LOBSTERSERIES COVER PHOTO: Unidentified lobster fisherman, with spiny lobster taken from a topentry woodenslat trap, Over 90%%uo of the spiny lobster landings are taken in thismanner. Picture from Gary E. Daois.f
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword Gary E. Davis 27 Florida'sSpiny Lobster Fishery: An Historical Perspective RonaldLabiskv, Douglas R. Gregory,Jr., and Joseph A, Conti 28 Review of the Horida Spiny Lobster Resource David C. Simmons 37 The LarvalRecruitment Problem of theSpiny Lobster RobertA. Menziesand J. MichaelKemgan 42 The PostlarvalStage of ScyllarideanLobsters WilliamG, Lyons 47 LobsterFishery Management under the Fishery Conservation and ManagementAct James R. Zuboy, A. C. Jones, and T. J. Costello 50 EconomicConsiderations in the Managementof the Horida Spiny Lobster Fishery Fred J. Prochaska and James C. Cato 53 JuvenileSpiny Lobster Gary E. Davis 57 Spiny LobsterCulture: An Alternativeto Natural Stock Management George R. Tamm 59
American FisheriesSociety 5410 Grosvenor Lane Bethesda, Maryland 20014
FLORIDA'S SPINY LOBSTER FISHERY: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Ronald F. Labisky, Douglas R. Gregory, Jr., and Joseph A. Conti
ABSTRACT
The Fiorida-basedfishery accounts for 98 percent of the spiny lobsters landed cornmerdaiiy in the United States; this catch is comprised almost exclusively of the Horida spiny lobster, Panu1irusargus. The commercial lobster industry began in the lower Florida Keys during the early 1800's, principally as a bait fishery that supported the local finfish industry. Subsequent devel- opments in the lobster fishery have essentially mirrored the prosperity of Key West. In 1908, landings totaled about 53,000 pounds,valued at $3,600.The fisher beganto exhibitprogressive expansion in the 1940's,a trendthat continuedthrough the 1970's. A sport diver! fishery for tobsters, which began in the 1950's, has also gained prominence. Coinmercial landings in Florida, induding catchesfrom international waters,peaked in 1972 at 11.4 million pounds, The peak in ex-vessellandings value, $13.4million, was attained in 1974.The strong international fishery, which developed during the 1960's,was severely curtailed in 1975 by the dosure of the Bahamian fishing grounds to foreign fishing. Domestic catchesfrom Florida waters dechned slightly during the 1970's, despite a substantialincrease in fishing effort. Retrospectively,the spiny lobster has not only strongly impacted the culture, sociology, and economics of south Fiorida, but has also emerged to rank second only to shrimp as Florid's leading fishing industry.
The Florida spiny lobster is a decapod crustaceanbelonging to the family Palinuridae, which contains 8 extant genera with 48 speciesthat are principally tropical and subtropical in distri- bution George and Main 1967!. These palinurids support major fisheriesworldwide the five top-ranked being Australia, South Africa, Brazil, Cuba, and the United States, respectively NMFS 1974; Streeter and Weidner 1976!. In the latter three western-centralAtlantic fisheries,P. argus, an inhabitant of the shallow continental shelf waters from North Carolina to Brazfi Williams 1965!, is the mainstay lobster species,accounting for 90 percent of the commercial catch Chekunova 1972!. In the United States, 98 percent of the commercial catch of spiny lobsters is taken by Florida-based fishermen Williams and Ronald Labisky Douglas R. Gregory, Jr. Prochaska 1977!. And the bulk of this catch, comprised exclu- sively of P. argus, comes from habitats associated with the species of prawns, Florida Keys Prochaskaand Cato 1974! Fig. 1!. A shrimps! growing to the In terms of ex-vesselvalue, the spiny lobster fishery in Florida weight of five pounds a piece, is second only to the shrimp industry Prochaska 1976a!. To live in great numbers in the date, the high in lobster landings, 11.4 million pounds, was holes of the coral rocks, on the reached in 1972, and the high in ex-vesselvalue, $13.4 million, mangrove islands: these in 1974. Even though these figures include lobsters taken by shrimps are by west-Indians Florida fishermen from international waters, they are in marked improperly called lobsters, al- contrast to the 53,000 pounds of lobsters valued at $3,600 though they have not the two landed in Florida in 1908 Crawford and De Smidt 1922!. claws, as lobsters: they are Man's discriminatory taste buds have vaulted the lobster to beautifully spotted with red, the lofty status of an epicurean delight. Consequentiy, the ac- yellow, blue, qreen, grey, and celerated popuhrity of the lobster has increased exploitation a little black; but theV all JosephA pressures on the world's lobster stocks. Nowhere is this more change into one red colour by true than in Florida. Technological advances and increased boiling..., " capitalizationwithin the spiny lobster fishing industry of FIorida, So descriptively, but mistakenly, wrote William Gerard De as in the fishery for the American lobster, Homarus americanus, Brahm 772, p. 11!, who had been appointed surveyor gen- in the North Atlantic Cobb 1976!, have placed heavy pressures eral of the British colony of East Florida, which had been re- on the resource in recent decades. In addition, these pressures cently acquired from the French and Spanishas a prizeof war in on the domesticstock have been magnified by the closure of the the Peace of Paris pact of 1763. The speciesreferred to by De previously available Bahamian fishing grounds. Now, declining Brahm was undoubtedly the spiny lobster, Panulirus argus, landings have not only reduced the profitability of spiny lobster commonly called the Caribbean or Florida spiny lobster or, fishing but also created concern as to the future stability of the among the Florida lobstermen, crawfish. domesticfishery itself. This paper tracesthe development of the
Fisheries, Vol. 5, No, 4 market for fresh fish inaintained a strong finfish industry in the ing lobster fishing was enacted by the State of Florida in 1919; rich watersof the Florida Keys, and, consequently,a lobster bait its intended purpose, as would be expected, was to conserve fishery. the supply of lobsters.Consequently, a closedseason was estab- Cast nets, gill nets, haul seines, and grains - or 3-tined lished between March 1 and June 1, but with provisions that barbed or barblessspears! were the most frequently used gear allowed the taking of lobstersfor fish bait, research,or propaga- for catching lobsters in the 1800's Brice 1898; Crawford and tion throughout the year Schroeder 1924!. In 1921 the closed De Smidt 1922!, Cast nets, constructed of woven twine with a season was changed to the period March 21 to June 21. diameter of 12-16 feet and fringed with lead weights, consti- Spiny lobster production increasedslowly during the 1920's tuted a popular and effective gear-type. Gill nets and seines Table 1!, presumably in response to the growing retail trade, were used primarily to take lobsters while they were scattered The fishery, which until this time had been supported by during feeding forays on the shallow grassflats. lobstersinhabiting shallow waters immediately surrounding Key The profitability of this early lobster fishery in Florida is con- West, was promoted to expand geographically and technologi- jectural. In 1895, lobsterssold at $0.02 per pound Brice 1898!; cally.By 1922the principalfishing grounds had beenextended thus, a daily catch of 100-200 pounds may have produced a to a 25-mile linear zone that encompassedthe southern shores handsome income for skilled lobstermen, who had but little of the lower Florida Keys and the shallow Atlantic reef areas capital invested in fishing gear and boats. both eastand west of Key West Crawford and De Smidt 1922!. The late 1880's chronicled an abrupt decline in the prosperity The geographicrange of the fisherywas probablydictated by of Key West. Sponge die-offs in 1879, coupled with apparent the limited capabilitiesof the then common sail-powered fishing overfishing, signaled a decline of the sponge fishery in the boats Fig. 2!. Those few fishermenwith gasoline-powered Florida Keys Collins 1887!. The cigar industry became flnan- boats were able to venture somewhat faither to Bahia Honda ciallv plagued by labor disputes Browne 1912!; its relocation to in the east and to Marquesas and the Dry Tortugas in the Tampa was underway by 1886 Thurston 1972!. And strained west but the overall small size of the boats reshicted their use political relations between the United Statesand Cuba precipi- to periods of favorable weather Crawford and De Smidt 1922!. tated Cuba's enactment in 1868 of a prohibitary duty on fresh Fishing technology was also changing. Bully nets Fig. 3!, fish imported from the United States. This enactment had by which had largely replaced the seines,nets, and grains of earlier 1882 taken the vigor out of Florida's finfish industry and its years, accounted for about 50 percent of the catch of spiny supporting spiny lobster bait fishery Thurston 1972!, Thus. the lobsters in the 1920's Crawford and De Smidt 1922!. This 1800's saw the birth, but little substantivegrowth, of the spiny change in fishing technology was precipitated by two factors: lobster fishery in Florida, first, increasingexploitation had reduced the number of lobsters that could be found in the shallow waters where seines and nets had been previously used effectively; and second, lobsters THE EARLY l900's speared with grains spoiled rapidly, and therefore had a lower The early 1900's marked a continuation of the decline in Key market value Crawford and De Smidt 1922!. Thus, the bully West's economy and population. The relocation of the sponge net became king. To deplov the bully net, a fisherman stood in fisheryto TarponSprings and the cigarindustry to Tampahad the bow of an open skiff that he pushed slowly with the long deprived Key West of its two principal industries Tebeau handle of the net until he spied a lobster or group of lobsters, 1971!. Although spiny lobsters maintained soine importance in whereupon he inverted the net and scooped up his catch. The the local retail markets, landings during the first decade of the bully net was effective to depths of about 2 fathoms Smith centuryremained low becausethe fisherywas still largelyde- 1948!. pendent on the finfish fishery, at this time principally an opera- Fish traps were the second most popular gear-type for taking tion that supplied only Key West. Other concurrent devel- spinylobsters during the 1920's,accounting for about 20 per- opments, however, were beginning to stimulate the spiny lobs- cent of the catch Crawford and De Smidt 1922!. These traps, ter fishery.The constructionof the OverseasRailroad in 1912 constructed of wire, measured about 36 x 24 x 20 inches. enabled dealers to experiment with shipment of spiny lobsters Trap fishermen usually employed only about 15 traps and to northern restaurants and hotels. At first, lobsters were checkedthem daily, The obvious advantagesof traps over bully shipped alive in barrels among alternating layers of sponge nets were that traps could be fished in deeper water and during clippings and ice. This inethod proved cumbersome and moderately bad weather, whereas bully nets required calm and costly; careful handling was required from the time of capture shallow water for visual sighting of the lobsters Schroeder until the lobsters reached their destination. The shipping of 1924!. cooked lobster tails, packed in ice, proved inore successful; That the spiny lobster fishery did not show progressive although the cooking processwas more labor intensive, rates of strength throughout the 1920's and 1930's was probably due to spoilage were much less for cooked tails than live lobsters the persistent economic turmoil that plagued Kev West, Al- Schroeder 1924!. By the late 1910's, the estimated annual though the early 1920's saw the entrance of fast-inoney enter- catch of lobsters was about 350,000 pounds; 40 percent of this prises in south Florida both a land boom and a spectacular catch was shipped, 40 percent was consuined locally, and 20 increasein rum-smuggling as a result of prohibition in 1920 percent was used as fish bait Schroeder 1924!. The commer- - Key West's economy was relatively unaffected and the island cial retail trade for spiny lobsterscontinued to expand and was city's population actuallv declined Tebeau 1971!. By the end firmly establishedbv 1920, as indicated by the construction of a of the 1920's spiny lobster production had increased to only large ice-making and cold storage facility in Key West, Markets about 900,000 pounds Table 1!. Florida's lobster regulations for spiny lobsters had been establishedin Miami, Jacksonville, were amended in 1929; the closedseason was lengthened from Atlanta, Philadelphia,New York, and Boston Schroeder 1924!. 3 to 4 months, March 21 to July 21; and for the first time, a The growing lobster fisheiy apparently stimulated concern for minimum legal sizelimit of 1 pound was established Prochaska the protection of the resource.The first legislationdirectly affect- and Baarda 1975!.
30 Fisheries Vol 5 No 4 Table 1, Landings,ex-vessel economic value, and fishing elort in the spiny lobster fPanuiltrusargus! fishery in Rorida, 1925-79.'
Pounds Price per Number Number Traps per landed Value pound of boats of traps boat or Date ,000's! $1,000's! $! or vessels ,000's! vessel
1925-26 88 $7 $ .08 1927-28 817 65 .08 1929-30 873 79 .09 1931-32 1,342 107 .08 1933-34 266 13 .05 1935-36 832 50 .06 1937-38 643 45 .07 1939 405 28 ,07
1940 400 28 .07 1941 2,087 104 .05 1942 1,673 117 .07 1943 1,911 229 ,12 1944 1,176 188 .16 1945 794 159 .20 1946 1,586 317 .20 1947 4,891 978 .20 1948 3,954 830 .21 1949 3,581 788 .22
1950 1,560 281 .18 376 12 31 1951 3,097 589 .19 319 17 53 1952 1,612 403 .25 102 15 146 1953 1,995 399 .20 147 26 175 1954 1.947 428 .22 157 30 194 1955 2,295 528 .23 166 39 235 1956 3,113 825 .27 128 33 256 1957 4,040 1,124 .28 161 37 228 1958 2,954 837 .28 187 34 184 1959 3,181 955 .30 254 52 204
1960 2,849 1,100 ,39 221 74 333 1961 2,803 969 .35 195 52 268 1962 3,107 1,187 .38 248 75 300 1963 3,583 1,408 ,39 246 80 326 1964 3,631 8!' 1,562 341 114 333 1965 5,714 7! 3,219 .56 332 139 418 1966 5,350 1! 2,469 ,46 488 151 309 1967 4,414 7! 2,733 .62 628 186 352 1968 6,155 3! 4,409 .72 452 168 373 1969 7,581 6! 5,258 .69 440 165 374
1970 9,869 2! 5,918 .60 492 219 262 1971 8,206 3! 7,057 .86 520 226 434 1972 11,417 8! 11,771 1.03 599 248 415 1973 11, 172 3! 11,661 1.04 671 280 417 1974 10,874 9! 13,382 1.23 690 371 538 19754 7,408 7! 9,863 1.33 823 520 632 1976 5,316 9! 8,586 1.60 1977 6,344 8!' 10,425 1,64 1978 4,585 5!' 9,610 2. 10 1979 5,950 2!' 11,705 1.97
'Catchand effortstatistics derived from the followingsources; Dawson and Idyll 1951;NMFS 1974; and unpublishedstatistics from NMFS, Southeast FisheriesCenter, Miami, Florida. 'Statistics not available. 'Numbers within parenthesesrepresent the percentage of landings comprised of lobsters caught in international waters. Bahamian continental shelf dosed to foreign fishing in 1975. 'Prehminary estimates. Spiny lobster production in south Florida actually declined during the 1930's, averaging only about 700,000 pounds an- nually Table 1!, History reveals that this slowing of the spiny lobster fishery was inevitable. First, the Great Depression se- verelycurbed the retailmarket for the spinylobster, which al- readyhad the statusof a luxuryfood in the North.Second, the city of Key West was in the throes of economic disaster;in 1934, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration a New Deal agency! intervened for purposes of rehabilitating the commu- nity Tebeau1971!. Third, the OverseasRailroad, Key West's only direct link to the Floridainainland, was irreparablyde- stroyed by the Labor Day humcane of 1935. The latter catas- trophe provided the impetus for the construction of a new roadway, the Overseas Highway, in 1938 Tebeau 1971!, Thus, a direct transportation link between the Florida mainland and Key West had again been established,and with better eco- Figure 3. Bully-netting for spiny lobsters. The bully net, fished nomic times ahead, a new opportunity for the spiny lobster froina smallskiff in shallowwater, was the predominantgear type industry. used to catch lobsters during the formative stages of Florida's fishery. THE 1940's: AN EVOLVING INDUSTRY The commercial flshing grounds for spiny lobsters during the 1940's expanded markedly extending from Palm Beach on World War II revitalizedKey West. The Navy reactivatedand Florida's east coast, throughout the Keys, and southwestward expanded its military base; more significantly, it constructed a toward the Dry Tortugas Dawson and Idyll 1951!. Within the water pipeline along the new OverseasHighway between the Horida Kevs, still the major grounds, fishing was concentrated Horida mainland and Key West to provide the city with a de- principally along the paralleling offshore reef in the Atlantic. pendable supply of fresh water Tebeau 1971}. Population and The commercial flshing gear used most cornmonlv in the prosperitv were reborn in the United States' southernmost city! 1940's,in orderof popularity,included wooden slat-traps, bully The spinv lobster fishery of south Horida evolved into a via- nets, and ice-can traps. The wooden slat-trap Fig. 4!, which has ble industry during the 1940's. The decade saw the catch of becomethe mainstaycommercial gear-type, was probably in- !obster double and the ex-vesselprice triple; the high point of troduced into the Keys fishery about 1940 Irvin Knowles 1980, the decade occurred in 1947 with a catch of nearly 5 million personal communication!. The slat-trap, 1 5 x 2 x 4 feet in pounds, valued at nearly $1 million Table 1!. Undoubtedly, the dimension. was constructed of wooden laths spaced about 1.5 lobster fishery benefited from the flourishing national economy inches apart; the entrance, guarded bv downward projecting of both the war and post-war years. laths. was in the top of the trap, Each trap was weighted with
Figure2. The earlyinshore fishing fleet at KeyWest fromSchroeder 1924!. These sailboats, called smackees, and skils were used in fishing for sponges,spiny lobsters,and finfish,
32 Fisheries, Vo!. 5, No. 4 stonesor concrete. Baited with fish heads,the traps were gener- afly set in 3-7 fathoms of water; each trap was deployed individ- uallv, and marked by line and float. A crew of two or three men, using conventional gasoline-powered boats up to 30 feet in length could fish 100-400 traps in total, but could work the traps at a rate of only about 100 traps per day becausethe pulling of traps had to be done manually. A good day's catch totaled 400-500 lobsters, or about 600-700 pounds Smith 1948!. The bully net, the principal gear of the early 1900's, was restncted in use to lobstermen who either fished in the shallow waters of Florida Bay or could not afford the capital outlay needed for slat-tmp fishing or both. Bully netters, although catching only 100-200 pounds of lobstersper day, did not have the vessel,bait, and trap expensesassociated with slat-trap fish- ing Smith 1948!. The ice-can trap emerged as an interesting gear-type in Horida during the 1940's Smith 1948!. These traps were con- structed from discardedrectangular steel tanks, about 30 x 9 x 48 inches in size, that had been used in ice-making. The single opening of the rectangularcan was collapsedin such a way as to leave two triangular entmncesfor lobsters.Lobsters entered the cans for the shelter they offered; consequently, these traps did not require bait. Generally worked bv lobstermen at 1- to 2-week intervals, can traps occasionally yielded a catch of as many as 100 lobsters. The weight of these can traps, however, limited their use to shallow waters -2 fathoms!. Each type of fishing gear was used for a specific purpose. Baited slat-trapswere employed primarily in the deeper waters associatedwith the offshore reef on the Atlantic side of the Keys; bully nets were used in the shallow waters of Florida Bay; and unbaited ice cans were used in shallow inshore waters. Traps baited with fish heads were ineffective in Florida Bay because Figure 4. The wooden slat-trap. First introducedinto south Florida the fish heads attracted stone crabs Menippe mercenania!, in the 1940's, the slat-trap has become the dominant fishing gear which, in turn, destroyed or maimed any lobsters captured in for spiny lobsters in Florida. the traps Irvin Knowles and Troy Baker 1980, personal com- lobster fishing as an occupation Trov Baker 1980, personal municaiion!. communication!. The market for spiny lobsterscontinued to expand, enhanced The increased fishing effort for spiny lobsters in the 1950's greatly by the advent of deep-freeze processing techniques stimulated further changes in harvest regulations. In 1953 the Smith 1948!. Delivered live to the fish buyers, lobsters in the Florida legislature shifted the chronology of the closed season best condition were sold to local retail markets and restaurants from the period March 21 to July 21 to the period April 15 to in the Keys. The bulk of the catch, however, was boiled, and August15, andredefined the legalsize limit from a minimumof then frozen for subsequentshipment. The 1940's also marked a 1 pound to a minimum tail measurementof 6 inches Prochaska surge in the foreign import of spiny lobster tails into the United and Baarda 1975!. The purpose of this size change was to States principally from the Caribbean, South African, and enable fishermen and law enforcement personnel to identify Australian fisheries Chace and Dumont 1949!, an event that legal-sizedlobsters more easily,Again, in 1955, the closed sea- signaled economic competition. Further expansion of the son was changed to the period March 31 to August 1. The Florida lobster fishery was on its way. rationale for the numerous changesin the timing of the 4-month closedseason must have been predicatedon politics rather than THE 1950's: GROWTH biology becausethe protectionof the breedingstock would have not changed appreciably within the outside limits of these The population of the Florida Keys Monroe County!, which calendar dates. had doubled during the preceding decade 14,000 in 1940 Throughout the 1950's, wooden slat-traps, baited with fish and 30,000 in 1950 reached 48,000 by 1960 Mathis et al. heads, canned sardines,or pet food, continued to be the most 1979!. This rapid growth was probably due to the large number prevalent commercialgear Cope 1959!. Ice-can traps were still of military familiesstationed in Key West druing World War II, to used, though Siebenaler 952! mentions that these traps were post-war prosperity, and to an expanding tourism industry. illegalbecause they capturedmany sublegal-sized lobsters. The The spiny lobster fishery experienced similar growth during bully net continued to decline in use during the 1950's the 1950's. The number of boats and vesselsdeployed in the Siebenaler 1955; Cope 1959!. However, a new lobster pre- fishery more than doubled, from 102 in 1952 to 254 in 1959, dator appeared on the Florida scene during the 1950's skin and the number of traps fished more than tripled, from about and scuba divers equipped with gigs and spears Cope 1959!, 17,000 in 1951 to about 52,000 in 1959 Table 1!. The catch which were then legal. This event marked the beginning of the and ex-vesselprice of lobsters also increased. The combination underwater sport fishery that today competeswith the commer- of a warm climate and an attmctive lobster market encouraged cial fishery for the lobster resource Beardsley et al. 1975!. many Navy retirees to remain in the Florida Keys and to adopt The major fishing grounds in the 1950's were still centeredon
July August 1980 33 the southern or reefsideof the Florida Keys in depths from 3-15 cowhide was lessexpensive, longer lasting, and easierto store. fathoms Cope 1959!. An experienced crew of two men was Furthermore, slat-traps baited with cowhide attracted lobsters, able to work as many as 150 traps per day Cope 1959!; the but not predatory stone crabs,and thus could be fished success- traps were usually pulled and rebaited every 2-12 days fully for the first time in Horida Bay Troy Baker and Irvin Siebenaler 1955; Cope 1959!. When resettingthe trap, one or Knowles 1980, personal communication!. With the inclusion of more live lobsters were commonly left in the trap as a lure; in Florida Bay, the fishable area for spiny lobsters in south Horida addition to the standard bait Cope 1959!. As a rule of thumb, a nearly doubled in size. catch of 3 pounds of legal-sizedlobsters per slat-trap per week Both the number of boats/vessels and the number of traps in was considered satisfactory. the fishery essentiallydoubled during the 1960's Table 1!. Not The boats used in the lobster fishery during the 1950's only were traps added to the fishery by incoming fishermen,but rangedfrom 14-footskiffs, usually propefied by outboarden- the number of traps used by each fisherman also increased. gines,to 36-foot motor launches Cope 1959!, The typical Concurrently, both the catch and the ex-vesselprice of lobsters commercial boat was wooden hulled, 26-36 feet in length and also doubled. The catch in 1969 totaled 7.5 million pounds of shallow draft!, and powered by diesel, marine gasoline, or valued in excess of $5 million Table 1!. Interestingly, the converted automobile engines. Although diesel engines, be- poundage of lobsters taken per fished trap reflected no consis- causeof lower fuel and maintenancecosts, were preferred, their tent upward or downward trend. high initial purchaseprice steeredmost fishermento gasoline Throughout the 1960's, fishermen were switching to larger engines. craft from boats lessthan 5 tons to vesselsgreater than 5 tons! The slat-trapswere commonly pulled by hand or hand-lifted at a rapid pace Williams and Prochaska1976!, This increasein with davits. However, Cope 959! reported that some fisher- .boat sizeappeared to be associatedwith the development of the men used a gypsy head driven by a power takeoff from the commercial fiberglassboat-building industry in the lower Rorida main engine or by a separatesmall gasoline engine to haul their Keys Troy Baker 1980, personal communication!. The modern traps aboard the boat; the latter, of course, greatly increasedthe lobster fishing vesselis of fiberglassconstruction, 30-55 feet in number of traps that could be fished per boat. length, and diesel powered Fig. 5!. Williams and Prochaska The 1950's were a period of growth for the spiny lobster 976! postulated that the demand for larger and faster vessels fishery,stimulated primarily by favorablemarket prices and an was influenced by the availability of lobsters on offshore fishing influx of additional fishermen, including many Navy retirees. grounds probably referring to the Bahamas!. By 1967, only Looking ahead, the 1960's were to become a decade of con- about 43 percent of the lobsters landed in Florida were domes- tinued growth, characterized by additional fishermen, ticallv harvested,the remainder coming from Bahamian waters. technologicalprogress, explosive expansion of fishing grounds, Again, the increase in fishing effort precipitated changes in and development of a south Florida-basedinternational fishery. lobster fishing regulations, In 1965 legislation was enacted to define the minimum size limit further, to protect egg-bearing females,and to regulate gear. The minimum sizelimit was rede- THE 1960's: MORE GROWTH fined as a carapacelength measurementof 3 inches and a tail The decade of the 1960's was a period of radical change in length of 5.5 inches. The taking, or stripping, of egg-bearing the south Florida spiny lobster fishery. Thousands of Cuban females was prohibited. Traps and buoys were required to be immigrants entered the fishery; the average ex-vesselprice per not only permanenfly marked with the owner's lobster permit pound nearly doubled; technologicalimprovements occurred in number, which was obtained at no cost, but also color coded; boat design, engine systems, electronic navigation, depth re- this effort appeared to be aimed at discouragingtrap theft and corders, and trap-pulling systems; domestic fishing areas ex- poaching. Also, an import permit was established to allow panded; and an international fishery developed. Florida fisherman to land lobsters captured in international Some 300,000 Cuban immigrants, fleeing Fidel Castro's waters. newly established government, setfled in Florida during the Thus the lobster fishery of the 1960's was characterizedovert- 1960's Tebeau 1971!. Many of those immigrants who had ly by growth and prosperity. The upcoming 1970's, however, been fishermen in their home country tumed to fishing once would chronicle more troubled times for this crustaceanfishery, they were in Horida. The United States government provided subsidiesand other services,via the Cuban Alien Act, to expe- THE 1970's: UNCERTAIN TIMES dite the settlement of the thousands of new resident aliens. One importantaspect of thiqaid was the exemption for Cubans from In 1971, it became legal to land spiny lobsters from intema- the restrictionson fishing-vesselownership by aliens Holmsen tional waters in Florida during the state's closed season 1972!, Many Miami-basedimmigrant fishermen tumed to lobs- Prochaska and Cato 1974!. International catches by Florida ter fishing, and primarily concentrated their efforts on the al- lobstermen comprised nearly half of the lobsters landed during ready familiar Bahamian fishing areas Holmsen 1972; Sim- the early 1970's, despite a loss in the availability of some tradi- mons 1974!. tional foreign fishing grounds. Bahama's expansion of its As the ex-vesselprice of lobsterscontinued to increase,more sovereignoffshore fishing zone from 3 to 12 miles in 1969 lobstermen were able to obtain diesel engines,larger boats, and forced many Rorida fishermento turn to the more distant electronic equipment. During the early part of the decade, hy- Caribbean fishing grounds, By 1972 as many as 50 Florida- draulic systems were developed for pulling traps Troy Baker based freezer boats were fishing for lobsters in the Caribbean 1980, personal communication, This mechanical innovation, Holmsen 1972!. Lobster landings in Florida, including intema- prevalent by the late 1960's, facilitated a markedincrease in the tional catches,peaked in 1972 at 11.4 million pounds, valued at number of traps that could be worked per boat per day. A!so, approximately$13 million Table 1!, Total landingsremained the use of salted cowhide as lobster bait was introduced during high until 1975, when they declined to 7.4 million pounds a the mid-1960's; compared to fish heads and canned sardines, decreaseof 35 percent from 1972. The decfine in Florida land-
34 Fisheries, Vol. 5, No. 4
Beardsleyet al. 1975; Wise 1976!. A tremendousillegal market tributed data on ihe recreational catch of spiny lobsters in for sublegal-sizedlobsters shorts! also developed and persists Florida. Many of the statisticson landings and fishing effort were Johnson 1974; Warner et al. 1977!. In fact, trap robbing, pre- obtained through the courtesy of Statistics Division, TIMS, cipitated by declining catches and the illegal trade in shorts, Southeast FisheriesCenter, NMFS. Reviews of the manuscript becameso prevalent that various fishmen groups resorted to the were provided by Drs. F. G. Walton Smith, International renting of private patrol planes to protect their traps from OceanographicFoundation, Miami, Florida; Clarence P. Idyll, poachers.Collectively, theseincreasing harvest pressureson the NOAA, International Fisheries,Washington, D.C.; Dr. Albert C. resource provided impetus for the initiation of researchon the Jones, Southeast Fisheries Center, NMFS, Miami; and Wm. biology and management of the spiny lobster by federal, state, Seaman, Jr., Florida Sea Grant College, University of Florida, and university scientists Seaman and Aska 1974!. The upshot Gainesville.This study was supported by NOAA F!orida Sea of this effort prompted the American Institute of Fishery Re- Grant Contract Nos. 0<7-158-4406 and 04-8-M01-76!, the search Biologists to sponsor the publication of a position paper U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Florida Cooperative Fish and on the Horida spiny lobster fishery Beardsley et al. 1975!. Wildlife Research Unit Contract No, 14-16-009-79-061!, and A tangential problem, specifica!iyillegal narcoticssmuggling, the University of FIorida. also cast shadowson the south Florida lobster fishery during the This paper is a contribution Journal Series 2406! of the 1970's, The smuggling of narcoticsinto south Florida is preva- Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida. lent, hard to police and very lucrative. That smuggling affects the lobster fishery is certain, but its short- and long-term impact LITERATURE CITED can only be surmised.To illustrate, lobster fishing is a hard way Beardeley,G.L, T.d. Costello, G. E.Davis, A. C. donee, and D, C. Simmons. 1975. The to make a modest living, whereassmuggling is an easy, though Roridaspiny lobster 8sheryi A whitepaper. Fla. Scf. 38 !:144 149 risky, way to make megadollars;consequently, some fishermen Brice.J. d. 1898. 6. The 8shand lishedes ofthe coastal waters of RorldaPages 263 342in UnitedStates Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Part XXII. Report of theCommissioner for have tumed their attention to narcotics smuggling because of theyear ending June 30, 1896. U.S. Government Printing Ofgce, Washington, D.C., USA. the lure of big money. Smuggling activities, therefore, lnay be Browne,d. B. 1973 912!. KeyWest The ald and the new A facsimilereproduction of the 1912edition. BicentennialRondlana Facsimile Series!. Univ. Ra. Press, Gainesville, Fla. actually providing a reduction in the fishing effort for lobster; USA. such a reduction, of course, would not be evident in the re- Chace,F. A.,and W. H. Dumont. 1949. Spiny lobsters Idennnratian, world distribution, and ported statistics on effort. Substantial overcapitalization could U.S.trade. Comm. Rsh. Rev. 11 !:1 12. Chekunova.W.I. 1972.Geagragcheskoe rasproslranenle kolyuchlkh langustov i ekologiches- also be occurring becausesmuggling requires larger, faster, and kiefaktory, apredefyayushchis ikh pramyslovye skopleniya. Geographical distribution of more expensivevessels than lobster fishing; these vessels,after spiny!obstrns and ecological factors determining their commercial concentmtions. ! English the heyday of smuggling has passed,will undoubtedly be redi- translationNMFS Foreign Fishery Translahons Tr 73-5 X 511 pp. ! BonitetMiravogo Okenana,Trudy Vses. Nauchno-Issled Inst. Morsk Rybn Khoz.Okeanogr. VNIRO! rected toward fishing. And, finally, no industry or community 77 1110 119. can be infiltrated by illegal activities and still remain unaffected. Cobb,S. d. 1976.The Amencan lobster: The biology of Homarus emericanus. University of RhodeIs!and/NOAA Sea Grant,!dar. Tech. Rep. 49:1 32. And a new uncertainty for the spiny lobster fishery has liter- Coglns,J. W.1887. X!V. Reporton the discovery and investigation offishing grounds, made ally swept in from the sea. The recent 980! massiveimmigra- bythe Fish Comnessian steamer Alhatrass dudng a cmisealong the Atlantic Comt and in the tion of Cuban refugees into Key West and south Florida will Gulfol iMestco;with notes on the Gug 8shenes. Pages 217 311in UnitedStates Camrrus- sional Fishand Rsherfes. Pari Xlf .Report of theCommissioner for 1885. United States very likely impact Florida's lobster fishery through the addition GovernmentPrinting Oglce, Washington, D.C., USA. of more Cuban lobstermen to the already crowded fishing Cope,C. E. 1959.Spiny lobster gear and Fishing methods U S Fish Wildl Serv.Leaf ranks just as it did in the 1960's. 487:1 17. Crawford,D. R., and W. J. J. DeSmidt 1922. The spiny lobster, Panulirus mgus, of southern The Fishery Conservationand ManagementAct of 1976 has Florida:its natural history and utllisatlon. Bull. Bur. Fish. 38: 281 310.United States Gov- had significant impact on many United States fisheries,includ- emmentPanting Ofhce, Washington, D.C. Dawson,C. E., andC. P. Idyll.1951. Invesagatlons on the Florida spiny lobster. Panuhrus ing that for the spiny lobster. Importantly, P, argus is a species argre Latreille!Ra. Board Conserv. Tech. Serv. 2:1 39. targeted for Fishery Management Plans by the South Atlantic, DeBrahm, W. G. 1974 772!. The At anticpiot. A facsimilereproducnan ofthe 1772 edition Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Fishery Management Councils. BicentennialFloddiana Facsimile Series!. Univ. Presses Ra Gainesville,Ra. USA George,R. W.,and A. R.Main. 1967. The evolunon ol spiny lobsters Pallnuridae I:A studyof The direction and impact of these federal regulations on the evolutionin themarine environment. Eva!ution 21 !:803 820. resource is as yet unknown. That new management strategies Hotmsen,A. 1972.Hmvesnng spiny lobsters off Florida.Madtlmes 16 86 7. are needed to insure the maintenance of a maximum sustain- Johnson,L E. 1974,Stansecal trends in thespiny lobster 8shery. Pages 15 18in W.Seaman, Jr.,and D. Y. Asks,eds. Conference proceedings: Research and information needs of the able yield in the south Florida spiny lobster fishery is, however, Floridaspiny lobster 8shery. Ra. Sea Grant Pragr. SUSF-SG-74-201. fully recognized, Mathls,K., J. C.Cato, R. L. Degner, P. D. Landrum,and F, d, Prochaska. 1979 Commer- cial8shing acnvity and faoity needs in Rortda:Dade and Monroe Counties Univ. Ra., Agnc History reflects that the spiny lobster has not been a passive MarketRes. Cent. Ind. Rep 79-3:1 68. force in the settlement and development of south Florida. Nationalblur!ac Fisheries Service 1974. Amencan and spiny lobsters 1947 73: Basic Rather this marine crustaceanhas vividly impacted the culture, econamicindicators. Naaonal Manne Rshedes Service, NOAA, Carr Fish. Stat. 6272: 1 58. Prachaeka,F.d. 1976a.Ronde commerdal manne 8sheries: Growth, re!ative importance, and sociology, and economicsof the F!orida Keys, a processthat is inputtrends. Ra. Sea Grant Prost. Rep. 11:1 50, destined to continue in the future. De Brahm's non-clawed Prochaska,F.d. 1976b.An economicanalysis ol effort end yield in theFlorida spiny lobster "shrimps" have indeed done well! indushywith management considerations. Pages 661 674in B.F. Phillips, B. F.Cobb, ill, andA. B. Stockton,compilers. Proceedings of the first annual tropical and subtropical 8shenestechnotagtml conference. Texas A&M Univ. Sea Grant TAh U-SG-77-105. Prochaska,F.J., andd. R, Beards.1975. Rartda's 8sheries management programs: Their ACKNOWLEDGMENTS development,administration, andcurrent status. Untv. Fla., Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 768:1 64 Prochaska,F.d., and J. C. Cato. 1974. Landings, values, and prices in commercial8sheries John D. Newton, Jr., Department of Anthropology, and Wal- forthe Florida Keys region. Ra, Grant Progr. SUSF-SG-74- X ii 2 !. ter R. Keithley, Jr,, Department of Food and ResourceEconom- Schroeder.W.C. 1924.Rsherles of KeyWest and the dam industry of southernRorida AppenrkxXII to the Report of the United States Commissioner of Fishenes for 1923.Bureau ics, University of Florida, Gainesville,contributed resource ma- ol FisheriesDocument 962. United States Government Printing Ofgce, Washington, D.C. terials and ideas to the paper. Irvin Knowles and Troy Baker, Seaman.W., Jr., and D. Y, Aska. eds. 1974. Conference proceedings: Research and informa- veteran Key West lobstermen, generouslyshared their observa- tion needso! the Rondespiny lobster 8shery. Ra. SeaGrant progr. SUSF-SG-74- 201:1 64. tions on the development of the spiny lobster fishery. Jalnes R. Slehenaler,d,B, 1955.Commerdal fishing gear and 8shing methods in Rarlda.Ra. Board Zuboy, SoutheastFisheries Center, NMFS, Miami, Florid, can- Conserv.Tech. Ser. 13:1 47
36 Fisheries, Vol. 5, No. 4 Simmons,D.C. 1974Studies on the U.S spiny lobster fishery in theBahamas region Pages Williams,A. a. I'!hs 'Ihedecapod crustaceans o the Carolinas U S.ash Wild! Sent Fish. 37 41in W.Seaman Jr andD Askseds Conference proceedings Research anJ inf