollems, occur until Fredenck Wllham I succeeded to the garden cities and the new towns, seems The conference is sponsored by the College popular tourist attraction, and an urban and the Prussian throne m 17\3. and chose to contradict the very notion of a city. As of Architecture, Art and Planning, The park landscape deemed, over two hundred Potsdam as his second residence. for the current rate of urban sprawl, not Clarence Stein Institute for Urban and years later, worthy of inclusion in the world Throughout hiS reign Frederiek only does it raise serious questions about Landscape Studies, The Department of City heritage list, is largely due to the actions of William I, the Soldier King, was 10 give fi rs t social cohesion and the environment, but it and Regional Planning, Comell. two monarchs: Frederick Will iam I (171 3- consideration to the mIlitary, even before his lends to blur even further Ihe borderline 1740) and Frederick 11 (1 740-1 786). The accession to the throne he kept not merely the between t01l'1/ and COllntry. Moreover, the Phone: + 607-255-4331 usual regiment but al so his own battal ion. He current drift of urban dwellers towards an process of th is transformat ion provides an Email [email protected] or: interesting and somewhat unusual example of had no enthusiasm for the type of forma l, 'idyllic' countryside could turn into the [email protected] eighteenth century authoritarian town representative and elaborate eoun held by his most serious threat to a patiently planning, whereby an urban fabric was created father and on his accession he cut the constructed landscape, and destroy the ••• according to the will and agenda of powerful household budget drama tically, dismissing object of their desire. Participants in the servants, ha nd-workers, artists, luxury-goods conference will be invited to consider these individuals. As seen in Potsdam, this can lead dealers and the like, and redirecting the money questions and fears, which are voiced to an urban l:mdseape which may be greatly valued by contemporary non-residents ::md to the military, particularly to finance the increasingly often.' later generations, but one in which fayadi sm construction of their accommodation (Kunisch, Propos als for papers, in either English or disguised not only the nature of the buildings, 1995, p. 74-5). One of his first priorities was to French (tit le and typed abstract, not but also that of the community liv111 g in them, gather hi s scattered bodyguard into one garrison town which would also be hIS second exceeding one A4 page) should be sent in thi s case a community dominated by the bodyguard and regiment of the monarch. residence, and his choice fell on Potsdam, a to: decision that was to dramatically shape the The soldier king future of the town . Emmanuel Roudat, Universite de Valenciennes et du Hainaut­ The earliest known charter for Potsdam dates Potsdam had much to recommend it. from 993, and over the fonowing seven Berlin was out oflhe question, the municipal Cambresis, FLLASH-departmente d'anglais, centuries the town survived as a crossing point authorities had opposed the plans of the king of the river Have\. It did not achieve stabil ity and, in any case, Frederick WiJliam t disliked Le Mont Houy, 59313 Valeneiennes Cedex 9, of wealth, structure or populat ion until the the city, associating it with the court formality eighteenth century. Indeed, when the town was he wished to avoid. Potsdam was, however, France chosen as the second scat of the Elector of the close enough to Berlin to be practical, it was ... Marches of Brandenburg in 1660, war and economically unimportant, and had no fire s had led to only 50 of the 19S houses independent authori ty 10 represent its residents. 111e castle was in good condition and its

PLANNIN G HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 "It 2001 "It PAGE 12 PLANN ING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS, I AND 2 "It 2001 "It PAGE 13 aHractlveness Ulcre3scd by the excellent to havc felt the di screpancy III his behaviour: about the precise nature of these houses as No t all of the land enclosed by the huntHl g lands sunoundmg It. In 3ddlt1On, the in the last years of his reign he ordered all most were replaced under Frederick 11. Having customs wall bUllt for the second extension surrounding swamps and marshland made records ofspcndmg on the building of the relieved the worst pressure on accommodation. was ImmedIately used. In the north-westlhere Ideal natural barriers for soldiers attempting to town to be burnt (Nicolai, 1786, p. 111 8). the sccond extenSIon of 1733 could be more remained In 1737 enough land for four new desert. ambitious. Under the direction of Peter v. blocks to be bUllt, unde r the speCIfic The 750 LUllge Kerls (tall blokes) of Gayette, of French origin, terraces oflWO­ instructions of Frederick Wl lham I, In Dutch the kmg's bodyguord, all over six foot in storey plastered timber-framed houses, often style. The king had always shown a likmg for heIght and collected at great cost from wi th solid front wails, were constructed. The things Dutch. All the churches he built in different parts of Europe, were transferred to houses were built according 10 prescribed Potsdam displayed a Dutch influence, Manger Potsdam in the first months of Frederick models, a method already used with success in (1789. vol _ I, p. 10) recalls that Frederick WIlIiam's reign and were gradually joined by Koln (1619), Dusseldorf(1669) and then later Will iam I believed Ihe best master builders to the various companies of the king's regiment. in Krefeld , Saarbrucken, and Baden. Six types be Dutch, he even preferred Dutch food These soldiers were, as was the usual practice, can be identified, distinguishable mainly by the (Hinrichs, 1964, p. 43). The building of the quartered in the homes of civilians. As the fonn of the gable. The precise details of the Dutch quarter in Potsdam was perhaps a town's 1500 residents were living in under 200 fa(fade v3ry within each type. The various natural reflection of these preferences, and can houses the necessity of enlarging the town to Iypes were arranged so that the streelscape was certainl y be directly re lated to a trip that accommodate the soldiers was immediately chara cterised by rhythmic interchanges of Frederick William I took to Amsterdam in the apparent: 'Potsdam is built as a large particular fomlS. This provided a unifonn and spring of 1732. While there he encouraged Grenadier town, and only because the soldiers hannonious appearance further emphasised by Dutch builders to move 10 POLSdam . These he should live in citi zens' houses is it necessary the painting of all plastered houses in orange used for the construction of the hunti ng lodge that citi zens' houses be built.' (Hackel, 1912, or ochre tones (Gegenbauer, 1991 , p. 8) (Fig _ Stem, built in Duteh style, and then appointed p. 83, my translation). Citizens also had to be 2). the Dutchman Johann Boumann to construct a attracted to the town, to which end Dutch quarter for the new residents, so that manufacturing firms were encouraged to Fig. 2: GUle"bergslruj3e oJ the secOIIlI they would feel at home. relocate to Potsdam providing civilian exlellsio" (photograph Jrom 2000) The principles of the rest of the second Fig I: Plo" oJ potsdum showing old lown,first extension were contin ued m the Dutch quarter. employment. Immigrants were offered und seco"d extensiolls, alld Park SUllssouci freedom from taxes for onc year, generous Two models were used for the houses, a five­ subsidies for the construction of houses, free bay eaves house and a three-bay gable house, Frederick William 1 provided for the growth of building materials, and, in later years, were both built of red brick with wooden Potsdam with two planned extensions even given finished houses. Freedom from decorations around the door, visible window surrounded by town walls which further taxes and/or the supply of free building frames and WInd shutters on the lower hindered the press-ganged soldiers from windows of the ground fl oor (Fig_ 3). materials to attract settlers was not uncommon deserting_The street plan was in fl uenced by throughout Europe at thi s time, such methods existing north-south roads, which were were used, for eX::llnple, in Versailles (Fehl, Fig 3: MillelstrujJe ill th e Dutch Quarter incorporated, and the presence of extremely (pholograph[rollZ 2000) 1999. p. 14), Stuttgart (Hagel, 1996, p. 243), marshy areas which could not be built upon Karlsruhe, Ludwigsburg, Rastatt and and thus fonned open squares in the plan (Fig. Mannheim (Muller, 1990, p. 262-65). In 1) Indeed. the bridging of the marshland which Prussia the granting of subsidies for had contained the town for over eight hundred While this streetscape was obviously construction work was standard. However, the years was perhaps the greatest challenge of the influenced by international f:lshions, level of financial support available in Potsdam whole undertaking. It seems likely that the particularly by the Pal1adian which W:lS was exceptional, rather than thc usual 4 or 8 visit of Tsar Peter I of Russia in 1717 increasingly popular in Gennan-speaking percent of costs citizens received 10 or 15 encouraged Frederick William L The Tsar was Europe:lt this time, it has also been desc ribed percent plus the other benefits (Mielke, 1972, at the time overcoming similar problems in the as a reflection of Frederick William's delight p_ 142). This generous spending was in building of St Petersburg, and while it is said in rows of parading soldiers: ' The eye of the complete contrast to the usual economical that whole forests were sunk in the marshes of king was so indulged by his continuous tendencies of Frederick William I, as the Potsdam (Mielke, 1960, p. 10), so much stone preoccupation with his bodyguard regiment, memoirs of his daughter, the Markgraflll von was required to provide land which could be which consisted of the best-looking and largest Bayreuth, show: 'The meal consisted of six built upon in SI. Petersburg that the men from all over the earth, that on the newly small, badly prepared dishes, that were construction of stone buildings throughout laid out streets he wanted nothing other than supposed to be enough for 24 people, so that Russia had to be prohibited (Braunfels, 1987, houses representing soldiers standing in a row, most people had to be satisfied with the smells. p.235-36). At the whole table nobody spoke of anything Within the first planned extension, with the domlcr windows above the second but economies and soldiers' (Annbrusler 19\0, begun in 172 1, simple timber-lTamed buildings fl oor resembling the pointed Grenadier hats' p. 64, my translation). The king himself seems were cheaply and quickly built. Little is known (Manger. 1789, vol. I, p_ 19, my tr:lnsiation).

PLANNING HISTORY YOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 ' 2001' PAGE 14 PLANNING HISTORY YOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE IS All the woodwork was painted white. These at the equivalent of 20.5ml and that of one for tUnJed his attention to the town itself. He WlliLam I. Thus he spent about ten times more types were also used to fonn streetscapes 6 men at 23.64ml (Mielke, 1972, p. 115-122). replaced most of the simple houses of the old per house than hIS fathe r, using money from which were ul1lfonn or showed a rhythmic When Frederick William I succeeded town and first plan ex tcnsion with monumental vanous sources lIlc1udmg a substantial annual Interchange of fomls. In front of the houses to the Prussian throne in 1713, the town had buildings. Houses on streets and squares close revenue derived from hIS East Fnesian sm311 £3rdens were l:lId out (Miclke, 1960). only c. 1500 Inhabitants living in some 200 to or visible from thc town palace were rebuilt inhcntance (Mielke, 1972). Frederick's As Frederick Willi3m I W3S interested houses clustered around the palace. At his with fa'Yade s copied and adapted from villas in personalmvolvement l1l the bui lding work was only In the 3ppc3r3nce presented by the street­ death in 1740 the population had risen to I1 France, the Netherlands, England and extreme but not unique, several of the kings of side of the houses and in providing the 708 civilians and 4294 military, resident in especially Italy. Frederick 11 was concerned Wlirttemberg were equally involved in the necess:lI)' 3ccommodation for his soldiers, all 1154 houses (Globisch, 1990, p. 35). The town only with the appearance of the town, so the creation of their residences (Hagel, 1996). residents were expected to construct the had become, after Berlin, the second largest inlerior layouts were seldom affected by the In addi tion to rebuilding much of the town of neccssary rear buildings from their own settlement in the Marches of Brandenburg. reconstruction work and' quite poor petty Potsdam, Frederick JI created palaces and resources, and were free to build in the Yet, 'without building, and without the bourgeois houses with wrctched stairways, parks outside the town. Most well-known is backyards as they pleased, restricted only by garrison [Potsdam would be] one of the hallways, and rooms' (Friedel, 1901 , p. 195 , the palace Sanssouci bUilt in 1744-47 in rococo fire regulations. This resulted in a jumble of poorest towns in the Marches' (Manger, 1789, my translation) were often hidden by the style as laid down in a sketch by the king (Fig. workshops, washrooms, extra accommodation vol. 2, p. 253, my translation). The town grew ornate fa~ades. FUl1her away from the palace, 5). Following the completion of this palace the and stables, and in a wide va riety of plot sizes because Frederick WilIiam I wished it to, and or on side strects, fa~ade groups, in which two gardens were extended westwards time and and sub-divisions, each house owner acquiring its landscape displayed his tastes and concerns, or three houses were hidden by one again, and various buildings constructed within land and building according to their own needs above all his obsession with the military. In representative fa'Yade, were created rather than them: the Chinese and the Japanese house, a and means. Potsdam 'thc soldier counted for almost villa copies (Fig. 4). picture gallery, a ruin , and finally the Neues 11\e interior layouts of all the houses everything, the citizen for almost nothing' Palais. of the second extension were fairly standard, (Haeckel, 19 16, p. 51, my translation'). Fig. 4: Fm;atle group ill CharlollclIstraj3c The comparison of Potsdam with consisting of a central hallway behind which (photograph from 2000) VersaiUes made by the Austrian ambassador is lay a steep staircase. To the right and left were Rebuilding for representation an obvious one, and indeed there is liule doubt one 13rge and one small room and a kitchen. Frederick 11 , like his predecessor, look that Frederick 11 was Inspired by the work of The rear rooms of the ground floor were 0.8 to Potsdam as his second seat ofresidence, but Loui s XIV, as were many Gennan rulers (see I m higher than those at the front as cellars lay had quite different aims from those of his Braunfels, 1987 and Fehl, 1999 for further under them. As the layout was repeated on the father. He did not extend the street plan any examples). However, the Prussian king's second floor each house held a maximum of fUl1he r but attempted to rebuild the existing objectives and tastes were somewhat different four flats plus the so-called 'Grenadier's room' town to create a residence wOl1hy of his own from those of the French monarch and in the attic, lit by the donner window. The notion of his position. As the Austrian Potsdam differed significantly from Ve rsailles, exact division obviously depended on the ambassador Freihcrr von Ried (1763) and indeed most other European court towns. number of rooms required by the owner's explained, ' His mastering passion is without While the pa lace of Versailles acted as the household, and whether rooms were used doubt the desire for fame. Unsatisfied with the orientation point for the whole town , commercially, for instance fo r retail (Mielke, fame that he has won through his own talents Sanssouci, Frederick's preferred residence, 1972, p. 23). Throughout the eighteenth and his fortune in war he imitates anything that waS situated on the edge of the town, with no century, when the military made up between a wi ll , in his opinion, increase his fame. Thus he main driveway to provide easy access, and was The interior layouts of these houses qual1er and a third of the population of the is fo llowing the example of Louis XIV and kept very private. The surrounding park was corresponded to their fa~ades whi le not town, it was usual for unmarried soldiers to Versailles and is building a palace that... will developed independently of the town, and the compromising their representative nature. occupy the front rooms of the first floor, a be even larger than the royal palace in Berlin' Neues Palais was intended to house friends and Fa'Yade groups were a not uncommon captain would be given Iwo rooms, a lieutenant (Volz 1901, vol. 2, p. 209, my translation). The relations. Frederick 11, like his predecessor, technique of the time used to disguise the or a sergeant one room, while two, four or six palace referred to he re is probably the Neues disliked the fonnality of coul1life that was small scale of buildings, as on the square Am ordinary soldiers shared a room between them Palais which was under construction at this inevitably to be found at the centre of Groote Markt in Brussels and on the Place (Yolk, 1988, p. 18). Married soldiers (between time in parkland by Potsdam, and which was to government. 'Most of the kings of Emope d'annes in Valenciennes (Mielke, 1972, p. 17 13 and 1743 restricted to a third of the show the world that Prussia, despite the have fo rged for themselves a kind of chain strength of each company, thereafter consequences of the Seven Year War, was still 340). :md often suffer under its burden. My fath:r Like Frederick William I, Frederick II unrestricted) lived with their wives and young to be reckoned with. However, Frederick 11 had the courage to break his and I am maintained strict control over the building children in barracks, the built form of which had already undertaken much building and following in his footsteps and preserving that work. He chose the models to copy and the closely resembled that of the civilian houses, rebuilding work, intended to display his degree of freedom which was passed on to location of the copies in the to\'.m; he brought although the fa'Yades tended to be extremely consequence. me.' (Volz, 1913, vol. 7, p. 155, my His first projects in Potsdam were the foreign architects (e.g. the Frenchman Jean plain. While exact figures for the space translation). Frederick 11 spent most of his time Laurent Legeay) or those with experience standards per soldier are unavailable for the reconstruction of the town palace and the away from Berlin, returning only for a few replanting of that pan of the pleasure garden abroad (e.g. K. W. von Knobelsdorff) into the first half of the eighteenth century, an weeks a year around his bil1hday and the that his father had turned into a military town to carry out the work, and he financed the indication is given by an edict passed in 1787 Carniva l fe stival (Kunisch, 1995, p. 78). The exercise ground. A few years later the king buildings. His aims were different to and his setting the mi nimum size of a room for 4 men government ofPrussia was never transferred to tastcs more extravagant than those of Frederick

I' LANNING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 ' 2001 ' PAGE 16 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 A ND 2 * 2001 * PACE 17 Potsd:llll, but ren1:llllcd 111 Berlin and the themselves rrom contemporary representative nables were not encouraged to follow court hfe, and consequentl y neither the built REFERENC ES Fn:denck [[ out orthc city. WhIle It was struClure nor the lire or Potsdam revolved nnportant to Frederick [[ to live in around the court. Behind the rayades soldiers Armbruster, J (cd,), Eme preuBische VerOCrcntl rchungcn der hlstonschen surroundll1gs which he relt 10 be representative and their landlords' ramilies remained, Eylert K6nigstochter. DenkwUrdigkeiten der KommisS lon zu Berlin 10, G. OestTeich, orhis posillon, he did not want the society that (the official biographer of Frederick William Markgrlifin von Bayreuth, Schwester 1964, pp. 40-72. usually came with them. Thus, although the 1II) describes the result: ' Potsdam was in the Fnedriehs des GroBen, Ebenhausen: new ornate rayades gave an impression or ye:lrs that led up to 1806 an unpleasant place. Langenwiesche- Brandt, 1910. Hilrl imann, M., Die Residellzsladl Polsdam , artluence siml[:lT to that orthe villas or the Although the second residence and the Berlin: Atlantis-Verlag, 1933. nobility in Berlin, manuracturing workers, garrison lay in perhaps not re rtile but certainly Braunrels, W., Abelld/iilldische Stadtballkllllst, Kunisch, J , ' Funktion und Ausbau der bUIlders and soldiers lived behind the rayades. beautirul surroundings, yet in the broad empty Koln: DuMont, 1987. kurfUrstlich·koniglichen Residenzen in streets, in the gorgeous houses, was something Brandenburg-PreuBen im Zeitalter des Conclusion. eerie and desolate. Everywhere one came up Fehl, G., 'Versailles as an urban model: new Absolutismus', in Hahn , p" Hilbener, K ., The urban landscape or Potsdam was clearly a against the garrison-like, whose interior court·towns in Gennany circa 1700' Schoeps, J., (eds.), POlsdam. Miirkisclre product or eighteenth century society. povcrty could not be disguised by the rich Urballll1orphology, Vo!. ) No. I, 1999, pp. ). Kleills/al/t - ellropiiische Residellz, Berlin: Absolule rulers throughout Europe were at this rayades; everywhere duress and the associated 20. Akadcmic Verlag, 1995, pp. 61-84. time creating residences to represent their constraint appeared with hosti lity' (HUrlimann, wealth, power and position. Potsdarn can be 1933, p. 263 , my translation). Friedcl, E., 'Das konigliche Fassadcnrecht in Manger, !-LL., BllIIgeschichte VOII Polsdam. 3 understood as onc or many court-tO\VfIS, dcn Rcsidenzen Berlin und volumes, BcrlinlStettin: Frederick created under the influence or international Acknowledgement s Potsdam', Bral1dellburgia. Vol. 9,190 1, Nicola i, 1789·1790. architectural rashions, growing nOI out of its The work presented here was largely pp.195·97. own strength but because Frederick Wi11iam I undertaken in the course of research ror my Gegenbauer, c., 'Die zweite barocke Mielke, F., Dos Holliilldische Viertel ill and Frederick 11 channe11ed money, architects, Dip/all/ thesis at the Free University Berlin, Stadterweitcrung', KullurbaUlell Ulld Polsdam, Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1960. bUilders, and even residents into it. Yet Gennany. Thanks for encouragement and De"kmale, Potsdam was never the centTe of government advice go to Proressor Karl Lenz (Free Vo\. 2, 1991 , pp. 8- 10. Mielke, F., Das Biirgerhaus ill Potsdam, or court lire, it was bui lt as a garrison to\Vf1 and University Berlin), Proressor Astrid Debold­ Tilbingen: Emst Wasmuth, 1972. despite the palaces, parkland and villa copies it Kritter (Technical University Berlin) and Globisch, R., 'Zur Geschichte der 2. remained a garrison town. Both Frederick Proressor Jcremy Whitehand (University or Stadtcrweiterung in Potsdam" in Abri, M., Mo11c r, C., ' Peupl ierung', in MaaB, M ., et al Wil1iam I and Frcderick 11 distanced Sinningham). Frillken, M., Haase, M. (eds.) BallalljilOhme (eds,), Klar uIld /icll/voll. wie eine Regel, III/d behlllsome StadtemellerllJlg Karlsruhe: Braun, 1990, pp. 259-78. ill der If. barockell Stadten~'eilerullg ill Fig 5: Palace Sallccollci (photograph/rom 2000) PotSliall/, Berlin: Technische Universitat Nicolai, F., Beschrcibung der Koniglichen Berlin, 1990, pp, 33 -36. Residenzstiidte Berlin und Potsdam, aller daselbst befindlicher Merkwurdigkeiten, und Haeckel, J., ' Polsd3m, die Wilhelmstadt', der umliegendcn Gegend, MilteiitmgclI des Vereillsfiir die Geschichte Berlin: Nicolai, [786. POfsdoms, Vo!. 5 No. 10 , 1916, pp. 26-52. Sello, G., Potsdam und Sanssouci, Hagel, J., SO soli es sey". KOlligliche Forschungcn und Quellen zur Geschichte von RlIlldbemerkrmgell 11. Be/ehle zur Bllrg, Stadlrll1d Park. Breslau : Stmllgesraltrlllg ill SfrllIgart 11. CO/illStall ill del' S.Schottlaender, 1888. erstell Htilfle des 19. Jahrllllllderts. Stuttgart: VerOITcntlichungen des Arch ivs der Stadt Volk, W., Potsdam. Historische Srra13en und Stuttgart 70, Verlag Klett-Cotta, 1996. Pl li tze heute, Berlin : VES Verlag, 1988. Volz, G. 8., Friederich der Grope illl Spiegel Hinrichs, c., ' Friederich Wilhelm I. Konig von seiner Zeil, 3 volumes, Berlin: Hobbing, PreuBen', in Hinrichs, C., (ed.), 1901. PreuBen als hiSlOrisches Problem. Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Berlin: Volz, G. B .• Die JVerke Friedrich des GrojJell. 10 volumes, Berlin : Hobbing, 1913.

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2' 2001 • PAGE 18 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AN D 2 * 2001 * PAGE 19 The town IS indeed fortunate that It s 20'~ century legi sl ation , Insofar as It would leading pIOneer was no Idle strengthen prevIOus efforts to ensurc that speculator but onc who. in growth occurred m an orderly and directed accordance wuh hIS profeSS Ion, manner. Local authOrity planmng Building the modern seaside town: town planned a resort of broad schemes sanctioned by the 1909, 1919 and thoroughfares and well-spaced 1932 Town Planning Acts, like earl1er planning in interwar Clacton villas. In this respect it was private efforts to plan e lacton, scheduled fortunate too that the land had not land use, road layout and development been avai lable earlier when Clacton phasing. Un like the private efTorts, these LAURA CHASE, might well have had at its centre a Acts did not attempt to set minimum Little Bentley, Essex maze of congested streets and values. The uses and construction of Email: [email protected] squalid terraces which characterise ind ividual properties was controlled so many of our older resorts. through building and public health The English seaside town of Clacton, on conva lcsccnts were reinforced by the departments. The 1919 Housing and the Essex coast, prov ides an intrigu ing physical la yout of many new The actual area developed according to Town Planning Act made town planning a case study of the way in which town developments which avoided the health Bruffs plan was quite small, but it was statutory duty of all urban authorities of plann ing thought and practice was risks of overcrowding, poor drai nage, and sufficient to allow Claelon to claim it was over 20,000 (Claeton UDC was then under developi ng during the inter-war years. substandard hou sing conditions, since they a planned town. Fig. I shows the actual this number) with the intent that minimal, Inter-war planning initiatives, while were not 'built on the unsani tary debris of amount of development in 1878, one year rather than extensive, planning powers to st ri ctly limited in nature, were arguably previous ages' (C/ac/olI Guide 1909). afier BrufThad sold his land and COntrol town expansion would aid the significant both because they fu rt hered the Mentions of Cl act on as a new pristine properties, before completion of his plan, developmenl of 'homes for heroes' acceptance of planning in principle, and town without slums or urban ills are found to the Claeton-on-Sea and General Land (Cullingworth 1972, p. 20, Swenarton because they formed part of a package of in newspapers and gu idebooks from its BUIlding and Investment Company 198 1). In practice, the requIrement to 'modern' enhancements to place image. inception in 187 1, with the 1872 Times Limited, part of the London Steamboat prepare schemes was not enforced, and This short paper extracts a section from noting 'There will be no slums, nor any Company. By 1882, the company owned procedures for approval by the Ministry of my PhD thesis discussing the economic object that can offend the eye' and 285 acres adjacent to the sea front in Health were cumbersome. and political context for the in troduction continue through the inter-war period Clacton that they sought to develop as a The town planning aspects of the and acceptance of town planning in (Walker 1966, p.32). select residential area by establishing 1919 Act were at first overshadowed by Claeton and its incorporation in a Town planning in this nineteenth minimum house prices and issuing the housing element, which established a discourse of progress and modernity. century context was largely synonymous restri cti ve convenants dictating fu ture role for the state in providing social with estate planning. It referred to the uses. The goal of selectness, however, housing as a response to the severe post­ Planning along health lines orderly development of land under unified was inevitably compromised by the war shortfall in housing and industrial By 1900, seaside towns were already private ownership, and had not yet steamboat company's encouragement of unrest (see Swenarton 1981). Harloe (1995, p. 112) notes the post-World War I accustomed to stamping their claims 10 acquired its associations with state day-tripper traffic. Another problem with physical superi ori ty with medical intervention and urban refonn. The plan this approach, pointed out by Gayter focus on local authority housing for the credentials attesting to their health-giving of Peter Bruff, Claeton's fir st developer, (1965, pp. 90, 93) , was that the company 'core working class and lower middle quali ti es for both invalids and otherwise typifies this approach in the years provided an oversupply of expensive land, class' who were the 'backbone ' of the health y people in need of a revitalising immediately following 1871. [t provided but neglected the need for working-class labour movement and accordingly break. No Victorian resort guidebook was for the initial construction of the central housing. This latent demand was instead politically significant. Rather than the complete wit hout a testimonial or twO core of the town esta blished road layouts met by speculators who supplied roads and social rented sector, however, the private from a medical aut hority testifying to Ihe and a genera lised zoning scheme which building plots in land adjacent to that of owner-occupied sector came to curative properties of the resort (see for segregated commercial and residential the Land Company's from the 1890s increasingly dominate housing for this example Jarrolds 1900). Resorts readily uses and provided for minimum property onward. These two trends accordingly class and all but the lowest end of the adopted the gospel of town planning as a va lues. Bruff did not have to contend with minimised Ihe effect of restrictive housing market in the wake of changing means of promoting the healthfulness of any messy existing development, as had covenants and land use policies which national policy, economic trends and the thei r towns. The links between town been the case with his earlier scheme in continued to govern Clacton until the increasingly iconic status of the single plann ing and the medical discourse were a ne ighbouring Walton. Brufrs standing as Coast Development Company (which fam ily home. continuation oflhe mid-n ineteenth century an engineer, the Greenfield status of the acquired the Land Co. in 1898) went While local authority construction public health campaigns which identified land, and the newness of the project in bankrupt in 1915. levels were not great in Clacton, the slum conditions as a cause of disease, and general were accented in the numerous 'housing question' was a prominent then gradually widened their scope to subsequent testimonies to the virtues of Homes for heroes feature of debate in the Council meetings incorporate housing reform and urban Clacton's planned early growth, as Given Clacton's history of planning, the of the post-World War 1 period, and design. The claims of nineteenth century typified by Walker (1966, p. 30): Council was receptive to the idea oflhe presaged debates on si mi lar issues which seaside towns to hygiene and attraction to planning controls that emerged in early occurred later in the 1920s and 1930s

PLANN ING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 ' 2001' PAG E 20 I'LANNING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2' 2001 ' PAGE 21 Mal' I : C/lICrol1. /874 (SOII/'ce: Ol'dl/lIl1ce Sun-e), Sheet 48. 7) under Ihe town planning label. Council concerns about the dangers of unregulated members concurred on Ihe need 10 bU1ld development and loss of rural land and houses in the wake of post-war material amenitlcs. Aspects of the housmg and labour shortages and resultant question thus evolved into town planmng overcrowding, but there was con fl ict over questions, w]\hin the context of an overall the type and level of public assistance in discourse stressing rationality, health and what was felt to be, in nonnal progress. Reflecting thiS shift. town , circumstances, the provi nce of the free planning Issues became a regular feature market. There were also disagreements of Clact on and Frinton Council debates about the amount of working-class and local newspaper editorials in the late housing needed. I 920s. By 1927, Clacton had erected 139 houscs out of public funds, but thereafter Town planning in the interwa r years: the focus shifted to controlling the the idea and the activity development of the increasing amounts of The new constituency for town private construction rapidly transforming planning was seen by one planning ClaclO n's outer areas, with over 3000 historian as being dcrived from 'the houses bcing constructed in Clacton partrician disdain for the bargain basement " during the period 1928-38 (GG ECrN environmental quality of the nascent 5/2/38). A comparison between Figures 2 consumer capitalism' (Hague 1984, p. 62). ~tj\\ and 3 shows this rapid growth around It can be seen. for example, in the Claeton's periphery. The new fonnation of the Counci l for the --i>- i development in the 1920s was largely Preservation of Ru ral England in 1926. It judged to have enhanced the town's social is misleading, howe ver, to paint the tone. Clacton 's 1928 Official Guide noted preseverationist alliance in too with satisfaction the increasing pre­ straightforward a right-wing, retrograde eminence of the owner-occupied sector: manner. Matless (1996) points out that the preserva tionist movement combined a Clacton has seen more houses fondness for modem rational planning erected in the past six years than any goals and techniques with its visions of town of proportionate size within a rural Arcadia, and united conservative one hundred-mile radius. By that, of landowners wi th those with socialist course, is meant the building of leanings, such as Clough Wi ll iams Ellis large and medium size residences by who attacked suburban sprawl and coastal pri vate owners and quite distinct disfigurement in his books England and from the hundreds of smal1 houses the Octopus (1928) and Britain and the which have been erected under Beast ( 1937). A contemporary book on , stale-aided schemes in other places. seaside houses illustrates the ways in ..- .' which modem planning methods were enlisted to the moral crusade of landscape Housing strategies that favoured preservation: ' unless we make up our expansion of the owner-occupied sector in minds to group our seaside houses in an low-rise, suburban developments was not, orderly fashion nothing can save the however, without its negative English coast from untidy ribbon consequences, particularly in southeast development as wasteful and unsightly as England. This strategy, while a politically the filling up of main road frontages in .~ . acceptable alternative for conservatives to inland places' (Carter 1937. p. 12). social rented housing raised new land use The CPRE was innuential in and aesthetic problems for elements of that ensuring that the 1932 Act included constitucncy. The discipline oftovm powers to pl:m for undeveloped rural land. planning, originall y !::lrgely an adjunclto The effect of the 1932 Act, however, was housing and public health questions was almost as limited as the 1919 Act. It modified in the 1920s to respond to continued the concept of the planning

PLANN ING m STORY VO L. 23 NOS _ 1 AND 2 · 2001 • PAGE 22 I' LANN ING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AN D 2 • 2001 • PAGE 23 exemplar ofappropnate apolltlcal locaJ Fig 1: C/aC!Oll 1925 (OnillClllce SlIrvey) scheme and broadened it to include budt­ up areas, but these broad brush zoning government aclion: plans were voluntarily enacted and tended to acknowledge existing trends, Among the many things for which particularly since the Act required e lacton IS noted is lIS remarkable compensation for owners of land which I1diness - a great lribute to a could not be developed. Furthennore, communal co-operation by residents lengthy bureaucratic de lays were involved and visitors alike. Not on ly does in getting a planning scheme approved, as Ihis tidiness apply to its Front and ItS typified by the six year gap in elacton street, but to Ihe whole tone of the between the 1929 approval in principle of town; to its various building lines; to a scheme and its 1935 adoption the architectural features of its front; (Cu llingworth 1972: 20-22, King: 1984: to its general design and effect and 187). to the entire absence of anything Inter-war planning legislation th us even approaching the appearance of reflected the cautious approach of the a slum area ... Just as housewives conservati ve constituency that supported and property owners have been busy legislative controls as a necessary evil to lately with their annual 'spring promote aesthetic and economic order, clean', so should we all personally rather than the more radical stance of the have a littl e 'spring-cleaning' of our those who saw it as a pan of a package of minds and process in a metaphoncal state intervention and social refonn sense ... More than anywhere else including public housing. The restricted lidiness is required in the minds and nature of inter-war planning legislation, actions of our local government however, should not be directly equated rulers. Untidiness in that direction with the overall popularity of the concept too often means a waste of the of town planning. As Eric Reade observes people's money, and too often a lack of the inter-war period: ' .... iflown ofprogress ... Clacton needs not only planning as an activity was of relatively a tidy town, but a council cleared of little significance, the idea of town and old untidy prejudices and wilh a country planning developed apace' well-regulated policy (CTEEG (Recade 1987, p. 42). Reade focuses on 615133). the activities of those within the professions in developing this idea, but The analogies are clearly drawn here arguably, the favourable response of local between personal and municipal tidiness, authorities and its incorporation into the with planning serving as housekeeping rhetoric of progress also furthered its writ large. Town planning and good overall reception. This paved the way for government are defined clearly by the implementation of more far-reaching assumptions about what constitutes post-war planning legislation and the 'matter out of place' and requires tidying acceptance of such concepts as green up. in a planning context, this would belts, new towns and development control. include non-confonning uses, irregular Local authorities achieved a wider and design, high plol ratios and naITOW streets. more popular profile for town planning by This relates directly to social tone in that situating it within the discourse of the characteristics of a well-designed town modernity, which emphasised good scheme were seen to embody the virtues municipal housekeeping and ralional of order, rational demarcation of space and foresight and downplayed any hygiene seen within the select home. infringement on the rights of property. in Town planning is thus part of the the following quote from the e lacton discourse of the modem hygienic Times, for example, well-regulated landscape described by Forty that has planning and design is seen as an 'become the nonn in the domestic landscape' and also appears in many other

I)LANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 -11 2001 -11 PAGE 24 I'LANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 ' 200 1 • PAGE 2S modem envIronments such as trams, touri sm employment. Many wcre satisfied cnd, the CounCil relied on the promlllent communicated confUSion rather than co­ aeroplanes and publIc bUIldings (1986, p. WIth this lack of industrial employment, consult1l1g finn of Adams, 111Ompson and ordmated Illanmng (CrEEG 2811 0/33 ). 156). since it was conSIdered to be unsuitable Fry for It s advice. Thomas Adams, the The setback, however, was The limited nature of mterwar for a tourist town. Town planning first pres ident of the Town Plannmg conSidered to be JustIfied by the long-term plannmg legIslation was actually a selling schemes could keep unwanted industrial Institute, and his colleagues prepared benefits of a regIon-wide approach, and pomt, in that II allowed the Councils to be uses at bay and preserve Clacton's idcntity pragmatic advisory regional plans Adams, Thompson and Fry were directed seen as adopting a fashionable new trend as the unpolluted antithesis ofa grimy throughout south-eastern England III the to incorporatc theIr work into thc new without seriously compromising industrial town: inter-war years, as well as town plans for scheme 10 be prepared for the entire north­ entrenched economic and political the seaside resorts of Hastings, Bexhill east Essex area which was adopted in interests. Advocates for the adoption of Clacton is indubi tably first, foremost and Eastbourne. These plans focused on October 1935. The local authorities were planning schemes thus argued for the and always a holiday resort and containing urban growth, improving then responsible for the implementation of perceived enhancement of a progressive residential town . People who are on arterial road systems and protection of the schemes, which prescnbed ncw roads l1n3ge as well as for actual benefi ts of holiday do not wish to be re minded amenity (Simpson 198 1:37). Nationally, and the widcning of existing roads; orderly growth. A 1927 letter to the by factor ies and works, such as they thirty-seven regional planning schemes determined the location of land suitable Claeton Times chivvied the Council: have in their own towns, of the were prepared during the inter-war years, for developmcnt; and sub-divided land 'Clacton will suffer severely if the council environment they have quitted for with Wannop and Cherry (1994) suitable for general development into continues to boycott town planning holiday or residence. Clacton and suggesting that regional planning taken up residential, industrial and commercial legi slation. Neighbouring places are other resorts should be true to the by local 3uthorities because 'its measure zones (NE Essex Rcgional Plann ing getting their municipal houses in order. tradition they have created for seemed not to hurt anyone, they seemed Committee 1935/3 6). Dovercourt is adopting a scheme soon themselves (CTEEG 19/12136). full of promise, they cost little and offered By the last half of the 1930s, 3nd will become a dangerous rival to co-operation rather than connic!. ' therefore, Clacton could demonstrate its Clacton ' (CTEEG 29/1/27). Advocates of Only a small minority encouraged the Echoing the national trend to a official adherence to the principles of town planning in ClaclOn also made much of its development of a wider economic base for higher profile for planning and its planning, a status which It shared With earlier planning heritage and emphasised Clacton, in particular to address the separation from public health matters, the most other southeast resort local the continuity between the early 'social problems of seasonal unemployment, an Town Planning Sub-Committee of the authorities. The principles of zoning, pioneers in the best sense' 3nd later state­ attitude that came to predominate in the Clacton 's Public Health Committee was regional planning, and regulated new endorsed efforts, as well as the need to post-war years. elevated to the status of a loint Commlltee de velopment had acquired widespread maintain the planning tradition. An The implementation of town in 1929. Members representing Tendring currency, even if the legislation requiring additional concern over the location and planning legislation required expansion of Rural District Council (TRDC) joined them lacked teeth. Town planning amount of working class housing the local authority bureaucracy. The Clacton UDC councillors to considers a sc hemes largely confirmed exisling remained, and town planning schemes surveyor's department nonnally took on town plan for an area including land from growth patterns and as such only proved were felt to be needed to address this the responsibility, while particular town both jurisdiction, a sometimes contentious contentious when they prescnbed policy issue. The Clacton Graphic editorialised: planning schemes were prepared by process that pitted largely pro for areas where the n3turc of appropriatc outsidc consultants, as they were development Clacton against the development was already subject to There is a class of small property considered to be onc-off documents and ag ricultural interests represented on the conflict such as the elosely packed chalet springing up in Clacton, which is no t a steady sourec of work for full-ti mc TRDC, characterised by one Clacton development at Jaywick S3nds or Butlin's not calculated to enhance the staff. The lack of planners on the local observer as a 'stagnant body' representing holiday camp. The generalised agreement reputation of the town as a authority payroll also reflected the fact 'the petrifying Imnd of the local fanner' on the utili ty of town planning for the residential eentTe. It is such that town planning was a latecomer in the (CTEEG 2811128). image of the modem seaside resort was enterprises as these that the Town ranks of professions created by the Clacton Council began in the early accordingly affected by developments Planning Act would suppress. We nineteenth cent ury growth of state 1930s to reach agreement with Tendring challenging both desirable social tone and have in our mind a colony of small bureaucracy and urban infrastructure (see over a joint planning scheme. Before it aspects of 'good' town planning . tenements which has had the result Perkin 1989). could be finalised, however, a new Tenacious private developers and the pro­ of luring to the town a large surplus Clacton Council debated the need Regional Planning Committee growth majority on the Council prevailed of workers whom Clacton cannot to hire a town plann ing assistant in 1928. incorporating all of north-east Essex was in the latter halfofthe 1930s, and absorb, hence the swelling of the The newness of the discipline was seen by created in 1933. An editorial remarked on permitted high-density developments out-of-work. It is time a period was Councillor Shingfield as both an asset in this as 'a rather unfortunate experience', which paved the wa y for the ascendancy put to misplaced enterprises and of itself for a modem town, and a as it forestalled implementation of a of holiday campus, caravans, retirement (CGECIN 2212130). rationale for hiring a 'person not virtually agreed scheme and bungalows and chalets in post-war exceeding 27 years old', but not as a local Clacton's built environmenl and image. It is unclear how 'small tenements' were authority employee since the' men who meant to lure surplus workers to Clacton, undcrstood town planning were engaged particularl y given its lack of industrial by a finn of experts' and commanded employment and the seasonal nature of its higher sa laries (CTEEG 7/1/28). In the

PLANNING HISTORY YOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 26 PLANN ING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 * 200 1 * PAGE 27 /Ill/I) 3: C/aclolI 1938 (rel'isiolllVitl1193811dtliliolls) R[n: n.E NC ..: S

Carter, Ella (1937) Seaside Houses ami Perkin, 1·1. J (1989) The Rise of BUI/galol\ls, Country Life Ltd, London. Professional Sociely - El/gland since Clacton Advertising and Advancement 1880, Routlcdge, London. Association (1 909) Official GIIMe, Clacton. Reade, Eric (1897) Brilish Town and COli/lily Planl/ing, Open UniverSIty Press, Cullingwonh,1. B. (1972) Towl/ tll/d MIlton Ke ynes. Coulllry Planning ill Brilain, George Alien & Unwin Ltd. Simpson, Michael (198 1) 'Thomas Adams' in Pioneers ill British TowlI Forty, Adrian (1986) Objects of Desire - Plal/lling, G. Cherry, cd., Architectural Design alld Society 1750-1980, Thames Press, London. and Hudson, London. Swenanon, Mark (198 1) Homes Fitfor Gayler, H. l ., (1965), . The Coastal Resorls Heroes - The Politics alld Arcliiteclllre of of Essex; Their Growth and Preselll Day Early State HOIISillg, Heinemann, London. FUI/clions', MA thesis, University of Walker, Kenneth (1966), The HislOry of London. ClaelOIl, Clacton Urban District Council.

Hague, Cliff(1 984) The Developmelll of Wannop, U and Cherry, G. (1994) 'ne Planning Thought - A critical perspective, developmell/ of regional pla1llling ill the Hutchinson, London. Uniled Kingdom', Planning Perspectives Harloe, Michael (1995) nle People's 9,1. Home? Social Rellfed Housing ill ElII"ope alld America, Blackwell, Oxford. Wil1iams-Ellis, Clough (cd) (1928) Englalld alld fhe Octopus, Geoffrey Bless, King, Anthony (1984), The BlIngalolV ­ London. Tire PrO(/lIctioll ofa Global ClIlllIre, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Wllliam-Ellis, Clough (cd .) (1937) Brilaill alld th e Beasf, 1. M. Dent, London. Matless, David (1998) Lamlseape ami CGECIN: Clacton Graphic and EaSI Englishness, Reaktion Books, London. COllstlllustrated News (1920-1938). North-East Essex Regional Planning crE£G: East Coast Advertiser alld Committee, Chelmsford Claeloll News (1919-1927). thereafter. Third Annual Report (1 934-35) ClaclOlI Times alld East Esse;r: Gazelle Fourth Annual Report (1935-36) ( 1927-1939).

PLANN ING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2' 2001 • PAGE 28 I)LANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 29 Ford and the Ronald MacDonald of mass The proviSion of houslllg for people of housing.l Simon was a wealthy New 'different nceds and mcomes' was also Yorker, with a home in Long Island, New partly Intended to enable people to Social planning in Res ton, Virginia, 1961-67 York Statc. He has written of how he and develop a sense of place. Thc Master his Wife and childrcn would drivc through Plan emphasised that beauty in the Lcvittown on thcir way to or from thcir enVironment, and accessible and attractive MARK CLAPSON Long Island home. Simon was appalled at facilities, should be open to all , and that University of Luton. thc regimentation of the housing, its everyone could feel that Reston belonged to them, regardless ofmeans.4 Luton, UK. apparent homogeneity, and the lack of Email: [email protected] community facilities, but he and his wife In tcnns of social planning, Tel: (0)1582 489034 noticed that their own children looked howevcr, the Master Plan was, to use that longingly at the sight of the children of keyword again, flexibl e. Beyond an acknowledgement oflhc obvious need for AC:ldemics and researchers who visit the owned by Gulf-Reston, Inc. Simon and Lcvittown playing near to home in their community and cultural facilities, there archives of the USA often fl y into Dulles his team werc no longer in charge, though ostensibly safe suburban streets. Simon airport in Northern Virginia, and are then he and some others continued to be understood that the suburban way of life was an understanding within the Pial! Ihat whisked up Ihe freeway to the libraries involved in the new town, playing an was close to the heart of the American the people who moved to Reston should articulate what was needed; they should and the other attractions of Washington active and visible role in many citizen Dream, but he strongly felt that the dream DC. But how m:lny of them have spoiled initiatives. Simon would be honoured by could be dramatically improved upon not be presented with an ex isting menu of things-to-do. The flexibility that infonned the road-signs for Reston, in Fairfax Reston residents, during the 1980s, for his through integrated planning. He favoured County, Virginia, en route between Dulles role as the founder and leading 'pioneer' the creation ofa 'large scale new the plan, and thus the social devclopment development which has in it re sidential, of Reston, was reinforced by the research and the capital city? Today, Reston is a of Rest on . commercial, industrial , cultural and civic that occurred prior to the beginning of new to\VIl of over 60,000 people, A number of interesting works functions. In other words. it is a well­ construction in 1963. occupying an attractive site of some 7,400 have been written about Reston . This little rounded community.') acrcs (nearly 3,000 hectares). Just 18 body of literature is by no means miles from Washington DC, it possesses a uncritical, but it has mostly been produced The Master Plall for ReSfOlI was Early research flouri shing local economy, which owes by people directly associated with the prepared by the planning company of In preparing hi s proposed new town Whittlesey, Conklin and Rossant, in during the early 1960s, Simon was much to the booming telecommunications town. I Nonetheless, others can agree that, industries within the Washington DC despite some evolutionary difficulties and liaison with the various boards and concerned to learn about what might now region. When glimpsed from the busy sociological problems, Reston has become agencies of Fairfax County. It was be tenned best practice from existing new Dulles Toll Road, contemporary Reston a generally successful experiment wi thin approved in 1962, the year before the towns, and from some notable urban construction of Reston was begun. Part of appears to be subsumed within the the' Anglo-American' tradition of senlements. Simon and others in his team, the appro\lal process was the instigation of Tyson's Corner 'edge city' developments planning new communities. This article for example, admired the intimate and a new zoning category which allowed for vil1agey scale of New England's small described by JoeJ Garrcau in his 1991 argues that, during that fundamentally morc flexible, mixed-use development, book of the same name. But whereas important establishing six-year period of towns. It is no coincidence that Reston is than had previously occurred in the American edge cities were, and remain, planning and construction, Simon and his divided into a series of distinctive unplanned irruptions of office blocks, team understood the advantages of social county. The Plan emphasised the 'villages' and 'clusters', that is, residential shoppi ng malls, and residential planni ng when developing sizeable new necessity of an economic base for Reston. areas designed to neighbourhood unit subdivisions, Reston is altogether different communities from scratch. Reston, in But it also stressed its intention to 'build a principles, and linked to each other within community which ofTers opportunities to because it is a planned community. turn, became both the balanced a Radburn-style system of underpasses, Begun in 1961 by its founder community and the 'living community' live and work to all people': bridges and motor-free footpaths. And Robert E. Simon, from whose initials the that they hoped for, despite the change in Simon himself was particularly impressed town takes its name, Reston was a private ownership and control of the urban removing the barriers sometimes with Tapiola in Finland, whose blocks of created by race, income, initiative, commencing as it did before the enterprise that had occurred in 1967. flats by lakes found a direct emulation in geography, education, sex and inconclusive programme of federally the housing development of Lake Anne in funded new towns initiated by the 1970 T he origins of Rcston , and Ihc Mastcr age. The fullest possible range of Reston. Yet the postwar British new to\VIlS New Communities Act. The Act, Plan housing types and prices is programme was, perhaps, oflhe greatest however, came three years after a major The origins of Reston lay in Simon's• necessary so that Reston can interest to Simon. It was, as he knew, the change in the management of Reston. In reaction to American suburbia, notably include homes and apartments for largest programme of new community 1967, the property development wing of Levitlown, Long Island. This was just one the janitor and the scientist, the planning during the postwar period, one GulfDil, one of the major early investors of the Levino\VIls that were synonymous elderly widow and the young which had attempted, with varying degrees bachelor, the wealthy and the in Reston, bought out Simon and his with the early postwar suburban boom in of success, to attract both employment as Reslon Company, as financial problems the USA. The most famous of the builders poor, the black and the whitc. well as people and homes. Moreover, the threatened to undennine the new to\VIl of those 1950s suburbs, WiIliam S. Levitt, British new towns had applied social experiment. Since then, the town has been has since been \liewed as both the Henry planning principles, notably in the

PLANNING HISTORY YOL. 23 NOS I AN D 2 ' 200 1 * PAGE 30 PLANNING HISTORY YOL. 23 NOS 1 AND 2 * 200 1 ' PAGE 31 neighbourhoods was again apparent. 'in commumties.'1O That m turn, I[ was planning the new towns of Great Britain', Implied, choked off social action from she wrote, 'it has been recognised from the below. outset that the creation of a new In order to prevent this sense of commumty involved fundamental social alienation and its consequences, each of questions: the seven villages in Reston was to be provided with a community centre. But III The community's total population; [hose early days, no permanent building the distribution of its families by was envisaged, and Reston residents Carol R. Lllbill Roberl R. Simoll size, age and other characteristics; would both learn to interact and co­ its subdivision into operate. ' In this way', it was hoped, ' each :ldoption of the neighbourhood unit. yC:lrs of Reston, and may, in turn, be neighbourhoods; the appropriate village would be given the opportunity to Hence, as an article about Simon :lnd appreciated as onc of the few professional size, number and location of solve the problcm in its own way, Reston in The Times (London) S:lW it, women within the largely male-populated schools, churches social halls and qualified only by examples from earlier . 011 Simon was ' learning from the new towns profession of town pl:lnning. About six other community institutions; and segments 0 r t h e proJect. of Bri lain.'s months after Simon's stay in England, the design of town centres - all Yet Simon, Lubin and other Simon visited some of the best­ Lubin visited in Junc 1962. She met with these items and more are examples planners kept more than just a distant eye known postw:lr British new towns during housing officials from the Ministry of of pl:lnning questions in which on proceedings. They both actively November 1961, to discover how well the Housing and Local Government, and she social factors are deeply :lnd encouraged the fOm1:ltion of ne ighbourhood unit principles of town made a number of r:lpid visits to the new directly involved? Homeowners' Associations, viewing them pl:lnning were working in them. Simon towns around London. It is interesting to as collective and panlClp:ltory vehicles for did not just trust his own eyes and ears. note that' British', in this sense, meant the Simon and Lubin had seen for themselves the protection and the enhancement of the He met with D:lme Evelyn Sh:lrpe, Head new towns in the South East of England. the n:lture of social provision in the environment. And the Reston Community of ~I ousing:lt the Ministry of Housing and Her observations on the social life English new towns. They would, in turn, Association, formed in 1967, was intended Local Government (M HLG), with John in the English new tov.rns, and the adapt from what they saw as the to protect the city from the excessive Madge of Political and Economic provision for it, revealed its considerable successful aspects, whilst raising some commercialism of the new owners, Gulf Planning, a think-t:lnk that had undertaken importance within Simon's and Lubin's criticisms of the experiments in the UK. Reston. Lubin, moreover, was Secretary of social studies of new communities, and he vision. llrroughout her visit to the London the Reslon, Virginia Foundation for alsO discussed both his perceptions, and new towns she made notes, and some of Social a nd Community Provision in Community Programmes inc. , a non-profit them it must be said were rather rushed. his own ideas and plans, with members. of, Reslon agency which not only facilitated liaison the new tov.rn development corporallons. At Crawley, Lubin met with a social As one of Reston 's previous historians h:ls between residents and officials, it also This was the groundwork for the development officer who took her around argued, the British experience confirmed promoted and helped to operate cultural, more important phase of social the neighbourhoods. She noted the Lubin's strategy to provide comprehensive education:ll, religious and recreatioml l observation that followed. One of consideT:lble and diverse groups of people social f:lcilities in order to accommodate institutions in Reston. ? This was neither a Simons' earliest appointments was Carol that made extensive use of the temporary thc social needs and collective aspirations laissez-faire :lpproach, nor an officious R. Lubin. She was charged to develop the 'huts' provided for social and recreational of the balanced community intended fo r p:ltcrnalism, but :l process of involved social and community planning of Rest on. meetings. At Harlow, Lubin was Reslon by its planners. Yet while she was monitoring, motivated by a desire to Lubin had considerable and varied particul:lrly impressed with the community impressed with the range ofvolunlary engender rather than to dictate a pattern of professional experience, and had long fac ilities in each neighbourhood unit that associations and b'TOUPS she had witnessed community formation. been sympathetic to the interventionist allowed for a wide range of sociable in Engl:lnd, Lubin had also noticed a A further concern motivated principles of the New Deal of the 1930s. activities, including religious meetings potential tension. Too much 'top-down' Lubin. Although she wanted to avoid Amongst other key positions she had held, 'while waiting for a church to be built.' provision militated against collective self­ official intrusion, Lubin also shared the Lubin had been a researcher and editor for Lubin also visited Stevenage, where she help from below. The experience of long-standing concern of American town the Carnegie Endowment for International applauded the strength of the community Stevenage, notably, had shown that where planners to avoid a perceived rootlessness Peace, a consuilant to the New York City associations there. She was also people did not have community f:lcililies and :ltomism associated with Americ:ln Heailh and Welfare Council, :lnd,just impressed with the arrivals materi als, the provided for them, they set :lbout trying to life in general. and with American prior to joining the Reslon team, she had inform:ltion given to newcomers by social :lchieve them for themselves. Lubin was suburban housing developments in played a leading role in organising Ihe development officers at Stevenage, and thus determined to avoid what she saw as p:lrticul:lr. As Lubin stated in:ln interview Urban Studies Centre at RU lgers she argued strongly that similar types of the ovcr-planning th:lt had occurred in in the New York Times, American families University.l Her reforming liberalism and information materials 'must be used at some of the British new towns. Whilst:l 'want to belong somewhere. It should be Reston. ,. her professional expertise clearly appealed benign official presence was viewed as possible to live a life cycle in one area in In her summary notes, Lubin's to Simon. essential to the new community, too much [his country. oil At a time when many in Lubin was one of the few women emphasis upon the nature and success of of it 'made residents feel they had no part Ihe town planning profession were in Simon's planning team during the early community fac ilities within the in the pl:lnning process in their own questi oning, and even rejecting, the

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS I AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 32 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS I AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 33 locallsmg principles of the neighbourhood Ic\ccommunications. To be sure, this was as werc many satellites of thc nation's mtegratcd morc broadly With metropolitan n UOIt, the planners of Reston appear to have also what occurred in Reston, but the capital, but that middlc-cl:lss Included and town-wide networks. Also, Reston 's almOSI wholly endorsed the concept. notion of community with which Lubin many black professional and busmess development COlllclded wJlh an era of iI was also evident in Lubin's and Simon worked took these wider households. Reston also possessed, growing amuence and occupational thmkmg, however, that Reston's very patterns of American mobility and moreover, a considerable proportion of upward mobility for African Americans, newness - the fresh opportunity though It sociability for granted, and sought 10 housing stock dedicated to low-income onc of whose consequences was the was - ought to resemble the more organic anchor them. households,:l consequence ofSimon and increasing penetration of blacks into characteristics of an older more So, was the social planning of Lubin 's earl y commitment to affordable existing suburban areas, and also to new spontaneously-grown community. This Reston a success? Did the provision of housing there. Many African Americans suburban housing,19 It is probably safest would also help to develop a sense of neighbourhood facilities encourage not lived in the low-income housing. to conclude that in a brand new planned active belonging. Lubin told a social simply an early and informal Carnpbell argues that for blacks, oftcn community such as Reston, filled rapidly planning group at Brandeis University in neighbourliness amongst newcomers, but uneasy when moving into while or largely with incomers, social research and social 1964, thalthe new towns' earliest an active and engaged citizenry? Many white subdivisions, both low-income and planning he lped much more than it inhabitants ought to be able to 'count on sources lestify that it did. In her overview professional African Americans in Reston hindered, and encouraged these positive the familiar institutional framework which of Reston's origins and history, Nan were able to settle down more easily trends within the town. Patrick Gcddes, elsewhere helped to sustain an effective Netherton's description of the first Reston within the mixed and inclusive social who is not mentioned in Simon and 11 community: there should be available resident's as 'pioneers' was apposite: for context of the town. Hence Reston and Lubin's planning materials, would have schools, churches, libraries, community decades, migrants to new housing its people enjoyed a measure of success in approved. meeting places and medical facilities as developments in the USA, turning the this key aspect of social planning, the part of the basic structures of the new empty houses and socially barren ba lanced community. Acknowledgements. I am grateful to the town .. .' 14 The sooner the new town of residential areas into living communilies, Despite these important points, Arts and Humanities Research Board for a Reston provided the institutions of an old had described themselves as pioneers however, qualification is necessary For it research leave award which made possible town, the beller. Adherence to this within the associational culture of the must be noted that in new suburban this article, The research was undertaken principle also ensured that many of the suburban and new town ' frontier',ls housing areas, where community facilities at the Planned Community Archive, leisure, educational, retail and social Perhaps the most enduring legacy of this were often lacking, there was lillle George Mason University, Fai rfax , amenities at Reston were buil! in its collective pioneering spirit was the Reston evidence that such areas became Northern Virginia, during October, 2000. fonnative years, and thaI, in turn, helped Community Association (RCA), formed in pennanently asocial dornlitones, Even the The stalTthere were both fr iendly and very Reston to mature once Gulf Oil took ovcr 1967. Whi lst the Re A could not prevent Levillowns developed pallems of efficient: it is a comfortable and the process of development. Reston becoming 'enGulfed' it sociability. Many such relationships were productive place to work. nonetheless became a successful, self­ local and neighbourly, whilst others were Conclusio n funding forum for raising and influencing It is interesting to notc that by 1967, when city-wide issues, for example affordable NOTES Simon was removed by Gulf Oil, a team housing, health care, transportation, of largely British planners was just education and the problems of unplanned (Please note: all references to pCA plus 2 Peter Mandler, 'Satan in the beginning to putlogether the new town of urbanisation around Reston, 16 box numbers refer to the Planned suburbs', Times Literary Milton Keynes, in North Furthennore, the Planned Community Community Archive, George Mason SlIpplemellt, 8 December, 2000, Buckinghamshire, They a lso looked to the Archive at George Mason University University, Fairfax Campus, Virginia, pp. 3-4; Gcorge Ritzer, 17!e experience of the earlier postwar new contains a rich collection of ass ociationa 1 USA. l11u strations appear by courtesy of McDollaldization o/Society. towns in Britain. But Milton Keynes and community materials for researchers peA) Bevcrly Hill s and London: Sage Development Corporation did not draw into Reston's contemporary social history. Publications 2000, pp. 32·4. Ihe same conclusions as did Lubin and Many of these were generated from the Carlos C. Cmnpbell, New $imon, Influenced in no small part by the 'bottom-up' , Towl/s:Allo,her Way /0 Lil'l!. 3 Robert E. Simon, 'The genesis of ideas of the Californian urban theorist, A second key question was Reston, Virginia: Reston Reston', in The Washington Melvin Webher, the Plan/or Miltoll whether the new city developed a mixed Publishing COlllpany/ Prentice Centre for Metropolitan Studies, KeYlles, published in 1970, is devoid of and broadly representative profi le of Hall, 1976; Tom Grubisch, Peter ReSlOIl: A Study o/Begillnillgs; references to neighbourhood. This was American society emphasised in the McC:mdless and Dan Watt, m.S.; Washington DC: because 'community' was not seen in the Master Plan/or ReSlon , The black writer ReslOIl: The First TwelllY Years. Washington Centre for localising tenns preferred by Lubin and and Reston activist Carlos C. Campbell, in Reston, Virginia: Reslon Metropolitan Studies, 1966, pp. Simon, but as a flexible, nuanced and the mid 1970s, emphasised that Reston Publishing CompanylPrentice - 10 (PCA: Box 186.) constantly moving pattern of fonnal and was indeed a balanced community, more Hall, \985; Nan Netherton, infonnal relationships, and very diverse akin to the general population profile of ReslOn: A New TowlI ill the Old 4 The Reston Virginia Foundation spatiall y. Within this scenario, social Northern America than the more DomilliOIl. Norfolk, Virginia,: for Community Programmes, Inc ., connections would be fac ilitated and exclusionary suburbs. Reston was Donning Publi shers, 1989. Social Planning alld Programs /01' enhanced by motorised transportation and certainly home to a sizeable middle-class,

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS 1 AND 2 ' 2001 ' PAGE 34 PLANNING HIS TORY VOt. 23 NOS t AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 3S Reslon Virginia; March 1967 12 Carol R. Lllbill, (Mrs, !sador (peA: Box 480) Lrlbill}, summary biographical details; m.s., p. 2 (PCA: Box 446) 5 Anon, ' Learnmg from the new towns of Bntain: Reston. 13 Anon, 'Town plan said to aid T urkey's experiment with regional planning, Vr rgima'. Th e Tim es, 17 March, family life ', New York Times, 26 1964. September, \964. 1960 - 1980

6 Carol R. Lubin, 'English contacts 14 Washington Research Centre, on new towns: people RES Jnr. ReS/Oil Repor/, not dated, p. 180; GARY PATTI SON met on his trip, Nov. 1961; memo. (PCA: Box 12) Local Economy Policy Unit (PCA: Box 504) South Bank Univers it y 15 See, for example, Daniel Schaffer 202 WUlldsworth Road 7 ' Who's who in Reston', Th e Gardell Ciliesfor America: The London SW8 2J2 ReS/Oil Letler, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1965 ; Radbum Experience. Emai l: patti [email protected] (PCA: Box I); Carol R. Lllbil/, Philadelphia: Templeton (Mrs. Isador Lllbin). summary University Press, 1982, pp. 169- SO LMAZ TAVSANOGLU biographical details; m.S. (PCA: 88. 50 01ivcr Road, South sea, Box 446) l lants, P04 9BY 16 Netherton, op eit, pp. I 59-90. Tel/Fax: 023 9287 5737 8 Carol R. Lubin, 'Notes on Crawley', 12 June, 1962; 'New 17 Campbell, op eit, p, 31·85. In troduct ion plans were developed to support the towns in Britain (Harlow)', 13 Following this years' spate of public processing of agricultural products. Th is June, 1962; 'Ste va nage' [sic] 14 18 Herbcrt J. Gans, 71re examinat ions surround ing draft regional resulted in a series of state owned industries in June, 1962; memos. (PCA: Box Levillowllers: Ways of Life and planning guidance for the English regions and towns centred on agricultural markets. All 504) Politics ill a New Suburban the long awaited publ icati on of PPG 11 these centres we re connected by the railway Co mmullity. London: Alien Lane, (DETR, 2000a) atten tion has focused on network. This was based on the idea o f 9 Carol. R. Lubin, 'Notes on social The Penguin Press, 1967; Rosalyn re gional governance and planning elsewhere in developing the country as a whole through the planning in the Bri tish new Baxendall and Elizabeth Ewcn. Europe (DETR, 2000b). This article aims to establishment of the growth centres where towns', 25 June, 1964; ms. (PCA: Picture Windows: How the provide a brief outl ine of the Turk ish fac tori es could be located at the heart of Box 504) Suburbs Happened, New York : experi ence of regional planning between 1960 agricultural areas and settlements (Kepcnek, Basic Books, 2000, and 1980. 1983). 10 Netherton, op tit, p. 58. The period between 194 5 and 1960 19 Steph:m and Abigail ThemstTom, Historical Context was marked by the Marsha ll Aid programm e 11 Washington Research Centre, America in Black alld White: Olle The original republican project, in Turkey, and the tran sformation of the Parliamentary ReslOlI Report, p. 166 (peA: Box Natioll, lll(livisible, New Yo rk: from the 19205 onwards was concerned to systcm from a onc party to a multi party 12). Simon and Schuster, 1997, pp, mould together a singular Turkish state and system. Economic policies changed from 204·3 0; Joel Garreau, Edge City: people out of the shattered remnants of the public sector to private sector investmen ts Life all the New Frontier. New country foll owing the independency war. wit h public sector ince ntives (Kepenek, 1983). York: Doubleday, 1991 , pp. 157- Emphasis was on the bui lding of a strong The free market became a major component of 8. centre by relocating the capital from Istanbul economic policy during this pe ri od. It was to Ankara paralleled by the establishment of a marked by the restructurin g, modernisation powerfu l centra lised administrative structure and mechanisati on of agriculture. (Keydcr, 1987). The state claimed itself anti­ Infrastructure investment programmes were imperialist and at the same time it structured shi fted from rai lways to roads and motorway its economic policies on the basis of how and construction. During thi s period planning took where to make its investments in ord er to both on a shon tenn approach and fell very much to uti lised agricultural producti on and create a the flow of the market end ing in a period of Tu rkish capitalist class (Berberoglu, 1982). international borrowing to sup pon the Throughout the 1930s and 1940 state po li cies country's faltering economy (Ke yder, 1987) . were based on public investments. Investment

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 ' 2001 ' PAGE 37

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS 1 AN!} 2 • 2001 • PAGE 36 The politIcal cltmate changed again required to take into its membership scientists Anatohan and Eastcrn Anatoli:m RegIOns as also take mto :lccount the sub regIonal and between 1960 and 1980. A mixed economy and social scientists besides land use planners. underdevelopcd. In Ihe underdeveloped regional context. The problems of urballlsatlon was pursued by an evolvmg SOC1al democratic l 11e main purpose was to establish how and rcglons public sector investment was to be a were not seen as soJv:lble wlthm the state (Kepenek. 1983). This brought planning where public investments could be most prioTlty. In the large city regions where boundartes of the cities themse lves but rather to the heart of the govemment agenda. As a effectively made and private investments populatIon and economic activllY were seen :lS were dependent on much more complex sets of result. the State Planmng Organisation was directed. This covered major public sector over concentrated, Istanbul been given as an rela\lolls WIth theIr hinterlands. While the plan estabhshed to formulate nation:l l economic investment programmes such as education, example, sub centres were to be established III encouraged the developmcnt of large policies that hnked up wIth regional and urban hC:ll th and physical infrastructure provision. order to reduce economic pressures in old core mctropolitan areas it was scen as necessary pohcles. This was to provide a framework for The role of the State Planning Organisation areas. Furthcr economic development was not that urbanisation and economic development regIonal and urban planning (Keles, 1982) was to provide direction and guidance for to be encouraged in core areas. Potential should accompany one another. Indeed investment programmes. It was from this basis development regions were well placed to industrialisation was seen as the driving force that the country's five year plans were develop economic capacity although further for urbanisation. The issue of urbanisation, T he Institutional Context produced and a clear regional perspective investment was seen as necessary to stimulate accepting that it could only be fully explained Prior to 1960. Turkey was already d ivided into developed (Yavuz, et al. 1973) their full economic potentia Is. Unemployment wi thin :l dichotomy ofurbanlrural shift, had to provinces. each with a governor appointed by to a large extent was seen to arise out of be addressed in Ihe context of the country as a the Minister o f the Interior, charged with co­ T he First Fivc Year Dcvelopment Plan, migratory population flows from rural to urban whole. It was therefore deemed necessary to ordin:lting all centr:ll go vernment act ivities 1963-67 :lreas. As a result it was argued that new non take the country as a whole and conslru cl a WI th in the province. Provinces were. and still The firs t fivc year plan emphasised the need to agricultural sectors should be developed in hierarchy of settlements. Although there arc, sub divided into districts each address regional imbalance. The plan engaged rural areas whilst there remained a need 10 existed major mctropolitan areas in the west of administered by a sub governor. The sub with a strong sense of social justice in its aim enh:lnce the employment creating capacity of the country thc thing was to develop regional governor is also appointed by the minister and to address income differentials between industry in the cities (SPO, 1965) centres. These centres clearly had to be located functIona l under the governor of the province different social groups as well as creating a The outcome of the first five year plan :It the hubs of transportation and (Nad:lroglu . 1994). Further to this there exists more equitable distribution of opportunity and was the success ful compilation ofa large communication networks. These regIOnal an elected local govemment tier. Here the wealth between the regions. It also envisaged amount of statistical data on the econom1C and centres would connect with the centres of b:lsic units are the Special Provincial 7% nation:ll economic growth, any growth social structure of each region. The findings other regions and with the country as a whole Administrations', municipalities and village over and above 7% was to be diverted towards were binding on the public sector and wh ilst at the same ti me acting as centres fo r :ldministrations. In parallel with these the under developed regions. Regional indicative of potentia Is for the private sector. regulating their own regions. From the structures city and district mayors hold a planning was seen, by the State Planning No reglonally based organisations were regional centres a hierarchy of settlcments had degree of power. This is especially true of the Office to be the principle tool for achieving established but a clear basis was set for further to be dcvelopcd downwards to sub centres and mayors of the western metropolitan areas balanced economic development. The idea of work in Ihe second plan. Indeed it was in pan sub centres and so on. Each tier was to have a (Heper, 1989). balanced economic development was hinged as a result of the difficulties encountered in different fu nction providing different levels of The State Planning Organisation was on three principles. First, the distribution of implementing the research for the first plan public sector provision. This was particularly established in 1959. It was attached directly to population, resources and economic ac tivities that it was seen necessary to move the second prevalent in health and education provision. In the prime mi nisters' office. Indeed the head of should be proportionate and investment towards a more direct engagement with the smaller towns and citi es light or agricultural the State Planning Organisation functioned as programmes should be focused on creating establishment of a clear regional framework based industry was to be encouraged so as to deputy prime minister with responsibility for balanced growth and income distribution. (Tavsanoglu, 1983 ). providc employment and service provision for industry. It was divided into three Secondly, investments and resources should be surrounding rural areas (SPO. 1968). departments, economic planning, social directed to potcntial economic growth points. T he Second Five Ye:l r Development Pla n The important point was to establish a planning and co-ordination. Further to this the Thirdly higher rates of growth should be 1967·72 relationship between the hierarchy of cities High Planning Council was brought into being encouraged in underdeveloped regions so as The second five year plan reinstated the need and rural areas. Every tier in the urban to check the political and technical consistency they could potcntial1y catch up with more to :l im at balanced economic development hierarchy had to h:lve specific functions and of work produced by the State Planning developed areas o f the country (SPO, 1963). between thc regions. Urbanisation, relations. This would :lll allow for lhe Organisation (Oodd, 1969). These For purposes of physical planning and industrialisation and the modernisation of development of regional centres in under or organisations were operated by groups of implement:ltion, a typology of three different agriculture were seen as core tools in the partiall y developed regions. In order to chosen technocrats. This centralist regional fonns was identifi ed. These were implementation of the strategy. It was develop such regions old style public sector technocratic structure, as implemented from potential growth regions, under developed predicted that agriculture would restructure a s operations such as large hospitals and 1960 onwards, tended to exclude inputs from regions and large city regions. The a result of wider industrialisation processes. universi ties were to be established within the dther the provincial governors, the mayors or categorisation of each region still remained to Industrialisation would in effect have a knock regional centres. In order to attract private any other tier of the local government system. be established, although the plan did provide on effect on agriculture. Urbanisation was seen sector inveslments incentives were provided The State Planning Organisation took examples such as Antalya Region as a as a positive thing, as a driving force for such :lS speeial low interest loans, tax relief a broad multi disciplinary approach. It was potential growth point and the South East economic development. UrbaniS:ltion should and the creation of organised industrial areas

PLANN ING HI STORY VOL.l3 NOS . I AND 2 ' 2001 ' PAGE 38 PLANNI NG HI STORY VO L. 23 NOS. I AND 2 • 200 1 • PAGE 39 wIth comprehensive IIlrrastmcture provIsion. cities or Mersin and Iskenderum were seen as I § 0 ~ Urbanisation and mdustriallsation were seen as centres to be developed in order to relieve over ~ :l. 0 workmg hand III hand III order to create concentration on Adana. ~ ", employment opportunities and so address the ;1 , ~ 6) Aegean Region: in part because or the .§ problem of huge unprovisioned migration ~ ~ , flow s rrom the rural areas (SPO, 1971) dominance of the city of Izmir and in part ~ • • < ~• because of the lack of other cities of suitable E Whcrcver possible both regions and sub ~ ~ •0 ", size and economic pull this region was left • 0 regions were centred on major cities (Figure g • ~ without any sub regional divisions. The city of ~ I). Sevcn regions were established. The > ;: > gcogr:lphic form that this took was: Manisa was to be developed in order to reduce pressure on Izmir. I) Eastern AI/atalian Region: this was divided into three sub regions, Erzumm, Elazig and 7) Marmara Region: because orthe enormous V:ln. The cities or Erzumm and Elazig were to pull of Istanbul the Marmara region was be developed :lS joint region:ll capitals. Two divided into three sub regions but without sub capitals rather than one because or the size or regional centres. The sub regions were the region and the highly di spersed population established on a east, west and south west and settlement pattern. Further to this the cities division. Istanbul stood as the overall regional of Van :lIld M:llatya were identified ror centre. The cities or Izmit, Bursa and development as secondary ccntres Adapazari were to be developed to take pressure ofr Istanbul. 2) Sowh East Allalalian Regia,,: this was split into two sub regions rocused on the cities of Within each region and sub region cities were Diyarb:lkir and Gaziante p because of the located within a hierarchy according to the existing degree of development in these degree and nature of capital investments that centres. they sustained and were capable of attracting. The overall objective was clear, balanced 3) Blacksea Regia//: the capital W:lS growth and stemming migration to the large est:lblished as the city of Samsun, the region centres of population, particularly Ankara, was divided into three sub regions, the central Istanbul and Izmir. In effect this was in part an one focused on Samsun, the Western Blacksea attempt to address the scale of illegal region rocused on Zonguldak and the Eastern settlement, the 'Gecekondu' districts that had Blacksea re gion on Trabzon. swamped these centres (S PO, 1968). Not only had they outstripped the capacity of the state 4) Central AI/aroliall Region: Ankara stood as to provide inrrastructure but by the 1980s such its capital city, taking its existing status as the huge, very often, impoverished and national capital and an established discontented districts were beginning to pose a metropolitan region. Further to this, the region possible threat to political stability. The new was divided into five sub regions, Konya, regions acted as an administrative structure Kayseri, Si vas, Eskisehir and Ankara. through which investments could be focused. The primary aim or such investments 5) The Mediterrallean Region: this region was rocused on several areas. First social divided into two sub regions, one rocused on investments wcrc essential to alleviate the Adana and the other on Antalya. No regional harsher effects of migration into the cities and capital was identified, because Adana, as a mrai depravation. Secondly a need was seen to developed metropolitan city, stood on the invest in transportation and particularly in eastern peripheries of the region and was inter-city road schemes. Although therefore deemed geographically unsuitable. infrastructure resources came from central At the same time Antalya, in the western sub govemment the regional and sub regional city region, was identified as requiring further structures provided a clear framework ror the development. In Adana two sub centre, the prioritising of investment programmes.

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 ' 2001 • PAGE 40 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 · 2001 · PAGE 41 Infra structure also, of course, fornled a (SPO, 1971). Investment also went into IIlveSlments towards these areas (Tekcil. Industry rcmained III the developed baSIS for economIc change through opening up educational facilities including universities in 1979). In reality, Ih ls was not :ldllcved as a regIOns and the western metropolitan areas. new possIbIlitIes for mdustrlailsation, the thIrd accordance with thc same pattern. In some result of contllluous economic and pol illcal Rcgard less of state economIc IIlltlatives obJectIve. Industnahsation was not seen to be regIons research based organis:ltions were instabilIty. From the mid-1970s onwards, the pTlvate capllal rcmamed reluctant to redIrect a solutIOn In Itself. It was also seen as established. Examples were the Cukurova country su ffered serious economic recession Its operations elsewhe rc. In tenns of the necessary to change agricultural practices. Regional Planning Institute in Adana and the and collapse, partly resulting from the state of ovcrall outcome population decline contmued This enhanced the process of modem is at ion Marmara Regional Planning Institute in the world economy and the oil crisis. In the rural areas and m the Eastern and Black and the mechanisation of agriculture Istanbul. The aim was however to collect sea regions. throughout much of the country, although this necessary demographic and economic data The Fo urth Five Year dcvdopmcnl Plan If one lesson can be drawn from the process had started with the Marshall Aid rather than provide social, poli tical or 1978-82 Turkish expcricnce of regionalisatlOn it is dUring the mid-\940s. Thirdly the provision of economic institutional capacity within the The objective of balanced regional surely that serious decentralist policies and services to large numbers of often remote regIOns. development was not to resurface. Within the planning must be endowed with the political settlemcnts throughout Anatolia had always approach to the provinces an attempt was structure 10 fully engage on a regionallcve\. proved difficult. Nodal points were established The T hird Five Year Developmcnt Plan m:lde to establish a hierarchy of scttlcmcnts. The Turkish state could never bring itself to in provincial towns and intermediate sized 1973-77 This focused ostensibly on problems of break from the modcrnist notions on which it settlements through which service provision The problem of uneven regional development, urbanisation, industrialisation and migration was bom out offhe Ottoman empire. Possibly could be channelled (SPO, 1971). Possibly the as perceived in the fi rst and second fi ve year (S pO, 1978). With a growing concern for centralism is something just too culturally most important objective of the regional plans, did not featu re highly in the third plan. problems of political ;:lIld economic instability, enshrined in the political culture of Turkey, structure was that it could aim to regulate The emphasis was to switch fu ll y to especially sUITounding the military take over something passed down from the Ottomans or industrial investments by encouraging inward urbanisation and industrialisation. The in 1980, litt le space was left for a rc­ even Byzantium. Maybe the fear of ethnic and investments beyond Ankara, Istanbul and principles for urbanisation were set against the emergence regional development policies. geographic decentralisation still dominates the IZmir, and so reducing migratory flows of functional hierarchy set out in the second five With the mIlitary regime the unity ofthc state skyline m the fonn of the struggle against populatIon. This led to what were often to be year plan. A major objective was to prevent became central to the policy agenda separatism in the South East. This may all seen as ambitious schemes, sometimes based population growth outstripping employment (Tavsanoglu, 1983). As the 1980s progressed seem a long way from the staning point in on non orthodox economic structures, such as provision. As part of this process the plan Nco liberal economic regimes forced any Britain today, but it is only now after limited agricultural co-operatives, to kick stan the restated the necessity of developing planned thought of state intervention at a regional level experiments WIth regIonal govemance in economies of cities remote from centres of industrial areas around major towns and cities. further into the background. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, after power. This was especially true of some of the The whole issue was hinged on employment the production of all but one of the draft cities in the east and south east regions. provision, migration and demographic change. Conclusions regional planning guidance documents, after Furthcr to this economic policy also aimed to Urban isation, it was argued, should always be Reg ional development in Turkey was the Economic strategies of those Regional establish organised industrial estates based on industrial development. No clear dependent on the successful operations of the Developmcnt Agencies, that these English throughout the country. This allowed fo r the relationship ex isted between ind ustrialisation central government. The new emphasis on Regions furthe r removed from the centre are relocation of many industries to new purpose and urbanisation in the development of urban cities the 1980s also saw the evolution of beginning to crave for greater autonomy. The built edge of town locations. The location of arcas. The plan saw this as a major problem. relatively powerful metropolitan and district Issue is political, Turkey'S regionalism failed, industry in city ccnlres was lo ng since As a result, its policy objectives shifted from mayor's but this still amounted to vcry li ttle in at least in parI , bccause there was never any identified as problematic in the complex rcgional based, balanced development towards terms of the devolution of political power at a serious concem given to the issue of political mcdieval street structures of cities like provincial based economic and social regionallcvel (I-I eper, 1989). Throughout the accountability at the regionalleve1. Simple Istanbul (Gocer, 1977). development. In order to address Ihe above 1970s and 80s investments were made in though the point is, in th is may lie a lesson for Priority was givcn to channelling concerns policy emphasised priori ty physical in frastructure. the English regions. investments towards the cities of the Eastern development areas and provincial plans rather The transportation system, in temlS of Anatolian and Blacksea regions, Erzurum, than regions (SPO, 1973). The Regional improving road connections bct\veen regional Elazig and Samsun were seen to be priority Research Institutes, established during the and sub regional centres, dramatically cases. Secondly a need was seen to invest in period of the second plan, were dismantled improved. 111is did not have a great effect on the large metropolitan areas rapidly evolving during this period as a result of the change in local economies however. Much oflhe into multi focal conurbations. These were emphasis from regions to provinces. This was investmcnt simply failed to create the desired principall y seen as Istanbul to Bursa, Izmir to a major scaling down of the process as the dynamic necessary for rapid industrial Mani sa and Adana, Mersin, Iskenderun. provinces were more akin to the county developmcnt and certainly for the attraction of Thirdly resources were to be invested in structure in the United Kingdom. Priority inward investments (Keles, 1982). secondary centres, namely, Antalya, development areas were established in the Diyarbakir, Eskisehir, Gaziantep, Kayseri, underdeveloped parts of the country with the Konya, Malatya, Sivas, Trabzon and Van objective of regulating public sector

PLANNING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 * 200 1 * PAGE 42 PLANNING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 43 REFERE NCES

Berberoglu, B., Tllrkey ill Crisis: From State Nadaroglu. H .. Malml/i Idareler, Capitalislll 10 Neo-co/onialislll. Istanbul:Beta, 1994 London:Zed, 1982 SPO (State Planning Office-Devlet Planlama Through the Louvres: post world war IJ planning DETR, Plmmillg Policy Gllidance NOle 11 Teskilati, hereafter SPO», Biri"ci Bes Regiollal Plal/ning. London: The yillik Kalkinllla Plani (/963-1967). and architecture for Fannie Bay in Tropical Stationery Office, 2000a Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 196] Northern Australia DETR, Regional Government in England: A SPO Yllrt Dllzeyillde Kafkillma. Ankara: Preliminary Review of Literature and Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1965 Research Findings, London: The SPO lkinci Bes yillik Kalkinma Plan; (/968- Stationary Office, 2000b. EVE GIBSON 1972), Ankara: Devlet Planlama Northern Territory University Dodd, C. H., Politics alld Govemmelll ill Tcskilati, 1968 Au stralia Turkey, Manchester: Manchester Email: [email protected] University Press, 1969 SPO Bo/gesel Gelisme. Sehirlesme ve Yerlesme Sonll1lari 011 Raporu, Ankara: The city of Darwin in the Northern Territory his to ry of the Northern Territory. In Gocer, 0., Vlke Plan/allla Ctdismalari lcilllfe Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1971 is unique on the continent of Australia in researching the 1997 publication Bag-huts. Ge/isme Aks lari. Sehirsel Ge/isme that it is the only capital to have suffered Bombs and Bureaucrats: A History of/he Merke=feri I/kderi ve Turkiye icil/ Bir SPO VCIIII Clt Bes yillik Kalkil/ma Plani (/973- direct bombing attacks during World War 11 . Impact of Town Plal/lling alld Compulsory model Ollerisi, Istanbul: Istanbul Tekll1k 1977). Ankara: Devlet Planlama After the war the Australian Commonwealth Land Acqllisitioll for the TowlJ alld People Universitesi Yayini, 1977 Teskilati , 1977 Government faced the task of re-building the of Danvill 1937-1950. it was necessary to SPO Dordlll/CIl Bes yillik Kalkillma Plani destroyed CIty. As part of the post-war rely almost exclusively on archIval material. Heper. M. (ed), Local GO\'emmelll in TlIrkey, reconstruction ne w suburbs were developed (1978-1987), Ankara: Devlet Planlama As implied in the ti tle, much of the work is London: Routledge, 1989 which, while they adopted the best practices dedicated to the social and political issues Teskilati , 1978 of modern town planning of the time wi th related to planning, rather than a technical Keles, R., 'Turkiye'de bolgelerarasi regards to lay-out, featured a distinctively analysis of the plans in the context of the dengesizlikler', in VII. lskall ve Sehircifjk Tavsanoglu. S., Turkiye'de Nufus Artisi ve different style of architecture. The elevated modem planning movement. An outline of Kentsel Nufus Gelisme/erillin Haftas j KOllferallsiari. Ankara: Ankara and louvred houses, known as 'government the five to\\'11 plans researched for the book, Universi tesi, Siyasal bilgiler Fakultesi, Degerlelldirilmesi (/935-1980), MA greys', were designed to maximi se air-now 'A Planner's dream - A Citizen 's sehircilik Enstitusu Yayini, 1965. Thesis, Yildiz University, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Istanbul and comfort in Darwin's tropical climate. Nightmare: Town planning for the tropical One of the earliest suburbs built was Fannie town of Danvin 19]0-1950' was published Keles, R. , 'Turkiye'de kentlesme ve kentsel Bay. It survived, relatively unaffected, a Tekcli, I. , Mekall Organizasyolluna Macro in Australiall Plal/ller Vol 35. No 4, 1998. gelisme politikalari', in Tllrkiye'de 1974 cyclone that destroyed or severely KClltleslllc, Ankara: Turk Sosyal Bilimler Yaklasim Tllrkiye Uzerine Bir Delleme, Ankara: Orta Dogu Telmik Universitesi damaged over 70% of the buildings in 1)lanning .and problems 1940- 1950 Demegi Yayini, 1982 Darwin. However, since the mid-1990s the Yayini, 1979 That Fannie Bay, five kilometres north of pressure of high-density development has Danvin and lying just outside of the town Kepenek, Y., Tllrkiye Ekol10lllisi, Ankara: Yurt brought about changes that have affected Yavuz, F., Keles. R. and Geray, C., Sellircilik: boundary, should be developed as a Yayinlari, 198] both the stability of the community, and the Sorulllar. Uyglllama ve Politika. Ankara: residential suburb was recommended in the Ankara Universitesi, Siyasal Bilgiler tropical ambience of the suburb. 1940 Danvin town plan, submitted by Keyder, c., State alld Class ill Tllrkey: A Study Historians and architects have written Fakultesi yayini, 197] Bri sbane Town Planner R.A. Mclnnis. A ill Capitalist Development, extensively on the subject of the unique pioneer of the modem town planning London:Verso, 1987 tTopi cal housing designs that evolved in movement in Australia (Petrof 1996: 4]·52), northern Australia . Of particular value in Mclnnis was the only professional town relation to post-WWII housing are the planner to prepare town plans for Dan\-In. In detai led architectural drawings included in \944 he submitted a second plan that took the 199] ' Darwin Central Area Heritage into account wartime damage. Government Study" , compiled by architect Adrian Welke architects drew up the 19]7 and 1946 and historian Helen Wilson. This interest Danvin town plans, and three army officers, has not extended to include the planning one an architect in civil ian tife, prepared the PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 ' 2001 • PAGE 44 PLANN ING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AND 2 • 200 1 • PAGE 4S 1943 plan. WhIle both the Darwm town Palmerston) in 1869 when, prior to plans submitted by Mclnnis were rejected, settlement, most or the town blocks had The only major bUIld ings in the area and Northern Tem tory AIr ServIces, later the 1943 and 1946 plans incorporated, to the been sold by the rounding colony of South in 1911 were the Fannie Bay Gaol, and a known as simply QANTAS, upgraded the pomt of plagiarism (Gibson 1997: 38, 50- Austra lia to Australian and British land complex ofrailway yards and workshops, aerodrome to facilitate international 54), many of the detailed recommendations speculators (Gibson 2000b: 201 ·203). When both built in the 1880s. In 1914 the British commercial fli ghts. During the war years, an on issues such as zoning, neighbourhood the Australian Commonwealth took over company Vesley Brothers acquired over additional runway and a series of taxi ways units and housing styles, made by McJnnis administration orthe Northern Territory in eighty lots at Fannie Bay (DLPE 1999: 2-3- and aircrafi hold ing areas we re built for in hi s 1940 submission. 1911, it continued the practice or handing IO· II) ror the construction or a meat-works. derence purposes. A major impediment facing Mclnnis over large tracts or land to overseas The meat-works operated only two rull In his 1944 Darwin town plan m relation to any comprehensive post-war investors. This included land at Fannie Bay, seasons, 1918· 1919, be rore closing ror good Mclnnis reiterated his view that Fannie Bay town planning ror Darwin was the land held which had been surveyed and divi ded into in 1925. Vestey's, however, retained the should be developed as a residential suburb . by absentee owners. The problem stemmed lots in the la te 1870s. (Fig. I) land, including Ihe entire headland or Hc recommended the removal orthe Civil rrom the settlement or Darwi n (then called Bu llocky Point and most of the best Aerodrome to the ne3rby Royal Australian w3terrront lots. AIr Force (RAAF) Base, and the demolition Fig. I: cJ900 map based 0 11 original 1881 sun 'ey map o/Foll l1ie Bay A second im pediment to any post­ or both the Fannie Bay Gaol3nd the Vestey W3r development or F3nnie Bay W3S the meat-works, to make way ror residential D3rwin Civil Aerodrome. In 1919 the first development that could house rrom I1 000 ai rcraft to make the journey rrom England to to 20 000 people. Mclnnis included a plan Austraha landed on an 3irstrip cle3red at ro r the new suburb, m which he incorporated EllSl pl Fannie B3Y. The early aviators were the exi stmg aerodrome runways as major 421 rollowed by the pioneers or commerCial roads (Mc lnnis et. al ., 1944: 33-34) (Gibson aviation. In the mid-1930s the Queensl3nd 1997: 44-45). (FIg. 2)

Fig 2: The 1944 R. A. Mcbmis Plan/or posMar derelopmel1l 0/ Fwmie Bay , ...... , .. , .. .,.,., ,.. ••OI'OUO .t~ 'Ol . T\A, MU. PA!ltAP

G aol~W

FANNIE BAY ' ..

BuJlocky pl

PLANN ING HISTORY VO L. 23 NOS. I AN D 2 · 2001 • PAGE 46 PLANN ING HI STORY VO L. 23 NOS. I AN D 2 '" 2001 '" PAG E 47 At the federal election held in Darwin town boundary was extended to December 1949, the sitting Australian Labor include the proposed new suburbs of Fannre On 16 August 1945, the Australian 49). The appointment of the hybrid Party lost offiee to a Liberal-Country Party Bay and Paraparap, also known as simply Commonwealth Government resolved the committee marked the end of immediate coalition. This marked the end of the Parap (Fig. 4). A simplified plan was drawn land ownership issue by the passing of the planning and reconstruction. Much of the bureaucratic experiment in town planning. up that incorporated the existing Darwin Lallds Acqllisitioll Bill. Under the funding was squandered on a grandiose The new Commonwealth Govemment infrastructure and runways. Streets were bill the Commonwealth compulsorily Darwin town plan that would, according to a showed little interest in elaborate planning named to commemorate notable aviators and acquired all freehold land in the Darwin 1947 press release, totally transform schemes. The Darwin town plan was aircraft. Rather than re-planning, the area. While land acquisition caused great Darwin: scrapped, and the building and tenancy existing WWII aircraft hard-standing layout distress to war-time evacuees waiting to restrictions imposed since 1946 were lifted was designated as an official road system. return to their homes in Darwin, it did serve Town planners have been given a (Gibson 1997: 58-59). The change in Lots in this area of north Fannie Bay were to free up land that had lain empty for years. free hand to create a town government had an immediate effect on auctioned on 10 June 1950. On IS May 1947 the last thirty-seven of the embodying the best-known Fannie Bay. On 19 January 1950 the Vestey blocks at Fannie Bay were acquired principles of tropical design and by the Commonwealth (DLPE 1999: 2-3). layout. The Darwin for tomorrow Fig 4: 1959 map showing plall adopted for new post WW2 suburbs of Fannie Bay alld By that time the relocation of the Darwin will be Australia's best example of Paraparap Civil Aerodrome to the RAAF Base was enlightened town planning undenvay. (O'Loughlin 1947: 6). Had the 1944 Mclnnis Oanvin town plan been implemented, the post-war The fine rhetoric was not matched by residential development of Fannie Bay could progress. While an overall drawing of the have commenced immediately. That this did new town plan was produced in \946 (Fig. not happen was due to fri ction between 3), which showed that it was intended to government ministers as to which create an elaborate lay-out of curved roads department would administer the and cui-dc-sacs for the residential area of re construction of Darwin. The compromise Zone 8 - Fannie Bay, detailed plan sections reached was the formation of an were never forwarded to Darwin (Gibson interdepartmental committee (Gibson 1997: 1997, 54-56).

Fig 3: The 1946 Plan for rhe Fallllie Bay area BA Y

PLANNING HI STORY VOL 23 NOS. 1 AN D 2 * 200 1 * PAGE 48 PLANN ING HISTORY VOL 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 49 with casement wmdows, and built to a of southern stylism ... The angular I'ost WWII housing :lIId the evolutio n of wooden frame of a bui lding on raised square or L shape desib'fl, these included the columns, slender steelwork and, 'government greys'. wooden posts, with a piece of flat iron 'A' 'G' and ' M' series of houses, and were IIltemaliy, a unique multI-colour While private building in Darwin escalated between the post and the building. Over commonly two-bedroom dwellings. Later, scheme which was generally In the early 1950s, the construction of public time, the housing style that developed was new designs with at least three bed-rooms fashionable elsewhere, were sector housing was slow. This changed with set high on concrete, and later steel, pillars. were created to fulfill the demand for quality incorporated for the first time in this the opening in 1954 of the Rum Jungle From the turn of the century to the public service housing, and the larger series (Welkes & Wilson, 1993: Uranium Plant near Darwin. At the official 1930s the common design for tropical families of the post-war 'baby boom. (Keys xlv). opening of the plant the Australian Prime housing in Darwin was high-set, and 1997: 30) Using metal and glass, rather than Minister stated Ihat ' Darwin would become featu red wide verandahs. A building asbestos louvres and increasingly sleel While some of the government houses built a showplace for Australia'. (Barter 1991: ordinance of 1915, based on a South rather than concrete pillars, designs were in the early 1950s in Fannie Bay were to the 19) The Commonwealth Government Australian Health Act of 1898, stipulated reduced to a si mple linear plan with banks of immediate post-war designs, the majority of allocated over five million pounds for a that all residential buildings should be louvres on outside and internal partition housing from the mid-1950s comprised the three-year development plan for Darwin. provided with verandahs at least 8 feet in walls. (Welke & Wilson 1993: xlv). The three bedroom ' 0 ' series and the later 'C' The uranium boom underwrote the width along the whole length of two sides of firs t series of houses to wholly embrace series. (Keys 1997: 32) All houses were, as considerable urban development of Darwin the building (Welke & Wilson 1993: xxxiii). these principles was the ' 0 ' series (01 to far as possible, aligned north/south and had and the economic growth of the Northern Between 1897 and 1937 the verandah 05), eaves more than a metre wide to minimise Territory during the 1950s and 1960s (Barter ' ... had become the primary living space of the impact of direct sunlight. Externally, 1991 : 25). Between 1955 and 1959 an the house. The 'internal' rooms of the Typically all elevated (except the with unpainted asbestos cement, or ' fibro' estimated 500 houses, most of them conventional square plan form were 03 which incorporated a ground walls, the houses were rather austere, and government funded, were built in Fannie becoming ancillary to the outside living level living area), these buildings became known as 'government greys' Bay. (Sardone 1959: 6) The type of housing mode' (Welke & Wilson 1993: xxxiii). provided Darwin with a its first taste (Welke & Wilson 1993: xlv). favoured by the Commonwealth Department In the late 1930s the principal government of Works and Housing was elevated, and architect in Darwin, Asian born and trained Fig 5: A typical J950s 'gol'erlllllelll grey' ill FOllllie Bay (Courtesy Northerll Territory Library. louvred, a style that had evolved over many B.C.G. Bumen (Gibson 1992: 23-25), Northem Australia) years in response to local and climatic designed a series of houses that marked a conditions. Darwin, which lies in the radical departure from prcvious tropical tropical 'Top End ' of the Northern Territory, housing styles in the Northern Territory. has only two seasons. The Dry season from Most of his Darwin houses were elevated, April 10 October has clear, sunny days with and all featured external and internal banks an average daily temperature of 30C. During oflouvres to allow for airflow through the The Wet, known in other regions as the entire housc. While he flouted the rules monsoon season, all the annual rainfall takes regarding the inclusion of verandahs, by the place. Torrential rain and cyclones, incorporation of banks of asbestos louvres temperatures around 34C and high humidity on outside walls 'Bumen had turned the are common at this time. In such a climate entire house into one big verandah' (Welke elevated houses serve the practical purpose & Wilson 1993: xl). R.A. Melnnis, who had of keeping living areas above stonn water criticised the excessive size of Darwin town and possible flooding, and catch more blocks in his 1940 submission, approved of cooling breezes than ground-level homes. the Bumett designs as, taking up less room Another factor in the evolution of than the older housing styles, lhey would elevated housing in tropical north Australia allow for smaller block sizes (Mclnnis 1940: was the problem of wood-eating tennites, 35). commonly known as white ants. The In the immediate post.WWIl period, discovery that buildings, unless they were the housing styles developed by the built of solid stone, had to be elevated was Department of Works and Housing made soon after settlement. The early incorporated many of the Burnen design solution to the problem was to place the initiatives. Featuring banks of louvres inset

PLANNING HISTORY YOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE 50 PLANNING HI STORY YOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE 51 T he impact of the 1990s dc\'clopmcnl Original , condition. (Keys 1997: 32) It IS An architect with the Department of owned, were damaged beyond repair. (Cities boom on Fann ie Bay poSS Ible that the new high-density Works and Housing in 1971 summarised the Commission 1975: 44-45) Why so many of In 1978 the Commonwealth granted the development may, as has been the case in advantages of the elevated and louvered the homes in older post-war suburbs Northern Territory self-government. The north Fannie Bay, prove a disaster for Ihe housing designs used for post-war survived is unclear, although superior Liberal-Country Party in power since that establi shed local community. government housing in Darwin: construction may have been a factor. In time has, in line with global developments The problems Slem from the mass­ many of the newer houses ' roof and wall since the I 970s, moved steadily away from produced housing designs in such Of the designs that have been used cladding were used for bracing, more direct provision of public housing in favour developments. The houses have all the so far, probably the most typical of orthodox and expensive bracing having of private sector devclopment, much of it disadvantages of the 'Tracey trauma' Darwin is a long house essentially apparently fallen into disuse.' (Darwin speCUlative and for rcntal purposes (Gibson housing of the late 1970s, without the onc room wide, for maximum Reconstruction Commission 1975: 24) The 2000a: 4-5). Fannic Bay has, due to the compensation of block size allowing for ventilation. At one end is the main increasingly li near design of the newer efforts of several st rong and vocal residents' greenery and open space. The closely bedroom. occupying the width of styles may also have been partially action groups over the years, remained free packed, mainly ground-level homes are the house. Adjoining it is a line of responsible. 'They were often poorly built of the high-rise apartment blocks that blight often Hulc more than brick boxes, with a bedrooms opening onto a and they were difficult to brace effectively othcr older foreshore suburbs of Darwin. semblance of individuality provided by way hallway ... louvres along both sides as they generall y lacked expanses of wall This is not the case with high-density of ornate facades replicating the architecture of the house run practically from except at the gable ends' (Carment 1996: housing, which has severely impacted on the of other eras and countrics, such as 'Tuscan' floor to ceiling. The smaller 86). area during the 1990s. In a 1998 review of or ' Federation'. With liule garden space, and bedrooms also have louvres in their -me reaction of government and the Northern Territory planning process il no sizable pubhc recreation areas, a hallway walls. This allows a breeze architects in the post-Cyclone Tracy era was was noted that: di sturbing feature of these precincts of to blow clear through the house to adopt a bunker mentality with regards to ' Barbie 0011 ' houses as thcy age is the when the louvres are open. In the housing. The 'Tracy trauma' houses built in The zoning of large areas such as number of chIldren playing in the streets. wet, when a sudden storm comes, the immediate post-cyclone era were north Fannie Bay with a blanket R2 The blunt opinion of many long-term outside wall louvres can be quickly ground-level, constructed ofmasoruy and Zone without real population Darwin bui lders spoken to is that such closed to keep out the rain. ('A pre-cast concrete, with small windows rather density controls has proved a developments, many poorly built due to the House .. .' 1971: 20) than banks of louvres (Harris & Welkes disaster for the local self-regulation of standards in the 1982: 18). The designs proved unpopular communities ... Without effective construction industry since the early 1990s, During the 1960s housing construction with Darwin residents. The ground level population density control such have the potential to degenerate into 'the accelerated to keep pace with growing houses did not catch the prevailing breezes, zones become saturated with higher slums of tomorrow , . demand. The Darwin population which had the masonry construction acted like a density developments, the servicing What the future holds for Fannie stood at 5 208 in 1947, more than doubled to storage heater and, without air-conditioning, infrastructure eventually becomes Bay is unclear. The Darwin construction 10807 by 1957 - and reached 46 656 in the houses were extremely uncomfortable totally inadequate and the local 'boom' of the 1990s entered a steep 'bust' 1974. By that time there were nearly a dozen (Cannent 1996: 89). community becomes disillusioned cycle in early 2000. Despite this collapse new northern suburbs completed or in the In thc wake of the 1974 cyclone, with the planning process. (James and statistics that have shown high vacancy planning stage (Gibson 1997: 57). As in the with rigid new building standards in place, 1998, 23) rates and a decline in the population of older Darwin suburbs, the housing style the governmcnt sold off much of the Darwin in recent years, the demand by adopted by the Commonwealth for public elevated public housing. In Fannie Bay in Despite Ihis warning, approval has since developers and speculators for land in prime service housing in the northern suburbs was the late 1970s the closure of both the Fannie been given for the construction of a 'gated areas such as Fannie Bay has continued. It elevated and louvred. This remained the Bay Gaol and the railway yards freed up precinct' of houses on the site of the old can only be hoped that any future most common form of government housing more public housing for private purchase. railway yards. The plan for the project developmcnt does not destroy the integrity up until Christmas Eve 1974, when Cyclone Since then the suburb has consolidated its shows that many of the 133 blocks arc half of the surviving precincts of 1950s elevated Tracy destroyed over 70% of buildings in position as one of Darv.rin 's most prestigious the size of the blocks in the adjoining and louvred housing. or the unique character Darwin. The new northern suburbs bore the suburbs. Most of the 1950s houses have residential area, an area identified as being and tropical ambience ofDarwin's premier brunt of the cyclone, with only 2% of been extensively renovated. An interesting outstanding in the number of 19S0s post-WWII suburb. housing remaining intact. (Cities aspect of the renovations with regards to 'government greys' in original, or near 10 Commission. 1975: 55) public choice is that, in a return to the pre- Older suburbs did not suffer the 1930s housing styles, almost invariably a same devastation. In Fannie Bay only 348 verandah has been added. houses out of I 069, most of them privately

I'LANNING HISTORY YOL 23 NOS. I AND 2 ' 2001 • PAGE 52 PLAN NING HISTORY VOL 23 NOS. I AND 2' 2001 • PAGE 53 MclnnlS R.A, Mlllar A. R.& Symons I-I.J ., Planning His/ory/Urban History REFERENCES 1944, The Pos/-War Planning Scheme for Conference, Melbollme, 11-J4 December, the Town ofDarwin , AANT CRS E113 1. Monash UniverSIty, Melbourne. 43-52 • AANT - Austra lian Archives of the Gibson E, 1997, Bag- /lU/s, Bombs Qnd Copy & ha nd-written draft . Sardone L, 1959, 'Salute 10 Darwin Northern Territory Bureaucra/s: A history of the Impact of Airport', North Australia MOllthly, AANT CRS E113 1/2, R.A. Mcinnis papers, Town Planning alld Land Acquisition on the O'Loughli n J, 1947, Release by Department December. 6 his 1940 and \944 Darwin town plans and Town and People of Danvin 1937-1950, of Works and Housing. AANT CRS FI only known surviving typescripts of the 1937 Historical Society of the Northern Territory, 66/4454 Welke A & Wilson H, 1993, Danvi IJ and 1943 Darwin town plans. Darwin. Cell/ral Area Heri/age Study: A report to the Petrof S, 1996, 'Plann ing Pioneer: R. A. Conservation Commission of the Northern ' A 1·louse Built for the Tropics, 1971, Gibson E, 1998,' A Planner's Dream - A Mclnnis and Town Plann ing in Queensland terrilolY throllgh the NlIIional Trust of Northem TerritoryAJJairs, Vol. 2, January, Citizen's Nightmare: Town Planning for the and Tasmania 1922-1956', in T. Dingle (ed.) Australia (NT), Darwin. Department of the Interior, Canberra. 19-20 Tropical Town of Darwin 1930-1950, The Australian Ci/y - Future/Past: (Author not named) Aus/ralian Planner, Vol 35 No 4. \92- 196. Proceedings of/he ThiNt Australiall

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Gibson E, 2000a, 'Development - or 20003, Regional Populatioll Growth, Displacement?: The soci al and economic Aus/ratia, 1998-1999, effects of development since the 1970s', http://www. lpe.nt.gov.auldeve IIplanninglrap Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra i/default.htm , Planning in the Hoth ouse, Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), RAP I 27th National Congress 19-22 2000b, Building Approvals, September 1999, Darwin. http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausslats/ AB Gibson E,2000b, 'Planning in Chains: The Barter, L., 1991, 'The 1950s Uranium Boom effect of speculation on planning ideals in in the Northern Territory', Journal of Darwin 1869-2000', in Gamaut C & NOr/hem Territory History, No. 2, Darwin. Hamnett S, (eds.) Fiji" Australian Urban 19-26 History/Planning History Conference Proceedings" Adelaide, J3 -15 April 2000, Carment, D., 1996, Looking at Danvin 's University of South Australia, Adelaide. Past: Material EvidelJce of EuropeQ /I 201 -211 SelllemelJl in Tropical Australia, The Australian National University North Harris P & Welkes A, 1982, Punkahs and Australia Research Unit, Darwin. Pith Helmets: Good Principles of Tropical HOllse Design, Troppo Architects, Darwin. Ci ties Commi ssion, 1975, Danvill Planlling James E, 1998, A Review of th e Elements of Guidelines: A secolld report for theflllUre the PlalJ lJillg Process which Resultfrom the Danl'in prepared 011 behalf of the Northern Operation of The Planning Act 1993, Territory for the Darwin RecollStructioll Northem Territory Governmelll, Danvin. Commissioll, Canberra. Keys $, 1997, 'Govemment Greys: Housing for Public Servants in Darwin 1951 to Darwi n Reconstruction Commission, 1975, ' 1960', Journal of Northern Territory 1st Annual Report to 30 June 1975', History, No. 8, Darwin. 27-33 Melbourne. Mclnnis R.A., 1940, A Town Planning Department of Lands, Planning and Scheme/or the Town of Danvin, Northern Environment (DLPE), 1999, Territory ofAustral ia AANT CRS EI131 & T:\NATITLE\TENURE DATABASE, typescript held in the Northern Territory Darwin Library, Darwin.

PLANNING HISTORY VOL.l3 NOS. I AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE 54 PLANNI NG HISTORY VO L. 23 NOS. I AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE SS development. However, the garden city pcnmt a rehearsal of what has become a was not planned to the expectation that fam iliar story.6 The Garden City Company employers would provide much, if any. was under capi talised and millal Housing the workers in the first garden city housing for their own workers. Nor could development was slow to gather the FGC look to conventional private momentum. By 1905 there were only 205 landlords or the local authority for houses occupied or under construction, PETER MALPASS assistance. The launch of FGC co-incided although the industrial areas were more Professor of Housing Policy with the start of a prolonged national success ful . 1 There were attempts to Faculty of the Built Environment downturn in the building of new private stimulate interest in workers' housing in University of the West of England rented housing for the working class, and the fonn of competitions promoting cheap Bristol in the absence of state subsidies council cottages, the first in 1905 and the second 85161QY housing had not yet become established two years later. These were good for email: [email protected] on a large scale, especially in rural areas. Letehworth in that they attracted Unti l 1919 Letchworth fell under Hitchin widespread publicity, but they also met Rural District Council, which had neither with sharp criticism, notably from Introduction At the start of the twentieth the resources not the inclination to Raymond Un win. who deplored the Letchworth Garden City occupies a century the building of an entirely new undertake house building (in fact the RDC standard of some of the entries. unique position in the history of British city on largely undeveloped and thinly built just 4 houses in Letchworth before planning. Muc h has been written about the populated farmland was a heroic the outbreak of the War in 1914 1). Jf the Garden City stands for attempt to turn Ebenezer Howard's vision undertaking. Central to the success of the Before 1914 various non­ anything, surely it stands for this:­ into reality, and the parts played by the project launched at Letchworth by First municipal housing organisations had more a decent home and garden for key actors involved in the development of Garden City Lld (FGC) in 1903 was the impetus and dynamism thttn local every family that comes here. the town.! In addition to the land use and idea that al l the land in the garden city authorities, but after 1919 the situation That is the irredUCible minimum. design themes that have tended to be would be owned in perpetuity by the was reversed. The purpose of this article, Let that go and we fail utterly.1 given more attention in the existing development company, which would lease therefore, is to look at the role of non­ planning hi story literature, Letchworth sites to individuals and businesses. The municipal housing societies in Letchworth Vnwin was, along with his partner Barry also provides an interesting and particular company would pay only 5 per cent to before and after the war of 1914-18, Parker, the architect of the overall to""'I1 context within which 10 examine share holders and invest any remaining focusi ng in particular on the example of plan, as well as the designer of some early important wider questions about the surplus for the benefit of the community the Howard Cottage Society (HCS). This housi ng schemes in Letchworth before his provision of workers' housing before and as a whole. In principle this approach, was the main provider of working class departure for London in 1906. However, after the First World War. One of the key effectively suspending or limiting the housing in the garden city before the War, Parker remained as consultant to FGC questions thrown up by the development impact of market forces, aJlowed both the but then built virtually nothing for twenty until 1943, and the influence of the two of urban-industrial society in nineteenth regulation of land use and the breaking of years, between 1916 and the mid-1930s. architects remains clearly evident today. century England was whether it was the iron link between poverty and poor Archive research at the Howard Cottage One important contribution towards possible to provide decent housing at an housing. By controlling the price of leases Society casts new light on the organisation finding a solution to the problem of affordable rent, within easy reach of the and the design of houses the company of housing provision at that crucial time in quality with affordabili ty was the decision workplace. In London, which then had the could, again in princ iple, make progress the development of housing policy in by the Garden City Company to provide higheslland prices in the world, this on the quality and affordability aspects of Britain. The article shows how the cheap land on 99 year leases. However, problem was tackled by a number of the housing problem. The remaining issue, provision of workers' housing was this still left the question of who would be charitable trusts and model dwellings of course, was quant ity: \Yho was going to organised and financed before the War, will ing to raise the capital necessary to companies1, They sought to resolve the build the houses that were needed in the and confronts the question as to why HCS build the houses themselves. land price problem by resorting to high new town, and how would they raise the and other similar organisations stopped There was a certain amount of rise and high density, typically in large necessary capital? bui lding after 1918. even though there direct investment by individuals in the blocks of tenement dwellings. Model A supply of affordable working was a severe national housing shortage provision of rental housing for the dwellings were not a great success, class housing was fundamental to the and a generous Exchequer subsidy for working class, but the bulk of building new building. socially, economically and aesthetically, 1 success of the project. The town would before 1919 was carried out by four and they probably helped the growth of not succeed unless it eould attract organisations. First in the field was a co­ support for Ebenezer Howard's alternative employers to move there or to start up Early Housing Development at partnership society, Garden City Tenants utopian vision of the garden city in which new enterprises, and in the absence of an Letchworth Ltd, which was fonned in 1904Q and the workers would live in leafy, heallhy, existing pool of labour in the area, a ready The broader background to the rapidly built 300 houses to designs by low density developments and yet sti1l supply of houses was virtually a pre­ establishment of the Garden City has been Unwin . The co-partnership societies were walk to work. • requisite for growth and economic written up by others and space does not an idea that emerged in the late 1880s as a

PLANNING m STORY VOL. 23 NOS. I AN D 2 ' 2001 • PAGE 56 PLANN ING HISTORY VOL. 23 NO. I • 2001 • PAGE 57 way of enabli ng workers to combine their loan stock. Thus the main constraint on distinct from the co-partnership SOCIe tIes day to day rout me of housing management resources and to control their own the rate of housing development was the of the penod. There was no co-operatIve to negotlatmg PWLB loans, and even, 11 IS lo housmg. The prinCIple of co-partnership difficulty of finding people to invest theIr ethIC abou t HCS, and no attempt to saId, deSIgning some houses hImself. I" As was that tenants were required to be share money in an organi sation pledged to involve tenants on the board. As in private the workload l1lereased during the War the holders - in the case of the first society, provide limited dividends, below what 111l1 ited eompames the board was made up Society agreed to employ Osborn 's WIfe Ealmg Tenants Ltd, the minimum amount could be obtained elsewhere. from, and accountable to, the share holders fo r a while during 19 15-16. In 19 17 was set at £50. Even allowing for payment The Housing and Town Planning - who, rather than the tenants, were seen Osoom was called into the army, but by mstalments this inevitably meant that Act, 1909, increased to two thirds the as the mai n stakeholders. Modem housing refused to serve, and instead left co-partnership housing did not reach the proportion of value that could be provided associations also have shareholders who Letchworth to became a fugitive in least well off. However, as a vehicle for by the PWLB, but only for public utility elect the board, but the key difference is London (supported by Howard and other the development of housing for the rather societies regi stered under the Industrial that in those days the shareholders were opponents of the WarY' beller off among the working class and and Provident Societies Act, 1893. In important as investors (whereas now they HCS was from the outset closely some within the middle class, the concept 1911 two soc ieties were set up in can hold only one £\ sha re, on which no linked to the FGC, sharing with it a worked sati sfactorily enough for some Lctchworth to take advantage of the new dividend is p:lyable)." number of directors (a pattern that was to years, producing some 7,000 dwellings Act. Onc was Letchworth Housing In common with other similar cont inue for many years). This naturally altogether.11 The co-partnership housing Society (LHS), which appears to have had organisations at the time, HCS sought to meant that it could rely on a supply of societies became significant as the engines no close links with FGC, and the other raise capital by issuing shares at £5 each si tes leased on affordable tenns, usually of growth in garden suburbs in the pre- was the Howard Cot1age Soc iety. LHS and by selling loan stock. Shareholders 99 years at an an nual ground rent of 1914 period. built nearly 100 houses within five years were rewarded with an ann ual dividend of around £20 per acre. At 12 houses to the Garden City Tenants ltd was but nevcr became a significant provider, 5 per cent, while loan stock holders were acre, then, land costs translated into about forn\ed by a co-partnership printing although it is still in existence. pa id 4.5 per cent. There were regular 6d per week, on rents that ranged from 5s- enterprise in Letchworth, Garden City appeals for cash from members and 6d to 8s-6d (inclusive of rates). Over the l Printers :, but in general employe rs relied Howard Cottage Society: the early investors; fo r examp\c in 1'9 13 an next five years the Society developed 17 on others to provide housing for their years advertisement was placed In The schemes, totalling 395 dwellings. These workers. Garden City Tenants seems to The directors of LCB set up HCS CommOl/ weal,h (a Christian socialist we re all two storey cottages, typically have shared wi th other co-partnership precisely to take advantage of the benefits magazine), and in 1915 a prospectus was built in rows of four or six. Most of Ihe societies the te ndency to house the rather of the 1909 Act, and to prove it they issued in an attempt to attTac t funds. The early houses had three bedrooms, most of better offworkersll and in 1907 First transferred to the new soc iety 52 newly sales pitch was that an investment of £50 which had a li lted bath, wilh a piped hot Garden City Ltd set up Letchworth completed dwellings plus several more would result in the construction of a water supply, in the scullery rather than in Cottages and Buildings Ltd as a vehicle under construction. Apart from one small healthy home for £150, with £100 being a separate bathroom. A few had upstairs for developing homes at rents more scheme in 1925-26 LCB never built any supplied by the government (in the fonn bathrooms, but most did not, and this affordable by the lower paid. LCB more houses, although it contin ued in ofa PWLB loan). By the beginning of pattern was continued in the Society's completed nearly 200 houses by 1911. As existence as a separate organisation. The 19 14the Society had raised £2 ,390 in 1930s developments. The early schemes a company registered under the first recorded meeting ofHCS refers to an share capital and £5,275 in loan stock. also had WCs located downstairs, Companies Act and undertaking to restrict event on 17 August 1911 in London, There were 38 shareholding members and sometimes outside the back door. the dividends distributed to share holders, attended by two di rectors of FGC and 27 investors (often the same people). The Although the standards achieved LCB was entitled to apply to the Public LCB, Howard Pearsall and Aneurin largest single investor wa s the socialist al Lelchworth were much better than the Works Loans Board (PWLB) for loans of WiHiams MP, plus three other people playwright and critic George Bemard model dwellings company estates in up to half of the value of newly completed (Mrs Pearsall and two investors in the Shaw, who invested £5,000. London, fro m the start there was schemes. The advantage ofPWLB loans Garden City). This meeting elected a At first the Society'S offices were nevertheless critic ism of certain design was that they were at lower rates of committee to run the Society, and then in the Letehworth home of the ehainnan, features, including the smallness of some interest than private companies could adjourned for lu nch. On their return the Howard PearsalL Frederic Osbom was rooms. Fcderic Osbom recalled in Ihe hope to obtain by direct borrowing. It is first committee meeting was held, at appointed as Secretary in 1912. Osbom,of 1960s that, -By today's standards the important to be clear that there was no which it was decided to invite Ebenezer course, went on to work at Welwyn houses were terribly sma ll , because we subsidy involved here - the Board simply Howard to become a member of the Garden City and became a leading figure had to get the rents do\VI1 to five or six passed on the benefit of its ability to comm ittee (a position that he retained in Brit ish planning, but before moving to shill ings a week. 'I' Osbom is also quoted borrow at the lowest obtainable rates. At until his death in 1928). Although today Letchworth he had been working as a as saying that the 'extreme economies' on that time PWLB loans were typically HCS is a registered social landlord (ie it is clerk for a London model dwellings the early houses led to complaints from obtained at 3.5 per cent fixed interest over a not-for-profit organisation regulated by company. I! He therefore had at least some tenants. I. forty years. The other half of the capital the Housing Corporation, and managed by background in housing work, and over the As indicated above, the capital for had to be raised from other sources, a board of unpaid directors), at the start it next five years he carried out a heavy and these schemes was raised mainly from the usually individuals who bought shares or was very different. It was also quite diverse ra nge of tasks for HCS, from the PWLB , with the balance being solicited

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NO. 1 · 2001 • PAGE 58 PLANNING HI STORY VOL. 23 NO. I · 2001 · PAGE 59 from mdivlduals, generally in small within the Local Government Board at shareholders. The availability of subsidy amounts. There were no subsidies, no that time as to the extent to which some Aft er the War may have tempted the directors to loca l authority loans and no long ternl housing societies were breaching the rules At the start of the War there must have consider bUi lding Immediately after the borrowmg from banks or bUIlding by letting houses to people who were not been around 2,000 houses in Letchworth, War, but events elsewhere were to Justi fy SOCieties. From this distance in time It technically 'working class.' 10 half of which had been bUll! by the four thclr decision not to do so. The 1919 Act seems as If the release of si tes and the Despite these tribulations, by the housing societies.11 After the War, subsidy is usua ll y described as generous, processing of loan applications was outbreak of the War the Society had built however, things began to change rapidly. and so It was, to local authorities, which routine, but there is some fascinating up a good deal of momentum, building at The Letchworth Urban District Council were entitled to assistance covcring the correspondence from the summer of 1914 the rate of around 100 houses per year. It was set up in 1919, and rapidly built 700 whole of any approved revenue loss in which reveals something of the nature of is, of course, impossible to know whether houses under thc tenns of the Housing and excess of a penny rate. The subsidy relations between HCS, the PWLB and the and for how long this rate of activity Town Planning Act, [919.11 HCS, on the available to housing societi es, however, Office of Works (which was required to would have continued if the War had not other hand built none. The very limited was differently structured, and left them in scrutinise house plans and costings before intervened, [t is often assumed that the contribution of the housing societies in a dimcult posi tion. I' loan approval), One issue of continuing outbreak of war brought domestic Letchworth after 1919, was part of a wider Under Section 190fthe 1919Act, concern to HCS was the rule that loans building activity to a sudden halt, but this pattern of poor perfonnance by similar public utility societies were entitled to a would cover only two thirds of the va/lIe is not so and the Society built 100 houses organisations. Under the terms of the 1919 subsidy of30 per cent of loan charges for (rather than cost) of new schemes - this between August 1914 and the end of Act publ ic utility societies, such as HeS, 50 years (a later concession raised this to was a problem for the Society because the 1916. By this stage circumstances had were entitled to apply for Exchequer 50 per cent up to 1927), and they were valuation s were consistently less than deteriorated, as the Annual Report for subsidy, and it had been expected that allowed to borrow from the PWLB up to costs. Just as war was breaking out in 1916 revea ls: they would make a much more Significant 75 per cent of the va lue of schemes. This Europe, Osborn was engaged in a contnbution than the 4,500 dwellings left the SOC ieties with the problem of prolonged exchange of tetchy letters with Further cottages are badly needed, actually built (compared wit h 170000 raismg the remaining share of a Mr Petch at the Office of Works over a but their erection at the present built by local authorities). Thus, a~y development costs at a rate mterest wLlhm number of design details, including time is impossible without explanation of events in Letchworth musl the hmits imposed on them by the provision for daylight and the issue of Government pennission, and take into account national as well as local Treasury. In the circumstances existing in whether there should be three or four steps would in any case be inadvisable factors. the aftennath of the War this proved to be down into the larders of houses in Glebe owing to the inflated cost of It is possible that the momentum very difficult. Another problem was that Road. When Osborn complained that that building. had shifted to the development of the the system left societies to cover any the proposal fo r the larder steps was second Garden City at nearby Welwyn, to revenue deficits that might arise (unlike exactly the same as had previously been There were restrictions on the issuing of which place a number of the key actors, local authorities that could always call on approved and built at Rushby Mead, Petch new loans, the costs of labour and including Howard and Osbom, moved in the rates, societi es had no other income retorted that he had commented on the materials had risen and since the end of 1920. However, the evidence provided by but rents). [n practice the societies that unsatisfactory nature of this detail when 1915 rents had been pegged back to their the minutes of HCS board mcetings chose to build houses straight aOer the he had inspected the finished conages at August 1914 level. These were general suggests that therc was no lack of War were very badly affected by the Rushby Mead (now part of the Letchworth problems, but in Letchworth the situation enthusiasm for new building, but that boom-slump cycle of 1919-20. Costs rose conservation area). This shows not only had been exacerbated by rising demand throughout the 1920s it was seen to be steeply, interest rates were dragged up the level of detail that was checked by the for housing, partly as the result of the financially impracticable. The Annual (pushing up the level of rent required to central department, but also that the influx of some 2,000 Belgian refugees Report for 1917 refers to the Society cover costs) but then wages fell, making it completed houses were physically employed in munitions work. Some of having £4,000 in hand for new building, difficult to let houses built at high cost. inspected, apparently as a matter of these people were accommodated in and in OClOber 1919 the board discussed a Very soon societies began reporting routine. Another contentious issue was the newly built HCS houses, but others added planned scheme costing £27,000. financial difficulties; some went bust and nature of the tenants to be housed; this to the intensity of use of existing However, wartime inflation was followed others soon sold all their 1919 Act houses arose in 1914 in relation to an innovative dwellings. A census ofhousing in by a further spiral in building costs. which in order to clear their debts. Included in scheme at Meadow Way Green (where it Letchwonh carried out in the spring of by 1920 stood at five or six times the pre- those societies experiencing difficulties was proposed to build for working women 1916 found that 8S HCS properties weTe 1914 level s.~J In this situation it was, were several that had begun bui lding at a scheme including provision for a overcrowded and thal40 peT cent ofHCS arguably, prudent to wait for a return to Welwyn, so perhaps the directors ofHes communal dining room). Petch questioned tenants had taken in lodgers. Also adding 'nonnal' economic conditions. In made the correct decision in the whether the intention was to limit this to the demands on the Society's limited addition, the Society'S financial position circumstances. scheme to women who belonged to the staff resources was the agreement, in in 1919 was not at all healthy; there was a working class - a necessary condition for 191 7, to take on the management of the large increase in repair costs. rent arrears Co nclusion PWLB loans under the Acts. This was a houses owned by LeB, for a fee of 5 per wcre rising, the annual accounts recorded Before 1914 Letchworth was a crucible in specific manifestation of a wider concern cent of the rents collected. a loss and no dividend was paid to which both design ideas and

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NO. I · 2001 • PAGE 60 PLANNING HI STORY VOL. 23 NO, 1 * 2001 * PAGE 61 orgal1lsatlonal models were being chronic Inability to generate sufficient Role of Public Utili ty SOCieties In 16. Mlller.op. cit. p73 developed. at least partly in :m attempt to capital to enable them to make a Early British Town Planning and resolve the basic problem of how to significant quantitative contribution to Housing Reform' Planning 17. M. Hebbcrt, ' Fredenc Osbom, provIde decent housing for the working meeting housing need. Having said that, in Perspectil'es, Vol. 8, 1993 , 1885- 1978' In G. Cherry, (ed) class at an affordable price. The limited the longer term non-municipal housing pp.125-165 Piol/eers aJ Bri/ish Planning. success of the undertaking can be providers now seem to have a more secure Archlleetura l Press, London. 1981 measured in three ways: first, in the two future than local authority housing 11 . Bircha ll, op. cit. p.344 decades after the War the design operations. The Howard Cottage Society 18. Whittick,op. cit. p21 vocabulary developed by Unwin and is stilllhere, and still growlng, while the 12. R. Deevers, The GaNfell City others was widely adopted, but the local authority (now North Herts District Utopia: a critical biography oJ 19. ibill. p21 organisations building to these designs Council) is under pressure to transfer its Ebellezer Howar(l, Macmillan, were local authorities rather than housing housi ng stock to a housing association. Dasingstoke, 1988 20. PRO, HLO 46/111 societies. Second, the Letchworlh evidence Acknowledgement: This article draws 13. Miller, op. cif. p.82 21. Estimates based on Miller, ap. Cif. shows that even where land was supplied heavily on research commissioned by the pp.131-32 at low prices, the struggle to produce Howard Cottage Society to mark its 14. P. Malpass, Housillg Associations dwellings that were affordable led to ninetieth anniversary in 200 I . The main and HOl/sing Policy: a historiC(l1 22. Miller, op. cit compromises on standards, and third, source of information is the set of records perspective, Macmillan, housing societies su ffered from a kept by the Society, mainly in the form of Basingstoke, 2000 23 . M. Swenarton, Homes FitJor the minutes of board meetings, but also Heroes, Heinemann, London, sundry files from different periods. 15 . A. Whittick, F.J.o. - Practical 198 1, pl 22 Idealist: a biograp!IY ofSir Frederic Osbam, Town and 24 P. Ma lpass, ' Public Utility NOTES Country Planning Association, Societies and the Housing and London, 1987, p.ll, town Planning Act, 1919: a re- 1. M. Miller, Letchworth: theftrst Ellglish Philanthropy, Oxford examination of the introduction of garden city, Philimore, University Press, London, 1965 state-subsidi sed housi ng in Chichester, 1989 Britain' Planning Perspectives, C. Purdom, 77le Letchwarth 4. E. Howard, Tomorrow: a peacefUl Vol. 15 , 2000 pp. 377-92 Achievement, Dent, London, 1963 path to real reJarm, Swan D. Hardy. From Garden Cities to Sonnenschein, London, re-issued New Towns, Spon, London, 1991 in 1902 as Garden Cities of Tomorrow 2. A. Wohl, The Eternal SlulIl , Amold, London, 1977 5. M. Miller, op.cit. p.72 J. N. Tarn, Five Per Cell t Philanthropy: (//1 aecoullt of 6. ibid, C. Purdom, op. cit. hOllsing ill urban areas between 1840 alld 1914, Cambridge 7. F. Jackson, Sir Raymolld Unwin, I University Press, Cambridge Zwemmer, London, 1985 , p70 R. Dennis, 'The Geography of Victorian Values: Philanthropic 8. ibid. p.76 Housing in London, 1840-1900' Journal oJ Historical Geography, 9. ibid. p.73 voI.15,no. I, 1989, pp.40-54;E. Gauldie, Cruel Habitations, 10. J. Birehall, 'Co-partnership Unwin, London, 1974 Housing and the Garden City Movement' Plannillg 3. J. White, Rothschi/d Buildings: Perspectives, Vol. 10, 1995, life ill an east end tenement block, pp329-358, K. Skilleter. 'The 1887-1 920, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1980; D. Owen,

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NO. I · 2001 • PAGE 62 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NO. I · 2001 • PAGE 63 mass-marketing methods, scientific technologies. Among the tOpiCS managemem, joint stock companies and considered along the way arc V Gordon multi-unit corporations). Chi lde 's concept of an ' Urban Practice: Cities and Technology Modem planning was coeval wi th Revolution', which poSited a range of the Second Industrial Revolution: what technological conditions for the kind of innovation was it? By one emergence of cities in the Near East, such definition (offered by the course's external as irrigation, metallurgy and wheeled COUNCHANT assessor), planning is 'the deliberate transport; the influence oflhe peculiar Department of History of Science and Technology, Faculty of Arts, Open University, MK 7 ordering by public authority of the 'karst' geology of the Aegean region on 6AA, UK physical arrangements of towns or parts of the pal1ern of ancient Greek urbanization; Email: [email protected] towns in order to promote their efficient the 'concrete revolution' in ancient Roman Tel' 0044 (0)1908 652540 F", (0)1908 653750 and equitable functioning as social and architecture, and its bearing on the debate economic units, and to create an about Ihe Romans' tcchnological Plann ing historia ns might like to kn ow contextual considerations, and how, in aesthetically pleasing environment' l . creativity; the relationship between the about an Open Un iversity un dergraduate consequence, cult ures equipped with a Planners arc therefore champions of labyrinthine layout of many medieval level three course ent itled 'Cities and simi lar array of technologies can deploy certain social goals of equity and beauty, Islamic cities and the absence of wheeled Technology: from Babylon to Singapore', them to form dive rgent urban bui lt and in this respect planning should bc transport; the view of Lynn White, Jr. that and in particu lar about the series of co­ environments. In kee ping with this way of counted into the shaping contexts of innovations such as the iron ploughshare published books that fo rms its printed conceptualizing the urban history of technology. However the activity of the and collar horse-harness underlay the spine. I The course was first presented in technology, the course seeks to show not planner in seeking to achieve the efficient urban revi va l of the Latin West; the 1999, attracting more than 550 students, only how major changes in the physical ordering of the physical environment IS construction of the great dome of Florence and is scheduled to continue until 2008. It form and fabric of towns and cities have also compatible with the broad definition cathedral by Filippo Brunelleschi during selects from the full chronological extent been stim ulated by technological of technology adopted in this series. the Renaissance; the origins of public of urban history, starting with the first developmems (and conversely how far 'Technology ' is not just ' h~rdware ' or transport, street Iightmg and mechanical Sumerian mud-brick settlements, and urban development has been constrained 'nuts and bolts', but 'all methods and fire-fighting systems in Early Modem touching at the end on today'S wired, and by the existing state of technology), but means devised by humans in pursuit of Paris and Amsterdam; the disturbing of the even virtual. cities. The main focus is Ihe also how politics, economics, culture and their practical ends'4. Relevant ecological balance of the Aztec lake-city con tribution of technologies to the form the natural envi ronment have influ enced developments in science, mathematics, Tenochtitlan, the forerunner of Mexico and fabric of towns and cit ies. A range of those developments. public health and medicine are thereby City, by the technologies of Spanish building types is also examined, from Where does planning fit into th is embraced, but so too might planning, seen colonizers, including draught-animals and structures that embodied a new function problematic? The question of the at least in part as a branch of technical wheeled vehicles; and the ways in which connected with technological change relationship between technology and knowledge. Our conclusion was that on the Hausa people of sub-Saharan Africa (texti le mills, railway stat ions, cinemas) to planning is explici tly addressed in the fi rst balance, it may bc best to sce it, not unlike adapted to their own climatic conditions those that themselves represented textbook of the series in the context of architecture, as an activity straddling the building technologies transferred from the innovations in bui ld ing materials and ancient Greece; and again, in the second technology-contexts and means-ends drier north. techniques (Roman imperial baths, Gothic textbook, as part ofa discussion of the heuristic divides: an area of theory and As well as the printed materials in cathedrals, skyscrapers). Though ev idently re lations of technology and European practice seeking to balance technologically this section, there is a sixty-minute not Ihe course's primary focus, planning urbanization fro m the laller part of the feasible mcans, and politically, videocassette on ancient Rome and Ostia, theory and practice is a conspicuous thread nineteenth century 2. It is recognized in the economically and aesthetically desirable and thirty-minute illustrated audioeassette running through its fab ric, as readers of latter case that the rise of modern urban ends. A question that needs to be pondered presentations by Peter Wescombe on this bulletin would surely expec t. planning as a profession and as an is whether such distinctions are thereby ancient Babylon, Jacques Heyman on That there is a close connection between established element of public policy is invalidated. medieval cathedrals, Simon Pepper on planning and technology is beyond essential to our understanding of the What part does planning play in urban fortifications in the period 1450- dispute; but what exactly is the deve lopment of the city during and after the course as a whole? The course has 1700, and Cliff Moughtin on the Hausa relationship? Or perhaps better, what are the Second Ind ustrial Revolution. (The three main geographical and chronological city and its architecture. the relationships? From the point of view Second Industrial Revolution is divisions, each of which corresponds to a Among the issues that bear of the social historian of technology, such understood as a com plex of technological, paired textbook and reader: directly on planning are the orthogonal questions get snagged in a number of quite industrial and economic innovations layouts of planned Greek cities associated knotty historiograp hica l issues. To start taking effect from the 1870s: leadi ng the Prc-industrial Cities above all with Hippodamus; Aristotle's with, the course makes a heuristic technological were electric lighting, power The opening section of the course is prescriptions on the layout and orientation distinction between technologies and their and communications, new products such geared towards a cri tical examination of of settlements; the unifonn morphology of contexts. Much of the analytic effort of the bulk steel, reinforced concrete and organic Gideon Sjoberg's thesis that all ancient, ancient colonies across the Hellenistic and course is the attempt to show how chemicals and the internal combustion mediaeval and early modem cities were Roman empires; the relationship between technologies are shaped by a variety of engine; fo remost among the industrial and fundamentally simi lar, in large part developments in arti llery and the economic were mass-production and because of their shared rudimentary geometrical fortifications systems of many

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE 64 I'LANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 • 2001 • PAGE 65 Renai ssance and Early Modem citles; Addis again on stec\- and concrete-framed and air-conditioning) used III the Tuition and Assess lIl ent town plannltlg ltl the Chinese traditions of buildings, and Mark Clapson on Mil ton constructIOn of skyscrapers, notably New As is usual With Open University courses, ConfUCianism and feng shui, and in Keynes. York 's Empire Sla te I3 Ulldlllg; the part-ti me tUlors dlstnbuted throughout the parllcular, the CO nlraSI between the Among thc planning issues Illlerdel>Cndence of water supply and Bntlsh Isles mediate between part-time planned Chinese capital city Beijing, and considcred are the radical reworking of the waste disposal systems, as shown 111 thc students and centrall y planned and the unplanned commercial city Hankou. fabric of Paris by Baron Georges case of Chicago; the transformation of produced course material s. These European Cities since the Industrial Haussmann during the Second Empire, approaches to street cleaning and refuse 'Associate Lecturers' mark essays and Revolution partly dealt with in the videocassette di sposal towards the end of the nineteenth design their own programme of tutorials The middle section of the course mentioned above; the influence of cent ury, led by Colonel George E Waring and/or day sc hools; Ihey will often on a deals with the implications for European technological innovations on the urban in New York Cit y; and the eITects of course such a this arrange vis its to sites of cities (including some European-style planning ideas of Ebenezer Howard and telecommunications technology, from the rclevance in ,heir re gion. Students' overall colonial sett lements) of their adoption of Le Corbusier; the accommodation of the telegraph and telephone \0 contemporary marks resul t from equally we ig hted the innovations ofthc First and Second motor car in the planning of London, Paris globa l computer networks, on the form continuous assessment and examination Industrial Revolutions. Among the topics and Milton Keynes, the last of which is and functioning of citi es. components. Thc continuous assessment covered arc the impact of the railways on covered in a chapter on the plan ning of There arc two sixty-minute videocasscttes componen t culminates in a 4000-word the foml of cities such as Manchester, this new city by Mark Clapson, associated in this final section of the course, both extended essay, for which students can Glasgow and London; deve lopments in with the audiocassetle mentioned above; divided into two parts. One cassene deals undertake either a sel themati c question, or public transport in London, Paris, Berlin and the te nsion between planning with Chicago, the first part on its tnmspOl1 a local study of their choice. Gratifyingly, and Moscow, from the horse-drawn ideologies and political and economic and drainage infrastructures, and the the majority of students have thus far risen omnibus and tramway to the underground realities in Soviet Russia . second on its historic tall buildings; the to the cha llenge ofa local study, and a railway, electric tram and motorbus; the other consists of one part on Los Angeles substantial body of work is accumulating, uses of stru ctural iron in fireproof te xtile American Cities :l1ld the automobile, and a second on some of which has the potential for mills and warehouses, and in the great The third group of course materials telecommunications and the built development at postgraduate leve l. railway termin i of Victorian Britain; the focu ses above all on cities and technology environment. Among the e~ntTlbutors to use of structural steel and concrete in an in the United States, though where the second cassene are Wllliam Mitchell Co mputing range of buildings in London, Paris, Berl in appropriate comparisons are made with and Melvin Webber. There are in additIOn Computing is at present an optional and Moscow, including apartment and European and Far Eastern cities. Many of audiocassette presentations by Wllliam element of the course. Students having office blocks, factories, department stores, the same technologies introduced in the Cronon on Chicago and the Great West, access to a computer with CD-ROM dnve hotels and cinemas; the reasons for the first two sections are revisited, often at and by Michael Bally on wired cities and and Internet connection can take eventual rejection ofhigh-tech non­ greater depth, in US contexts, thereby virtual cities, the Jailer ex tending the seope advantage of the follow ing components: traditional housing designs introduced in inviting students to make comparative of the course at its cnd, from the physical Britain in the immediate post-war period; judgements. Some of the specific topics built environment to cybcrspace. A CD-ROM, whl eh contains si mulations schemes for the supply of water to rapidly covered are the interaction between local In a volumc dealmg with a morc IIltended to help students understand industrial izing cities, such as the raw materials and European craft and city­ continuous tradition of city b\lilding, there certain theoretical models of city-building Longdendale scheme for Manchester, and design traditions in colon ial America; the is a corrcspondingly more continuous and location (speci fi cally von Thilnen's the tapping of Loch Katrine for Glasgow; respective roles of government - federal, planning thread, starting with the origins model of agricultural land uses around a sani tary engineering in Victorian Merthyr state or local - and of pri vate enterprise in of the typica l gridiron layout of Western centTal ci ty, and the Illodel of urban land Tyd lil and London, notably Joseph developing intercity and intracity and Midwestern cities in the Land uses underpinning the computer game Sim Bazalgette's great drainage project; transport; the relationship between Ordinance of 1785. Particular attention is Cit y); and a ease study on Chicago which hydraulic engineering, including the transport developments, both public and given to the attemplthrough the Bumham teaches students to use contemporary map, dredging of the River Clyde, and the private, and suburbanization; the reasons Pl an to alleviatc tra ffic congesti on in early photographic and other visual materials as construction of shipbuilding yards and for the ready acceptance of the motor car twentieth-century Chicago; and to historical evidence. docks in Glasgow; the 'appropriateness' of in the US, and its connection with the dIfferences in building and zoning the transfer of western technologies to decline of public transport; the effects of regulations that resulted in distinctIve A course website, India, both during the British Raj , and motor vehicles on the form and fabric of skyscraper designs in New York and hnp:/Iwww.opcn.ac.uk/Student\VebiatJ08! afte r independence, in the case of Le cities, and on the design of individual Chicago. A chaptcr on technology and the which as well as givi ng details of the Corbusier's Chandigarh. bui ldings; the association between motor governance of cities devotes a section to course provides library-type resources Associated with this section of the vehicles and photochemical smog in Los phuming; apart from the Burnham Plan for otherwise unavailable to Open University course is a videocassette on the planning Angeles; innovative methods of house­ Chicago, thi s deals with L 'Enfant's plan students. These are intended to be of of Paris in the nineteenth century - David building, such as balloon-frame for Washington DC, variolls schemes for particular bene fi t to students who choose Jordan, the Haussmann specialist, is one of construction, and various forms of New York Ci ty, from the plan of 1811 to the local study option of the extended the contributors. There are audioeasset1e twentieth-century prefabrication, including the Regional Plan of 1929, and that essay. There is in addition a collection of presentations by Bi ll Addis on nineteenth­ fac tory·produced dwellings; the various landmark of suburban plannlll£ 1Il the hnks to relevant URLs, grouped into the century mi ll s and warehouses, the lale technologies (including metal frames, motor age, the Radbum Plan of 1925. three main divisions of the course. Michael Stratton on railway stations, Bill caisson foundations, li ft s, electric lighting

PLANN ING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AND 2 * 2001 * PAGE 66 PLANNING HI STORY VO L. 23 NOS, 1 AND 2 * 2001 * PAC E 67 hnks to relevant URLs, grouped mto the And although computing is at BOOK REVIEWS three mam diVisions of the course. present an optional activi ty, current policy The course website mcludes a is to make it compulsory during the selection of successful past topics for the second half of the course's li fe. Susa n Gcorgc. Lil'('.rpoof Park ESflIl es. upon thc small number of families who local option of the extended essay­ l1wir Legul BWiis, CreuliQII ami Efll'ly lived within them. Those who resided in examples are the temple and baths NOTES Mallagemelll. Liverpool Historical the Parks (just 84 individual s at Fulwood complex of Aquae Sulis, the impact of the Studies, 16 (Liverllool Uni ve rsity Press, in 185 1) may have wi shed to hide away 1 Colin Chant and David Goodman (eds.) copper industry on the development of 2000), ISBN 0-85323·409-4. £15.95, ph. from vibrant, raucous, grubby Li verpool, Swansea, the post-war development of Pre-induSlrial Ci/ies alld Tec/mology, but they could not entirely shut themselves Croydon from donnitory suburb to a 'Mim London: Routledge, 1999; Goodman and The mid-nineteenth century development away from their neighbours. Anything Manhattan', and the shaping of the urban Chant (eds.) Europeall ei/ies al/d of suburban estates to the south of more than the most superficial of changes fo rm and fabric of Si ngapore by the Mass Technology: industrial to post-industrial Liverpool city centre, is the focal point of to the property could not be made without Rapid Transit (MRT) rail system. Current cilY, London: RoutJedge, 1999; Gerrylynn this examination of exclusivity and the consent of other residcnts, walls and students seeking inspiration can also K. Roberts and Philip Steadman Americall control. Originating as an M. Phi!. thesis, railings had to be of a uniform height and search a much fuller da tabase of topics Cilies and Technology: lVildem ess 10 Susan George has produced an accessible, a screen of high close board fencing was from previous years. wire,l cilY, London: Routledge, 1999; lucid account of the establishment and not pennitted even whilst the newly The website offers students a Chant (ed.) The Pre-i/U!lIslrial Cilies and management of the 'Park Estates' of planted trees grew towards maturity. gateway 10 a computer conference, which Technology Reader, London, London: Fulwood, Grassendale and Cressi ngton, So who were these people, the provides them with a self-help discussion Routledge, 1999; Goodman (ed .) The and it has been produced from the developers and the residents? What forum. There is also a sta ff conference Ellropean Cities ami Technology Reader: perspective of a legal prnctitioner with a networks bound them together? With in aimed at fostering communication among '"dllstrial lo post-ilu/lIstrial city, London: sound grasp of land law, rather than that of the narrow exclusiVIty there sti ll remained the dispersed group of Associate Lecturers Routledge, 1999; Roberts (ed.) The a social historian. This approach has led, different scales of housing; was this who tutor the course. A more recent Americall Cities and Techllology Reader: therefore, to the omission of a number of renected in any degree of social division innovation is an Alumni Conference for wiltJerness 10 wired city, London: areas that readers from a more strongly withill the small estates? Susan George former students maintaining an interest in Routledge 1999. historical background might feel worthy of does not delve into these mallers, the course themes. Among its fea tures are closer investigation. Many of these same concentrating upon the manner in which a ' News' sub-conference, including 2 Chant and Goodman, Pre-il1t/ustrial readers, of course, may well lack Susan the land was acquired, built upon and the notices of relevant TV programs or public Cities alld Techn%gy, pp.65-66; George's legal expertise and, to that extent, method by which the estates have been events and a 'Sites' sub-conference which, Goodman and Chant, Ellropeall Cities al/d Lil'elpool Pa rk Eslales provides a useful subsequentl y managed to this day. The it is hoped, will eventually amount to an Techllology, p.1 58. example which serves to heighten our minor factionalism and undercurrents of ' alternative' guidebook to sites with cities understanding of the influence that personal animosity between va rious and technology relevance. 3 Anthony Sutcliffe, Towards the Plallned restrictive covenants have had upon urban trustees are touchcd upon in the case of Among future developments in City: Germany, Britaill, Ihe United SWlcS development. Cressington Park (where mmute books computing are plans for a pilot Electronic alld France. /780-/9/4, Oxford, Basil The context to the development of have survived), but otherwise not dealt Tutorial Group available to students who . Blackwe!l, 1981, p.viii. the exclusive estates at Fulwood, with. On one occasion she refers to the cannot otherwise attend tu torials; all Grassendale and Cressington (slower to many women with servants and wonders tuition would be provided through 4 Chant and Goodman, Pre-imlllslrial complete and slightly more speculative 'did they fin d time hanging heavy on their conferencing. Cities alld Teclinology, p.vii . than thc othcr two) is initially provided. hands'? If they did, we wil1 never know Susan Gcorge stresses the degree of and the residents remain just names fTOm a landowners' self-interest that lay within census return or signatures to a title deed. leasehold system ::md the restrictive Their politics, faith and habits are as covenant schemes that evolved into a securely closed to us as the gates at the hybrid betwecn it and the unrestrained entrance to their parks. varieties of freehold land speculation. The wider picture of the sprawl of Upon this background lies the study of the city in the nineteenth century is far Fulwood Park, together with the beyond the scope of this closely focused Grassendale :md Cressi ngton Parks which volume, therefore there is no room for the lay further to the south, with their work of Col in Pooley, and others, on promenade along the Mersey. The various aspects of estate development and covenants imposed upon the developments differentiation. Yet, of course, Liverpool of these estates ensured that the smart was never far away. The Ordnance vi llas that were erected excluded all but a Survey maps of the estate, included within narrow portion of Liverpool's middle the book, indicate that more humble levels classes, but they also imposed controls of housing abutted the estates and a

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 AN D 2 * 2001 * PAGE 68 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 and 2 * 2001 * PAGE 69 BOOK REVIEWS BOOK REVIEWS

In at Letchworth ... and more than three­ suburban railway line eventually cut tenure as keys to the fairer distribution of branches was in Ealing, and there 11 was 1901 that Vivian, nine colleagues and quarters of those at Hampstead built through them. Best of :lll, the seats along wealth. One has only to dip some like-minded enthusiasts set up before the First World War, were built by the promenade were removed after into Ebenezer Howard to appreciate how Ealing Tenants Ltd. The timing is eo-partnership housing soc ieties' labourers from nearby Garston Village far his call for garden cities took interesting. Ealing, a fast-expanding on the Srentham model. The burgeoning made free and 'unceremonious' use of up the agenda of Henry George and other them. Illustrations such as this illuminate advocates of land-refonn and profit­ railway suburb, was just then becoming a of these new societies led to the establishment in 1907 of a new umbrella thi s careful study that opts to concentrate sharing. But thcse are complex, half­ borough council and building its first upon the minutiae of development rather forgotten issues. So the temptation has council housing - two streets of orthodox organi7.alion, Co-partnership Tenants than how the residents of the park estates been to write off the enterprise of Howard little tcrraced houses. The new co­ Limited. partners probably approved (onc sat on The outlook seemed good for co­ regarded their encircling city (and each and the Edwardian dispersalists as vaguely partnership. But the movement had now other) or, for that matter, what surrounding socialistic, Fabian or philanthropic, Ealing Council) but wanted also to build housing for their personal ownership. reached its apogee. Almost immediately Liverpool thought of them. without sharper enquiry. How impoverished - or plain wrong - such That first terrace of houses, on a smal!ish changes in the rules took place at a reading is, emerges from Aileen Reid's lot of semi-rural land at Pitshanger, was Ealing Tenants favou ring larger Step/unI Bllllker, also unexceptional, iflarger in scale shareholders. The reasons were the usual Ulliversity of LlltOIl (for/he lime beillg). masterly study. Brentham came directly out of the labour movement, to be precise than the council rows. The co-partnership ones: 'Any morc trouble and you can take from the Labour Association, founded in process, not the design, was what the account clsewhere', the bank Ailec lI Heid, Brentham: A History of made the venture special. had pronounced. Sir John Srunner, a the Pioneer Garden Suburb 1901 -2001 , 1884 to promote 'Co-operative Production amongst the Workforce'. Co-partnership, By this time Ebenezer Howard benefi cent industrialist, charged to Brentham Heritage Society (47 had published. As his vision of the garden the rescue with a loan and got a road Brentham Way, Ealing, London \V5 which Reid defines as a subset of co­ operativism implying a compact between city got translated into reality by Parker named after him. After that things 1B E: www.brentham.com). 2000. Pp. and Unwin at Letchworth and then were set fair for the long, surreptitious 264. ISBN 0 9538775 0 7. workers and employers, emerged as a new tenn at this time. It began with craft reconfigured at Hampstead as a stand­ walk to the paradise garden of alone suburb, a round of exchanges took middle-class Brentham today, where Now and then, a work of local history so workshops but was soon extended to place between the foundations. Brentham free holds of 'cottages' command far transcends the parish pump as housing. To some degree it reinvented the had no master-plan at the start. astronomical prices. Already, says Reid, to illumine a whole movement or even an principles of the famous Rochdale It grew in fits and starts as land by 1914 a fair proportion of the completed era. Such is Aileen Reid's Brentham. Pioneers forty years before. But this time became available, at first by means of suburb's population had clerical or Montaillou it may not be, but it quietly ambitions were wider, the base was the old, outworn house-types adapted by professional jobs. That of course reflected revolutionises the historiography of the London and the climate of the 1880s and General Builders to the wants of not just the incapacity of the co­ garden city and suburb. 90s brought middle-class campaigners - individual tenants. Even the name ('thc partnership movement to generate capital For a hundred people acquainted like Edward Greening and George village on the Brent') had to await 1907, but the changing metropolitan labour with Letchworth and Hampstead Garden Holyoake - and working men into the after a bigger chunk of land became market. Some orthe pioneers of 1901 Suburb, those earnest expressions of debate together. available and Raymond Vnwin we re disgruntled. Bul it gave Brentham a Edwardian striving for better homes and The undisputed energiser was was parachuted in to sketch out a master­ social balance - for a time. more wholesome communities, scarcely Henry Vivian (1868-1930), a Devon-born plan. Thereafter Brentham's Over and above her account of the one will know about Brentham. Yet carpenter who became secretary of the houses succumbed to professional suburb's development and architecture, Brentham actually preceded and had its Labour Association at 22, sct up a architecture and the green and piquant Aileen Reid also gives us a fine chapter on influence upon both. The usual co-partnership building finn in 1891 and garden-suburb style - at first from the May Day in Brentham, drawing on Roy precedents cited for Letchworth and the founded the journal Co-partnership ranciful pencil of F. Cavendish Judge's intriguing research on the history garden suburbs are Port Sunlight, three years later. Vivian was 10 become Pearson, later from the calmer hand ofG. of that fe stival. It will delight those who Boumville and New Earswick, patemalist one of the pioneering Lib-Lab MPs in the landslide of 1905-6. Lister Sutcliffe, who rounded off loathe and fear suburbs to find that the factory villages all. Srentham the development with a handsome club. May ceremony celebrated in style was something much bolder: a co­ The first ventures of 'Tenant Co­ operators Limited' were small. But All this was on the lines of other annually at Brenlham since 1905 partnership community. Unwinian garden suburbs, which resurrects no ancient and pagan village Emphasis in recent years on the Vivian's building fmn, General Builders proliferated astonishingly in the years custom. as Frazer liked to suppose in The layout and architecture of garden cities Limited, expanded to the extent of sixteen branches around London and its before 1914. But there was trade Golden Sough. lnstead it appears to derive and suburbs has led to neglect of the in the other direction too. Vivian and from a bizarre cross between a politics which engendered them - in own educational programme, including Ealing Tenants were in at the very Seventeenth-century pageant of London particular, of their role in the movement to lectures on Mazzini and discussions on pol itical economy. One of these start of Letchworth; indeed Reid tells us milkmaids, Victorian theatrical fakery, and reform property-holding and that 'more than half of the houses the commemoration of a May Day strike

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 and 2 "" 2001 "" PAGE 71 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS_ I and 2 "" 2001"" PAGE 70 BOOK REVIEWS BOOK REVIEWS by Amencan workers m 1890. Evcn in constant theme which runs through all museum, and a high school. This IS the reform. Other chapters deal with cars and pioneering days, the red streak in fi fleen essays Robert Freestone has stuff of which CIties arc made: houses, the mnercity (Je ffry M . Diefendorf), Brentham's ceremony seems to have been assembled in this book, then it is the gap public buildmgs and institutions planning and heritage (David l'lamer), and conspicuous by its absence. Its place is between the aspirations of the planning purporting some meaning, garden pla nts, the role of green spaces in the evolution of supplied by a faithful sequence of profession and the eventual outcome of inclined fences around pri va te plots, ID cities (Maurits Van Rooijen). Almost maypoles decorously plaited, and May their endeavours. Comprehensive master short the material witnesses of the wishes, without exccption, the essays in this book Queens parading ornamentally down plans come under assault and planning dreams, and disappointments of the are informative and very readable. blossoming streets - among the many fragmentises (p. 3), Hitler and Mussolini inhabitants. On the opposite page we find Nevertheless, one wishes that the editor photographs of human interest that 'distort' Haussmann and also the City the vision of how thc surveying team would have been firmer with his authors, embcl1ish the book. Residcnts are fully Beautiful (p. 113), a page later the Great proposed to plan the samc area: a for as the book stands it lacks a meta­ treated too; tcnnis fans will like to know Dcpression prevents the realisation ofa photograph of a model shows a neat late narrati ve which ties the various that Fred Perry learnt the sport at the City Beautiful plan for Toronto, after 1940s modcrmst city. Everything is contributions together beyond thc obvious Brentham Club. earlier plans were 'lost in management', carefully zoned according to fu nctional point that they all deal with the same Reid takes her story up to a urban rencwal and public housing projects principles one assumes, with high and low period and profession. LIkewise, one present which is necessarily for the most are condemned during the I 970s (p. 146), rise buildings, towers and slabs, wonders whom the books wants to part more complacent than the pioneer while thirty years on the 'antidote' of somewhere in the distance the carillon st ill address. For those who do not know much years. Yet more than the memory of place-identity has 'evolved into a sales stands next to the beaux-arts museum. It about planning in the last century, studenlS eo-partnership lives on. To produce such gimmick' (p. 149). And the final example looks like a decent place to livc in . It is for example, other literature appcars to be a generous and beautiful book as ofa possible much longer catalogue of easy to imaginc that a comparable web of more su itable. For those who do know this one was a 'mad undertaking', writes similar complaints, the planning goal of human hopes and disappointments will fill about planning and its history, the book Wendy Sender of the Brentham 'quality of life' has been 'hijacked to serve such a town as quickly as t'he one it does not offer many ncw insights- Society in a preface. Then someone had business interests' (p. 152). Seldom, it replaces, with one important difference. beyond the material in individual cssays­ the wit to revive Vivian's co·partnership seems, do aspirations and achievements The modem town has to exist without which emerge out of putting exactl y thcse venture; locals werc to buy a share in the match. More often the outcome of a heritage (apart from the carillon and the cssay into a single volume. Diversi ty in a promise of thc book and get a copy on comprehensive plan is a compromise, if museum) which implies without history. collectIOn of essays still needs some larger publication. They needed and found a not compromi sing. This brings me to the second thcme, background to allow for dialogue and subsidy in the end: for bettcr or worse, co­ Freestone emphasises in his actually more a me ta-theme, which is to be confrontation, otherwise communication partnership stilt needs its Brunners. But introduction that 'Planning's aspirations found in the collection of essays, namely and conversation ceasc. the result confirms the spirit of the have always soared above the practicality the relation of urban planning to history, What seems to have never ceased Brcntham community and justifies thc of their implementation' (p. 8). That this especially to the history of the profession. in planning is the conversation with the ambition of the project. The Brentham gap never closes is good at least for those Freestone explains in the past, though aftcr reading the various Centenary Book Co-Partnership Scheme who are interested in planning history. introductory pages that the book does not essays it turns out to be a one.

PLANNING HISTORY VOL 23 NOS. I and 2 • 2001 • PAGE 72 PLANNING HI STORY VOL. 23 NOS. I and 2 · 2001 · PAGE 73 BOOK REVIEWS BOOK REVIE WS among the authors are more sophisticated Dolorosa or ' Road to Serrdom' (Hayek), is century mig ht hclp us through the earl y Volker M. We/lel'. Departmellt of History U\ thclr reV Iews, but overall the sequence obvious ror at least two reasons. First, it challenges and uncertainties of tile new of Art, Ulli,'ersily of Readillg or events IS predictable in most essays, allows one to argue that today's concerns mlllennium '(p. 16). whIch brings us baek to the beginning of have always been an issue ror planning, thIS review. A problem or question even irnot necessarily the right amount or emerges, 8 solution is conceived, worked attention had been given to them. Second, out, rejected, re-worked, watered down, it allows one to integrate retrospectively implemented, disappears, pops up again. into the narrative whatever new issue and is re-assessed ror lasting importance in comes to the rorefront at any given time, the twenty-first century. While such as sustainability or gender. But this everywhere great narratives have, perspective does not always racilitate allegedly, collapsed, in planning and its critical historical insights as one eminent hi story thcy seem to survive rigorously contributor bemoans when commenting on and still embrace the well-known cast of the criticism that 'soulless, mechanistic villains. Ignoring politicians and economic urban environments' have destroyed circumstances, foremost amongst them traditional urban communities: 'The ract, appears to be Le Corbusier, followed that in many of the most notorious cases closely by the Italian Futurists such as planners had virtually no power and no Antonio S:mt 'Elia. This rather simplistic role, is conveniently avoided; mistakes by approach to important fi gures in twentieth­ architects and engineers are all too readily century planning and architecture could heaped at the doors of the "planners"" (p. easily be ignored, would it no be for its 33) constant repetition which reruses to take Nevertheless, by following the on board any architectural theoretical and well-trodden path of a chronological historical re-evaluation of. ro r example. Le structure, the essays in the book throw up Corbusier. Even among architects interesting questions. for eltample that of proper- where Le Corbusier remains for the relation between architecture and good artistic reasons an accepted figure­ planning. Many, ifnot most, of the early one barely finds, after post-modernism, twentieth-century planners, from such nai've appreciation of his buildings Raymond Unwin to Le Corbusier, were and urban schemes, but especially not the trained architects. What did twentieth­ assumption that they still represent either a century planning lose, or win, when this valid solution or a continuous threat. A changed once professional training in comparable naIvety can be observed with planning had evolved? Or, why are regard to the garden city, which more than planners (similar to architects) so 100 years after its inception still seems to rascinated by abstract diagrams such as the attract nothing other than enthusiasm and one on the book's cover? They never seem positive appreciation. Ir only history to explain anything to anybody outside the would be that simple. How much history circle of the adepts, but why are they in does it take to shape the present and the the planner's tool kit and how do they ruture, 10 build a city? Probably very little, shape his or her's perception of the world? or maybe even none. This is not an How do they relate the profession's argument ror an end of history, but maybc thinking and doing to completely different a clearer separation between contemporary areas of human thinking and creativity planning and planning history is needed? such as art, philosophy, or even economic The essays in this book pose the modelling in the twentieth century? To question of the validity of a constant point to such questions is, in summary, the retrospective gaze into the profession's achievement of the book rather than, as hi story with an eye to learning from past claimed in the introduction, 'the hope that mistakes and errors. The attraction of such an historical appreciation of its perspective, be it the profession'S Via [planning's] history over the twentieth

PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS. 1 and 2 'I< 2001 1< PAGE 74 PLANNING HISTORY VOL. 23 NOS, I and 2 1< 2001 1< I)AGE 75 lFlLANNIING HJISTORY

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The Society was inaugurated in January 1993 as a successor body to the I'Janning History Society, founded in 1914. Its membersllip is dlllwn from severnl disciplines: planning, arcllitcctulli, economic and socialllistory, geogfDphy, sociology, politics and Ililaled fields. Membersllip is open 10 all who have 11 working intellist in planning history. The Society for American City and Regional Planning History (SACRPH) and the Urban Hi story Association (UlIA) arc Ameriean affiliates oflPHS. Memben of IP I·IS elcct a governing Council every two yean. In turn, the Council elcclS an executive Board of Management, complemented by rtpresentatives ofSACRPH and UHA. The President cllairs the Board and Council.

PRESIDENT MEMBERSJUP

Professor Sceptlen V. Ward Applications arc welcome from individuals and School of Planning institutions. The annual subscription is: Oxford Brookes University Headington Australia 28,00 $ Aus Oxford Canada 28.00 $ Can OX30BP France 100.00 FF UK Gcnnany 30,00 OM lW, 30,000.00 Lira Tel: 0186~ 48342 1 Japan 2, I ~OYen Fax: 0 1 86~ 483H9 Netherlands 34.00 HFI USA 18.00 $ US E·mail: [email protected] UK 10.00 £

t-'urtller alternative cum:nties available on request from Or EDITOR OF !'l.ANNING HISTORY David W. Massey, Trelllurtr, lPHS, Ikpartment of Civic Design, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK. Or Mark Clapson TcI: 01' I 794 3112, E-mail: dwmassey@liverpoo1. ac.uk Ikpt. ofmstory University of Luton Applications for membershi p should be sent to Or Robcn " Cllllle Street Home, IPHS Membership Secrttary, Department of Luton Surveying, Un iversity orEasl London, Dagenham, Essex LUI )AJ RM8 2AS, UK. Tt!: (0)208 ~90 7722 112S04 ! Fax: (0181 UK 8493618 E·mail: r.k.home(@ucl .ac.uk TcI: 01582 489034 Fax: 0 1 ~82 489014 Cheques, drafts, orders etc. should be made payable 10 the 'International PhUlnina History Society'. E-mail: [email protected]