Renewable and Sustainable Energy Production in Saudi Arabia According to Saudi Vision 2030; Current Status and Future Prospects

Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Review Renewable and sustainable energy production in Saudi Arabia according to Saudi Vision 2030; Current status and future prospects

* Y.H. Ahssein Amran a, Y.H. Mugahed Amran b, c, , Rayed Alyousef b, Hisham Alabduljabbar b a Department of Telecommunication and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sana’a University, PO Box 1247, Sana’a, Yemen b Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz, University, 11942, Alkharj, Saudi Arabia c Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT, Amran University, 9677, Quhal, Amran, Yemen article info abstract

Article history: Renewable and sustainable energy (RnSE) resources have recently been marked as a major key for a Received 22 September 2019 stable economy worldwide, particularly in developed countries, such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Received in revised form (KSA). RnSE has been used in diverse technological applications and is shown to be an auspicious and 2 December 2019 reliable substitute for common hydrocarbon as an energy source. The KSA is a dynamic state that faces a Accepted 6 December 2019 rapid growth in population rate, which has caused large electricity consumption. Thus, the KSA has Available online 9 December 2019 invested billions of dollars in installing huge RnSE projects in many locations around the country with Handling editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Klemes robust financing capabilities. However, this study aims to review the current status, growth, potential, resources, the sustainability performance and future prospects of RnSE technologies in KSA according to Keywords: Saudi Vision 2030. The resources of RnSE such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, and biomass have been Alternative energy reviewed. It is found that the solar power, as an example, has been proven to be one of the sufficient RnSE CO2 emissions source with abundant technological advancement in electricity generation for more than 50 years. The Fossil fuels usage of RnSE resources reduces the reliance on oil and natural gas and introduces RnSE from clean and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) maintainable resources for the Saudi national economy. The shortages of electricity and the challenges to Nonrenewable/Renewable and sustainable conquer the increment in the demands of electrical in the nearest future have been also deliberated. The energy (NRnSE/RnSE) RnSE resources studies found that some of RnSE technologies have not been used adequately at present and might play a fi ’ Saudi electricity signi cant role in the upcoming of KSA s RnSE. Besides, it is found that there is a need to inspect the potential of offshore-wind, biomass, and thermal energy. Further, this review attempts to provide a comprehensive insight into the potential applications of RnSE technologies for developing a sound energy policy to attain energy security and reduce cost, thereby ensuring the efficiency of RnSE applications toward the long-term prosperity and energy reservation in the KSA. This paper has been concluded with several recommendations for the use of these RnSE resources. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 2 2. Energy demand and growth ...... 4 2.1. Electricity consumption in the KSA ...... 5 2.2. Saudi water desalination ...... 6 3. Potential and efficiency of RnSE in the KSA ...... 7 4. Non-renewable and sustainable energy ...... 7 4.1. Effect ...... 8

* Corresponding author. Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz, University, 11942, Alkharj, Saudi Arabia. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (Y.H.M. Amran). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119602 0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602

4.1.1. CO2 emissions ...... 8 4.1.2. vol and cost of consumption ...... 8 5. Renewable energy sources in the KSA ...... 8 5.1. Solar energy ...... 10 5.2. Wind energy ...... 10 5.3. Water energy ...... 10 5.4. Geothermal energy ...... 11 5.5. Biomass energy ...... 12 6. Trends of energy consumption in the KSA ...... 12 7. Renewable energy distribution ...... 12 8. Economic return from RnSE technology ...... 14 9. Benefits of RnSE in the KSA ...... 15 9.1. RnSE applications in the KSA ...... 15 10. Conclusion ...... 16 Declaration of competing interest ...... 17 Acknowledgment ...... 17 References ...... 17

List of acronyms mbbl/d Million oil barrels per day US United States KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia PV Photovoltaic RnSE Renewable and sustainable energy IO Invert osmosis NRnSE Nonrenewable/renewable and sustainable energy KACST King Abdullah city for science and technology SAR Saudi riyal IRENA International renewable energy agency GWe Gigawatt electrical bbl Billion barrels MWh Million watt per hours NGL Natural gas liquid OPEC Organization of the petroleum exporting countries TCM Trillion cubic meters GCC Gulf cooperation council BCM Billion cubic meters ME Middle East MCM/day Million cubic meters/day GW Giga Watt CSP Concentrated thermal power GDP Gross domestic product REPDO Renewable energy project development ofﬁce

CO2 Carbon dioxide ERI Energy research institute AC Air-conditioning WtECCGTmbGTC Waste-to-energy Combined cycle gas turbine TWh Terawatt hours MillibarsGas turbine cogen KACARE King Abdullah city for atomic and renewable energy

1. Introduction oil wealth (Ong et al., 2011). The KSA, with a population of more than 31 million, is seeing a rapid development in the The increasing global energy demand and ecological awareness manufacturing sector to meet the growing energy demand, with a have led to signiﬁcant pressure on applying sustainable energy rate of 5% per year (Fig. 1)(Al-Sulaiman and Jamjoum, 1992). The (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015a; Dincer, 2000). Conservatively, use of national electricity and oil in the KSA has increased at an natural gas, coal, and oil, which amount to more than 80% of total alarming rate in comparison with other countries worldwide energy resources, are the main sources of energy being used (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). Almost 70% of the population is under 30 worldwide (Hosenuzzaman et al., 2015; Tlili, 2015). As traditional years old, and the yearly claim for new houses is projected to be energy sources provide ecological contamination via greenhouse 2.32 million by 2020 (Alrashed and Asif, 2015). The electricity de- gas emissions and additional means, sustainable clean energy mand in the KSA is also predicted to reach 60 GW in the same year sources seem to be feasible substitutes for preserving the atmo- (Qader, 2009). Meanwhile, a 1% decrease in the yearly electricity sphere and public health (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015a; Bilgen, consumption is expected to lessen the energy bill by $35 billion by 2014). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), with a total area of 2020 (Alaidroos and Krarti, 2015). The dominant energy grid approximately 2.25 million km2, is the biggest state in the Arabic scheme has delivered electricity to almost 80% of the population Peninsula and Middle East (ME). In the KSA, oil was discovered nine residing in the kingdom’s reserves and manufacturing centres. decades ago, that is, in 1938, and the country began exporting oil in Around US $117 is estimated to be invested in the state’s energy 1939 (Report, 2012; Tlili, 2015). As such, the KSA became the top oil sector with regard to the 25-year tactical energy plan (Salam and producer and exporter worldwide within a few years (Jun, 2013; Khan, 2018). Stambouli et al., 2012). The KSA is a vibrant nation with consider- Along with government assessments, the predicted electricity able energy demand due to the increasing population rate, the use demand in the KSA is expected to surpass 120 GW by 2032 (Salam of low-charged electricity, and increasing desalinated water and Khan, 2018). Saudi Vision 2030 (SV2030) aims to set up (Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011). The Saudi economic growth has renewable and sustainable energy (RnSE) projects to afford 9.5 GW multiplied for the past 30 years due to the available natural gas and of RnSE (Khan, 2019). If energy preservation and substitute energy Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 3

Fig. 1. Saudi power transmission network (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006; Company, 2013; Jun, 2013).

expertise, and skills. The King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy (KACARE) planned to use a stable mix of viable atomic and feasible RnSEs in a sustainable manner to produce energy and maintain the KSA’s resources of natural gas and oil for future use (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015a; Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Kinninmont, 2010; Qader, 2009; U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a). Thus, the KSA is known for its role as an international energy provider while guaranteeing the long-term affluence and energy security of the KSA. Electricity production in the KSA is essentially based on gas and oil capitals, and up to 240 TW h (TWh) of electricity is expended. The state is expected to consume 736 TWh by 2020 (International Energy Agency, 2011; Jun, 2013; Sidawi, 2011). Almost 80% of electricity is used for air- conditioning (AC) purposes. An additional 17 million kWh is expended by water distillation industries to afford 235 L/day of drinking water per person. Moreover, the KSA has serious issues from fuel incineration, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. Emissions have grown from 252,000 to 446,000 Gg in 2000 and at present, correspondingly; Fig. 2. Full depiction sign of the power system (Connolly et al., 2010). the influence of gas is almost 77,000 Gg, whereas that of oil is approximately 175,000 Gg (International Energy Agency, 2011). The current CO2 emission per person has increased from 0.012 Gg to measures are hindered, the global demand of fossil fuels for energy, 0.016 Gg in 2000 (Al-mulali, 2012; Energy Technology Perspectives, manufacturing, desalination, and transportation is projected to 2015, 2015; International Energy Agency, 2011; U.S. Energy increase from 3.4 to 8.3 million oil barrels per day (bbl/d) to in 2010 Information Administration, 2016). The KSA authorities are now and 2028, respectively (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). The goal is to concentrating on emerging RnSE resources that do not require large shape an energy platform that can encounter a significant share of amounts of gas and oil reserves (Khan, 2019). The KSA has the this increasing demand and advance practical knowledge, highest rank in gross domestic product (GDP) among the Gulf 4 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602

Table 1 Major projects to be constructed as a part of SV2030

Project Name Location Year of Total Area Cost, Billion Expected Date of Refs Notice (km2) USD completation

New Taif Project Taif 2017 1250 3 2020 Parliament and Arabia (2019) Diriyah Gate Project Diriyah 2017 1.5 e 2030 Al-Qiddiya Project Al-Qiddiya, south-west 2017 334 2.7 2022 Salman and Riyadh of Riyadh (2019) Al-Faisaliah project West of Makkah 2017 2,450 e 2020 Parliament and Arabia (2019) Downtown Jeddah Jeddah 2017 5.2 4.8 2022 Lawati (2019) NEOM Northwest of Saudi Arabia 2017 26,500 500 2025 Hadfield (2017) The Renewable Energy Project Multiple Locations 2018 e 200 2030 Reuters (2018) Amaala Project Along the Red Sea 2018 3,800 e 2020 Hadfield (2017) King Salman Energy Park Between Dammam and Al- 2018 50 1.6 2021 Salman and Riyadh Ahsa (2019) Al-Ula Vision Al-Ùla 2019 22500 e 2030 King Salman Park, Sports Boulevard, Green Riyadh 2019 þ149 23 e Salman and Riyadh Riyadh (2019) Great Mosque of Mecca Mecca 2017 250,000 21.3 2018 Rahman and Khondaker (2012) Mall of Saudi Riyadh 2017 8666,000 3.2 2020 Salman and Riyadh (2019) New Jeddah Downtown e Phase 1 Jeddah 2017 e 2 e Salman and Riyadh (2019)

Cooperation Council (GCC), but it produces the highest CO2 rate, The dependence on oil and its byproducts accounts for approxi- indicating a reliance on gas and oil for energy production (Erroukhi mately 35%e45% of the GDP, 75% of the budget, and 90%e95% of et al., 2016; Kinninmont, 2010; Qader, 2009; Wogan et al., 2017). KSA income (Rodney et al., 2012). The KSA, as the chief economy in the GCC, is considerably reliant Considering the sustainability growth method, vending the oil on nonrenewable energy sources, and the need for the KSA to at a price replicating its increasing scarcity and value indicates a discover a substitute energy source is persisting (Fig. 2)(Bekhet setting price that may obtain its destined production level in the et al., 2017; Connolly et al., 2010). To reverse this situation, the future. However, this approach would mean additional talks with KSA is strongly advised to build an RnSE system (Casper, 2004; other producers of oil, in particular the Organization of the Petro- Salam and Khan, 2018). The main reasons for the development of leum Exporting Countries (OPEC), on the approved capacity in a wide-ranging energy strategy are energy security and cost barrel terms to be made. Vicissitudes would be established with reduction. Therefore, embracing a substitute energy plan in this respect to price. Hence, the KSA’s oil production has reduced from country will contribute to job creation and can be a driving force for 17% in 1980 to 10.4% at present. Furthermore, the current price local RnSE (Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2015; Van der Zwaan et al., 2013). trend and long-term tendency for oil prices has gone down due to increased global production, great competences in novel technologies, and tactic conservation. With these factors, the KSA was motivated to create a solid sustainable economic development in the upcoming decades (Table 1). For instance, RnSE is their priority in the development plan, aiming to set up 9500 MW of RnSE projects by 2023 (Khan, 2019). Moreover, the KSA, like other countries worldwide relying on RnSE resources, must critically inspect the oil production relative to sustainability and overall cost. A substitution of technology or other sources could be considered for resilient properties in the future. However, varying revenue resources have led RnSE to become one of the topmost priorities in the progressive SV2030 development. This study reviews the demand, growth, source, and effect of non-RnSE (NRnSE) in the KSA. This review seeks to provide a comprehensive insight into the potential applications of RnSE technologies for developing a sound energy policy that attains energy security and energy cost reduction. This goal ensures beneﬁcial economic returns, contributions, and efﬁciency of RnSE applications toward the long-term prosperity and energy reservation of the KSA in modern industries today.

2. Energy demand and growth

In the KSA, signiﬁcant alterations were well known in the total main energy consumption between 2007 and 2018 (Fig. 3)(British Fig. 3. Total of KSA electricity consumption between 2005 and 2018 by MWh (Matar Petroleum Company, 2017; Production et al., 2019). Moreover, all and Elshurafa, 2018; Wogan et al., 2019). GCC countries follow the same tendency, but levels are altered as a Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 5

Other Industrial 4% 18% residential 49% governmental 13%

commercial 16%

Fig. 5. Electricity consumption by sectors in 2016 (Authority, 2017; Demirbas et al., 2017).

meet the demands of power to all sectors at the whole regions all over the country, with a capacity of more than 123 GW by 2032, with about 52 GW, 46 GW, 5 GW, 2 GW, to be produced by PV, nuclear energy, CSP, and wind, respectively. In addition to the other clean resources of RnSE such as combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), gas turbine cogen (GTC), steam, steam cogen and open cycle GT, to be installed in the period between 2015 and 2032 (Fig. 4)(Walid et al., 2015).

2.1. Electricity consumption in the KSA

The KSA’s population has increased to 27 million from 1960 (4 Fig. 4. The RnSE technology parts in the entire electricity production (TWh) million) to 2016 (31 million) (Key World Energy Statistics, 2016, e 2015 2032 (Walid et al., 2015). 2016; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). The KSA is deemed as the chief electricity consumer and producer in the GCC, with a total of 345 TWh gross manufactures in 2016. Approximately result of numerous factors, such as economic growth, suburbani- 59% (205 TWh) of total output was from gas and nearly 41% zation, and population. The manufacturing sectors account for (140 TWh) was from oil (Erroukhi et al., 2016). The KSA expends majority of the energy consumption in the GCC, signifying 50% of around 1/4 of its oil supply, and energy claim is predicted to up- the total demand. The transportation sector ranks second, ac- surge considerably, with a consumption rate of approximately counting for approximately 32% of the total demand, followed by 9500 kWh/year per person amid heavy subsidies (Khan et al., 2017). 5% in the commercial sector, 10% in the residential sector, and 2% in Production volume is more than 60 GW electrical (GWe) (Buckley other sectors (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2013). For and Shah, 2018). However, the electricity authority declared that energy consumption, the residential sector ranks the highest in about 8.6 million subscribers consume 297 thousand GWh in 2016 demand in the KSA (Demirbas et al., 2017). Between 2002 and 2018 (Authority, 2017; Demirbas et al., 2017). The peaks of demand to (Production et al., 2019), electricity consumption in the KSA electricity are predicted to be 120 and 70 GWe by 2032 and 2020, exhibited an average of 193,472,186 MWh, with an average yearly respectively, with an increasing rate of approximately 8e10% growth rate of 6%e7%. This rate is mostly by the residential sector, yearly, which is driven partially by an upsurge in water desalination accounting for nearly 44% of the total consumption (Demirbas et al., (Salam and Khan, 2018). 2017). With reference to predictions delivered by the Saudi min- However, KACARE reported that the yearly upsurge in national istry of economy and planning (Sidawi, 2011), almost 2.2 million demand for power varies currently between 5% and 10% (Fig. 5) affordable apartments, housings, and villas will be affected along (National and Energy, 2017). Prediction signposts show that the the period between 2010 and 2025. Furthermore, with the inter- KSA plans to upsurge its production of power to 80 GWe by 2025 national alarm over ecological and energy problems, unawareness (Ouda et al., 2016). Electricity consumption in the KSA increased of competent building design themes and the lack of time-of-use abruptly during 1990e2010 thanks to hasty commercial growth voltage rates contribute to around 80% of energy being utilized (Qader, 2009)(Table 2). The peak loads attained almost 24 GW in for cooling (Alnaser and Flanagan, 2007). Subsequently, electricity 2001, which was at least 25 times more than that in 1975; it is scarcities are severe throughout the summer season, when utili- predicted to produce 75 GW by 2023 (Wogan et al., 2019). The trade zation is at its maximum. Nevertheless, it is predicted that a required to attain this claim may surpass 337.5 billion Saudi riyal decrease of 40% is likely in Saudi domestic electricity consumption (SAR). Therefore, energy preservation strategies must be developed from energy-saving application and preservation (Matar, 2017; for sustainable growth (U.S. Energy Information Agency, 2013). Matar et al., 2016; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018). Desalinated water Generation rates of electricity are 8%, 40%, and 52% from steam, has also expended approximately 5% of the total energy in the KSA natural gas, and oil, respectively (EIA, 2017a). The KSA adminis- (Ouda et al., 2018). tration has contracted the production of a $300 million facility to Furthermore, the Saudi authority has set a huge investment (a shift waste into energy (Ouda et al., 2018, 2016). The facility has capital of $384 billion) to diverse the resources of energy, aiming to processed around 180 tons of waste to distill water and generate 6 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602

Table 2 Production and consumption of electricity in KSA (Matar et al., 2016; Qader, 2009; U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016).

Year Peak Total generating Generated Actual generation Power sold billion Customers Total Average consumption for every load capacity (MW) (billion kWh) capacity (MW) Kwh (Thousands) customer, kWh/year

Residential Industrial use

1980 300 7,038 18,909 5,913 10,611 6,841 872 17,452 20,014 1985 9,424 16,762 44,502 13,939 28,733 11,586 1,761.80 40,319 22,885 1990 12,173 20,214 64,899 16,459 42,305 16,667 2,366.90 58,972 24,915 1995 17,706 21,910 93,898 17,494 64,520 21,388 2,926.30 85,908 29,357 2000 21,673 25,995 126,191 22,060 86,504 27,657 3,622 114,161 31,819 2005 21,673 33,386 176,123 32,301 119,483 33,800 4,727.30 153,283 32,425 2010 41,229 37,913 217,081 44,582 158,818 34,654 5,701.50 193,472 33,934 2015 60,785 42,440 258,039 56,863 198,153 35,508 6,676 233,661 35,443 2018 80,341 46,967 298,997 69,144 237,488 36,362 7,650 273,850 36,952

electricity with volumes of approximately 950 m3 and 6 MW per 2019). Hence, hybrid plants are preferred as autonomous water and day, respectively (Jones et al., 2019). power production amenities. The KSA endures to build up a huge The KSA has several strategies for connecting to 24 and 50 GWe distillation capacity as a multiple-effect distillation and thermal of sustainable electricity aptitude by 2020 and 2040, respectively. multistage ﬂash distillation, which is mainly invert osmosis (IO) Approximately 50 GWe in 2040 is expected to encompass 16 GWe operated by electricity (Al-Zahrani and Baig, 2011; Khawaji et al., solar photovoltaic (PV), 25 GWe concentrated solar power (CSP), 2008). For example, the Shoaiba and Yanbu plants produce 1.5 and 4 GWe waste and geothermal power (generating up to million m3/day amplitude (Lujan and Missimer, 2014). Meanwhile, 190 TWh, up to 30% of energy), supplementing 18 GWe nuclear the Ras Al Khair supplies more than 1 million m3/day, whereas the energy (generating 131 TWh/year, 20% of energy), and com- Jubail was expanded to generate higher than 2 million m3/day plemented by 60.5 GWe of hydrocarbon for half the year (Ouda, (Ouda, 2015). The chief of the three stages of the King Abdullah 2015; Ouda et al., 2018; U.S. Energy Informationa, 2015; U.S. Initiative for Solar Water Desalination started operating by early Energy Information Administration, 2016; U.S. Energy 2014 (Shahzad et al., 2016). Stage I includes building two solar Information Agency, 2013). From 2016 onward, RnSE objectives plants, generating 10 MW of energy for a 30,000 m3/day IO distil- climbed back from 50% to 10% of electricity consumption by 2040, lation plant at Al-Khafji. Stage II involves assembling a 60,000 m3/ as tactics transferred mainly to gas, aiming to increase its share by day IO distillation plant until 2018, producing 15 MWe of poly- 20%, that is, from 50% to 70% (Company, 2013). In general, the Saudi crystalline PV (Mayankutty et al., 1989). Stage III aims to achieve the government planned to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels in initiative of solar water all over the KSA, with the ultimate goal of generating electricity by shifting to clean resources with a having the state’s distillation plants driven by solar power by 2020 reasonable price, particularly for domestic use. (Shahzad et al., 2016). Furthermore, King Abdullah City for Science and Technology (KACST) (Al-Hallaj et al., 2006) seeks to desalt 2.2. Saudi water desalination seawater at a charge of not more than US $0.40/m3 in comparison with the present charge of thermal distillation, which KACST In the KSA, the saline water conversion corporation produced conﬁrmed is in the limit between US $0.53/m3 and US $1.47/m3. approximately 5.1 million m3/day of distilled water volume in 2017, Distillation by IO is in the range of US $0.67e1.47/m3 for a distil- which is targeted to increase to 7.3 million m3/day by 2020 (Ouda, lation plant generating 30,000 m3/day. In general, the KSA plans to 2013). Connecting desalination plants with energy generation increase the use of RnSE in water desalination all over the country decreased energy requirements for distillation by 50% (Jones et al., due to its cleanliness and affordability as a power source.

Fig. 6. Solar PV opportunity mapping of global Sunbelt countries (Alnatheer, 2006; AT Kearney et al., 2010). Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 7

fi 3. Potential and ef ciency of RnSE in the KSA 70 Natural gas, 59.6 Considering the global struggle with the current and progres- 60 sively persistent need for power diversification, the KSA has the 50 Oil, 40.3 physical potential to seize huge opportunities in the RnSE sector. 40 Although world growth has been comparatively diffident thus far, notwithstanding the decreasing production costs of RnSE, the KSA 30 ric power supply, % has the status that empowers it to protect a pivotal condition in 20 future power markets. The potential of the KSA to produce solar 10 power is significant (Alnatheer, 2006), which lies in the “Global Solar , 0.1 Sunbelt” (Fig. 6), a topographical area located between 35N and Saudi elect 0 35S and commonly categorized by great solar radioactivity (AT Oil Natural gas Solar Kearney et al., 2010). Its solar irradiances are amongst the upper- Type of fuel most technology worldwide (Doukas et al., 2013), with a yearly average of daily universal horizontal irradiance determined at Fig. 8. Current Saudi electric power supplied by fuel (Anonymous, 2017; IHS MARKIt, 5700e6700 Wh/m2 (Zell et al., 2015). A surface area greater than 2016). 59% of the GCC has considerable possibility for solar PV arrangement (Mani and Pillai, 2010; Monto and Rohit, 2010). Emerging to reach SAR 59 billion (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). Moreover, only 1% of this region can possibly result in 470 GW of solar PV obtaining technology for transforming solar energy to electrical capability for the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) energy can be effectively attained by direct transformation via PV (Erroukhi et al., 2016; IRENA, 2015). Ecological and economic in- cells (Fig. 7). Therefore, we can conclude that the KSA is geologically fluences that support RnSEs are seen across the GCC. In line with appropriate, as it is placed in the so-called Sunbelt with potential to the IRENA (Birol, 2004; International Renewable Energy U.S. Energy develop into one of the biggest solar power manufacturers. Information Agency, 2013; IRENA, 2015), the considerable solar reserve potential and decreasing cost of related technologies (mostly PV components) are the main features prompting the 4. Non-renewable and sustainable energy attraction of solar energy in the state (IRENA, 2015). An important solar PV element for reserving the natural atmosphere is to Saudi Electricity Company (SEC) is presently becoming the neutralize the misuse of its resources to meet the necessities of life major supplier of electricity in the KSA, with a total obtainable for upcoming generations and attain economic growth (Khan et al., production capacity of approximately 74.3 GW (Company, 2014). 2017; “Wind and solar power systems, 2013: design, analysis, and The KSA intends to upsurge the electricity production capacity to operation,” 2013)(International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA, 120 GW by 2032 in response to the rapidly growing demand for 2014)). The KSA focused on efforts to discover alternate energy electricity in the state, with more than 95% generated from NRnSE bases, aiming to work in parallel with the SV2030 in electricity sources (Salam and Khan, 2018). The KSA generated 330.5 billion production using RnSE sources (Khan, 2019). Furthermore, the kWh of electricity in 2016, approximately 7% greater than that in National Renewable Energy Program with the SV2030 and the 2015 (British Petroleum Company, 2017). The KSA faces an abruptly National Transformation Program (Alnatheer, 2006; Kingdom of increasing demand for energy, motivated by the increasing popu- Saudi Arabia and Saudi Vision, 2030; 2016) launched its targets to lation, rapidly extending industrial division contributed by the upsurge the RnSE shares sustainably to up to 3.45 and 9.5 GW by growth of petrochemical towns, great demand for AC during 2020 and 2023, with almost 4% and 10% of the KSA’s total energy summer months, and strongly supported electricity prices (Helen, generation, respectively (Khan, 2019). This investment is predicted 2012; Rodney et al., 2012; U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014b). Almost the entire current production capacity of electricity is powered by solar (0.1%), natural gas (59.6%), and oil (40.3%) sources (Fig. 8), but the KSA aims to expand fuel utilization for production, partly to liberalize oil for exporting (IHS MARKIt, 2016). In 2007, the Saudi government announced a scaled- down plan to build up nuclear power capacity, with a project named Saudi National Project for Atomic Energy, with a small- and

25 ta i 20

15 tons per cap c i 10

Metr 5

Year of CO2 emissions

Fig. 7. Solar energy transmitted into power alteration technologies. Fig. 9. CO2 emissions in the KSA (Alkhathlan and Javid, 2015). 8 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 large-scale capacity of approximately 1.2e1.6 GW in locations that will considerably be applied in states with considerable sunshine, are outside the domestic grid (National and Energy, 2017). such as the KSA (Al-mulali, 2012; Bekhet et al., 2017). In Northern Europe, a substantial possibility for decreasing avoidance costs 4.1. Effect exists due to mass production and the use of less expensive materials. The CO2 avoidance costs for biomass use are extremely All energy sources have several effects to the ecological system. reliant on the increase in warming fuel (biomass and fossil) Fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas can cause substantial damage, (Sgouridis et al., 2016; Stambouli et al., 2012). Heating production such as water and air pollution; harm to public health; locale, hu- in a lumber heating industry previously caused adverse CO2 man and wildlife loss; land and water use; and CO2 emissions. In avoidance costs for lumber chip bills from remaining lumber of 2003, statistics showed that the world’s yearly population around 1 Connecticut/(kWh). Furthermore, the Saudi government increased to approximately 35 billion tons of inorganic resources, participates in developing a technologic means that can contribute with a charge of around US $895.92 billion (Salam and Khan, 2018). in its energy divergence policy to assist in reducing considerable Singularly, the KSA intended to improve energy consumption. A 4% CO2 emissions with a right to share in the executive procedure upgrade in energy competence per year can cost between almost (Wogan et al., 2019). SAR 50 billion and 100 billion per year in further income to the Saudi government by 2030 (Al-mulali, 2012). 4.1.2. vol and cost of consumption The KSA’s consumption from the production of domestic oil has 4.1.1. CO2 emissions progressively increased, and it currently uses approximately 1/4 of In 2009, the KSA was categorized as the 15th top emitter of CO2 its oil production, that is, around 3 mbbl/d (U. S. Energy Information per person worldwide, with a value of approximately 18.56 tons per Administration, 2014a). In 2012, the KSA sold a petrol at a low price person (Le Quer e et al., 2013). The Saudi government, with a full compared with bottled water, that is, nearly SAR 1.88 per gallon fund sponsored by Aramco, is now operating for a project of the (Key World Energy Statistics, 2016, 2016). The KSA currently con- inoculation of CO2 amount of 40 million cubic meters/day (MCM/ sumes a higher amount of oil than Germany, as an industrial state day) in the Ghawar area, which is the largest amount in 2012 with a tripartite population and a budget that is approximately worldwide (Shamseddine, 2019). The technological means of the 500% greater (Ouda et al., 2016; U. S. Energy Information project has been industrialized in collaboration with associates Administration, 2014a). A statement by Citigroup’s analyst (Matar from advanced countries, universal companies, and governments. et al., 2016) to Saudi government sponsorships indicated that the At the end of 2010, the project of pipelines in the state were listed loss of oil and natural gas revenues of the KSA in 2011 is more than as a clean development device assignment, and it comprises the $80 billion at most. At the domestic level, the loss of fossil fuels Medina project for landfill gas, implemented by the Swiss company relied on the ways to justify energy consumption that would reduce Vitol (Williams et al., 2012). Currently, a new landfill is available for funding levels (Bilgen, 2014). Moreover, the KSA mainly depends on accommodating 900 tons of civic waste. By 2025, the shutdown of crude oil and fossil fuels, for example, petrol products, including outdated landfill locations and the upgrade of good practices for natural gas, for domestic consumption (Fig. 10)(Al-Maamary et al., management waste are predicted to transform technology and 2017; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). The KSA’s decrease greenhouse gas emissions (Bououdina and Davim, 2014). direct crude oil reached a maximum record in the summer of 2015, The CO2 avoidance costs are obtained from the decrease in CO2 that is, around 0.9 mbbl/d compared with the identical period of emissions by adopting RnSEs-based technologies rather than fossil 2018, which was 41% lesser at 0.5 mbbl/d. Apart from a 20% increase fuel-based technologies (Alkhathlan and Javid, 2015; in wealth spending, a separate set of directed measures maintained Hosenuzzaman et al., 2015; Olivier et al., 2016; Panwar et al., certain rate of progress in domestic consumption (Fahd and turki, 2011). Nowadays, the CO2 avoidance costs for energy production Asad Khan, 2015). from geothermal, wind, biomass, and thermal energies plants are between US $44.81/t CO2 and $89.61/t CO2 (Fig. 9), whereas the 5. Renewable energy sources in the KSA evasion costs for PV systems in Middle Europe remain slightly small, with values between US $895.92/t CO and $1120/t CO (Al- 2 2 SEC planned to decrease the burning of crude for electricity Maamary et al., 2016). Therefore, the utilization of RnSE sources can supply by switching to natural gas, thereby targeting to build up not only decrease CO emissions but also consequently condense 2 RnSE sources for electric energy supply. KACARE had also raised domestic spending on electricity production. However, less values calls for extra wind, nuclear, and solar powers with capacities of 9, 17.6, and 41 GW, respectively, by 2040 (Panwar et al., 2011; Salam

l and Khan, 2018)(Table 3). These objectives are aspiring for the i KSA UAE Qatar Kuwait 300 slow growth of presently intended nuclear and RnSE projects. RnSE 250 on tones o i Table 3 ll i 200 RnSE resources in the KSA, in 2017 (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Kingdom of Saudi

nm Arabia and Saudi Vision, 2030, 2016). i 150 Technology Capacity (GW) by 2040 Capacity (%) by 2040

100 These aims started in 2017 by 1/10 of RnSE faculties with a great demand on natural gas in total primary 50 power mix

0 Nuclear 17.6 12.2 Energy consumpt. PV 16 11.2 CSP 25 17.5 Wind 9 6.3 Year of consumption Geothermal 1 0.7 Waste-to-energy 3 2.1 Fig. 10. Energy consumption by the KSA and other GCC countries. Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 9

Solar PV Wind CSP

% 120 100 58.7 80 ncreaments,

fi 60 16 27.3 40 9.5 7 20 2.4 20 5.9 Percentage o 0 initial revised 2030 Target

5-Year Target 12-Year Target

Fig. 12. The 12-year strategic plan on solar energy in the KSA (Reuters, 2018).

is a power resulting from bases that can be continually renewed by nature, such as solar, wind, water, geothermal energy, and biomass (Kazem and Chaichan, 2012). RnSE can be a substitute of relic fuels, for instance coal, natural gas, and oil. RnSE is a sustainable and natural source and a green, clean, and ecofriendly energy because its generation does not result in ecological pollution. The KSA has set diverse RnSE sources, particularly wind and solar energies. Fig. 11 illustrates a smart grid planning perspective of RnSE (Avancini et al., 2019). Fig. 5 is also included in circulated supply sources, such as fossil fuel, wind, and solar energies, and other RnSE resources. Masses include electric automobiles, smart households, intelligent homes, and a data center, which are accountable for handling the entire arrangement. Fig. 11. Smart grid perspective of clean RnSE (Avancini et al., 2019).

Table 4 € Historical sequences of solar power projects in the KSA (Ball, 2015; Mahdi and Roca, 2012; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Ost and Paldanius, 2018).

Duration Project Capacity Application

1981e87 PV system 350 kW (2155 MWh) DC/AC electricity for isolated zone 1981e87 Solar Cooling e Emerging of solar freezing workroom 1986e91 solar hydrogen 2 kW (50 kWh) Testing dissimilar electrode materials solar hydrogen farms 1987e90 PV test system 3 kW Demo of weather changes 1986e94 Solar thermal dishes 2 50 kW Innovative solar sterling engine 1987e93 PV hydrogen production plant 350 kW (1.6 MWh) Demo plant for solar hydrogen fabrication 1989e93 solar hydrogen generator 1 kW (20e30 kWh) Hydrogen production, testing and assessment workshop scale 1988e93 Solar dryers e Food dryers (dates, vegetables) 1990 Long-term performance of PV 3 kW) Performance evaluation 1993e95 Fuel cell development 100e1000 W Hydrogen operation Internal combustion engine (ICE) e Hydrogen 1994e95 Wind energy measurement e Saudi solar atlas 1994e95 Solar radiation measurement e 1995e96 Geothermal power assessment e Foundation of accurate data 1994e96 PV water desalination 0.6 m3/h PV/RO interface 1996 PV in agriculture 4 kWp DC/AC grid connected 1996 PV system 4 kW DC/AC electricity isolated zones 1996e97 PV system 6 kW Grid connection 2012 PV solar power 10 GW PV/RO interface 2013 PV solar power 1,100 MW Concentrated thermal power (CSP) 2016 Solar PV capacity. 1,800 MW Power Converter, Transformers, and Fiber-optic Cables 2017 Solar power 3,200 MW DC/AC electricity isolated zones 2018 PV system 200 GW til 2030 Grid connection 2020 PV solar energy 24 GW PV/RO interface 2023 Smart solar energy, 9500 MW Intelligent technologies 2030 PV test system 58.7 GW Grid connection 2032 PV solar energy 41e54 GW DC/AC electricity for isolated zone 10 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602

estimated to be augmented to 24 GW by 2020 and then 41 GW by 2032 (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). By the end of 2012, the KACARE project announced its aim to develop approximately 16 GW of PV energy and 25 GW of thermal energy, with a total RnSE of 24 GW by 2020 and 54 GW by 2032, but merely 0.003 GW of solar power was generated (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015b; Tlili, 2015). By early 2013, 900 MW of concentrated thermal power (CSP) and 1,100 MW of PV were anticipated to be constructed (Mahdi and Roca, 2012). Meanwhile, solar energy in the KSA attained grid equality and could supply electricity at prices equivalent to traditional sources Fig. 13. Largest solar energy project with a 3.5 MW capacity at Al-Khafji, KSA (Reuters, € 2018). (Ost and Paldanius, 2018). In 2016, the KSA’s electricity production capacity was reduced by 77 GW with the replacement of the same capacity produced by clean solar energy. This capacity was conse- 5.1. Solar energy quently increased to 100 GW due to the installation of large solar power plants in 2017. In 2018, the KSA and Softbank declared a 12- In 2012, at the climate change forum held in Qatar, the Saudi year strategic plan to set up 200 GW of solar energy, which is ex- authority declared its plan to supply 1/3 of its demand for elec- pected to be finished by 2032 (Fig. 12)(Said, 2019). At that time, one tricity from solar energy (Salam and Khan, 2018) in parallel with of the largest solar projects with a 3.5 MW capacity was installed at another investment in novel nuclear vessels in the next two de- Al-Khafji (Fig. 13)(Reuters, 2018). Recently, Bahah and Hail have the cades (Mahdi and Roca, 2012). The KSA has ranked sixth in solar minimum and maximum rates in terms of solar power use with energy generation worldwide by reducing its reliance on fossil fuel- 0.59% and 2.80%, respectively. In general, the Saudi government based power agencies by varying the source mix (Chu and plans to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels for generating power and Majumdar, 2012). RnSE is a smart selection and intelligent tech- substitute them with clean, cost-effective, and RnSE sources. nology, and the state has targeted to build up 9500 MW of RnSE projects by next 5 years (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). Solar energy is 5.2. Wind energy one of the main RnSE resources; however, the KSA can benefit and is anticipated to be the major supplier to attain the established goal The weather fluctuations at the atmosphere are motivated by of SV2030 (Khan, 2019). The historical sequences of solar power changing temperatures on the Earth surface under sunshine. Wind projects in the KSA are as presented in Table 4 (Ball, 2015; Mahdi power is utilized to drive water or produce electricity, but it needs a € and Roca, 2012; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Ost and Paldanius, wide-ranging areal network to supply considerable volumes of 2018). The first KSA solar energy plant was constructed on power (Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011; Erroukhi et al., 2016; Lekshmi 2011 at Farasan Island, with a 500 kW static tilt PV plant, whereas Vijayan Krishna, 2015; Ramli et al., 2017). In 2017, the Renewable more than half of electricity is supplied using crude oil (Steve Energy Project Development Office (REPDO) of the Saudi Ministry Hargreaves, 2011). The US and KSA built a solar-group-for-research of Energy funded the Dumat Al Jandal Project with $500 million for station in Al-Uyaynah Village to provide electrical facility, which is generating wind power (Intelligence and Service, 2019; Malik et al., operated by the KACST (Ball, 2015). The technologies on the as- 2019). Avantha Group Company and CG Holdings Belgium NV sembly line were purchased from Europe, whereas the solar cells Systems signed a contract for installing wind technologies to sup- were ordered from Taiwan; subsequently, the line capacity ply 400 MW energy to KSA farms (Energy, 2019), as the parameters increased fourfold within a year (Ball, 2015). In early 2012, the of wind speed for 20 climatological stations along the KSA’s regions authority set up a pilot assembly line at the place to produce solar (Al-Zahrani and Baig, 2011; Erftemeijer and Shuail, 2012; Erroukhi panels. The capability of solar power was lower than 10 GW and et al., 2016; Khawaji et al., 2008)(Table 5). This project is considered the first large-scale onshore wind plant and it is the largest up to now in the ME. Another project was expected to generate an Table 5 Parameters of wind speed for 20 climatological stations in KSA (Erftemeijer and average yearly wind power of almost 1.4 TWh with a contract Shuail, 2012; Erroukhi et al., 2016). priced at approximately V12.5 million (Energy, 2019; Khan, 2019). This project was comprised of large-voltage mini-stations that will Station Wind speed (m/s) Mean Pressure (mb) bond the Dumat Al Jandal wind plant to the KSA electricity con- Max Mean duction network. EDF Renewables and Masdar has accepted the Abha 14.9 2.94 794 accountability of installing wind plants at the Al Jouf region, which Al-Wejh 11.8 4.43 1,007.90 is approximately 560 mi from the capital of Riyadh, as a SEC sup- Al-Jouf 15.9 4.02 936.1 plementary, to supply energy to the Saudi Power Procurement Bisha 10.3 2.47 884 Arar 12.9 3.61 949.6 Company at 21.3 US$/MWh. The equivalent price for the wind en- Dhahran 11.8 4.38 1,006.70 ergy plan is predicted at 16 GW capacity by 2030 (Malik et al., Gassim 9.3 2.78 937.6 2019). In 2019, the REPDO was awarded an additional wind en- Gizan 16.5 4.22 954.8 ergy capacity of 850 MW, which is predicted to be completed in Guriat 7.7 3.24 1,007.70 2021e2022 (Birol, 2004; Khan, 2019). However, the SV2030 plans Hail 10.8 3.24 901.3 ’ Jeddah 11.3 3.71 1,007.30 to become the ME s largest wind energy marketplace in the up- Khamis 12.9 3.14 797.9 coming five decades because of the natural potential for wind en- Nejran 8.8 2.1 879.4 ergy at the KSA based on the results of previous field studies Qaisumah 11.8 3.55 969.5 (Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015; Tlili, 2015). Rafha 12.4 3.86 960.3 Riyadh 8.8 3.09 942.4 Tabouk 15.5 2.73 926 5.3. Water energy Taif 10.3 3.66 855.4 Turaif 10.3 3.76 1,007.80 This form of energy source uses the gravitational capability of Yanbu 14.4 4.33 916.9 water that was elevated from the oceans or seas due to sunlight. Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 11

25000000 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 rom f 20000000

15000000 ty generated i c

i 10000000 nation plants, MW/H 5000000 desali

Hydroelectr 0

Loaction of projects

Fig. 14. Hydroelectricity produced from the plants of distillation of water at KSA (General Authority of Statistics, 2017).

The KSA is one of the main distillation markets worldwide generating approximately 4 MCM/days of desalted water (Al-Zahrani and Baig, 2011; Erftemeijer and Shuail, 2012; Erroukhi et al., 2016; Khawaji et al., 2008). The KSA has more than 28 distillation plants that are active to achieve the distillation supply capacity of approximately 8.5 MCM/day by 2025, which accounts for 18% of the total global production (Hepbasli and Alsuhaibani, 2011). The KSA still plans to pair distillation volume within 10 years because the water consumption in the country is at seriously high levels (Rambo et al., 2017). However, the consumption of distilled water is increasing at approximately 14% per year, that is, 200% of the total national water consumption and 600% of the increase rate in population. The regular per person consumption of water rate is approximated at 15e20 L for countryside zones and 100e350 L per day for city zones (News, 2014). This result exhibited that the KSA is Fig. 15. Recent geothermal activity at the A) Jizan area and B) swimming pool at the the topmost water user among the GCC countries. The statistic Bani Malik area (Hussein et al., 2013). shows that nearly 3/4 of water consumption in the KSA is due to cultivation, which accounts for approximately 1/4 of the water used locally. The residual volume is shared between grazing and indus- Table 6 Regional distribution of geothermal energy sources (Hussein et al., 2013; Rehman, trial purposes (Taleb and Sharples, 2011). The high charges and 2010). water energy consumption relative to distillation process have affected the KSA’s distillation aptitude; hence, water security is Region Location Temperature range ( C) strictly connected to the steadiness of its oil production (Kajenthira Harrat Western 175e200 e Grindle et al., 2015). Therefore, the main problem is that distillation Arar Northern 46 50 Al-Lith Western 40e79 is relatively expensive and unmaintainable in its present procedure Riyadh Central 34e70 in the long term. Distillation accounts for up to 20% of the water Jizan South 31e76 energy consumption in the KSA (Kajenthira Grindle et al., 2015; Medina Western 31e41 News, 2014; Ouda et al., 2016). The low water prices paid by the Tabuk Western 26e28 Hail Northern 25e29 end users in the state are equal to 1/10 at most of the real generation charge in the government sector (Lujan and Missimer, 2014). Further, hydroelectricity is also deemed to be recognized as one of the universal’s largest resources of RnSE, where power is produced investment is expected to surpass US $50 billion by 2020, moving from gravity energy thanks to the fall of water from variable levels forward to water energy generation and its related services “ to accomplish the RnSE turbines (General Authority of Statistics, (General Authority of Statistics, 2017; Indicators of Renewable ” 2017). In many locations of projects along the regions of the Energy Statistics, 2016 in Saudi Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2016, Kingdom, in particular, Ras Al khair (Fig. 14) is reported that the 2016). In general, KSA has varied RnSE resources specially wind sum hydroelectricity supplied from the plants of water distillation energy. has attained greater than 45 Million MW/H in 2017, in comparison to 23 Million MW/H in 2012. The overall demands for crude oil for water energy in distilled water production and its transportation to 5.4. Geothermal energy the users are approximately 3.4 and 8.33.4 mbbl/day in 2010 and 2028, respectively (Salam and Khan, 2018). The KSA consumes The remaining energy in the planet increased by temperature 200% as much water as the UK at 300 L/day. Hence, the total from radioactivity declines gradually on a daily basis (Stambouli et al., 2012). In several zones, the geothermal gradient that 12 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 generally upsurges in heat with depth is sufficient to produce RnSE sector, but it has not been necessarily invested (Table 7)(Al- electricity. This type of energy can reduce the energy requirement Saleh et al., 2008). The consumption level showed a stable and for preserving convenient temperatures in houses (Bull, 2001). rapidly increasing outline at a regular level of 5.5%/year for 28 years, Geothermal energy is a potential energy source (Demirbas, 2009). and the level was triplicated within 10 years from 1990 (Al-mulali, Geothermal power is possibly used in numerous practices, such as 2012; Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011). In 2010, the KSA consumed en- electricity production, direct use, swimming, showering, space ergy with a volume of approximately 6.7 tons per person, that is, warming, fish farming (6%), heat devices (35%), balneology (42%), assessed 3.6% higher than the world’s consumption rate of 1.9 tons greenhouse warming (9%), and engineering usage (6%) (Demirbas, per person (Rambo et al., 2017). The majority of energy was 2008). Geothermal energy becomes significant for electrical en- consumed by engineering sectors at approximately 24% and 19% in ergy sources in the future generation (Bull, 2001; International 2010 and 1990 of the overall consumed energy, respectively, and Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014). The KSA possesses rich approximately 19% and 27% for the petrochemical and power sec- resources of geothermal energy, but no plant has been constructed tors, respectively (Demirbas et al., 2017; Production et al., 2019; and installed for geothermal energy production to date (Lekshmi Salam and Khan, 2018; Stambouli et al., 2012; U.S. Energy Vijayan Krishna, 2015). Wadi Al-Lith area (Ain Al-Harrah) covers Information Administration, 2016). For average electricity, the one of the greatest guaranteed geothermal structures in the KSA, KSA consumed nearly 8,300 kWh/person versus 2,700 kWh/per- that is, a site close to the shore of the Red Sea that is influenced by son, thereby indicating the average global consumption in 2010 its tectonic movement and physical systems (Hussein et al., 2013). (The World Bank, 2015). These results showed that the energy In the Ain Al-Harrah area, a geothermal energy capacity of 26.99 consumption in 1990 and 2010 increased from 13% to 17%, indi- MWt is projected, which is significant and suitable for commercial cating that the electricity consumption has been increasing rapidly investment technology. Meanwhile, direct applications existed 5 by 6.2%/year for almost three decades (Al-mulali, 2012; Le Quer e years ago, which is attributable to the size and possible consider- et al., 2013). This growth was due to the use in the service and able enthalpy outbursts of the Harrats; hence, it is deemed a chance residential sectors with nearly 73% and 82% of the overall con- for emerging geothermal energy (Rehman, 2010). These geological sumption of electricity in 1990 and 2010, respectively (Fig. 16)(Asif, developments may be suitable for allocating geothermal technol- 2016; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Saeed, 1989; Salam and Khan, ogies between 150 C and 300 C. The probability remains unclear 2018; The World Ball, 2015; Us et al., 2019). The local consump- due to the shortage of deep drilling. Thus, the steam turbines for tion trends have been urged by the commercial sector to gain high condensation to generate binary-type energy can be utilized to oil-associated incomes up to mid-2014 (Al-Maamary et al., 2017, transform geothermal temperature to energy (Hussein et al., 2013). 2016). However, the Saudi government have paid a huge cost of Overall, several areas in the KSA, such as Jizan, Arar, Al Lith, and petrol subsidies of approximately $61 billion in 2015, which have Tabuk (Fig. 15), based on recent studies, have temperatures be- contributed to the growing demand of approximately 7% yearly for tween 150 C and 300 C; thus, these locations are sufficient for the the last decades (Coady et al., 2010). In 2016, the KSA was listed as insulation of geothermal energy plants (Table 6). the first consumer of petroleum in ME, mainly in the area of direct unpolished oil burning for energy production and transporting 5.5. Biomass energy fuels, with an increase in a part of petrol demand accounting for the direct oil burning for electric energy supply and reached as much as Biomass is the terminology for power produced from plants. 900,000 bbl/d during summer months (Demirbas, 2009; Hadfield, Biomass energy is a form of power that is regularly utilized globally 2017; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). In 2018, the (Bull, 2001; Demirbas, 2009; International Renewable Energy KSA was ranked as the world’s 10th biggest consumer of energy at Agency (IRENA), 2014; Kazem and Chaichan, 2012; Ong et al., 2011; 266.5 million tons of oil equaling to almost 63% and 37% of petro- Panwar et al., 2011). Unfortunately, the excessive in burning trees leum liquid- and oil-based products and natural gas, respectively for warmth and cooking led to increase the smog and air pollution. (Olivier et al., 2016; Salam and Khan, 2018). Petroleum liquids and This method emits abundant volumes of CO2 into the air and is a crude oil banks remain abundant, but they are still searching for main contributor to harmful atmosphere in numerous regions diversity mixes of energy sources, such as RnSE. On the basis of the worldwide. Approximately 16% of the world’s ultimate power SV2030, the KSA has set its energy urgencies into of the utilization consumption originates from RnSE, with 10% produced from con- of solar power for electricity supply, aiming to exceed Germany’s ventional biomass (Hussein et al., 2013). The recent types of level. As a response for this demand, the Saudi Ministry of Energy biomass power are alcohol generation and methane production for has invested in the solar power sector with a fund of approximately vehicle fuel and powering electric energy plants (Demirbas, 2009). $200 billion (Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011). The country plans to The KSA has remarkable waste-to-energy (WtE) prospective as a generate approximately 200 GW of electricity from solar PV power result of obtaining considerable wastes, such as municipal (24%), by 2030 (Khan, 2019; Said, 2019). Overall, the KSA has enormous wood (64%), landfill gas (5%), and farming (5%) wastes (Demirbas¸, banks of oil and other abundant resources of power, counting 2001; Ouda et al., 2016; Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2015). Almost 38% biomass, and wind energies. The measures of solar PV energy are of the power expended is obtained from bioenergy/biomass, which engaged in the KSA in a long time (Table 7). accounts for approximately 13% of the global power. Considering the energy supply charges, considerable concern has presently 7. Renewable energy distribution been taken on alternate bioenergy resources in the industrialized countries. However, the conventional biomass consumption in the The predicted slow reduction in relic fuel reserves in parallel KSA was described at 0.00848% in 2012 (The World Bank, 2015). with the upsurge in power charges is motivating world energy The KSA government set their SV2030 objectives to promote sus- production in the direction of high RnSE resources in the next 10 tainable generation and utilization of energy for achieving high years (Energy Technology Perspectives, 2015, 2015). With these revenue and a clean power source. conditions, unexploited RnSE resources signify an enormous prospective for powering a huge share of increasing power demands in 6. Trends of energy consumption in the KSA the KSA (Lund et al., 2010). The ME is not excluded; this area particularly a substantial applicability for RnSE improvement due Since the 1970s, several stages have been commenced in the to its terrestrial and ecological features, mainly for wind and solar Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 13

Table 7 Development trends of RnSE projects in the KSA.

Year of Project title External involved agencies (Sub- Location Refs. project contractors) approval

1977 Research and development (R&D) Projects USA and Germany KACST Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna 1980e1987 Solar power growth e Multi-locations over the KSA (2015) 1984 A solar thermal seawater distillation pilot USA Yanbu Alawaji (2001) farms 1993e2000 Solar radiation supply e Multi-locations over the KSA Al-Badi et al. (2011) 1994 A PV powered brackish water distillation plant USA Sadous village, Riyadh Alawaji (2001) Atlas e Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna (2015) 1996 1100 solar flat plate for rooftop of w380 e Riyadh, at the solar village Huraib et al. (2002) residences A 3 kw PV power system 1999 The power production of Solar Village Project Multi-locations over the KSA Alawaji (2001) (the PV modules) 1999 PV technology to control highway devices Southern mountains of Saudi Arabia 2000 Energy research institute (ERI) e Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna (2015) 2004 Several pilot projects EIA (2017b) Solar thermal dish project (100 KW) with two Germany Multi-locations over the KSA Alawaji (2001) thermal dishes A 350 KW solar hydrogen supply plant 2009 Water distillation project Universities and research centres KACST and IBM Al-Badi et al. (2011) 2010 Connery founded the initial big-scale solar e Thuwal system-2 mw on the roof of KAUST 2011 Solar energy plant (a 500 KW fixed-tilt PV Farasan Island plant) 2012 Rooftop system close to 200 Kw - Us green building council. - Riyadh, Nofa Equestrian Resort Khan et al. (2017) - Princess nora university 2013 The first pilot project by solar energy Jeddah municipality Ruwais Reuters (2018) Yanbu Plant project to produce 2650 MW of e Madinah and its surroundings power villages Madinah Municipality Madinah An efficient photosynthesis system Madinah’s taibah university Madinah Al-Sulaiman et al. (2017) 2014 Solar cells for two different desalination KACST Aramco’s Headquarters (U. S. Energy Information projects Administration, 2014a) Car Parking CPV plant The ‘dry Sweep’ a entirely automatic dirt and - KAUST, Australian physics teacher Multi-locations over the KSA Waggoner and Baldava dust cleaning technology georg eitelhuber (2009) Solar energy system The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Anywhere in KSA Almasoud and Gandayh Endowments, Dawah, and Guidance (2015a) 2015 Effective systems for drying dates using solar Ministry of Agriculture and Water Multi-locations over the KSA Alawaji (2001) power. 2016 Water-pumping and distillation using a PV e Sadous village, Riyadh generator 2017 54 new production solar radiation data Ministry of Agriculture Multi-locations over the KSA Al-Badi et al. (2011) collection stations 2019 Solar based water distillation projects Universities and research centres The Um Al-Khair plant 12 pre-developed projects with a total capacity Saudi Vision 2030 Alfaisalia, Qurrayat and in another Khan (2019) of ~3.1 GW 10 locations in the KSA

energies (Shahsavari et al., 2019). Although the area owns the shortage of 61 GW between the demand and supply volumes largest capabilities for RnSE and solar power, its RnSE remains (Ramli et al., 2017). However, ﬁeld investigations exhibited a large immature, supplying merely approximately 5% of the overall en- potential for RnSE, in particular solar energy, to cover this shortage ergy production mix essential for ME, as 1% of the total is shared by (Sven Teske, 2017). The strategy was anticipated to maintain the the KSA (Energy, 2015; International Energy Agency and Agency, SV2030 plan by achieving 10% of RnSE production, greatly 2011). In 2012, it is reported that the total generated Saudi elec- emphasizing on the use of natural gas (Khan, 2019). The other plan tricity energy is commonly distributed among gasoline generators, comprises strategy of producing a 9500 MW capacity of RnSE by steam plants, gas turbine plants, desalination plants, combined 2023 (Lude et al., 2015). Accordingly, the KSA agreed a divergence cycle plants and other with percentage at 1%, 40%, 39%, 10%, 7% and strategy with the aim of upsurging the part of RnSE production to 3%, respectively (Fig. 17)(Tlili, 2015). In 2015, the KSA and Iran have 15%, concentrating primarily on wind and solar technologies, by authoritatively aimed to achieve a 4% reduction in its total CO2 2030 (Sgouridis et al., 2016). With the dependence on hydrocarbon emissions by 2030. The climate strategy was connected to RnSE resources for power generation, the state has prepared a triple plan, targets of 5 and 7.5 GW by 2020 and 2030, respectively (Abid et al., that is, 27%, 30%, and 50% of RnSE technologies by 2020, 2030, and 2017). However, the KSA’s electricity consumption is about 2050, respectively (International Renewable Energy Agency 256 TWh/year, which is the maximum consumption level among (IRENA), 2014). Maintaining the upsurge of RnSE share to the the GCC countries (British Petroleum, 2015). In 2032, top energy overall energy resources in the KSA was also planned, thereby demand is predicted to increase from 55 GW to 121 GW, with a attaining approximately 3.45 and 9.5 GW, which account for 4% and 14 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602

25 End-energy usage and losses in buildings Energy consumption by sector 35 20 30 25 15 20 10 15 10 rgy consumption, %

Energy consumption, % 5 ne

E 5 0 0

Type of uses Type of sector

Fig. 16. Energy consumption trends in the KSA (Matar et al., 2014; Tlili, 2015) The end-energy usage and losses in buildings by sector wise.

has been studied, and 28 GW from RnSE resources can be attained by 2030 (Sgouridis et al., 2016). The deployment level is reduced by 8.5% and 15.6% in oil and natural gas consumption, respectively, which can be accomplished by 2030 (Olivier et al., 2016). The RnSE technologies in the KSA have been recently integrated and linked to respond to the demand for electricity in the KSA, which is increased by 6.6% annually.

8. Economic return from RnSE technology

According to the IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014; IRENA, 2015), the KSA may gain fossil fuel decrease in the water and energy sectors of approximately 25% by 2030. The KSA has the largest solar plant the covers car parking of the Saudi Aramco Oil Company (Fig. 18). This case motivated the KSA to expand its economy and stimulating development partly by Fig. 17. Electrical energy distribution by generation in 2012 (Tlili, 2015). cultivating money into RnSe, thereby reforming its power mix at a homeland and appearing as a world force in clean energy (Reed Stanley, 2018). In addition to clean atmosphere benefits, the increase in RnSE resources also allows economic profits. These factors lead to the growth of job opportunities and a decrease in the trading shortfall, thereby endorsing technical enhancements, dropping charges in RnSE sources, and decreasing the adverse influences of CO2 emissions and unrelieved universal warming on commercial activities. In 2008, the general charges in the KSA subsidized by the Saudi government was almost SAR 0.15/kWh (Kroposki et al., 2009) and SAR 50.4/kWh as a total cost of energy production for an identical GCC utility at international market charges (El-katiri, 2014). However, solar power charges have weakened from approximately US $101/kWh to approximately US $23/kWh in 1980 and at present, respectively (Bull, 2001). The present price of solar PV in Western countries varies from US $20.15/kWh to $26/kWh, with the anticipation that it will be reduced to US $5.6e$11.2/kWh by 2015 (Gong et al., 2017). Western countries have a plan to make PV supply electricity charges Fig. 18. Largest solar plant of car parking at Saudi Aramco, KSA (Reed Stanley, 2018). competitive with traditional power resources by 2020 (Kroposki et al., 2009). At present, the charge of solar PV is approximately US $2.5/Wp, and the plan is to decrease this amount to almost $1/ 10% of the KSA’s total energy supply, by 2020 and 2023, respectively Wp (Kroposki et al., 2009), that is, equal to SAR 0.45 because 1 ton (Khan, 2019). In general, the potential of RnSE in other GCC counties of petrol is equivalent to approximately 7 bl and may afford Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 15

11,630 kWh of conservatively supplied energy (International save the economics of hydrocarbons, water and electricity demand Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014). The global oil charges arrangements, selection of technologies, requirements of infra- are predicted to upsurge from US $70 to US $95 and $108 per bl by structural development, human capability growth, and value chain 2015 and 2020, respectively (U.S. Energy Information enhancement (Fig. 19)(Khan, 2019; National and Energy, 2017). Administration, 2016). This result indicates that the charges in However, this factor has contributed to reaching a solid decision in electricity generation from traditional supply resources will up- producing hydrocarbons, as residual primary components in the surge quickly. Therefore, the energy production cost from RnSE potential power mix resources by 2032, and endorses subsidiary resources would be less than that from relic fuels when the con- values of 9 GW of wind, 41 GW of solar (25 GW of concentrated solar cealed charges of relic fuels, such as public health and ecological and 16 solar PV cells), 17.6 of GW nuclear, 1 GW of geothermal, and prices, are measured (Qader, 2009). In conclusion, the solar PV 3 GW of WtE sources, with a total 60 GW hydrocarbon capacity power economics at the KSA will remain high in areas such as the (Stambouli et al., 2012; Yamani, 2012). Hence, geothermal, nuclear, northern regions, with considerable solar radioactivity features. and WtE can meet the demand of nighttime base load in winter Field studies also reported on defined features, for example, health season. PV power can meet the total energy demand yearly for and ecofriendly influences. The regular external charges of NOx, daytime, whereas concentrated solar energy, with storage, can 2 SO , and CO2 are 0.0412, 0.0086, and 0.0001 SAR/g, respectively meet the peak demand variance between the base load and PV (Alnatheer, 2006), whereas the entire indirect cost in the KSA is technologies; hydrocarbons can also encounter the residual de- approximately 0.1688 SAR/kWh (Kroposki et al., 2009). mand (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Helen, 2012; Khan, 2019; Sgouridis et al., 2016). The execution of the activities of KACARE aims to 9. Benefits of RnSE in the KSA follow a transparent and open market rule to lead investors satis- fied with the used procedures and guarantees competitive cost. The world relies on energy to power its daily life activities and is The eventual goal is to create wide-ranging partnership policies headed for higher RnSE resources than relic fuel, which is an NRnSE with domestic and global stakeholders in emerging RnSE and resource (Al-Saleh et al., 2008; Anuradha et al., 2014; Birol, 2004; atomic sectors; this aspect comprises energy preservation and Kajenthira Grindle et al., 2015; Salam and Khan, 2018). The KSA power support facilities such that 3/5 of all contributions for nu- has no exclusion to this trend as its SV2030 aims to secure the clear energy advancements and 4/5 of solar-associated accom- outline of RnSE resources (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Buckley and plishments will be obtained locally (Yamani, 2012). The KSA Shah, 2018; Khan, 2019). The applicability of investment in RnSE set almost 30% localization demands of RnSE in 2017 and intended resources into the KSA and GCC countries can provide the states to upsurge to more than 50% working onward. The high rates of with reserves equal to US $87 billion and reduces approximately end-use efficacy propose the chance to meet the developing energy one gigaton of CO2 emissions (Kinninmont, 2010). To meet the demand, thereby preserving oil banks and decreasing the CO2 3 desired demand, KACARE is progressively endorsing the overview emission by closely 3 kg for every m of produced water with an 3 of atomic and RnSE energy, aiming to secure 50% of the total energy consumption level of 5 kWh/m , with proper technologies, consumed electricity from non-fossil fuels by 2032 (Khan, 2019). which can be reduced by shifting from traditional fuels to RnSE The growth of the RnSE sector also influences job opportunities, (Mansouri et al., 2013). Hence, the KSA government should endorse services, and training in the KSA (Al-Badi et al., 2011; Chu and the capability of rotating WtE by using the supply of electricity and Majumdar, 2012; Us et al., 2019; Van der Zwaan et al., 2013; waste disposal (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006). This phenomenon also leads Wogan et al., 2017). The amount of careers funded by the world to the decrease in oil consumption of the KSA by enhancing RnSE RnSE industry is expected to triple by 2030, with a probability of efficacy on the supply and demand sides. Energy maintenance and 80,000 jobs in the KSA alone (Erroukhi et al., 2016). RnSE technology are the chief drivers for partially attaining the However, the provision of a sustainable and effective energy is SV2030 (Khan, 2019). Further, Table 8 tabulates some of the ben- beneficial for the future of the KSA. Therefore, KACARE conducted efits, implications and drawbacks of RnSE technologies in the short- an inclusive assessment of the RnSE sources to guarantee the root of and long-terms, in particular, when these technologies decom- their superior benefits (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Lekshmi Vijayan missioned in the future. Krishna, 2015; National and Energy, 2017). KACARE targets to 9.1. RnSE applications in the KSA

90 The RnSE initiative was considered in the KSA from a long time % 80 ago. Beginning in the early 1960s, the RnSE initiative went a long 70 way in the outline of a national power strategy (Alawaji, 2001). The

ency, 60 i c 50 RnSE application depends on the obtainability of energy source

ffi 2 e 40 found at the area. Radiation in kWh/m per period is a main f 30 ﬁ 20 measure for de ning the type of energy source and determining the 10 total volume of diffuse and direct solar radiation that falls on a 0 parallel surface; it can also measure the volume of solar radiation receipted by a surface that is continuously held vertical to straight solar sunbeam (U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a).

Total percentage o The Saudi government set a strategy to achieve an RnSE supply of 9.5 GW by 2030, as part of SV2030 (Khan, 2019), and 3.5 GW by 2020, as part of the National Transformation Plan (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi Vision, 2030; 2016); the nonpublic sector is encouraged to hasten and reinforce the attainment of this plan. The applicability reserves are substantial, with the aim to reduce Typeofsolarapplications the consumption of fossil fuel energy by almost 25% by 2030 Fig. 19. Efﬁciency of RnSE technologies in the KSA (Khan, 2019; National and Energy, (Erroukhi et al., 2016). In 2019, Saudi REPDO achieves 2225 MW 2017). capacity in solar project. The recent Saudi RnSE strategy plans to 16 Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602

Table 8 Beneﬁts, implications and drawbacks of RnSE technologies.

Source of energy Beneﬁts Implications and drawbacks

Geothermal energy Affords limitless production of energy Growth costs could be costly (Hussain et al., 2017) Generates no water or air pollution Conservation costs, as a result of corrosion, could be a an issue subsiding, landscape alteration, contaminating watercourses, air releases Hydropower Plentiful, pure, and safe energy It may cause the flooding of nearby societies and landscapes. (Ellabban et al., 2014) Simply to be stored in tanks Dams own major environmental influences on local hydrology. Comparatively cost-effective method to generate It may cause a considerable ecological influence electricity Proposals frivolous advantages like fishing, It can be utilized merely where there is a water outfit boating, etc. Best locations for dams have previously been constructed Alteration in national eco-systems, alteration in weather circumstances, communal and cultural influences Biomass energy Plentiful and sustainable Sweltering biomass can effect in air contamination (Kazem and Chaichan, It could be utilized to burn waste outputs It may be expensive

2012) It may not be CO2 accepted level, may reduce universal heating gases like methane at the time of the generation of biofuels, alteration of landscape, worsening of soil efﬁciency, dangerous waste Wind energy It is a free basis of power It may necessitate continuous and considerable volumes of wind (Intelligence and Service, Generates no air or water pollution Wind farms need substantial extents of land 2019; Malik et al., Wind farms are moderately reasonable to form. It can own a considerable visible inﬂuence on lands 2019). Land around wind farms could own other usages It probably cause a noises in the zone, alteration on landscape, soil destruction, murder of animals including birds by blades It requires improved methods to store energy Solar energy Possibly unlimited energy production It can be expensive (Matar and Elshurafa, Origins no water or air pollution It necessary requires a backup and storage € 2018; Ost and Its consistency relies on accessibility of sunlight Paldanius, 2018). It causes soil erosion, alteration on landscape, and dangerous waste.

Fig. 20. An outlook of the needed RnSE applications in KSA (KAPSARC-UNESCWA, 2017). increase the solar plan from 5.9 GW to 20 GW, targeting the RnSE of offshore-wind, biomass, and thermal energy. technologies reviewed to increase from 9.5 GW to 27.3 GW by 2023 (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006; Khan et al., 2017) and by 2030; REDPO has also introduced 40 and 58.7 GW capacities for solar energy and 10. Conclusion RnSE by 2030, respectively (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Khan, 2019). REPDO has assigned a Sakaka PV project as its first sequence of The steady shift from crude fuel (i.e., oil and natural gas) to RnSE tendering processes for wind and solar energies to supply resources is an urgent call for world ecological protection. The KSA, approximately 700 MW of RnSE production capacity, accounting for as a leading state, has remarkable perspective for RnSE sources, 300 and 400 MW of solar and wind energies in 2018, respectively mainly wind and solar PV, as electricity supply at present and in the (Power, 2019). In addition, the globe’s biggest supplier of oil com- near future. During the last five decades, the generation and use of prehends the worth of developing RnSE plants, having a multitude traditional energy not only were vital to public health and econo- of practical and applications uses, particularly electricity supply so mies but also caused the lack of ecological balance, such as CO2 as to afford road, tunnel, and traffic lights and road coaching signs emissions. RnSE is a main source that contributes considerably to (Tlili, 2015) as well as to reduce the rely on the crude fuels (Fig. 20). the global power mix in light of increasing nonrenewable power Furthermore, it is found that there is a need to inspect the potential source charges. Although the KSA is a top oil-producing country, it recognizes the crucial requirement for RnSE application Y.H.A. Amran et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 247 (2020) 119602 17 technologies and advancement to achieve power security and simply to exploit the product. This phenomenon is specifically release hydrocarbon sources for export instead of meeting national significant in location-based generation activities. demand at greatly funded charges. Sustainable electricity produc- - Consider the contribution of RnSE in reducing air pollution, as a tion and water distillation, in addition to other industrialized ap- reserve in the production route when forecasting solar, wind, plications, are the main beneficiaries. Wind and solar energy can water, geothermal, WtE, and biomass energies as alternative to participate significantly to the network of a considerable share of fossil fuels in the near future. energy demand in the KSA. The KSA can produce and export RnSE - The adoption of RnSE rather than NRnSE resources can reduce in terms of electricity after emerging wind and solar PV energy the burden of the Saudi government in paying subsidies to transformation systems. With the ongoing decrease in the charge of produce energy for all sectors with the continuous increase in solar PV cells, using abundant solar energy in certain KSA areas is the population rate and climate change, including for cooling in realistic, competitive, and profitable. This process can reduce the the summer season and for heating in the winter season. reliance on huge volumes of oil in comparison with RnSE resources - Further, it is found that there is a need to inspect the potential of in producing electricity and the obtainability of subsidies by the offshore-wind, biomass, and thermal energy. Saudi government for electricity and oil production, as well as the unavailability of the same subventions for solar power agenda. Dust Declaration of competing interest can condense solar power by up to 20% in certain regions of the KSA. The KSA has set a plan to produce electricity for grid-linked The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. schemes and wind and solar hybrid applications for isolated towns to apply this clean resource. The WtE and geothermal en- Acknowledgment ergies can lead to the diversity of energy mix in the near future. The development of RnSE technologies, in particular associated with The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the wind and solar energy, should be improved to meet the supply and department of civil engineering, college of engineering, Prince fi demand for energy sides for a clean and ef cient resource. This Sattam bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU), Saudi Arabia and the phenomenon leads the KACARE to announce certain initiatives in department of civil engineering, faculty of engineering and IT, conducting extensive and in-depth studies for discovering the po- Amran university, Yemen; for this research. tential and distribution of RnSE advanced technologies. Meanwhile, the RnSE technologies are still having some implications when References these technologies decommissioned in the future, such as landscape alteration, contaminating waterways, air contamination, Abid, M.R., Lghoul, R., Benhaddou, D., 2017. ICT for renewable energy integration deteriorating of soil efficiency, dangerous waste, environmental into smart buildings: IoT and big data approach. In: 2017 IEEE AFRICON: Sci- influences on local hydrology, costly dismantling as well as that the ence, Technology and Innovation for Africa. https://doi.org/10.1109/AFR- fl CON.2017.8095594. 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