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Redalyc.Sugar and Slavery: the Bittersweet Chapter in the 19Th Revista de Humanidades: Tecnológico de Monterrey ISSN: 1405-4167 [email protected] Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey México Galván, Javier A. Sugar and Slavery: the Bittersweet Chapter in the 19th Century Cuba, 1817-1886 Revista de Humanidades: Tecnológico de Monterrey, núm. 16, 2004, pp. 211-231 Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey Monterrey, México Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=38401609 How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative Sugar and Slavery: the Bittersweet Chapter ¡n the I9th Century Cuba, 1817 - 1886 Javier A. Calvan Santa Ana College La historia de Cuba en el siglo XIX es la historia de su industria azucarera. La transición de la esclavitud a la libertad se puede considerar como un proceso paulatino a lo largo de un continuo legal y político. Sin embargo, es crucial analizar las razones por las cuales la esclavitud terminó en Cuba en 1886, precisamente cuando la industria del azúcar estaba en su apogeo. La tesis propuesta aquí es que fue una combinación de factores domésticos y externos que finalmente culminaron en la abolición de la esclavitud. La disponibilidad de trabajadores a sueldo le permitió a los dueños de plantaciones en Cuba invertir su dinero no en esclavos, sino en otros sectores de la industria agrícola, tales como innovaciones tecnológicas. Un análisis del foro internacional del momento revela que los Estados Unidos y la Gran Bretaña continuaban presionando a España para que terminara el tráfico de esclavos y eventualmente ofreciera una emancipación total. En 1886, España finalmente autorizó una ley para la abolición total de la esclavitud, y así terminó con una institución moribunda que duró más de trescientos años en Cuba. Sugar cultivation and slavery were closely linked in 19th century Cuba. The transition from slavery to freedom on this Caribbean island can be best viewed as a gradual process along a legal and political continuum. However, it is crucial to explain why slavery ended in Cuba in 1886, precisely at a time when the sugar industry was still going strong. The thesis proposed here is that there was a combination of domestic and external factors that finally brought about the abolition of slavery. The availability of contract workers alíowed Cuban planters to invest their capital not in slaves but in other sectors of the sugar industry, such as technological innovations. An analysis of the international arena also reveáis how Spain continued to receive mounting pressure from the United States and Britain to formally end the slave trade and eventually take definitive steps towards legal emancipation. In 1886, Spain finally abolished the moribund institution of slavery that had lasted over three hundred years in Cuba. 212 Javier A. Calvan I. Introduction he history of Cuba in the XIX century is the history of sugar. The Tcultivation of this crop has historically affected every aspect of Cuban society, and although less dynamic than before, it continúes to be a driving forcé on the island's economy. During the colonial period, it became a Spanish sugar colony and this industry affected class structures, land tenure forms, patterns of investment, commerce, but most importantly for the purpose of this paper, it affected labor relations.1 At the time, the sugar economy was pervasive in most components of Cuban life. In addition, this crop placed Cuba in an important position in the world's economy. However, the role of Cuba in the international sugar market in the nineteenth century was both a blessing and a curse. The opportunities offered by world markets made the expansión of sugar production profitable, but it was the availability of slaves that made it possible. The sugar industry can be analyzed from an economic perspective, a technological approach to agriculture, or an emphasis on the labor forcé. Due to the tact that Cuba was comparitive a latecomer to the sugar industry and that it relied heavily on slave labor, the slave trade flourished on the island during the nineteenth century.2 By 1850, Cuba had approximately 1,500 sugar estafes in operation, and it was one of the largest sugar producers in the world, with the United States as its major importer.3 Table 1 below offers a general view of how Cuba ranked among the top five sugar producers in the global market during the mid I800s: Table 1. World Sugar Production in 1856 (Adapted from Hugh Thomas, 1971, p. 126) SUGAR Total production % of total (in tons) world production Cuba 359,397 25 British West Indies 147,911 10 U.S. (Louisiana) 132,468 9 Brazil 105,603 7 French West Indies 110,000 7 ' and Slnven/: lite Bittersuvet Clmpter in tlie 19th Century Cuba... 213 By the early I800s, sugar became irtcreasingly important to the Cuban economy. However, the sugar industry required the use of cheap labor, which carne in the form of African slaves. Consequently, the study of slavery in Cuba cannot be separated from the analysis of the sugar industry, and in turn it must be studied withiri the framework of the economic prevalence of this crop on the world market. This paper covers the economic, social, and political aspects of the sugar industry in a general way, but the emphasis is placed on the slave labor forcé used in the XIX century. More specifically, the focus of this research is between 1817 and 1886. The first date marks the first time Spain signed an international agreement with England to end slavery in Cuba.1 The latter date is the year in which slavery actually ended on the island. Thus, this research covers the struggle to make the transition from slavery to free labor in a period of almost seventy years (1817-1886). While there were a small number of slaves who worked as domestic servants in the households of La Habana, this article is focused on the study of sugar plantations, where the large majority of the slave population was concentrated in Cuba. The purpose of this paper is to present evidence that the abolition of slavery in Cuba was a painfully slow transition, and it was delayed for as long as legally possible by Cuban sugar planters and Spanish merchants. The thesis proposed here is that there was a combination of domestic and external factors that finally brought about the abolition of slavery in Cuba. Moreover, the transition from slavery to freedom on this Caribbean island can be best viewed as a gradual process along a legal and political continuum. The laws that restricted slavery between 1817-1886 were approved and amended when it was convenient for political, social, and economic reasons. In fact, a general review of the legal code shows that Spain took several attempts to officially abolish the slave trade in Cuba. However, even the laws that claimed abolition were retracted and amended to reduce their immediate effect. It is important to analyze how Cuba emerged as a powerful sugar producer and to study slavery vvithin the larger Latin American context. Before the 1800S, Saint Domingue (Haiti) had the most dyiiamic 214 Javier A. Calvan and efficient sugar plantation system in the world. However, the former French colony experienced a bloody revolt in 1789, which destroyed its economy. The leaders of the rebellion were black slaves in search of both independence and the complete abolition of slavery. The results of the rebellion included over 1,000 plantations destroyed, over 10,000 slaves dead, and at least 2,000 whites killed. Sugar production dropped dramatically, and within five years Haiti's capacity to compete in the world market was almost nonexistent. Spain quickly took advantage of Haiti's disappearance as a sugar producer, and it removed all taxes on exported sugar from Cuba to Éurope. All of a sudden, Cuban sugar growers found themselves in a privileged position: there was an expanded international sugar market and rising prices. By 1810, Cuba had doubled its sugar production to satisfy the needs of the European markets. By 1840, Cuba was the richest colony in the Spanish Crown. The need for a larger labor forcé also altered the demographics of the island at a rapid pace. Slave imports increased dramatically during the I800s. While there are many similarities between the island and the rest of colonial Spanish America, there are also crucial differences that help explain why Cuba was the last country to abolish slavery in Spanish America in 1886. 5 However, before discussing the abolitionist attempts in Cuba, it is necessary to be aware of the magnitude of slavery on the island compared to that of other colonies in the Spanish Empire during the colonial period. II. The numbers game: how many slaves? Several researchers have attempted to come up with the number of slaves that were brought to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade, but there is no clear consensúa on the exact number. Perhaps nobody really knows. Phillip Curtin carried out one of the most comprehensive studies (from a quantitative perspective) in the field. He is considered to be instrumental in determining the number of slaves that were transported during the Atlantic slave trade. According to Curtin, about 13 million slaves were brought to the Americas, and Spain transported about 1.5 million of them to its colonial territories. The first Spanish asiento (Royal permit) to deliver slaves to the American colories was granted in 1513, and Cuba was the last location in Spanish America to free slaves (1886).
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