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DEVELOPMENTS IN PRIMATOLOGY: PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS Series Editor: Russell H. Tuttle, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

This peer-reviewed book series melds the facts of organic diversity with the continuity of the evolutionary process. The volumes in this series exemplify the diversity of theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches currently employed by primatologists and physical anthropologists. Specific coverage includes: primate behavior in natural habi- tats and captive settings; primate ecology and conservation; functional morphology and developmental biology of primates; primate systematics; genetic and phenotypic differences among living primates; and paleoprimatology.

BEHAVIORAL FLEXIBILITY IN PRIMATES: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES By Clara B. Jones NURSERY REARING OF NONHUMAN PRIMATES IN THE 21ST CENTURY Edited by Gene P. Sackett, Gerald C. Ruppenthal and Kate Elias NEW PERSPECTIVES IN THE STUDY OF MESOAMERICAN PRIMATES: DISTRIBUTION, ECOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND CONSERVATION Edited by Paul Garber, Alejandro Estrada, Mary Pavelka and LeAndra Luecke HUMAN ORIGINS AND ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUNDS Edited by Hidemi Ishida, Russell H. Tuttle, Martin Pickford, Naomichi Ogihara and Masato Nakatsukasa PRIMATE BIOGEOGRAPHY Edited by Shawn M. Lehman and John Fleagle REPRODUCTION AND FITNESS IN BABOONS: BEHAVIORAL, ECOLOGICAL, AND LIFE HISTORY PERSPECTIVES Edited By Larissa Swedell and Steven R. Leigh RINGAILED LEMUR BIOLOGY: LEMUR CATTA IN MADAGASCAR Edited by Alison Jolly, Robert W. Sussman, Naoki Koyama and Hantanirina Rasamimanana PRIMATE ORIGINS: ADAPTATIONS AND EVOLUTION Edited by Matthew J. Ravosa and Marian Dagosto LEMURS: ECOLOGY AND ADAPTATION Edited by Lisa Gould and Michelle L. Sauther PRIMATE ANTI-PREDATOR STRATEGIES Edited by Sharon L. Gursky and K.A.I. Nekaris CONSERVATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY: GORILLAS AS A CASE STUDY Edited by T.S. Stoinski, H.D. Steklis and P.T. Mehlman FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page iii

Conservation in the 21st Century: Gorillas as a Case Study

Edited by T.S. Stoinski The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International Atlanta, Georgia, USA and Zoo Atlanta Atlanta, Georgia, USA H.D. Steklis The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International Atlanta, Georgia, USA and Department of Anthropology Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA P.T. Mehlman The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International Atlanta, Georgia, USA FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page iv

T.S. Stoinski H.D. Steklis The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund HC1 Box 576 International 23 Wildlife Lane 800 Cherokee Avenue, SE Elgin, AZ 85611 Atlanta, Georgia 30315 USA [email protected]

P.T. Mehlman Conservation International 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500 Arlington, VA 22202

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007922443

ISBN 978-0-387-70720-4 e-ISBN 978-0-387-70721-1

Printed on acid-free paper.

© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

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Introduction

It is a sign of the times that it need hardly be said that the African apes are in a state of crisis. Dire predictions abound about their chances of survival in the wild into the next century, or even to the end of this one. Not only are African apes threatened with extinction, but also the many other species that share their habitats, as today we are witnessing a loss of species and the degradation or disappearance of entire ecosystems at a rate unprecedented in human history. Some authorities calculate that, around the world, we are already losing more than 100 species per day. At this rate, an estimated 25% of the world’s species present in the mid-1980s may be extinct by the year 2015 or soon thereafter. The reasons for this mounting conservation crisis are manifold and com- plex, but principally concern some combination of growing human economic needs, unsustainable hunting, natural resource exploitation, and, in the case of the African apes, cross-transmission of disease. In Africa, there is immense pressure to unsustainably exploit the tropical forests; there is also a serious lack of conservation monies and conservation expertise. As such, the loss of species is expected to be particularly high in the tropical forests of Africa unless appropriate actions are taken soon. Given this alarming state of affairs, many will be attracted to this volume because, like us, they are active conservationists searching for both a current assessment of the gorilla’s conservation status and, importantly, for ideas and tools that show promise of halting or reversing population declines and put- ting us on a path to achieving a stable, long-term co-existence of human and ape populations. Many others, who simply have an interest in gorillas, great apes, or wildlife conservation in general, also may find this book appealing, because they will recognize both that the problems and challenges facing gorilla conservation are broadly familiar to those encountered with other wildlife populations and that the ideas and methods described herein may thus be more widely applicable. In putting this volume together, and in treating gorillas as a case study, it is indeed our objective to reach a very broad audience, surely including but reaching well beyond those active in gorilla conservation. As the ideas for this

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vi Introduction

collection came together, on the heels of a symposium celebrating the 100th anniversary of the 1902 scientific discovery of the mountain gorilla, we were squarely focused on novel approaches to gorilla conservation, both theoreti- cal and methodological. We intended for such a sampling to convey the necessarily changing landscape of conservation practice, along the way providing realistic hope for resolving the grave problems faced by most wild gorilla populations. Accordingly, in preparing this book, we drew on the expertise of field scientists in a variety of disciplines to discuss current conservation threats, novel approaches to conservation, and potential solu- tions. Our hope is that the book, while focused on gorillas, can serve as a “conservation handbook” for a variety of species, as well as providing spe- cific information on current conservation issues faced by gorillas in the wild. The book’s 17 chapters are grouped into four thematic sections. The first presents an in-depth assessment of the current status of wild gorilla popu- lations, the second and third sections present several novel approaches to conservation that have been explored at several field sites, including new conceptual and technological tools, and also examine the pros and cons of some generally accepted “solutions” (e.g., ecotourism) to conservation issues. Chapters in the final section take a broader view by exploring the role international and national political entities, and nongovernmental organizations, including zoos, can and must play in gorilla conservation. We hope that, on reading these chapters, all readers will take away the message that the conservation community—particularly local communities in African ape habitat countries—are bringing to bear unprecedented ener- gies, commitment, and novel solutions to protect and preserve Africa’s remaining great ape populations. Although most of the chapters focus on gorillas, there are several that discuss conservation programs with other species and even on continents other than Africa (e.g., Chapters 5, 7, 9); these chapters were selected because of the relevance of the approaches discussed to issues relating to gorilla conservation and more broadly conservation as a whole. Finally, we would like to extend our gratitude to those who made the book possible. First, we thank Zoo Atlanta for agreeing to host the symposium to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the discovery of the mountain gorilla to western science. Second, we thank all of the authors who contributed to this volume; we greatly appreciate their efforts and patience on our behalf. Third, we thank all the individuals who improved the individual chapters and book as a whole through their reviews. And last, but certainly not least, many thanks to Elizabeth Price and Angela Legg, who were instrumental in preparing the chapters for publication. FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page vii

List of Contributors

Francis Akindes Laboratoire d’Économie et de Sociologie Rurale Université de Bouaké Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire

Keith Alger Conservation International Washington, D.C., USA

Natalie D. Bailey Bushmeat Crisis Task Force Washington, D.C., USA

Christophe Boesch Wild Chimpanzee Foundation Geneva, Switzerland; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Leipzig, Germany

Hedwige Boesch Wild Chimpanzee Foundation Geneva, Switzerland

Jean Martial Bonis-Charancle Innovative Resources Management Washington, D.C., USA

Charlotte Boyd Conservation International Washington, D.C., USA

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viii List of Contributors

Michael Brown Innovative Resources Management Washington, D.C., USA

Ann P. Byers Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/IUCN) Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

Amos Courage John Aspinall Foundation Port Lympne, Kent, England

Heather E. Eves Bushmeat Crisis Task Force Washington, D.C., USA

Kay H. Farmer Scottish Primate Research Group Department of Psychology University of Stirling Stirling, Scotland, UK

Nick Faust Georgia Tech Research Institute Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Claude Gnakouri Ymako Teatri Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire

Gali Hagel The Law Office of Gali L. Hagel, P.C. Marietta, Georgia, USA

Ilka Herbinger Wild Chimpanzee Foundation Geneva, Switzerland; Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire

Miroslav Honzák Conservation International Washington, D.C., USA FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page ix

List of Contributors ix

Michael Hutchins, Ph.D The Wildlife Society Bethesda, Maryland, USA; Graduate Program in Conservation Biology and Sustainable Development University of Maryland College Park, Maryland, USA

Eugene Kayijamahe Department of Geography National University of Rwanda Butare, Rwanda

Séverin Kouamé Laboratoire D’Économie et de Sociologie Rurale Université de Bouaké Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire

Robert C. Lacy Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/IUCN) Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; Chicago Zoological Society Brookfield, Illinois, USA

Annette Lanjouw International Gorilla Conservation Program Nairobi, Kenya

Francis Lauginie Wild Chimpanzee Foundation Geneva, Switzerland

Cathi Lehn Biodiversity Alliance Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Cleveland, Ohio, USA

Mark Leighton Department of Anthropology Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

Carla A. Litchfield University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page x

x List of Contributors

Kristen E. Lukas Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Cleveland, Ohio, USA

Scott Madry Department of Anthropology University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA; Informatics International, Inc. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA

Luis Marques Ymako Teatri Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire

Andrew J. Marshall Department of Anthropology and Graduate Group in Ecology, University of California at Davis, Davis, California, USA

Patrick T. Mehlman Conservation International Washington, D.C., USA

Philip S. Miller Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/IUCN) Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

Zephyrin Mogba Innovative Resources Management Washington, D.C., USA

Karl Morrison Conservation International Washington, D.C., USA

Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Toshisada Nishida Japan Monkey Centre, Inuyama Aichi, Japan FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page xi

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Grégoire Nohon Wild Chimpanzee Foundation Geneva, Switzerland

Jim Sanderson Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Conservation International Washington, D.C., USA

H. Dieter Steklis Department of Anthropology Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA; The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Netzin Gerald Steklis The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Emma J. Stokes Wildlife Conservation Society Nouabalé-Ndoki Project Brazzaville, Republic of Congo

Tara S. Stoinski The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International Atlanta, Georgia, USA; Zoo Atlanta Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Rachna Sundararajan Innovative Resources Management Washington, D.C., USA

Moustapha Traoré Laboratoire d’Économie et de Sociologie Rurale Université de Bouaké Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire

Paul Waldau Center for Animals and Public Policy Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page xii

xii List of Contributors

Rees Warne Innovative Resources Management Washington, D.C., USA

Frances R. Westley Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin, USA

Wildlife Conservation Society Field Veterinary Program Bronx, New York, USA

Richard W. Wrangham Department of Anthropology Peabody Museum Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page xiii

Contents

Introduction ...... v List of Contributors ...... vii

Section 1. Current Status of Gorillas Chapter 1. Current Status of Wild Gorilla Populations and Strategies for Their Conservation ...... 3 Patrick T. Mehlman

Section 2. Approaches—On the Ground Chapter 2. Conservation Medicine for Gorilla Conservation ...... 57 Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project (MGVP, Inc.)/ Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Chapter 3. Sanctuaries and Reintroduction: A Role in Gorilla Conservation? ...... 79 Kay H. Farmer and Amos Courage Chapter 4. Responsible Tourism: A Conservation Tool or Conservation Threat? ...... 107 Carla A. Litchfield Chapter 5. Chimpanzee Conservation and Theatre: A Case Study of an Awareness Project Around the Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire ...... 128 Christophe Boesch, Claude Gnakouri, Luis Marques, Grégoire Nohon, Ilka Herbinger, Francis Lauginie, Hedwige Boesch, Séverin Kouamé, Moustapha Traoré, and Francis Akindes Chapter 6. The Value of Long-Term Research: The Mountain Gorilla as a Case Study ...... 136 Netzin Gerald Steklis and H. Dieter Steklis

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Chapter 7. The Art and Zen of Camera Trapping ...... 160 Jim Sanderson

Section 3. Approaches—Tools Chapter 8. An Experiment in Managing the Human Animal: The PHVA Process and Its Role in Conservation Decision-Making ...... 173 Philip S. Miller, Frances R. Westley, Ann P. Byers, and Robert C. Lacy Chapter 9. Approaches to Corridor Planning: Transitioning TAMARIN from Mata Atlantica to Madagascar ...... 189 Karl Morrison, Charlotte Boyd, Keith Alger, and Miroslav Honzák Chapter 10. Linking the Community Options Analysis and Investment Toolkit (COAIT), Consensys® and Payment for Environmental Services (PES): A Model to Promote Sustainability in African Gorilla Conservation ...... 205 Michael Brown, Jean Martial Bonis-Charancle, Zephyrin Mogba, Rachna Sundararajan, and Rees Warne Chapter 11. An Integrated Geomatics Research Program for Mountain Gorilla Behavior and Conservation ...... 228 H. Dieter Steklis, Scott Madry, Netzin Gerald Steklis, Nick Faust, and Eugene Kayijamahe Chapter 12. Biomaterials in Gorilla Research and Conservation . . . . . 253 Cathi Lehn

Section 4. Approaches—Building Regional and International Alliances Chapter 13. Transboundary Conservation in the Virunga-Bwindi Region ...... 271 Annette Lanjouw Chapter 14. The Great Ape World Heritage Species Project ...... 282 Richard W. Wrangham, Gali Hagel, Mark Leighton, Andrew J. Marshall, Paul Waldau, and Toshisada Nishida Chapter 15. Conservation Through Scientific Collaboration: Case Study—Western-gorilla.org ...... 296 Emma J. Stokes Chapter 16. Zoos and Conservation: Moving Beyond a Piecemeal Approach ...... 315 Tara S. Stoinski, Kristen E. Lukas, and Michael Hutchins FM.qxd 28/7/07 5:37 PM Page xv

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Chapter 17. The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force (BCTF) ...... 327 Heather E. Eves, Michael Hutchins, and Natalie D. Bailey

Author Index ...... 345

Subject Index ...... 353