Disarmament and International Security Committee UFRGSMUN | UFRGS Model United Nations ISSN 2318-3195 | V

disec disarmament and international security committee UFRGSMUN | UFRGS Model United Nations ISSN 2318-3195 | v. 7 2019 | p. 188 - 247 disec THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE ON SUB- MARINE WATERCRAFTS disarmament and Rodrigo dos Santos Cassel1 international security Tyago Driemeyer2 committee ABSTRACT Submarine watercrafts are unique structures capable of carrying out stealth, strategic operations underneath the surface. They are designed to achieve undetec- tability by enemy forces, running on increasingly quiet systems and extensive periods of endurance submerged, so as not to disclose its position. Amongst their applicability purposes, said submersible vessels enable a state to control, patrol, monitor, and project power both in high seas and in littoral waters. Being able to carry a significant number of weapons systems while navigating submerged, they are also capable of launching cruise and ballistic missiles containing, or not, nuclear warheads, thus meaning that submarines are an essential asset to states’ deterrence strategies. The present study guide aims at analyzing a comprehensive set of contemporary debates concerning the development and deployment of submarines worldwide. Guided by the understanding that such controversies are yet to be assessed and acted upon by world leaders and policy makers, the study guide presents different paths to be followed or dismissed, based on contrasting national views. In order to do so, the paper is divided in four main parts: (i) a Historical Ba- ckground on submarine watercrafts; (ii) the Statement of the Issue, covering and exploring the aforementioned debates; (iii) Previous International Actions, aimed at observing how the international community has already dealt with the issues presented; and (iv) the Bloc Positions of the states involved in the controversies proposed. 1 Rodrigo is a final-year student of International Relations at UFRGS and Director of DISEC. 2 Tyago is a third-year student of International Relations at UFRGS and Assistant-Director of DISEC. 189 DISARMAMENT AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY COMMITTEE 1 INTRODUCTION A state’s military forces might operate in several, complementary domains, including air, land, space, and sea. Regarding the latter, the pos- sibility of underwater operations now plays a crucial role both for national and international security, mainly due to submarine watercrafts and their plentiful applications both in peace and war times. Operating submerged, they provide tactical and strategic advantages to deployers, especially due to the fact that they enable the factors of stealth and surprise to be ex- ploited by navies. The invisibility and secrecy they offer end up paving the way for a variety of critical missions to be conducted. First, one might argue that submarines are essential assets for Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) activities, which are mainly aimed at providing a country with essential intelligence and control in several places of world oceans, providing not only data on natural phenomena at sea, land, and air, but also – and mainly – on foreign weapons systems, platforms, and the strategic intentions of combatants or otherwise adversaries. Furthermore, and perhaps even more prominently, submarines allow power projection missions to be carried out, since they count on enough technology to carry and launch torpedoes, cruise missiles, and ballistic missiles, thus enabling a land attack to be delivered. Within this context, it is also necessary to emphasize that submarines may also be able to launch intercontinental ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads, therefore playing a central role in superpowers’ deterrence strategies and amounting for one the features of the nuclear triad, whose definitions will become clearer as the present study-guide unfolds. At last, it is worth pointing out the role submarines play in sea control missions. Even though they might be used for offensive purposes, they might also be used to assure the safety of the high seas and of crucial routes utilized for military and civilian purposes, such as international shipping lanes of goods and energy supplies (Gorenflo and Poirier 2019). Concluding accordingly, submarine watercrafts serve an extensive set of purposes, being the reason why many states worldwide have inves- ted time and financial resources conducting research on such topic. Along with this process, a few issues end up being raised, and this study guide aims at (i) presenting the debates over said issues and at (ii) analyzing the different paths which may be followed when trying to solve such divergen- ces amongst states. We shall first briefly present historical perspectives regarding the development and use of submarine watercrafts for military purposes. Thus, the Historical Background section of the present study guide covers the periods of the early stages of submarine technology, the First World War, the Interwars period, the Second World War, and, at last, the Cold War, when the debate on submersible vessels acquired new, more challenging features. Second, the Statement of the Issue section begins to approach the de- 190 THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE ON SUBMARINE WATERCRAFTS bates mentioned above in greater depth. In this sense, first the functioning and physics of submarine watercrafts are explored, followed by an analysis over the different forms of armaments carried and launched by submarines. The controversies implied in the use of both nuclear and conventional means of propulsion are also covered. Later on, aspects of international law and of the law of the sea are presented. The last two sections of the paper aim at presenting Previous International Actions that have addressed the issues described throughout the study guide, and the Bloc Positions of the countries involved with submarine watercrafts. 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The following section sets out to present the technical aspects of the development of submarines from a historical perspective, outlining the role of such vehicles in warfare prior to and throughout the 20th century. Thus, the present study guide starts with a brief analysis on the first ru- dimentary attempts in the field of underwater warcraft and their subse- quent successes. Afterwards, its focus shifts to the main roles performed by submarines in the two World Wars, as well as pointing out some of the attempts in international law to limit, inhibit or outright prohibit their development in this period. At last, given the fact that the advent of the Cold War provided brand-new dynamics to the International System (IS), this historical background finishes by assessing how the elements of nuclear power and ballistic missiles, amongst other features, were introduced in the field of submersible vessels, eventually verifying the spread of submarine technology in a worldwide scale. 2.1 EARLY STAGES OF SUBMARINE TECHNOLOGIES The first envisioning of submarine warfare dates back to 9th century BCE, depicting warriors utilizing a sort of breathing bag to cross bodies of water without being detected by enemy forces (Delgado and Cussler 2011). It was not until the 16th century CE, however, that the concept of a vehicle capable of submerged movement and military capability arose. At the time, the diving bell was created as a means of reaching extreme underwater depths, yet its uses were exclusively limited to exploration and salvaging. The idea of a submersible watercraft used to attack ships underwater was then conceptualized, as seen in William Bourne’s and later Giovanni-Alfon- so Borelli’s designs (Compton 1999). At the same time, a submerged vehicle that could carry a warrior was sketched by Leonardo da Vinci (Delgado and Cussler 2011). One of the first submarines resembling those of today to enter ser- vice was the French-built, Robert Fulton-designed, “Nautilus”. It consisted 191 DISARMAMENT AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY COMMITTEE of a metal hull with a capacity of three or more crew members, and its propulsion was based on a collapsible sail while on the surface and on a man-powered hand crank while submerged, doing the latter only to attack. The weapon attached to the Nautilus, a floating torpedo, was not actu- ally incorporated into the watercraft, but towed behind it (Compton 1999). Subsequently, in the early 19th century, many submarines similar to the Nautilus came into being, all with similar limitations, such as the human- -powered mechanical propulsion (Delgado and Cussler 2011). Eighty years later, the first electric-powered submarines were invented. The emergence of the electric motor, as the one in the Spanish “Peral” from 1887, was not well received at first, as the aforementioned watercraft was generally con- sidered “a complete failure” due to the fact that it sank three times without ever being able to reach considerable distances (Compton 1999, 108). The few all-electric submarines built at the end of the 19th century had two main limitations: the first being their very limited range; the second, the fact that they would be completely vulnerable and inoperable in case of a power outage (Delgado and Cussler 2011). The last major technological advancement in submarine technology before World War I was the adoption of the diesel motor as a means of propulsion. Even though the French had been the first to implement it, they still opted for steam and electric propulsion, given the problems potentially caused by the highly flammable early diesels. The evolution of diesel engines was responsible for giving the submarine the capability to properly navigate in the sea (Lautenschlager 1986). As of 1909, all American submarines had already been fitted with diesel engines, which were in fact used in combination with the electric motor: the former was utilized for surface navigation, as a battery charging; the latter, for underwater operations (Delgado and Cussler 2011). The development of submarine technologies throughout the 19th century, as seen in the inventions mentioned above, was driven almost entirely by military aspirations over civil purposes, thus resulting, at the turn of the century, in the widespread perception of such watercrafts as weapons (Redford 2010).

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