DOCUMENT RESUME ED 241 772 CE 038 576 TITLE Animal Traction. Appropriate Technologies for Peace Corps, Washington, DC. Informati

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 241 772 CE 038 576

'AUTHOR Watson, Peter R. TITLE Animal Traction. Appropriate Technologies for Development. Manual M-12. INSTITUTION Peace Corps, Washington, DC. Information Collection and Exchange Div. SPONS AGENCY Peace Corps, Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Sep 82 CONTRACT 79-043-0129 NOTE 245p. PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For yeachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS- *Agricultural Education; Agricultural Machinery; *Agricultural Production; Agricultural Skills; *Animal Husbandry; Annotated Bibliographies; Developing Nations; Disease Control; DiSeases; Equipment Utilization; *Extension Education; Guidelines; *Livestock; Nutrition; Postsecondary Education; Program Development; Program Implementation; Rural Areas; *Rural Development; Rural Education; Vocational Education; Volunteers; Volunteer Training IDENTIFIERS Africa; *Animal Traction ABSTRACT This manual is designed for use by Peace Corps volunteers and agricultural extension personnel working in animal traction development programs. While some of the. information contained in the manual is specific to the extension of animal-powered agriculture in Africa, the principles covered are generally applicable wherever the method is being used or introduced. Examined in the individual chapters are draft animal selection, animal husbandry, the training of draft animals, yokes and harnesses, hitches field operations and` implements, economic and technical assistance, and animal traction extension. Appendixes to the guide include information on animal power, animal nutrition, disease recognition and control, workshop and-spare parts inventory, animal traction instructional forms, and draft animals used in Africa. Concluding the manua1 are an annotated bibliography, a list of resources, and a glossary. (MN)

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Peace Corps 4Ir Animal Traction

Written by: PeterR. Watson°

Edited by: Richard Davis Marilyn S. Chakroff

Illustrated by; Marilyn Kaufman Mary Conn

This publication was produced For Peace Corps by the TransCentury Corporation, Washington, D.C.

Peace Corps Information Collection '& Exchange Appropriate Technologies for Development Manual Number M-12 September 1982 4 .

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.. ANIMAL TRACTION August 1981

Prepared for Peace Corps by the TransCentury Corporation under Contract No. 79-043-0129

Availablethrough Peace Corps, 10E 806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20525 o

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About this resource guide is included to help - Manual readers find information specific to areas of interestar-need. it 'should be further noted that author-

ities do not always agree on the importance of given technique's or This manual is a practical the effectiveness of certain meth- guide to the use of draft animals ods. In some eases it has been nec-. and animalrpowered:farm equipment. essary for, the author to make recom- It is written primarily for use by mendations based on his experience-) Peace Corps Volunteers and agricul- as an animal traction Volunteer and tural extension personnel work &ng in as a Volunteer trainer. animal traction development programs, but it can be used by,farmers who ate teaching themselves to use these techniques. While some of the information contained in the manual is specific to the extension of animal-powered

agriculture in Africa, the princi- . ples explained and illustrated are fundamental: they are generally applicable wherever the method is being used orintroduced. In writing the manual, priority has been given to information which the author, reviewers, and editors feel will be valuable to a majority of Volunteers working in animal traction programs. A

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About the Author 0% a

Peter R. Watson has five years of experience working with draft animals, primarily in West Africa. From 1972 to 1976 Mr. Watson super- e vised 25 farmers and seven agricultural extension agents in a program to popularize the use of animals for power in Benin. He operated a, small farm using animal-drawn equip- l ment in the cultivation of a variety of traditional food and cash crops. In 1979 Mr. Watson was .. hired by the Peace Corps as an instructor for their animal traction 0 Volunteers. Mr. Watson's previous writing experience included articles about the culture of the Baribapeo- ple of Benin and Nigeria, and an extensive report on the evolution and potential of animal traction technology in a traditional rural farming community in West Africa.

7 .c Acknowledgments ,Lone, Pierre Huet, Ted Bermingham, Paul Schmidt, and Mrs. Thorsnes. So many people have contri- And a special thanks to Cade Ware buted to this manual that it would for his excellent typing and layout be impossible to thank them all indi- work. vidually. However, I do want to givi my thanks to those reviewers who read and corrected previous drafts of the manual and to the people who gave special help during the research phase. I am especially grateful to Kelly Morris and Steve Joyce at Peace Corps and to Buckley Lye and Rob Shulman, who gave careful review of the manual and made valuable suggestions. At TransCen- tury I want to thank Paul Chakreff, Project Manager, for his continued support throughoutthe project, and Michael Costa fpr his review of the sections on animal health and nutrition. A very warm special thanks goes to Ben, Marcia, and Junior Ellingson for their help in giving mesIi....?t-hand experience with catching bulls. Finally, I would like to thank the following people for their help in providing information for this manual:.Carol and Fred Watson, P.it Wetmore, Helen Davidson, Andre

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Animal Traction

Table of Contents

About This Manual I. About the Author iii Cd Acknowledgments V

1. Introduction 1

'2. Draft, Animal Selection 9 e

3. Animal Husbandry 31

4. Training Draft Animals 49

5. Yokes and Harnesses 75

6. Hitches 97

7. Field Operations and Implements 115

8. Economic and Technical Assistance 153

9. Animal Traction Extension 161 Appendices

A. Animal Power 173

B. Animal Nutrition 175

C. Disease Recognition and Control 20 4.

D. Workshop and Spare Parts Inventory 209

E. Animal Traction Instruction Forms 211

F. Draft Animals Used in Africa 217 Bibliography 223 Resources 231 Glossary 237 index 241

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10 v IAA IL. Introduction

111 What is Animal Traction?

In many parts of the world, work performed depend largely on farmers have adapted hoes and culti- people's resourcefulness in raising vating tools so they can be pulled and training animals and devising by people, animals or. engines. hitches that allow them to pull. This is called mechanized agriculture; the type of power used is called traction, or pulling power. History of Animal traction, animal-pow- Animal ered mechanization, and animal draft are terms which describe the Traction use of animals to pull farm equip-

gent, vehicles, and other loads. ' The most common draft animals are Illustrations on the walls of cattle, horses and mules, but don- Egyptian tombshow farmers using keys, camels, domestic water buf- animal traction from as early as falo, yaks, dogs, reindeer and even 1400 B.C. in these hieroglyphics elephants are used for traction in the handle of a hand-held/hoewas some parts of the world.. The kind extended and las ed d to the horns of

of animals used and the kind of oxen with rope.--. hese illustrations

1.1 also show humans pulling plows. oping nations.This innovation is The first plows, pulled by important because farmers using people or animals, probably were not traditional techniques are unable to used to break :.he soil but to stir produce sufficient food for increas- soil which had already been loos- ing populations. Mechanization can ened by hand-held hues. Animals expand the area under cultivation were used to pull branches across a and provide better soil preparation, seedbed in order to cover the scat- leading to greaterharvests. Gov- tered seed. ernment extension services therefore In the transition from manual strive to give farmers tools, infor- hoeing, to human or,animal traction, mation and advice to enable them to basic. "elbow" or "checkmark" increase productivity. design of the hoe did not change. Benefits of mechanization to Vrimt changed was the method of pul- farmers include lightened-workloads, ling. Instead of being pulled in a better and more regular yields, or an series of short, indivioual strokes easing of problems caused by or chops, the hoe was purled contin- short growing seasons or insufficient

uously.. It was this continuous labor. Mechanization also can help motion which transformed the hoe. to produce income with which farmers into the "plow". can acquire goods and services. Yet mechanization is not pFac- tical or economical for every farmer. New tools are expensive. Acceptance Why Use of new techniques increases depen- Animal Traction? dency on outside technical assistance!Thus the farmer who already produces enough food for his family may be reluctant to risk a known Agricultural mechanization harvest (traditional yield) .for an has become a high priority in devel- uncertain gain in productivity.

2 12 Early Egyptian Hoe: one-piece construction guide handles

beam (pulling handle) handle

Modern Moldboard Plow / .two-nipce construction"

Efforts to revolutionize agri- in animal traction ("antrac"), some- culture with machines, cooperatives, times called "light mechanization". and market controls have met with Farmers, agronomists and agricul- social resistance and technical fail- tural extension services often cite ure in some areas: Similarly, the following advantages of using efforts to improve hand-powered sys- animal traction: tems with fertilizers, pesticides, It reduces the difficulty of labor and makes farming a more and improved seeds generally have appealing occupation. Farmers - not produced food surpluses nor who might seek employment in other areas are encouraged to eased the burden of manual labor. develop existing skills and The search for agricultural abilities and improve operations. technology that meets the needs and It increases productivity. desires of both farmers and govern- Replacing handhoes with draft ments has led to increased interest animals and equipment, farmers

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can double or triple the area age on a contract basis. cultivated, thereby increasing (Farmers can hire out their crop yields. teams and equipment.) Often new opportunities arise in -..... It is affordable technology. marketing and agro-4rlustry. Animals and equipment are low o It encourages livestocs_oro- in cost compared to tractors. duction and development of With careful planning and meat, leather and byproduct application, the investment markets. can pay for itself in a few years. Low-interest loans are often available through government or sponsoring agencies. Animals and equipment can he Some

supplied locally, creating . less dependence on external Considerations resources than tractors and other machinery. Tractors, need fossil fuels, spare parts, and maintenance know-how which duly not be available to farm- While there are advantages to vrS. using animal traction, there,are Used on a small scale, it does ti possible disadvantages. Changes in not require radical cholfges in croppin_g_natterns or the role one part of the total agricultural of family or hired labor. system may affect other parts of Although it does reduce manpower needs in some field oper- that system; without planning, the ations, the reduction is not change from handhoe to animal trac- drastic and labor can shift to other activities like planting, tion may have negative effects on sprnving, hamiesting and car- farming families. National agri- ing for animals and harness. cultural goals like increased pro- It cieates work opportunities. The use of animal traction duction, market- growth, and agro- can stimulate the development industrial development may be off- of artisan resources, increasing jobs for local black- set by disruption of important tra- smiths, cnrpenter and lea- ditions and values. Here are some thermakers who produce needed equipment. It also creates reasons why farmers may prefer tra- work in the areas of trans- ditional techniques: port, water-pulling, and till-

4 New techniques can disrupt established labor patterns How Can and family organization. Farm- Ilrn ers who use animals to plow al Traction extra land, for example, also must use animals to weed it. Be Used? However, inexperience, animal or equipment loss, or poor advice from extension agents could leave farmers unable to Animal traction farm techno- perform mechanical weeding. logy can be adapted to,meet the The burden would then fall on their families. requirements of individual farmers. Surplus cropping may compli- Nearly all manual tillage opera- cate traditional patterns of tions, such as hauling (by wagon), wealth-sharing among family and friends. Farmers may be water-lifting, skidding (logging), wary of jealousy, criticism, and threshing, can employ animal or demands that may result from increased production and power. selling of surpluses for indi- Animal traction can be used vidual gain. to complement ongoing manual operia- New technology can increase farmer reliance, on outside tions or replace them entitely. technical assistance. Some- Usually, mechanization of one opera- times limited supplies, inef- fective delivery chains, and tion 'requires mechanization of some absence of skilled agricul- others. ,/n parts of Africa, for tural and veterinary exten-. sion personnel have made it example, farmers plowing additional difficult for farmers to use land using animals also have to animal traction successfully. mechanize weeding, because manual laborers don't have time to weed the extra crops. Harvesting and threshing, however, are done by hand because dry weather preserves crops, giving farmers time to complete these operations by hand.. As farmers increase producti-

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vity and earn capital, they are able .. to purchase more animals and equip Before Beginning: ment. Eventually, they may replace What Do You animal power with engine power: Need to Know? Vut animal traction is not just for farmers who want to expand production. It is also for those This manual is a practical who could or would farm if they did guide to the selection, care, and not have to do it by hand. While training of draft animals, and to the logistics of financing equipment the equipment and field techniques and technical assistance forces pro- used in animal-powered farming sys- grams to concentrate on farmers who tems. expand operations and stimulate mar- It is also a guide to animal kets, it should be -clear that farm- traction extension, describing how

ers who support themselves and their . instructors can teach these skills families contribute to the overall to farmers and other agents.. Many stability of national economies. animal traction programs offer spe- The importance of this very funda- cial incentives and services to far- mental view of animal traction econ- mers willing to try new methods. omics becomes clearer as growing These may include farm planning, numbers of young people leave firms financial assistance programs, seeking an easier way of life in the veterinary and artisan support sys- cities. Animal traction technology tems, marketing systems, and equip- can reverse this process by'giving ment supply and distribution proce- farmers tools that make their occu- dures. Instructors must be familiar pation secure and productive'.- with these services and able to explain them to farmers. Successful animal traction begins with farmers who understand

1 and appreciate the value of draft

16 animals and who treat them with care and kindness. Instructors can help new farmers most, perhaps., by showing them what to expect from their animals, and what the animals need in return.

7 17 2. Draft Animal Selection

Farmers must be able to select horses and horse-likeanimals (don- the animal or animals most appropri- keys and mules), ate for their needs. The animals they choose must be culturally accep- Popular table., trainable, maintainable, and profitable within the overall farm Draft plan. It is also important that the Animals animal be available locally, since these animals are already adapted to local feeds and climate and are Oxen likely to be resistant to diseases in the region. Of course, farmers should choose healthy animals from The most commonly-used draft strong stock. In some areas, far- animals are cattle. Among cattle mers must consider social or reli- oxen are often preferred, because gious traditions which restrict the they are well-muscled and have good ownership or use of animals. temperaments. An ox is a bull which In this chapter the word has been castrated and trained to "bovine" applies to cattle (or cows) pull loads, but the term is some- and the word "equine"refers to times used to describe a working

18 cow. In t.iis manual, "ox" will ing begins. The use of light equip- refer to animals,of either sex. ment and the improvement of husban- Some stockmen define oxen by age as dry techniques has made it increas- , well, distinguishing them from ingly clear that donkeysare an younger "bullocks" by their full important source of farm power. mouths (present at four years of Horses age.) Oxen are well-adapted to savanna and forest-savanna lands. Their use in rain forest zones has Horses, by contrast, have not been restricted by disease, most been popular draft animals in some notably trypanosomiasis, or bovine areas of the world, notably West sleeping sickness. Africa. Horses can be more expensive to feed than bulls because they are not ruminant animals and there- Donkeys fore use roughage less efficiently. While they theoretically provide In arid areas, the cost of more power than bulls, horses do not maintaining cattle is often too deliver a sustained tractive, or great to make oxen a feasible source pulling, effort under difficult con- of farm power. Donkeys are better ditions. However, horses are much snited to these climates and often faster than oxen. supply sufficient power for the kind Mules of agriculture practiced. Donkeys are popular draft animals because they are inexpensive (often less Mules found in Africa are than half the price of oxen on the rarely used for draft purposes. live market), easy to train, and Like horses, mules are expensive to effective where shallow breaking feed. But where they are culturally rather than overturning of the soil acceptable (because they are a cross- is all that is needed before plant- breed, they are considered unclean

10 19 by some Muslims), they have great Buffalo potential. They have the intelli- gence and sure-footedness of the The domestic buffalo is used donkey and the strength of the horse, extensively asa draft animal in and are easily harnessed. A mule Asia; less commonly in Egypt and is a cross between a male donkey the Near East.' Attempts have been (jack) and a female horse (mare). made to cross Asian. domestic and The male offspring of this cross, African wild breeds, but in each called a horse mule, is always ste- instance the kesultingpopulation rile, while the female offspring, or succumbed to dis se. Some resear- mare mule, is usually infertile. chers feel tl?t fu her experiments The female donkey, known as a jennet will prove the vue of importing or jenny, is rarely bred with the and breeding the animal in Africa, male horse, or stallion. However, as its milk, meat, and labor poten- their offspring, the macho (male) tials are high. Today experimental and hinny (female), are basically herds are maintained in Mozambique indistinguishable from mulis, and 4 and Tanzania. Buffalo work at a are good work animals. slower rate than oxen, but are generally considered to be stronger Camels and better adapted to wet terrain.

camels are used as pack ani-. ma's through much of the Sahara. In Mauritania, Niger,Chad, Mali and Senegal they are used to supply power for drawing water; occasion- Except for camels, any of the ally they are used to draw plows or animals mentioned above can be light weeding implements. For infor- trained and harnessed using the mation on husbandry and use of cam- methods described in the chapter on els as draft animals, seepage 234.. training.

11 20 Determining a load which equals approximately one-tenth of its body weight. The Power rule applies when the animal is Requirements allowed to assume a natural pace and expected to produce an extended rather than a concentrated effort. Before attempting to'determine A 300-kg bull, for example, can pull the kind and number of animals a 30-kg log -all day, but if it is required for any particular farm, made to pull 130 kg, it will work animal owners should be familiar only three or four hours before it with the concepts of pulling (draft) tires. If it is made to pull at a capacity and power. They should faster pace, it also mill tire also consider the work chSracteqs- sooner. ticsof draft animals. A draft animal must be able to produce bursts of extra force as well as work at a steady pace. Under I )1r.:111 normal conditions, 30 kg of force In order to move any object, may be required to pull a lcig, but an animal must. exert a force equal if it must be dragged ur a hill, or to the weight or resistance of that if the log catches in a gUlly, the object. Forexample, it takes 50 force needed (draft requirement) kilograms (kg) of force to move a increases. Horses, mules and oxen 50-kg log. If the movement is accom- are preferred draft animals because plished by pulling, rather than by they can pull loads over long dis- lifting, or carrying, the force is tances at reasonable speeds and, called draft. when necessary, provide extra pul- The draft capacity of an ani- ling capacity. mal increases with its weight. A generally accepted rule is that an animal can exert a constant pull on

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21 L.

Power pulled up to their actual weight. But the intensity of such efforts Power is the combination of uses up the animal's strength and pulling capacity and speed, or pace. reduces the tptal time it is able Under normal conditions, a large to work. horse will pull a 150-poUnd (lb) load at a steady rate of 2-1/2 miles per Work hour (mph). This rate of work is Characteristics defined as one horsepower (hp). A bullgef the same weight, pulling the Animals vary not only in their same load, will assume atiormal pace ability to pull loads, but also in of 1-1/2 mph. At the end of an the number of hours they will work. eight-hour day, the horse-will have In the tropics, breeds of oxen will moved the load further, or produced pull between one-seventh and one- more work than the bull, and is thus tenth of their weight for four to said to he more powerful than the five hours per day. Donkeys will hull. pull about one-fifth lid their weight Aehts have shown that light for three to four hours. In tests horses, bulls, buffalo, mules and performed in Africa, bulls worked camels all provide about three-quar- longer when the load was decreased ters horsepower, cows about one-half slightly and the work done in two horsepower, and donkeys one-third sessions, two to three hours in the horsepower.' But it must be remem- ,morning and two to three hours in bered that these are the rates at late afternoon. Donkeys refused to which the animals normally deliver work beyond three or four hours .1 force, not the maximum force they regardless of how the work was dis- can produce in a given instant. In tributed and in spite of a reduction pulling tests, horses have,' for sev- in the size of the load.

eral seconds, exerted pulls up to (Solace: CEEMAT, Manuel de Culture twice their weight and bulls have avic Traction Animale. 1968.)

22 Individual animals do not pull General Rules to capacity when hitcheimp pairs or multiple arrangements. Concerning Power Tests have shown that the individual is 7.5 percent less effi- Requirements cient when it works within a pair. The percentage increases to 15, 22, 30 and 37 percent when the animal works in a team The above information, qual- of three, four, fiVe and six ified by the following rules, makes animals, respectively. it possible Co determine the kind -o As the line of pull is lowered (or as the jingle between the and number of draft animals needed line of pull and the ground becomes more acute), less to power various field operations: pOwer is needed to move the Given the soil conditions of load. Donkeys and short-leg- a region, the weight of the ged cattle can produce more implement to be used and the power than their weight would average depth at which the indicate because they are clos- implement will work, the ani- er to the ground. mal(s) must be able to deli- Animals deliver maximum per- ver, Fur an extended period of formance only when the harness time, a force equal to and pre- (yoke, collar or breastband) ferably more than the total is properly fitted and pro- rosistank.u, or draft require- vides a broad, smooth surface ment of the work. Tables 1 and 2 against which to push. Test gives the draft requirements evidence suggests that bovine of various field implements. animals can deliver,25-50 percent more horsepower when har- Work that requires frequent nessed in a breastband or col- "peak efforts" (pulling a plow lar rather than a yoke. The thr.ugh rooted or rocky soil; difference is explained in the nulling a cart over hilly ter- lower point of draft, the rain) tirel animals quickly. increased comfort of the har- Tie operator must compensate ness, and in the fact that the re(!ucing the length of the animal pushes against a much wc c.dY, reducing the inten- larger surface area. sity of the work (for example, Animals must be in good health taking smaller cuts with the sed-properly_trained. plow), or providing frequent 0 rests. The alternative is to incra,e thu number of animals used.

14 23 needed', first find the draft require- Method for . ment of the most difficult operation DolerminingSize to be performed (Tables 1 and 2). Use of the Hitch Tables 3 and 4 to find which size animal or combination of animals et will deliver this amount of power. A basic approach to determin- Then determine the weights of the ing the kind and number of animals. available animals to match animal required is to estimate the maximum power to draft requirements.. power the farmer' will need and then For example: ceilculAte the size of the animal or Difficulty of work--The most team 61 animals that could supply it. difficult field operation will be The combination of animals that will plowing fairly light Boils during k satisfy the farmer's power needs is the rainy season with a single mold- called a hitch. The size of the board plow. The farmer's fields are n hitch can be determined by using the old (have been cultivated the pre- tables below, or by making the calcu- vious season) and plowing depth will lations foul in Appendix A. not exceed 15 centimeters (cm). Table 2 gives the draft Draft requirements - - According requirements of various field opera- to Table 1 about 70 kg of pulling tions. Remember that the draft power are needed to do this kind of requirement is the amount of power work. needed Lo plat an implement through Hitch options--Tables 3 and 4 the soil. can be used to determine two hitches Tables 3 and 4 give the amount that would satisfy the draft require- of power donkeys and bulls, respec- ment: tively, can deliVer in relation to 1) two 300-kg bulls (69.5 kg LL.Iir body wqlgh_t_and nuMber.of of power or draft) individualS in the hitch. 2) four 110-kg donkeys (69 kg To determine the kind of hitch of power or draft).

24 k Table 1--Requiremets of Some Farm Implements for Operations on Medium Loam Soils*

Operation Draft Requirement lbs kg Plowing fallow land with single moldboard plow 11.4 cm wide, 12.7 cm deep 196 89 14.0 cm wide, 12.7 cm deep 207 94 16.5 cm wide, 15.2 cm deep 267 121 25.0 cm wide, 18.0 cm deep 375 170

Plowing fallow land with double moldboard plow 30.0 cm wide, 5.5 cm deep 256 116

Harrowing plowed soil 1.8-tine peg tooth harrow, 6.3 cm deep 101 46 5 spring tines, 11.4 cm deep 260 118 helvyharrowing 165-320 cm wide 176-220 80-100 light harrowing 320 cm wide 198 90

LovJing plowed soil with a 180-cm-long board ridden by a person of 53 kg weight 198 90

Rolling 212. 96

Cultivating, 3-tine cultivator, 9 cm deep 117- 53

Seed drilling, 175-299 cm wide, 11-13 openers 198 90

Whocivd transport of loads up to one metric ton, on average farm roads 198-265 90-120

Source: Ilopfen, H. J. 1969. Farm Implements for Arid and Tropical Regions. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

*Sve Chapter 7 for a description of these operations and implements.

16 Table 2--Draft Requirements of Field Operations

Operation Draft Requirement lbs kg -Weaking o1 1U-ZOTTZFI r ges w p1 ow in dry season 15 cm wide, 12 cm deep in 2% argilous (sandy)247-331 112-150 soil 15 cm wide, 12 cmedeep in 8% argilous soil 463-485 210-220

Plowing land 4/ single moldboard during rainy season 15 cm wide, 15 cm deep, 2-5% argilous soil 154, 71 15 cm wide, 15 cm deep, 4-8% argilous soil 176 80

Ridging ridges 12 cm high, -15 cm wide, 4-8% argil- oils soil 243 110

'Weeding with cultivator (4-200 millimeter [min) shovc1s) depth 3-4 cm 2-5% arg. 51 and width of track 1 m 20 cm 4-8% 55

Lifting peanuts; medium soil (6-8% argilous) blade 88-99 40-45 500-mm blade 176-187 80-85 A Source: Bambey, C. R. A. 1967. "A propos d'un matariel de traction bovine." Institut des Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et .des Cultures Vivrieres, Paris, France.

Choke of hitch--The decision generally the best choice because is made based on these criteria: they will work longer hours per day availability of animals, cost of ani- and they require less harness equip- mals, daily work potential of ani- ment. Bulls weighing less than 300 mals, cost of harness, and availa- kg each could be used if they were bility and cost of feed. harnessed in breastbands or collars If they are available and the rather than in a yoke. Animals can, farmer can afford them, bulls are deliver more of their potential

26 114

\Table 3- -Power of Donkeys (in breastband or collar). Weight Power of animalIn team of 2 In team of 3 In team of 4 of donkey working alone SingleTEAM SingleTEAM SingleTEAM (kg). 0(8) animalTOTALanimalTOTALanimalTOTAL

80 16 14.8 29.5 13.6 41 12.5 50

90 18 16.5 -33 15.3 46 14 ' 56 100 20 18.5 37 17 51 15.6 62 110 22 20.4 41 18.7 56 17.2 69 120 24 22.2 44.5 20.4 61 18.7 75 130 26 24 48 22.1 66 20.3 81

140 28 25.9 52 23.8 71.5 2;.8 87

150 30 27.8 55.5 25.5 76.5 23.4 94 If animals to be used are of the same size, match draft requirement to figure in TOTAL columns. For example, an animal owner could meet a requirement of 56 kg of power by using two 150-kg donkeys, three 110-kg donkeys, or four small animals of 90 kg apiece.

If animals are ot.,,different.sizes, use single animal column for any size hitch, and add individual power together to.get hitch total. power,when working in these types of Determining harnesses.- Weights of Animals

to determine an animal's weight, first measure the length of the animal froM point of shoulder to paint of rump (0.--B) and the circumference of its torso at point of

18 Table 4--Power of Bulls (in yoke) Weight Power of animal'Inteam of 2 In team of 3 'Inteam of 4 lof bull (kg) working alone SingleTEAMSingle TEAMSingleTEAM (kg) animal TOTALanimalTOTALanimalTOTAL , 200 25.0 23.1 46.2 21.3 64 19.5 78 225 28.1 26 52 23.9 71.5 21.9 87.5 250 31.3 29 58 26.6 80 24.4 97.5 275 34.4 31.8 63.5 29.2 87.5 26.8 107 300 37.5 34.7 69.5 31.9 95.5 29.3 117 325 40.6 37.6 75 34.5 103.5 31.7 126.5

350 1 44 40.5 81 37.2 11.5 34.1 136.5 375 47 43.3 86.5 39.8 119.5 36.5 146

400 50, 46.2 92.5 42.5 127.5 39 156 NOTE: For a method of calculating draft power In hitches up to six animals, see Appendix A.

heart (C) with a tape or rope. (See For bovine animals the drawing on page 20.) Substitute measurements A H (length) When taking the torso or girth and C (circumference of torso at point of heart, or girth) into this measurement, observe these rules: formula: o Measure in the morning before girth x girth x length - weight the animal drinks. Don't give 300 it hay the night before. For this formula, measurements must o Have the animal stand squarely be taken in inches. If a metric with its head in a normal posi- tape or ropeThaiis used to measure tion. the animal, centimeters must be con- o Pull the tape snugly around verted to inches before the formula can be used. One inch = 2.54 cm. the torso, at the smallest circumference behind the shoul- Example: ders. Girth of bull measures 152 cm, Next, follow these formulas: length measures 135 cm.

28 4, 6.

point of heart point' of jeNt;' heart .r - N , ' 4171:, point of point of rump Ir A rump C ' ..* . . C'N'4101. ;-". /41.3.res"...."....-r....".411 ...... ' ... 1- . 144016 ... 4..,"

1.;. ""'4.A17 A. 1 point of point of .N.A*i* 1 shoulder shoulder. 1,

152 art For equine animals inches(girth) Substitute measurements A-3 (length) and C (girth) into this formula: 135 i734= 53 inches (length) firth x Birth x length 60 x 60 x 53 + 50lbs= = 636 lbs 300 300 weight Since one kg = 2.2 lbs, the weight of the animal in kg is obtained by Measurements must be taken in inches, dividing 2.2 into the answer above or converted into inches, before the (636 lbs). formula is used. 636 Example: 289 kg 2.2 Donkey's girth measures 37 inches, The bull weighs 636 lbs or 289 kg. donkey's length measures 35 inches. An alternate method for estimating 37 x 37 x 35 + 50 = t4eight of donkey the weight of a steer (castrated 200 bull): 160 + 50 = 210 lbs Live weight = 1.04 (27.5758 x heart If the animal's weight is to be girth)- 1.049671 expressed in kg,

20 29 210 Age of 2.2 7J 14 Bovine Animals The donkey wellils 210 lbs or 95 kg. Ideally, farmers should raise their own draft catt1-6-0T-purehase-___ them when they are very young. This Selection of allows the farmers to provide proper Individual nutrition during the critical growth Draft Animals stage as well as to observe and shape the animal's behavior long before it is put to work. Once farmers decide what kind Oxen are, normally, put to work of draft animal will be used, they between the ages of three and four must e choose individual years. They may be trained at two animals which are sound an - to three years of age and given able and have a considerable work light work for a season. However, expectancy and resale value. Select- before the age of three, oxen have ing a good draft animal is a matter little power, and hard work can of evaluating both physical and beha- stunt their growth or cause abnormal vioral attributes. Age, sex, confor- development of bone and muscle. mat!_on (shape), and temperament are After the age of four, animals may helpful criteria for judging a draft be difficult to handle and train; animal's value. The farmer's total they must be broken of old habits animal needs mast be noted when judg- before their power can be used. ing an individual animal. If it is Although Oxen'can work until to be,used as a pair, it should be they are 12 or older, many farmers roughly the same age and size as its prefer to sell them as soon as work mate, and should be the same their work capacity tapers off.A sex. common practice is to work oxen hard until age seven or eight, use

21 30 Age of Equine Animals them as a.ieserve or alternate ani- Recommended' ages for training mal (or pair) for a season or two, and working equine animals are very and then sell them for butchering. similar to those outlined for cattle. 0 When buying an ox, the purcha- However, in practice, these animals ----ser-can_cleterTine the animal's age are worked until by counting its teeth. Because the --because-their__meat is less valuable. approach' of an unfamiliar person The age of a horse, donkey or mule may cause the animal to shy or to can be determined by comparing the struggle, it is best to have the animal's mouth to the diagramson owner open the animal's mouth. the following page. Otherwise restrain the animal and pry As the animal grows older, the open the mouth by pulling up on the enamel wears off the tooth, giving nostrils and down on the lower jaw. it a smooth, white grinding surface Cattle have front teeth only in (the dark center disappears).The the lower jaw Temporary teeth teeth grow longer and begin to slant; appear., at one month. The first per- the entire mouth elongates. Compare

manent teeth appear at age two. By the side views of the four- and age five, the animal .has a full set thirty-year-old horse and note the

of permanent teeth. The age of. increased pointing of the jaw. older animals can be determioed by The correct method for opening observing the wear patterns of the the animal's mouth is as follows: teeth and matching them to the pat- Place the palm of one.hand terns shown in the illustration on under the animal's jaw; the next page. An alternate method Insert the thumb and middle is to count the number of rings oh finger into the animal's the animal's horns; each ring cor- mouth on either side of the responds to one year of growth, the lower jaw, at a point behind

first ring appearing at age two. the teeth;

22 31 Determiningthe Aae of Cattle

teeth horn rings Source: Ward, Fay E. 1958. The Cowboat Work, Hastings House, New York. (Reprinted by permission of the publishers, Determining the Age of IA:line-Animals

1 f- rr- nrre.

p dt Ak

2 vws 3 vela 4 vela S vows (s11 Wit tescal t Sat csmosnrt taettiff front) OA= Tork !sat (sot sownowt alga)

0 C -.... k , " .4. ti 0 A. .. ".'..1 ,.,..r ...a...,....:,,re ..,...... 4...

7 yitrs 0 vow IS von 3* vwers .moot wow cot Isms. ,PC:1Cf '...;41v11,0111grecvs aseesrso 'STOGY* ;TONS ".T.d..rav t ewe: I Str,ave :pos.:mows! Source: Edwards, Elwyn Hartley,, and Geddes, Candita, eds. 1973. .Complete .Book of the Horse, Arco Publishing Co., NeW York. (Reprinted by permis-. sion of the publishers.)

23 32 I I

Rub or press the gums with Opening Animal's Mouth these fingers; this will cause the animal to open its mouth; Grasp.the tongue with the other hand, pull the tongue out, and hold it to one side so that teeth can be seen..

Sex of Bovine Animals

,Sex has a bearing on the power and temperament of draft animals. As a rule males tend to be bigger, more powerful, and more difficult

to train, than females. Females have male animals. However, the males less endurance and, of course, cannot:of some breeds of cattle and buffalo be used when they are carrying or have proven particularly difficult nursing young. to train. In these circumstances, Studies of African cattle have the animals are castrated at the shown that within the same breed and age of one and a half years in order awe bracket, males tend to be 50-100 -to make them more docile. There is kg heaver than females and can work disagreement about the value of cas- twice as long during a given day tration, however. Some farmers feel

.. (bulls, five to six hours; cows, two that this makes the animals lazy or to three hours). Studies from tem- interferes with their physical devel-. perate zones show more pronounced opment. Tests, have substantiated differences in size and power. that castrating eight-month-old Such evidence makes it clear calves retards their growth. Other that there is an advantage to using tests, comparing two-year-old cas- .

24 33 trated and. entire male buffaloes, An animal used for draft must showed that the animals performed have a build well suited for pulling. equally well. Castration also lim- It should be low to the ground, have its a small farmer's ability to powerful shoulders and legs, and raise his own stock, especially if have a broad frontal dimension that ht owns only a few animals. will accommodate the placement of a Sex of harness. It must be big enough to Equine Animals deliver, alone,or in a pair, the :Castrated horses or donkeys power needed to pull equipment for (geldings) are preferred over stal- an extended period of time. It must lions because they are even - tempered also be able to exert tN concen- and manageable in the presence of trated or "instantaneous" effort females. Female horses, mules and needed to overcome temporary in- donkeys are nearly as powerful as creases in the draft requirement males and geldings, but are known caused by roots, rocks, hard soil, for their stubbornness and unpredic- or inclines. table moods. While some animals are bred to produce good draft abilities, within any breed individual animals vary

greatly in these qualities, and Conformation care must be taken to choose those with the most potential. A thin but well-balanced animal can be strengthened with a good diet, Conformation refers to the health care, and work. However, an form or shape of an animal. An animal with a swayback, bad legs or animal with good conformation has impaired vision will be a constant a shape which shows the normal char- source of trouble. acteristics of its species and Selection is.a process of breed. matching ideal qualities against

34 those seen or latent in a given ani- short legs, straight and s4uare to the body; ample bone mal. Good draft animals, regardless clean, well-developed joints; of species or breed, will have the no swelling or unusual boni- following qualities: ness; no turning in or out of knees or hoofs; free movement head.well proportioned; squar- of limbs ish, sculptured look feet straight, hard; normal balanced vision and hearing; angulation of hoof. head carriage high and straight. - normal mouth; good teeth and jaw structure body should have depth and width; short, full neck, full shoulders, broad chest, and straight, broad back wide, thick hindquarters, low- set and evenly-fleshed

Ideal Conformation in Bulls

back rump loin poll head of tail head------__ hook bone muzzle pin bone

dewlap

shoulder

elbow ------knee shank, pastern dew claw hoof

A N'Dama Bull (se also page,217)

26 Ideal Conformation in Hopes The illustrations-below can serve as general poll guidelines for identifying qualities in don- rest . ears \ 1 keys and mules' as well as horses. forelock withers loins / back muzzle . .croup nostril dock neck

tail, br st elbow shelth knee hock stifle cannon fetlock tendons Points of the horse coronet hoof

Conformation Faults of the Horse

U-necked too high at withers

.swayback with coupling too long

,shoulder steep croup plain, coarse head lack slope heart too shallow quarters lack' muscling high buck-kneed flank

paunchy camped under or sickle-hocked pasterns too straight

36 Equine Leg Conformation The proper and faulty con- )4. ?S. formation of the forelegs 1--- when viewed from the side: A - correct conformation B - forelegs too far under body C - forelegs too far advanced D buck-kneed E calf-kneed--standing with knees too far back.

The proper and faulty conformation of the hind legs when viewed from the side: A - correct conformation E sickle-hocked--hind legs too far under body C - legs set too far back D - hock joint too straight.

The proper and faulty conformation of the forelegs (top) when viewed from the front, and the hind legs (bottom) when viewed from the rear. The forelegs:

A - correct conformation B splay-footed or base- narrow forefeet, toe cut out, heels in C - bowed legs D - knock - kneed,, set close together with toes pointing outward E - conformation predis- posing to interfering F - knees set close together G - pigeon-toed or toe narrow--a conformation which will cause` the animal to wing or throw out the feet as they 28 are elevated. The hind legs: A - correct conformation B - hind legs set too far. apart C bandy - legged- -wide at the hocks and hind feet toe -in D - hind legs set too close together E - cow-hocked.

Source: U.S, Department of Agriculture

Temperament reacts to the things around it.. it is difficult to know much about temperament from the quick evaluation that usually precedes the purchase Temperament refers to the of a draft animal.The buyer must nature or disposition of an.aniiil. guess, from what is observable, Part of its temperament is deter- whether or not an animal will accept mined genetically, both by breed and new routines or maintenance and parentage; some of it is learned- - training, behave well in a pair, and a response to the treatment it prove to be a spirited yet steady- receives from other animals or the paced and manageable worker. Some- people who raise and handle it. 0.mes, what is observable is not Temperament is reflected in typical of the animal's behavior. an animal's behavior, the way it A ba'sicall'y lethargic bull, for moves and acts, and the way it example, may become very alert or

"29

38 I

nervous at the approach of a stran- It foes not shy or kick at other animals. The buyer ger, exhibiting a fierceness- that should try to be present could be misinterpreted as a strong when it is being turned out with a herd or put into a yet controllable spirit. A donkey corral with other animals. that is mishandled and mismanaged If an animal is unusually aggressive or cowardly, it might kick or butt at its owner, may not work well in a pair. or at any adult, but be led away Aggressive animals force quite easily by a child. The buyer their workmates to shy or lean out of the yoke or har- must be aware of such possibilities ness, while cowardly animals' may refuse to step evenly with and at the same time draw some basic their mates, lagging behind. , conclusions about the animal's/temperament. When an animal is taken from The following are signs of its herd or original owner and- good temperament: staked out or colralled in a new Good overall conformation and place, it may experience shock. The health. The animal has do animal may 'show signs of aggression,, physical handicaps that require it to compensate with withdrawal, stubbornness, fear,or aggressive or stubborn beha- general anxiety. Noneof these vior. An animal with bad

vision or hearing, an unsound reactions is unnatural during the . leg or joint, or with a chro- adju3tment period,"and should not be nic respiratory or muscular weakness, protects itself by taken as a sign of an unsuitable balking, spooking, shying, disposition. refusing to be harnessed%or lying down during work. Its An animal's character becomes temperament is affected or clear 'later, during training and pre- shaped by its physical con- season work. dition. At that time the farmer The animal accepts the hand- can judge the ability of the animal ling of the owner. The owner to work as part of a pair or team. can pick up the animal's foot, open its mouth, lead it with Buying an animal early in the off-. a ropwithout having to use season allows the owner time to seek. force or harsh measures. a replacement should a problem arise:

4 39 3. Aniinal Husbandry

A draft animal's value is' Shelter based on the special training and care that enables it to pull.The time, money, and effort that goes into raising and maintaining an animal makes it costly and hard to It is important to give work replace. At some seasons of the animals a place where they can eat year, the loss or inefficient per- and rest unbothered by weather, formance of a draft animal can insects, other animals, and uncomfor- result in production setbacks or table restraints such as hobbles, crop failures that are very costly short ties, and narrow stalls. In to the farmer. the tropics, animals do not need In order to protect their elaborate shelters, but stabling investment, farmers must keep them in dry, comfortable surround- their animals strong, healthy, and ings contributes to their overall even-tempered through proper hand- soundness and work value. ling, a good feeding program, and A lean-to with a straw roof prompt medical attention when neces- provides shelter from heat, rain, sary. and wind. A simple lean-to is a wall four or five meters long and two and a half meters high, with a canopy on one side. It is built on

40. high ground so water drains away. infections. It makes excellent com- The wall is situated so it blocks po'st, but should not be piled or prevailing winds, and the roof made stored near the stable area. on the side opposite the wind. An A smokefire made from a green earthen floor is adequate, but log or slog burning stump helps keep straw or sand should be kept in the the shelter area free of mosquitoes area where the animal sleeps, or and flies. "beds down."Horses often prefer A manger, trough, or rack can standing to lying on a hard, cold, be built into the wall of the lean- or wet surface, so owners should to to hold hay, grain, salt licks make special efforts to ensure that or water buckets. bedding is ample. Manure and urine-soaked straw should be collected regularly to reduce fly populations and hoof

41 Stalls and jaw against a stallboard or feed Corrals trough and sucking air), halter pulling or refusing\to lie down. A lean-to can be made into a stall, or "box stall", by closing Tethering

off the threeopen sides with a wood There are many instances, both fence or mud walls. The sides in the stable and field, when owners should be sturdy and high enough so must tie, hold, or immobilize their animals cannot jump out. A stall animals. Controlling their move- for one horseor bull should be ments without hurting them requires approximately 25 square meters. proper use of ropes and basic har- A stall may be expanded into a ness equipment. Improperly tied, pen or small corral where two or animals may suffer from fatigue, more animals are kept. Usually, ani- rope burns, limb injuries, poor pos- mals can be left at liberty in this ture, or nervousness due to boredom area, but if they compete for food or fear. Serious injuries or stran- or fight, they must be tied, or kept gulation can result from use of in separate pens within the larger slip knots or very short ties. area. If they are tied, they must Animals tied in a lean-to or be able to reach individual feed and stall should be fastened on a line bedding areas without getting tan- long enough..to permit movement and gled in their ropes (see below). access to feed and bedding areas. Horses are more active than The line is attached to the base of either donkeys or bulls and so it is a support pole or to a stake, using advisable to let them move freely in a fixed loop.A fixed loop,is one a stall or corral. Tying them or that does not "slip," or close keeping thei in narrow stalls can around the stake; the animal should cause them to develop nervous hab- be able to circle the stake without its such'as weaving, kicking, paw- "winding itself up."The top of ing, cribbing (locking the lower the stake should be broader than

4? the diameter of the loop so the loop rings'so the head can be pulled cannot be pulled off. right or left for turns, and The free end of the stake rope straight back toward the chest for is attached to the animal's halter. .stopping and backing-up. A halter is a piece of rope which Local craftsmen can make strong, fits over an animal's head and muz- comfortable halters from leather, 0 zle and allows the owner to lead, heavy canvas, or flat-wound rope.

tie, or control it. The halter's . Rings and buckles are made or bought. design makes it strong, safe, comfor- How to Put on a Halter table and easy to use on cattle, Make friends with the animal. Talk to it, touch it, feed and- horses, and donkeys. water it, clean its Stall, A simple halter can be made of occasionally give it 'a tidbit or hand-feed it salt. Let it strong soft rope. get used to you. If you can The halter is especially use- pat it on the neck and touch its nose and ear, you can ful during training because it probably slip the halter on. allows the trainer to control an ani- In the case of cattle, espe- mal's head from three points. It is cially horned varieties, it is safest to catch and tie superior to single-point attachments, the animal before attempting such as the hornrope or nosering for to place the halter. Use the method shown on page54. If this reason. the animal is obviously very docile and used to handling and you want to do it without Improved. Halter ties, be alert to circum- For Cattle stances which may cause it to toss its head and injure you: pr Equines fast movements, flies, sudden noise, approach of another person or animal. Each draft animal should have Stand next to the animal's .a permanent halter so it can be led left side, facing the side of or tied easily. The halter also its head. Hold the free end, or poll piece, in your right can be used like a bridle. Reins or hand, and the noose-like nose- "lines" are attached to the?) side band in your left. Let the rest of the halter hang free.

43 Making a Simple Halter - .

.# T.:

Fixed

Knot k "A" ..-4...... ! ."'

,.. A)

i..1 ...1 ...i.4.% ii 4 .'"4 ":"1:A

Make a large loop 1 m in diameter at the end of a rope 3 deters long. Use a fixed knot for Knot A; do not use a slip knot. Make a small fixed loop about one- third of the way down one side of A the large loop. This is Knot R. Pass the free end of the rope through the small loop made in the second step.

Place the halter over the animal's 1. head so that the non-slipping portion (the headband) fits behind its ears. HalteL shoaitit, tthi:tre 'additional The slipping section (noseband) fits ropes may Lied to give maxi- over the muzzle. . mum control of the head during turnin"g 'or stopping (A,B,C) .

. 44 . Poll Piece or Head Piece

Buckle

'Cheek Piece

Noseband

Throat Lash- Side Ring ----Jowl Piece . 'Lead Ring Lead Rope with Clip

Leather Halter for Horses,Donkeys, Mules4 or Cattle

How to Put on a Halter (cont.) enough on the cheek, there will be enough tension On the Pass the free end under the noseband to keep it in place animal's jaw and up toward while you use your left hand - to grab the tip of the poll the right ear. At the same piece. time, begin to slip the noseband over the muzzle. If it Feed the end of the poll piece tosses its head, try to move through the ring or buckle of with it; speak to it in a low, the cheekpiece. The.more you soft tone. Lighten it, the higher the noseband rides on the muzzle. Flip the end of the poll piece You want the noseband to cir- so it passes behind the ears cle the muzzle--not squeeze it. and drops down toward you. You should be able to slide This is done with the right your hand (flat) between the band hand. The right hand remains and the muzzle. against the right cheek, still holding the middle of the poll piece. If your right hand is high

it)

45 Alternative Method forTetlirringa Bull,

Have a local blacksmith take a practice. Constant rubbing produces one -metes piece of iron and bend it into an open, spiral- burns, soreness, and infection. In ing screw. Hang it from the some cases the animal tries to pro- bull's neck on a piece of strong cord and feed the last tect the tender area by kicking out, link of a chain onto the spi-, refusing to be handled, or shying -val. away. Tie the other end of the chain to the stake rope (a short Cattle wearing noserings length of strong rope which is should not have heavy chain attached permanently attached to the stake with a fixed loop so to the ring, as this discourages that the rope will not wind normal carriage of the head. itself up). Noserings The stake may be made of a broken milling pestle or any While noserings can be helpful strong, tapered stick. for controlling very tempermental, Tying animals by the legs or headstrong animals, their use can horns on a regular basis is a poor often lead owners into the bad habit

46 of "dragging" them from the front stored as fat, causing animals to instead of driving (guiding) them become inefficient workers, lazy, from behind. Some stockmen feel stubborn, ad ill-tempered. that immediate "ringing" (placement A baNic knowledge of the diet- of the ring) sets the stage for ary,needs of draft animals and of training by showing the animal the nutritional content of available "who's boss."But in most cases feeds will enable owners to plan a animals selected for work purposes feeding program that will help their can be handled and controlled with animals to work to their full poten- halters. Causing them pain or tial. fright, especially during the adjustment period, may make them too ner- Why Draft vous to eat, drink, or rest. Animals Need Special Diets

Grazing draft animals need Nutrition supplemental feeding for two reasons: s-to increase energy intake and prevent protein, vitamin A good feeding program is -and mineral deficiencies essential in maintaining the because of limited grazing time strength and health of draft animals. or limitedforage availability. Food is the fuel which an animal con- Pulling loads is hard work. verts to energy and pulling power. Animals burn many more calories when Animals that are not fed enough of working than when idle or grazing. the right foods can show chronic This means that the energy require - fatigue, will lose the ability to ments of an animal will increase work, and are more susceptible to with the work load. Experience and disease. Excess calories are research in tropical areas have

38 shown that animals need about twice General Rules for Feeding their normal energy maintenance requirement when they are used for. medium-intensity draft work. 1) Feed the animal so that it Without this additional food, gains weight and maintains strength but does not become draft animals grow thin and weak, fat or lazy. Never let it because they must burn body tissue lose weight. 2) Feed large quantities of grass, in order to produce the energy straw, and other bulky, fib- needed to perform work. Not only rous foods. These foods are called roughages. If they are do these animals lose strength, they of good quality, they supply become increasingly susceptible to all the nutrients that a grazing (non-working) animal needs injury and disease. An adequate for body maintenance. Protein, diet is especially important to phosphorous and Vitamin A may be deficient in forage growing young draft animals because their on arid land. growth may be stunted or their con- 3) If only poor quality roughage formation affected if food normally diet is available, supplement the roughage diet with grain used to build bone and muscle must and other concentrate feeds be converted into work energy during such as beans, seeds, and mill by-products. These feeds give the critical early years. the animal' additional energy / Work animals have limited time for work. to eat, since they work during the 4) Give the animals salt and mineral supplements. time they would normally be grazing 5) Worm the animals regularly if or foraging for food. In the time parasites are present. This remaining after work, they may not ensures that parasites do not interfere with digestion and be able to find and eat enough grass that animals get the full to replace the calories lost during value of food. work. 6) Use quality feeds: Do not let animals graze in pastures where herds of other animals graze, or eat grain

48 or hay from the ground or sta- heat. Working animals lose water ble floor. These may be con- from sweating and thereforemeed to taminated with parasites. increase theirwater intake. Never feed moldy or dusty feeds. These cause serious digestive problems. Water Requirement's of Draft Animals Improve the nutritional value of insect-infested grain by 1 Animal Liters per day mixing good grains, mill by- products, or peanut or cotton- Oxen 10-30 rainy season seed cake into the daily 15-40 dry season ration. Never give animals free access Horse 30-50 to lush, young grass or leaves of young corn or peanut plants. Donkey 10-20 These can cause serious conditions like bloat, colic, or Mule 15-30 dehydration due to diarrhea. Recommended rations and feeding products are discussed in detail in Working animals should have Appendix B. access to water at least threetimes Water Requirements per day--morning, noon, and night. During the rainy season, graz- Horses and some cattle engaged in ing animals get considerable amounts heavy work may need a short drink of water from the grasses and other every two or three hours. Zebu, succulent forages they consume. cattle, donkeys and mules can work Under these circumstances, drinking for longer periods without a drinks water consumption is not an accurate but still should be offered water indication of water requirements. during the mid-day resting/grazing Actual water needs are determined by pdriod. A heated animal should size, species, environment, and never be allowed free access to intensity of work. Larger animals water. drink more because they have a Some animals will drink too greater body mass to cool. Muscular much water in the evening. This activity (work) generates additional may prevent them from eating their

49 concentrate feeds. They should not a burn or raw spot,which becomes increasingly tender and be allowed to drink freely until finally an open wound. These after feeding. A small drink may wounds are called girth sores or yoke galls.They can cause be given before food is offered. pain which makes animals extremely irritable and hard to handle. 3) Daily grooming results in closer physical contact between owner and animal. This asso- Grooming ciation develops trust between them. The owner learns about the animal's moods, sensitivi- ties, and reactions. The animal becomes. familiar with the Grooming refers to the process owner's voice, movements, and commands, and becomes easier of cleaning animals so that their to handle. coats are free of dust, dirt, manure 4) Daily grooming lets the owner and sweat. take a close look at the animal each day. Minor problems Importance of Animal Grooming: like ticks, scratches, muscle 1) At night, animals may lie in strains, harness sores, and manure, water or urine-soaked stones in the hoof can be ground. When this material detected and treated before hardens on the coat (hair), it they become serious problems. attracts flies and other To groom animals, a person insects which are a nuisance needs two tools--a curry comb and a to the animal and whch may carry disease. Sometimes this brush. A curry comb is an oval- material contains parasites such as hookworm, which can shaped plastic or metal brushing enter the skin and seriously device which is used to loosen affect the animal's health. sweat, manure and other materials 2) When sweat evaporates, it leaves a mat of stiff hair. A from the animal's coat. The brush harness or yoke rubbing against is used to remove the materials this mac will pull some of the hair loose and harder clumps of loosened during currying. hair will rub against the exposed skin.This results in

41 How to Groom an Animal: ening the crossties and lifting one of the legs in the manner 1) Cross-tie the animal (see page desctibed on page 65. 64for method). 8) Use water to loosen material 2) Put the curry comb in the right that is sticky or very hard. ° hand and the bruah in the left. Starting high on the animal's 9) Pick up each hoot and'check neck, apply the curry using for stones. Remove stones or gentle, circular motions. caked manure with a hoof pick When the neck is curried, use or blunt instrument. the brush to remove the loos- 10) Clean the harness. If the Mr- ened materials. Use firm mess is caked with sweat and strokes and brush in the direc- loose hair, it will dig into tion of the natural lay of the the animal and cause a sore. coat. Clean the leather with a

3) Clean one section of the coat ( scraper; then use a sponge and at a time. Work front to back, warm water to remove the finer using first the curry, then the residue. Keep the leather sup- brush to clean each section. ple by applying vegetable oil When the entire first side or pitiOleum once a week. (including the legs) is fin- The best time to groom an ani- ished, go to the opposite side and repeat the process starC- mal is before the working period. ing high on the neck. This ensures that it will be clean 4) Pay special attention to areas when harnessed and that sores will where harness touches the animal. Remove all hardened. not occur. It also helps to prepare sweat. the animal for harnessing and work 5) When currying the legs, be by making it attentive to the own-- very gentle. Use the edge of the curry to clean the bony er's voice and commands. structures around the knees, hocks, elbows, and fetlocks. 6) Leave the head until last. Brush it gently. Be sure to loosen the halter and remove any sweat or loose hair caked under it (especially behind the ears and on the muzzle). 7) If he animal moves, kicks, or attempts to reach back and bite, immobilize it by tight-

51 drain naturally. If the animal is Minot Medical in pain,the process should be has- Problems and tened by applying hot soaks (9ne or two per day). The abscess is.then First Aid cut open with a sterile, sharp knife

and flushed out with a solution of salt water or mild antiseptic.Mas- sage improves the drainage. Sulfa powder can be applied inside the S abscess. The cleaned cavity is Farmers and extension agents then plugged with sterile gauze or should be able to handle minor-medi- antiseptic cloth. The area must be cal problems and common first aid drained daily until the discharge measures. This section reviews the ceases. diagnosis and treatment of common problems. For information on diagnosis and treatment of other illnes- Bloat ses, see Appendix C.

Bloat is a condition that

Abscess affects ruminants. The intake of lush, early-growth pasture, immature grain, or any feed to which the ani- This is a pus-filled swelling mal is unaccustomed causes unusual caused by the presence of foreign amounts of foam to build up in the material under the skin. The mater- stomach. This prevents normal belch- ial may be a thorn or broken needle, ing. A gas forms, the animal's left dirt introduced by a puncture, or side distends. Breathing becomes blood from a ruptured vessel (re- difficult and death may be the sult of a blow of bruise). The swel- result. Serious cases are treated ling will come to a head, break, and by piercing the animal's side with

-4^ 52 a special device; this should be Colic performed only by a veterinarian or trained veterinary medic. Colic is pain of the digestive Bloat often can be alleviated tract. Colic affects equine animals through administratiofi of a drench. which have eaten too much grain, A pint of vegetable oil (or peanut indigestible roughage, or lush for- oil) is put in a bottle and the ani- age. Animals with poor teeth are mal is made to drink (see below). especially prone to the condition It is preferable to have a veterir because they cannot break down fobds narian do this, but in emergency in the mouth before swallowing them. situations, the farmer or extension Ground-fed animals may ingest sand agent can do it by following theae with their food-and suffer from sand steps; colic. A chronic form of colic is' 1) Raise the animal's head'just due to the migration of strongyles enough to allow liquid to flow (worms) in the digestive tract. In down its throat. Hold the animal by the nostrils. all cases, the animal suffers pain 2) Insert the bottle into the from the gas which builds up in the side of the mouth between the stomach. The painmay become so front teeth and the rear art so the animal cannot bite intense that the animal injures or break it. The mouth of the itself by kicking or rolling. bottle should rest on the'animal's tongue. Symptoms include pawing,.kick- . 3) Tilt the bottle so the liquid ing up at the stomach, rolling (this flows slowly and the animal causes leg and spine injuries), bit- can swallow it. If the animal ing the flank, sweating, constipa- coughs, or appears not to be . swallowing, the liquid may be .tion, increased heartbeat, and shock. passing into the windpipe (and lungs) instead of the gullet. Keep the horse warm and.quiet and" This can cause pneumonia and administer drench. kill the animal.

. Constipation Founder

Constipation should be treated This condition affects equine by administerirg a mineral oil animals, particularly horses; it drench (1-4 quarts, depending on causes lameness and eventually crip- the size of the animal). A veteri- ples the animal. rt is due to poor narian may administer liquid parafin ,circulation in the hoof (too much or magnesium sulfate through a tube blood) caused by an overly rich diet, inserted into the stomach via the concussion of the hoof, overwork, or nostrils; this should not be colds. The animal stands on its attempted by inexperienced persons, heels; its feet are hot (the hoof since it might pass into the lungs. and the flesh directly above it In emergency situations, an agent or feel warm to the touch); it limps or farmer should give a drench made of may refuse to move. Eventually, 1-1/2 pints warm beer, 1/2 glass rings develop around the hoof wall whiskey or rum and 1-1/2 pints and the toe portion of the hoof - water, or 1-1/2 pints warm milk and begins to grow outward, curling back 2 tablespoons ginger.- on itself. A' An animal with founder -must be

Diarrhea made to walk even though it refuses , dom.,

at first. The activity forces the Diarrhea may develop from the hoof to perform its natural, function, excessive consumption of lush green which,is to pump blood up out of the pasture. It can cause dehydration foot. Cold soaks are used to of an animal. Regulation of the relieve swelling and pain.This is intake of Lush pasture will prevent done easily by having the animal this problem. *walk stand in mud, a stream, or a filled irrigation, ditch; otherwise, it is kept standing in'buckets of cold

water. .t9

54 Hoof Problems infection results. Cracks are (Equines) sometimes the result of a direct blow, such as a kick by another animal. Sometimes STONE IN HOOF; Carefully remove cracks are related to a con- the stone by prying it out formation fault, as when an with a hoofpick, screwdriver, animal's natural gait causes or non-pointed instrument. it to hit one foot with the other. The blow damages the THORN IN HOOF: Tap the sus- horn-producing mechanism in pected area with a wrench or the coronary band. bolt until the animal flinches. Trim surface area if possible Treatment consists of inserting and pull the thorn out. Soak a wooden wedge into the crack the hoof in warm salty water and wrapping it with a band- to draw out infection. Then age so the crack cannot open apply a poultice composed of and close. when the animal a hot paste of bran and walks. Gliorkload should be epsom salts that have been decreased and diet corrected pre-mixed in boiling water by feeding concentrates to and partially cooled. Pack provide additional oil. this around the hoof and wrap it in burlap. After 10-12 hours, remove the poultice, flush the wound with antisep- Snakebite tic, and then pack it with Oise tar. If swelling and heat indicate that the infec- Animals axe usually bitten on f tion is still present, repeat the leg or head. Symptoms include thi procedure. intense local swelling, lameness, SANDCRACK: This is one of several Conditions caused by drying swelling of the head, lips and gums, out'of the hoof and improper shock, lowered body temperature, diet, including insufficient oil intake. Cracks appear dur- and impaired vision. ing the dry season when the Treatment is as follows: animal lacks the green forage necessary for production of 1) Apply wide tourniquet five cm horn, which forms the hard above the bite, not so tight outer wall of the hoof. The that it cuts circulation. crack descends from the coro- Loosen it every 15-20 minutes nary band down into the hoof for a two-hour period follow- wall. It is painful and ing detection of the bite. causes lameness; sometimes 2) Clip the hair around the bite.

46 Enlarge the wounds (fang marks) A NOTE ON DETECTING LAMENESS: by making incisions parallel When the animal is lame in the to the blood vessels. Apply a non-oral suction to the wound front legs, its head will go up when for a period of 30 minutes. the lame foot hits the ground.Lead 3) A large 'bull should be the animal toward the observer, injected with 50 milliliters (ml) of polyvalent antivenin; first at a walk, then at a trot. smaller animals receive lar- Lameness is more easily seen when ms_dosages. the animal trots. When the animal is lame in the Sprains hind legs, its head will drop when

A sprain results from damage the lame foot hits the, ground.Lead to a muscle, tendon, ligament, or the animal away from the observer, joint. The tissue is stretched or first at a walk, then at a trot. torn when the animal steps in a These are the most common hole, twists its foof, or pulls kinds of lameness. Other lameness too great a load. Swelling and tem- is related to the abnormal growth of perature increase may occur in the bone or the accumulation of fluids affected area, tut some sprains are in the joint. A veterinarian should hard to detect, being related to be consulted when these more serious chronic conformation faults in the problems are suspected. legs. In these instances soreness begins after several hours of work Wounds and disappears with a night's rest. and Bums Application of cold packs relieves the swelling and pain. The Minor flesh wounds are washed affected limb is wrapped in loose with soap and sterile (boiled) water, cotton or cloth and then wound with or with hydrogen peroxide or a one a strip bandage. Rest is the best' percent solution of potassium perman- treatment for lameness. ganate. Alcohol, iodine, and creo-

56 sole are stronger antiseptics that can damage tissues and delay healing if applied too liberally. After the wound is clean, dust it with antibiotic powder and cover it. An untreated or improperly cleaned wound may become infected. Soreness; inflammation, and pus are common symptoms of infection. Rope or harness burns should be washed with soap and water and covered with petroleum jelly or antibiotic ointment. The application of wood ash will cause a scar to form quickly and will also help keep flies off the wound. The harness and pads should be cleaned and Adjusted.

48 57 4. Training Draft Animals

Some animal traction extension involved in animal training should programs sell trained animals to far- always remember that their'goal is mers or encourage systems of custom to include farmers in every opera- or contract training, where the far- tion and make them do the training. mer pays a professional to do the Farmers quickly become confident training. However, these options trainers when they are shown tools are often not available, and many, and techniques that give them sure if not most, farmers are involv- controls over the animals. ed in the training of their own This chapter describes one animals. program for training cattle, and Those who instruct these far- another for horses, donkeys, and mers in animal traction should keep mules. The programs described are in mind that many of them are not the only ones possible, but are already familiar with basic care accepted as standard by many exper- and handling of animals, though the ienced trainers. They are direct, animals may not be used for traction effective, and pose minimal threat purposes. In fact, farmers may be of injury to trainers and animals. more knowledgeable about particular- An important step in*training ities of a local breed or individual animals is getting them used to animal than the instructor; in many harness. Sometimes it may be help- cases the teaching can go both ful or necessary for the reader to ways. Also, instructors who become. refer to Chapter 5, Harnessing,

It 58 before reading this chapter. avoiding frightening the animal with procedures that, cause it pain or discomfort. Inexper- ienced owners are sometimes anxious to make their animals Before more docile or trainable through castration, use of Training drugs, or restraints such as noserings or hobbles. While Begins such measures may be needed or advisable under some circumstances, it is generally poor practice to use them before an animal has had time to adjust Before formal training ses- and reveal its natural dispo- sions begin, an animal should have sition. time to adjust to its new owner and surroundings. Separated from its familiar environment and handled by someone whose touch, voice, and General Comments movements may be new, it may refuse on Training to eat or drink, appear abnormally quiet or nervous, or try to run Procedure away. New owners can help their ani- Training draft animals is the mals adjust by: process of teaching them to obey handling them in a calm, con- commands, accept harnesses and yokes, fident way. People who use and pull loads. The person who hesitant motions, speak in excited voices or misuse gives the commands and controls their ropes and whips can cause ani- speed and direction is called the mals to react defensively. Cattle kick, butt, toss their driver. The goal of training is to heads, or simply refuse to teach animals to obey the driver's move. Horses, donkeys, and mules may kick, bite, rear, signals so he/she can steer the load

#, or try to squeeze a person (plow, wagon, etc.) and regulate the against a fence or wall; power of the animal(s) at the same

59 time. used. Two of these sessions are /4 Before an animal is trained, given per animal per day. Training it is 'broke" or "broken" and made is done in the same location and to recognize the authority of the during the same hours each day. trainer. 'Breaking an animal is a Early morning and late afternoon matter of introducing it to new are good times, as this gives ani- schedules, i ocedures and expecte- mals time to rest and graze between t!,ns--and teaching it to obey. sessions. The word also describes the process Before any draft animal is of getting an animal used to new harnessed as part of a teams, it behavior or equipment. A bull is must individually recognize and broken of aggressive behavior, but obey the voice commands stand, walk, broken to harness. stop., left, right, and back. Com- Animals learn at different mands are given in the language the rates. An animal is considered driver will use. The importance of trained when it responds consis- teaching voice commands cannot be tently to commands. This may take overemphasized. Drivers who must as little as two weeks, or as long rely on an assi4tant to control as two months. Many factors influ- their animals with pulls of a rope ence the rate of learning: species or constant whipping get limited and breed, individual temperament, performance and results. health and condition, type of har- Sometimes,it is possible to ness equipment used, and skill, train an animal by putting it in a patience, and persistence of the yoke or harness with a veteran ani- trainer. mal. This is a good technique, but Animals learn faster, and new it does not eliminate the need for owners acquire training skills, individual training. The driver when training_ advances in small, must be able to control each animal clear steps. Generally speaking, within the team if the team is to one-and-a-half-hour sessions are pull evenly.This is especially

60 O

important during turns, or when one restraining, and then with actual animal lags or acts up. training procedures. Information Finally, it should be under- on harnesses and types of hitches stood that handling and training (ways of connecting individuals or methods for cattle differ from teams to loads) is given in Chapter those used for equines. This is 5, Harnessin4q because these classes of animals have different strengths and temper- Catching and aments. With horses, donkeys and Restraining mules, the overall approach is to use the least severe methods possi- Owners must be able to catch, ble, resorting to greater force if restrain, and immobilize their ani- needed. With cattle, and particu- mals for examination, treatment, or larly bulls, it is important to harnessing. Young animals and older break the animal of its indepen- ones which haven't been handled much dence quickly and with carefully may be very unmanageable at first. applied force. Forceful handling is Catching and controlling them without rarely needed once a bull recognizes hurting them, or oneself, is a matter your strength and your ability to of establishing and maintaining make it obey. physical advantage through use of mechanical force.The techniques detailed below :ire recommended because they are safe and easy to Training learn, and require minimum equipment. Cattle An experienced stock handler can catch-an animal by throwing a noosed rope, or lasso, around its head or feet. Learning to do this This section will deal first takes much time and practice, so with methods of catching and beginners will want to use other

61 techniques. Lead Rope Method Choosing the right technique' (for quieter animals who have been raised in domestic situations and is important because animals that handled frequently) repeatedly outsmart or overpower 1) Make a running noose at the their trainers become headstrong, end of a or 4-meter rope. This is done by tying a-fixed inattentive, and increasingly hard loop, or.honda, at one end of to handle. Before trying to catch the rope and then threading the opposite end through it. an animal, watch its movements, judge its disposition, anddecide which measures are most likely to

work. The methods described are used for catching an animal which is loose in a corral. 2) Approach the animal slowly and slip the noose around its horns. If it ahies away, speak to it in a low, calm

4.1? " . 0 or. .0.",.

62 voice and approach it from another angle. Once the rope is on the horns (or tied to the ha°1ter if. the animal has one), lead it to a post or hitching rail and tie it so its forehead is close, but not against, the wood. This is called "tying the animal on a short lead." 3) If the animal is frightened or unruly, lock its horns and head securely against the wood by carefully shortening the rope. 4) If the animal kicks or swings its hindquarters while being yoked or harnessed, attach a rope to a rear leg.

Pole and Noose Method 3) Pull the animal backward to the (for animals accustomed to some hand- centerpost of the corral and ling, but which shy, balk, or butt hold it secure while a second at the approach of the trainer) person approaches. from the front and slips a rope around 1) Hang a running noose on the its horns.- Avoid using a post end of a 3-meter pole. Hold- which is part of the fence; ing the pole in one hand and animals are often injured when the free end, or shank, of they kick out and catch a the rope in the other, foot between the rails. approach the animal slowly and position the noose in front of Open Noose Method its hind leg. (for animals brought in from the 2) Use your voice and body posi- range; animals which are large and tion to make the animal step aggressive; animals which cannot be toward the loop. Be prepared caught with a pole and noose) to drop the pole and pull on 1) Put a sturdy post inside a the rope as soon as the foot corral. The post should be is inside the loop. Pull 'la chest-high, smooth, and very and back; if you simply pull firmly set. It should be back, the noose will slide 2-1/2 to 3 meters from the out under the hoof and you fence. Refer to this post as will have to try again. the "centerpost".

0 63 2) On a fencepost opposite this hold the shank of the rope post, put a nail or peg at a with one hand. Have asecond height of 6 or 7 cm (3-4 person drive the animal around inches) above ground level. the corral from the right. 3) Make a running noose atone When the animal's midsection end of a 5-meter rope. is passing over the loop, Arrange the rope on the ground raise your arm quickly and between the peg and the center- without bending the elbow. A' post so it forms the letter properly-timed motion will "P". The top of the "P", or throw the entire lefthand por- loop, should be near the tion of the loop into the air fence. The bottom of the "P", and across the path of the or shank, is stretched back oncoming hind legs.The noose toward the centerpost. will close as your arm rises. Hang the upper-left-hand por- The technique works because tion of the loop over the the natural tendency of the animal is to run along the peg. The rest of the loop fence. Hanging the rope on, should be on the ground. the peg makes it easier fors 4) Stand near the centerpost and the trainer to start the noose

64 -.

moving in an upward direction Casting --or, to give it "lift": alkill 5) Draw the animal back until you Sometimes an animal must be are in a position to wind the immobilized completely before it can rope once around the post. Then get behind the post and be treated or harnessed. This is continue to draw the animal done by casting it--pulling it to in until its leg is snug against the wood. the ground and tying its legs. To 6) With the animal secured by do this, tighten a noose around its this first rope, someone can horns. Bring the free rope back to' safely approach from the front and slip a second rope over the withers and cinch it loosely its horns. around the animal's girth. Then If the animal has been caught pass the rope back and cinch it . by a foreleg, it will be necessary to attach ropes to again around the loins: Pulling the both the horns and a hind leg. free end exerts pressure on the loin area, and the animal sinks down.

65 f cy Once the animal is down, the training; so the first step is to rear legs can be bound with rope at break them of their independlipce. the fetlocks. To further immobil- This is done by using a running-W ize the animal, one person can hold harness. This is a mechanical its head; while another puts his or teaching aid which lets the trainer her knee'on the dnimal's front shoul- stop the animal instantly by making der. it trip and fall. The purpose of the drill is to make the animal recognize the strength and authority

Program for of the trainer, and pay attention Tr _wining to his/her voice. a) Make, or have local craftsmen Cattle the parts of the harness: surcingle - -an adjustable belt, approximately 3 meters The program consists of four long, which circles the phases. During the first two phases, animal's torso. It has a ring or fixed loop on each the animals are taught to obey voice side called a side ring, commands individually. In the last and one underneath called a chest ring. two, the individuals are yoked as a anklet--an adjustable bracelet team, redrilled on all voice com- which fits around the foot mands, and then made to pull a log just above the hoof. It has one ring or fixed loop. (skidding). All parts can be made of rope, but leather straps fitted with metal rings are easier to use Breaking an and less likely to cause sores Animal Using or burns. The surcingle later a Running-W HarneSs is used to help support the lines (reins), and so it is recommended that one be made Cattle can be difficult to for each animal. control during the first few days of b) Chose softterrain for break-

67 Running-W Harness The free end should be long enough to let the trainer stand several meters behind the anklet animal's rear quarters... d) Stand behind the rear quarters holding the free end of the rope. The rope is called a, "trip rope". Have an assistant remove all other ropes.

side Make the animal walk forward.' Urge the bull forward by rais- !:'/ring iW ing your free arm and stepping zs. \ toward the tail. At the same time, tell it to walk. Use a ...... ------; clear, controlled voice. If I necessary, tap the bull with a chest ring stick. Try to avoid making it- bolt or run. The goal is'to make it walk.ahead of you at a fixed distance. e) Stop. When the animal is moving, preferably a sandy cor- ing, give the command to stop ral,- two or three times and then pull the trip rope so the c) Place the harness. First, front legs buckle and the immobilize the animal and bull drops to its knees. Keep buckle or tie the surcingle tension on the rope so,.the ani- around its torso just behind mal can't get up right away. the front legs. Make it snug. Then give the command for walk, Then buckle on the anklets. releasing the tension and walk- Feed one end of a 10-meter ing toward the tail. at rope through one of, the side voice and body position to rings, down to the ring on the get the bull up and moving, nearest foot, and up through tapping it with a stick if the chest ring. Make sure the necessary. rope goes behind the knee, f) Repeat at-process of making not in'front of it. Draw the it walk and stop ,five or silt rope through the chest ring, times. The purpose of the down to the other-anklet ring, drill is to: and up to the other side ring. Tie it, to this ring. Seen teach the animal to pay from the front, the rope attention to the trainer; should form a "W" pattern. listen.

-59

68 show it the trainer is if the animal is still under 18 strongerGaad not afraid. months of age. The safest and eas- begin to teach it that the iest solution is to find a replace- command stop is related to the action stop. ment animal. g) Evaluate progess. Most animals learn to obey the commands - walk and stop after two or Ground Driving three days. Breakin sessions are kept Short-30-4minutes in the morning, and again in This is the process of control- the afternoon. Harness is ling an animal's movements from left on between sessions so the animal gets used to it behind using voice commands and ,but tie surcingle is loosened. lines. Lines are long reins attached While it may seem that an ani- ,to the animal's halter (or nosering).

4 . mal has learned to obey the commands during a given ses- a) Place theW-hitness.. sion, be sure to check its memory: begin each new lesson b) If the animal isn't wearing a halter or nosering, make a hal- with a revie of the old. . ter and put it on (see page 35). Sole animals may not learn so ? c) Attach lines from either side quickly. Be paticint and persistent. of the halter or nosering and If an animal doesn't respond after run them through the side rings of the surcingle. They five or six days, try putting it in should be long enough to a yoke with a trained animal and (reach a driver standing several meters behind the animal. The repeat the drills; use the W-harness driver holds a line in each on the untrained animal. When the hand. d) Have an assistant control the session is over, turn the pair loose trip rope. Continue to use the in a corral with the yoke still on. trip rope as a teaching aid/ Later, rep2st drills. safety device throughout training. Once the trainer Some animals have physical or can manage the lines with one hand, he/she can take the b avioral problems that make them trip rope in.the other. cieggressive or ex emely stubborn and e) Now follow the steps b, c, d nmanageable. tstration may help and e described on page 71.

69 These steps are for ground Yoke-Breaking driving horses, but they do the Team not differ when applied to cattle. The leverage offered through a halter or nosering Before the team is yoked, the is sufficient to turn a bull's head; a bridle and bit is not trainer must decide which animal needed. belongs on the right-hand side. Important Note: During this This is the animal which walks in stage of training, each com- The tal- mand is preceded by the ani- the furrow diming plowing. mal's name. Later, when in a ler of the pair is usually put in team, it can be singled out and made to respond. the-furrow, as this makes the yoke ride parallel to the uncut sround and square to each animal's neck. The team pulls more evenly, and is less likely to develop sores or yoke

galls. When speaking about pairs of 0

61 70 animals, it is customary to refer to c) Adjust the bows by sliding them up or down in the yoke the right-hand animal as the "off" ,stock so they rest against the animal and the left-hand one as the animals' chests without touch- "near" animal, ing the base of the neck (windpipe). a) Tie the animals to a rail, side Note: The best yoke for train- by side. They should be wearing purposes is the kind shown ing W-harness and halters (or below. Each bow is made of two noserings). The, lines should J-shaped bars which can be not yet be attached. . turned so they lock and unlock h) Place the yoke. Stand on one under the animal's neck. If side holding the yoke. Pass the team falls, or gets the one end over the team's back yoke caught, the bows are to an assistant on the oppo- unlocked and the yoke lifted site side. If the team shies off. A single piece bow can or refuses, try passing. it be extremely difficult to from the other side. Shying remove in these situations; is often caused by imperfect the danger of strangulation is vision or the sudden appear- great. ance of a strange object near the head. When single piece bowsare

...

71 used: First lay the stock across the animals' necks, then slip the bows up and into the stock from underneath. 1* / -'s 1WP: d) Place the lines. (Use the system illustrated on page ,

and see page , lead pair.) es e) Drive the team from behind, drilling it on the commands 'co walk, stop, right, and left. f) Teach the animals to distinguish between individual and general commands. Slow one animal down by pulling its lines. Then get it to speed up by calling its name and giving the command for walk in a sharp voice.

Breaking the Team to Pull Example: "Walk" means both ani- (Skidding) mals walk; the team moves forward or speeds up. It is a general command. "Red! Walk!" a) Yoke the team. Use lines and means you want Red to pick up trip ropes. his pace so he is walking b) Skid a log.Wrap a chain even with the other. He was around the butt (broadest) end lagging behind. of a log. Extend the chain so g) Teach the team to back up. it forms a straight line with The command is given and the the log. The chain should be driver pulls back on, the lines 3-4 meters long and have a evenly. At the same time, an hook on the end. The log_ assistant standing in front of should be very light and easy the team urges it back by tap- to drag. Drive the team over ping the animals' knees with a the log and toward an assis- stick and raising his hand so tant who stands at the end of they shy. Pushing against the the chain. Have the assistant yoke helps if they don't shy hook the chain to the clevis back. Pulling the yoke with a which is at the midpoint of the chain also helps. yoke stock. An alternative

63 , method is to'attach the chain to.the clevis and let the team Training Horses, drag it so the free end is close to the end of the log. Donkeys and Mules If this method is used,. be sure the team is used to dragging the chain. Drive the team, practicing all commands. Rave the assistant control one or both of the trip Catching ropes. Rest the team for-a minute or so after every 5-10 minutes of work. Don't let .1 them get out of breath or over- heated. Make sure the yoke doesn't cause bruises or sores. Whether staked out or corral- c) Increase the size of the load. led, these animals are generally Attach a short rope to the back of the log and when practicing caught using very simple methods. turns, bring it around as Approached-slowly and spoken to though it were a plow or cul-, tivator. Pull the log back :ly, or offered a handful of as you would if the plow snagged on a root. grain, they rarely refuse to be d) Hitch your temeto a'field taken by the halter and led. They implement or load or repeat are easily cornered in a corral and drills. grabbed by the'halter, or by the A Note on Breaking Cattle to Collar Harness: nose and ear; in some cases, a rope Animals that have pulled in may be slipped over the animal's yokes usually will pull in a head. collar with very little additional training. The section on training horses in collars Cross-tying will be-helpful to those who are training cattle in collars. However, it is impor- Cross ties are ropes which tant to break cattle with a running-W harness first. .. used to immobilize a. horse of donkey in a standing position. To make cross ties, fasten two pieces of

rope one meter long to each of two is a loop attached to a short posts or trees which are spaced two handle. To apply the switch, put the Fasten the ropes to meters apart. loop over the muzzle and twist the halter, one at each side, draw- until very secure. ing them tight so the animal cannot Tie a fixed loop in the center of a long rope, and fit move its head. the loop around the animal's To immobilize the animal, lift neck like a collar. The knot one of its legs, squeeze the tendon rests on the withers and the two ends are parted over the above the fetlock and pull the leg back, one on each side, and brought along the flanks and upward. Thus forced to stand on down between the hind legs. thr.e legs, the animal cannot move. The right-hand rope circles If working alone, the trainer behind the right pastern and is brought forward along the can use a belt or rope to hold one animal's right side. The of the frontfeet. The animal.will not fall and willremain still V.. while being trehted forticks or 4 :r .4Z ...... 4.' \0 useful if wounds. It is especially ...... I...ft.., one cif theanimal's feet must be kept in a bucket of water.

Casting an Equine i Casting a horse or donkeyby pulling the hindlegs'out from under it is best accomplishedin the fol- / ..... -,,.. lowing manner: ,

Choose soft terrain. ( Hold theanimal in frontwith cross-ties, or by a strong Using a Twitch lead rope or "twitch",which

75 Casting_ a Horse cial care should be taken to ensure that its head is kept low and out- stretched; serious neck and'back. injuries may result when a horse or donkey is allowed to raise its head

. once it is on its side. Proper control of the legs will ensure that the animal does not injure itself or the people around

it. Immobilize the hind leg by attaching a rope above the pastern,

bringing it around the neck and . chest and then locking it behind the hock and drawing it up. Control a

. left-hand rope is used in a foreleg by pulling it up into the similar fashion on the left side.

People on either side of the animal pull ropes, "walking" the rear legs forward until the animal sinks gently into a sitting position. Rope burns caused by the casting method can be reduced by running the ropes through anklets attached to the animal's feet. Further advantage can be established by placing a surcingle around the girth of the animal and feeding the ends of the draw-ropes through the support rings. Tying the Legs Once the animal is cast, spe-

67 76 chest either by hand or with rope. Halter Breaking Limbs not drawn up should be bound together at the fetlock with soft rope. In no case should a leg be pinned by having someone sit on it. a) Place a halter on the animal. Fasten ,a one-meter rope to the chin ring of the halter. This is called a lead rooe or lead Program for shank. * b) Stand on the left side of the Training Horses, animal close to its head. Hold the excess rope in the Donkeys and Mules left hand. You are facing forward. The command given is the animal's name and the word n stand". Use a firm, unexcited The program consists of six voice. phases. On the average, it will c) Walk forward, pulling with your right hand and giving the com- take 3-4 weeks of training before mand for walk. If the animal the animal is able to pull a cart or won't move, you can get it started by pulling its head field implement. toward you. This throws it Note: In the United States, off balance and forces it to take a step (be careful not to it is standard procedure to let it step on you). Keep pul- approach, lead, harness, mount, and ling the animal around you in a tight circle, forcing it to dismount from the animal's left side take successive steps. Grad- (sometimes called the "near" side). ually straighten out the line of movement.- Don't look at In countries where a right-hand the animal: loi0k forward. standard is used, proceed from the If the animal refuse to lead: right, reversing hand positions de- Have a second person encourage scribed below. it from behind by tapping it with a stick or whip. The voice command, however, comes from the trainer--the person leading it. Use whips spar- ingly.

68 7? 1.

Practice next to an animal d) Teach the animal to stop by that already is trained. When pulling the lead rope back and breaking a colt, walk it next down so pressure is exerted on to its mother. the front of the noseband. Use a "come-along". Give the command and pull back without turning and looking at If two assistants are avail- the animal. For extra lever- able, have them stand behind age, lock your right elbow the animal and hold opposite into its chest as you tueback ends of a 2-meter rope or on the halter. strap. When you give the command for walk, have them move e) Practice turns. Walking.on up and push the animalforward the left, the trainer uses the with the rope. lead rope to turn the head. If you are alone, circle the For a left turn, pull the rope rear quarters with a large, toward you and begin to circle fixed noose and bring the free leftward as you give the command. end of the rope forward and The pull is perpendicu- through the chin ring of the lar to the head- -not up or down. The animal feels pres- halter. Pull on the free end sure from the right side of of the rope to lead the animal the halter. For a right turn, (see illustration below).

69 78 walk as' close to the animal Lunging as you can and then begin to (Longeing) extend your arm under the chin and then out to the right The animal feels pressure from the left side of the halter. On e an animal begins to asso- f) To back up, stand in the osual ciate vo e commands with the move- position, but face the rear of the animal. Hold the lead ments expe =by the trainer, the rope in the left hand and lead rope is extended and commands push back and aa gently are given while the animal circles while giving the command. the trainer. This process is called g) During the first few sessions, use the same area for train- lunging. Its purpose is to get the ing, avoiding potential dis- animal to listen and obey from a tractions. Later, lead the .10' f animal to otherareas. See greater distance. This phase should if it will lead into a stall, take only 3-4 days. stream, woods, over a bridge. How does it behave around a) Attach a 5-meter rope to the Cher animals and people? halter. This is the "lunge line". B eaking to a halter may take b) Stand one or two meters back 1-2 wes of two one-and-a-half-hour from the animal holding the sessions each day. Be patient and line in the left hand and a long switch or whip in the persistent. Do not be.dfscouraged _right. if the animal refuses to lead, or c) Have the animal circle you to fail~ to recognize commands as the left, obeying the commands for walk, stop, and stand. quickly as you think it should. Use the switch to drive the Never abuse it. Try to outsmart it: animal forward as needed. show it you can make it'do what you If it ,refuses to move forward, have an assistant stand want without hurting it. behind it and use the switch. It is extremely important to If it moves in toward you, force it to keep its distance reward correct behavior. This is by having the assistant walk done with a pat on the neckand a inside the circle between you word of praise. Do not reward with and it. d) reverse the direction and food. repeat all drills.

79 e) Gradually extend the lunge on all'at once. This can frighten line until the animal will it; or distract it so much that it respond to commands given at a distance of five meters. won't listen to you. A good approach is to 'lunge it first with ir Harness-Breaking its bridle, then with bridle and surcingle, then bridle, collar and sur- This is the process of getting cingle, and finally in full harness. the animal used to the harness it This should take 2-3 days, will wear when pulling.a cart, plow, Note: Description of the

or other field iMplement. Basically, actual harnessing procedure is found 'II it involves repeating lunging drills on page 86, How:to Harness a while the animal is wearing its har- Horse, Donkey or Mule. ness. Do not try to put the harness

CS 4'

Ground d) Practice turns by using the Driving lines to pull the head right This is the process of teach- or left. Remember that if you pull one line, you must ing the animal.to obey commands slacken the other. given from behind--the place where To turn right, draw your right arm back and to the outside of the driver or plow operator will be your shoulder without jerking when actual work is done. or changing the height 'of .the line. At the same timey extend a) Put the harness oni making your left' arm sttaight forward these checks: so there is no tension on the. Traces should be fastened to left side of the animal's mouth. the britching so they do not Reverse the procedure for a drag on the ground. lift-turn. tines go from their starting e) Make the animal back up.Begin point on the bit, pass through in the position described in rings on both the hames and step b. Give the animal's the jack saddle, and then back name and the command "back" to the driver. while pulling back with both b) Stand approximately two meters lines. Don't change the height behind the animal holding'the of your hands. Pull gently, lines. Keep your hands high, but firmly. Use a low voice about level with the animal's and draw out the word so it mouth., Keep them shoulder- lasts for several seconds at a width (your shoulders). Try time. to establish enough tension on Ground driving may take 3-4 the lines so you can feel the bit without actually pulling days of two one-and-a-half-hour ses- the animal back toward you. sions per day. The tension on the lines makes the animal pay attention. It should be alert to your con- Skidding trol even though you are not moving. c) Release the tension slightly, Skidding is the procea of and give the animal's name dragging logs or fallen trees using and the command for walk. If it doesn't move, snap one animal power. It is used primarily, lind so it slaps the top of during. logging or field-clearing rear quarters. Repeat the command using a louder voice. operations, but it is extremely

72 II

It.

useful as a training procedure for to the chain. The'swingtree draft animals. Teaching an animal must have a ring in the center. Stop and hold the ani- to skid should take 2-3 days. mal steady with the lines as a) Put the harness on the animal aneassistant hooks the chain and unhook the left trace to the ring. from the britching ring. f) Drill on all commands , b) Hook the trace to one end of (except back). a swingtree or "tree". c) SL 4 behind the animal and Training ground drip* it, making a very the Team large circle to the left. . This lets the animal get used to the noise and vibration When individual animals are without having the trae-e rub well trained, they are harnessed as against its flank. a team, ground-driven, skidded, and d) Hook both traces to the tree and ground drive the animal. finally hitched to a cart or imple- Tie a safety rope to the mid- The commands practiced in dle of the tree so if the ani- ment. mal spooks and rifs, you can each stage are stand, walk, stop, run with it and keep the tree turns, and backing up. Training from hitting the back legs. Hold the lines in your right the team, the last phase, should hand, the safety rope in your take one week. left. Add resistance by having an assistant pull back on the safety rope. The tree is now (-off the ground, as it would be when attached to at-cart or implement. The assistant stands directly behind the animal, the driver slightly to his right. e) Skid a log. Wrap a chain around the butt end of a log. Drive the animal over the log and forward so its swingtree can be fastened to the chain. The swingtree can be fastened

. ,.. 73 o 8Z 5. Yokes and

liamesses 0

Yokes and harnesses are kinds types of yoke are for single ani- of gear worn by draft animals when mals, and still others are for spe- they work. Most o the gear is cial use with harnessed wagon teams. designed for pulling; it fits around Harnesses are networks of or over the animal's front, provid- adjustable leather straps and pads ing a broad; comfortable surface to used primarily for horses, donkeys, push against., The "push" is turned and mules. These animals have broad 4. into pull through use of rope, chain chests and strong shoulders, and so 4 or leather lines which connect the their harnesses are made to fit yoke or harness to the load. against these area. The use Yokes are oormalry used with of harness can increase the power oxen because these animals drive of oxen, but the expense of leather forward with their hegs and necks and difficulty of ensuring fit have low, and have both strength and limited acceptance of this.practice. protection there. The yoke is a Major types of yoke and pull- bar or frame of wood which locks ing harness are discussed in.this two animals together, one at either section.. Steering, braking, and end of a bar carrie0 on the withers backing-up.gear is discussed also, or atiapped to the horns. In some because it is used along with pull- instances, equine teams are fitted ing gear. -A full set of harness con- with padding that allows them to sists of a collar orbreastband har- pull from this type of yoke. Other ness, a bridle and lines.(reins),

83 and a breeching harness. A yoke is underneath. Broad wooden bows pro- not normally considered a harness; vide more surface area than most when it is used along with other peg thong or round-iron varieties, gear, the set is identified as a and give the animal extra surface "yoke with lines," or a "yoke with to push against with its shoulder. lines and breeching". However, there -is great advantage in a bow that locks and unlocks Yokes and under the neck; these bows are easy to remove if a team has fallen and Harnesses for can't or won't get up. Cattle To make a yoke: 1) Cut a piece of green (live) wood one meter long. The piece should be thick enough Bow Yoke so that once the bark has been peeled off, the pole is 12 cm thick. This pole is called a yoke stock. It should be a variety of wood The bow yoke is an inexpensive that will be strong and light and efficient device for harnessing and provide a smooth surface for the team to push against. the power of cattle. When the team 2) Mark the center of the pole pulls, the wooden crosspiece or with a piece of- charcoal. On stock presses back against the mus- either side of this mark Make a set of marks. The first cle and cartilage which forms the mark in the set is 30 cm from front of the animals' withers. the center; the second is 50 cm.; This area, very pronounced on some 3) Have a carpenter drill a hole breeds, is called the boss or hump. though each mark, or have a It provides a natural seat for a blacksmith make the holes by burning through the wood with yoke. a hot metal point (an awl). The yoke is held in place by The holes must be big enough to let the bows slide in and bows, U-shaped pieces of wood or out freely. They must also be metal which fit into the stock from big enough to allow for some

84 va

Wooden Bow Yoke with Carved Stock, Solid Bows, Draw Ring and Pole Ring.

Plowing Yoke 4- SM 20 4-*10 CM 204---> CM 30 4-CM -* 304--* CM 20 CM 104-* CM ea.

12 CM ' . . . .: .e1 : ,.. ''..---.-i

.s.... j for: training / clevis \ plowing harrowing pin ,,..--

transpor- '7:.*-L'' tti.--=' tation Weeding... Yoke

70 CM -70 CM 40 CM 10 CM : :0 VA 4 i -* 4-* 4-

2M for ridgirg and weeding/ridging operations where crops are planted in rows 80 centimeters apart Source: Dineur, Bruno, Georges Moriers and PierreCanard. 1976. Guide pratique de la culture ate3ee au ignin. Food andAgriculture Organiza- tion of the Unite Nations, Rome. 77.

85 shrinkage of the wood. Remem- Head Yoke ber that green wood shrinks as it dries. Most head yokes lock behind 4) Make the bows of round iron 12 mm thick. Have the blacksmith the horns and are tied to the fore- cut four pieces of round iron head and horns with straps.The one meter long and shape them so they fit into the yoke stock is carved out to accommodate stock as shown in the illus- the backs of the horns, and so once tration. The bows lock together so that cotter pins can the yoke is on, the team becomes an be passed through to keep the extremely tight unit. They are bow from slipping down out of especially.useful for cart work the stock holes. For an explanation of the procedure because they keep the shaft (tongue for putting the yoke ,rt a stock team, see page 62. of the cart) from driving the forward or back during respective backing and braking situations. Single animal yokes fit either

...

Head Yoke

Source: Hopfen, H.J. 1419. Farm Implements for Arid and Tropical Regions,Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. ,

78 86 I 1

behind or in front of the horns. Lengths of rope, chain or leather (called traces) connect,the ends of the yoke to the load.

Sling_Yokes and Sling Harnesses MIzzle Used During Weeding

This equipment is for single West Africa--Sling Made of Padded Steel Bar (Round Iron) animals pertorming light work such as weeding or peanut ridging. Many variations are possible, but all are Source: Dineur, Op. cit. seated over the hump or withers and

China -- Wooden Switzerland-- Sling (Unpadded) Flexiblu Sling

Source: Hopfen, Op. Cit. Source: Hopfen, Op, Cit.

79 87 .backband

surcingle

breastband

trace

Breastband Harness for Bull

connected to the load with traces. meet.

Use of a surcingle or neck strap The breastband must be high gives stability to the traces and enough on the chest so it does not prevents th. sling from rocking on interfere with movement of the the animals' neck. shoulder. Correct position is shown above. Breastband Harness The harness shown was tested on domestic water buffalo in Thai- land and shown to be more efficient This type of harness is a than commonly-used wooden slings. broad band of leather which circles the animal's chest7and sides, and Collar which is supported by a surcingle Harness and backband. The trace is attached where the.breastband and backband Properly fitted, the collar

, 88 A"

Collar Harness

Hame-Terret (for lines or reins

Neck Pad.

Hame

Shoulder Pad - Hame Draft (Draft Ring)

Surcingle

Pad

Halter/

Sources Hopfen, Op. Cit.

81 89 harnei;s provides excellent draft for Yokes and cattle and buffalo. Thi:se animals have relatively narrow chests and Harnesses for the collar must be shaped so it does Horses, Donkeys not interfere with movement of the and Mules shoulder. The collars have been used with success in Germany, the United States, and more recently Breastband Harness Thailand. (Dutch Collar) In traction tests performed with domestic buffalo in Thailand, This is the simplest type of breastband and collar harnesses equine* harness. The breastband is were shown to be about equal in per-: a broad band of leather which circles formance, both types showing a 25 the animal's chest and connects to percent increase in draft effi- traces which in turn connect to a ciency over wooden slings. The swingtree and the load. The band is increase vies explained by 1) the held in place by straps. The for- greater surface area against which Ward strap, the-neck strap, adjusts the animal pushes and 2) the so that the breastband can be raised increased. comfort and related lon- or lowered for correct position on ger working capacity of the animal. the chest. The backstrap holds up the ends of the breastband where the traces attach. This type of harness is not as efficient as the collar harness because the animal's push is concentrated on a comparatively small band of leather. However, it is quite adequate for light or medium tillage,

82 90 j

Dutch Collar

Halter

Line (Rein)

Breastband

Breastband Harness, or Dutch Collar, Showing CorrectPosition of Straps

or cart work. It is inexpensive and easy to make and fit.

Bow Yoke

Equine animals are sometimes yoked like cattle, but they must first be fitted with pads and collars that protect their withers and give them a point to push from. Generally speaking, yokes do Yoke Adapted for Equine Use not, permit efficient use of equine power. Source: Hopfen, Op. Cit. 91 83 re

against the chest and shoulders and transmits the power to the load through the traces (straps orktains connecting the hame to the swfngtree behind). The point where the trace meets the hame is called the point of draft. The attachment is made by trying or hooking...the end of the trace to a.ring on the hame called the hame-draft. Wooden-Sling Type Yoke Used with Collar. The sling is similar to,a The dark area in the drawing set of hames. shows the correct position of the collar. The white circle is the Source: Hopfen, Op. Cit. point of draft. The dotted lines

Collar Harness

Point of Draft Horses, donkeys and miles have no natural padding to absorb the pressure of a yoke. For this reason, a pad is provided before the yoke is applied. The pad is called a collar. The "yoke" is made of pieces of wood or metal called hames. The hames, which are joined at the top with a strap, are placed over the withes and seated Source: Needham, Joseph. into grooves in the collar. When Science and Civilization in the animal pulls, the collar presses China, Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, New York. 92 84 Collar Cellar With Hames and Trace adjustment hame strap buckle

terret (for line or rein) collar body hame

trace draft trace tug hooks hams seat

hame draft

collar rim - e chain-

show the correct line of draft for harness is the bridle. It is simi- (1) a cart with two shafts, and lar to ahalter, but instead of con- (2) an implement or swingtree. / trollingthe muzzle or nose, it con- Besides collar, hames, and trols the mouth. It is a system of traces, harness has a'surcin- straps designed to hold a metal bar gle which fits around the animal's or bit in the animal's mouth.. A girth and helps carry the traces and line is attached to either end of lines. The strap may be used to the bit, allowing the driver to turn

hold up the shafts of a cart, and in the head. An even pull on both this case it is furnished with a pad lines brings the head down and to protect the back. The strap with toward the chest, stopping the ani- the pad attached is called a jack mal. The lines usually pass saddle. through supporting rings on the The last part of the collar hames; the rings are called terretq.

85 93° acs

- bridle jack saddle back pad jack saddle billet

'line (rein) hame draft hook trace collar 'trace sleeve for 'girth portion of trace jack saddle

Collar Harness Consisting of Collar and Hames, Jack Saddle, Traces, and Bridle with Lines shown on page 81, have the hames built in. These adjust How to Harness at the bottom, and so they are a Horse, 'put on from above. Onee an animal is used to Donkey or Mule being harnessed, it Is easier and faster to slip the collar Step 1 - Cross-tie the animal. over the head without rebuCk- Refer to page 64. ling. Almost all colars are slightly wider at the bottom Step 2 - Place and secure collar. and at the top, so hold the Stand on the left, next to the collar upside-down and push animal's head and open the it over the head. Once it buckle at the, top of the col- has cleared the brow and ears, lar. Slide the collar up and turn, and seat it. under the neck and buckle so Step 3 - Place the hames, jack it fits snugly and back I saddle and britching'(breech- against the shoulders. If . ( you can't slide, your hand ing;k.see page 92 for descrip- (flat) between the collar and tion). These parts are link - edjogether by interconnect - the neck, loosen it one notch. in straps (side straps Some collars. like the one and traces), and so

94.

86 . .,\

and so they are treated as a hang. Third, pick up the single unit. hamep; one in each hand. The right hame must be in the Usually, harness is stored on right hand. two pegs. The hames, which are joined at the top by the Holding the harness like this, hame strap, hang on one peg. stand just to the left of the The jack saddle and britching collar and lift,the hames hang on the other with the high enough so you can get britching on the outer end of the right hame over the top the peg. This arrangement is of the collar. Let both used so the harness can be hames down into the grooves picked up and put on the ani- in the collar. This is called

mdi without getting tangled "seating the hames". Do not . or out of order. buckle them yet. First, put your left arm Next, lay the rest of the har- through the britching and ness over the animal's' back. sling both parts (seat and hip The jack saddle should be strap) up onto your shoulder. behind the withers, the Second, bring the jack saddle 1)ritching further back. They onto your forearm and let it are not positioned and

87 II, . . 1

secured until you 136 back and Step ii-Place thebriidle. The ,buckle the hames. bridle is worn over the halter. The halter is not in the Buckle the hames at the base way, and you need it when you of the collar. Then pull the remove ttle.,bridle, or when you britching over the rear quar- lead or tie the bridled animal. ters. The britching seat is brought' down over the tail as Put the,linti over the head and far as it will go, and then lay them on the withers or back. the tail -is pulled' up and Hold the top of the bridle .over it, and allowed to drop. (cavesson) in Your right hand Reach under the animal and and the bit in your left. *grab the free end of the jack a Stand.to the side of the head saddle. This is called the and bring your arm over it so girth or belly band.,Bring it your wrist is between the ears toward you and up to the ring and your fingertips on the. or buckle on the left sideof'', forehead. 'the jack saddle. Fasten it Work the bridle upwards so the,. allowing enough room for youi\ ' noseband circles the mule hand to slide betWeen it and and,the bit comes into contact the animal. Kith the teeth. Work the bit

brOy band a

44.

rosfbar

bit rift pit

\. :71aCin# the Bridle 88 96 into the mouth by massaging the gums with your fingers. Steering If the bit is held as shown, your thumb and middle finger Systems will be in position to do this Few animals are so well Once the bit has cleared the trained that they turn and stop when front teeth, pull.up with your right hand until you are able the driver gives'a voice command. to work the top of the caves- Turns, partial turns, stops and

son over the right ear, and (, then the left. changes in speed are accomplished by Fasten the throat latch, a combination of voice commands and bringing it under the jaw and signals made through the lines. up to its buckle. Lines are long ropes or leather Step 5--Fasten the traces to the singletree (except during straps that reach from the driver to harness-breaking because no the animal's head.The lines load will be- pulled). The trace (one on dither side) attach to the sides of a bridle, hooks to the draft ring on halter, or nosering, all gear the hame, and runs back to the load. As it passes designed to transfer pressure from back, it goes through a sup- the lines to the sides of the nose porting sleeve on the jack or mouth. saddle. When britching.is used, the trace passes Lines have two functions: through an additional support which hangs down from the they help the driver regulate the britching ring. The support degree of turning and the amount of is called a trace-holder or lazy strap, and it keeps speed, and they act as a safety con- slack in the trace from get- trol in cases where an animal spooks . ting underfoot when the animal backs up or turns. or refuses to obey. It is important Note: ,Normally traces are to arrangelines so they perform left on the harness when it both functions. is taken off the animal. When unharnessing, unhook the trace Some farmers avoid using lines from the load and fasten it to by having an assistant lead the ani- the britching ring. mal or team from the front. This is not a bad practice if extra labor is

89 9 7 . available, and if the animal is an animal that won't'respond to even pressure. never to be used to pull a cart or If the halter is made of rope, wagon. It is dangerous to drive pad the noseband with cloth a vehicle using animals unaccustomed so it doesn't rub the nose and cause burns or sores. to lines, or using a steering/stop- It is a good practice to sup- ping system that provides little or port the lines by running no leverage. them through rings on the hames, surcingle, or backpad. This takes the weight of the lines off the nose and encour- Single Animal ages the animal to carry its Systems , head normally. It also keeps the lines from slackening and getting underfoot during turns Halter and lines (for cattle, or rest periods. . or easily controlled horses, donkeys or mule.). The dri- Bridle and lines (for horses, ver controls the speed and donkeys and mules). This is direction of the animal by the same system as halter/ pulling lines attached to lines but instead of attach- side rings of the halter. ing to the diderings of the halter, the lines attach to A right hand turn is made by the bit rings'of the bridle. pulling the right line out and to the side. The line of Some bridles are bitless and pull should be level and at work by exerting pressures the same height as the point on the nose like a halter. of leverage (the side ring of Noserings (cattle only). Both the halter). The movement lines attach to the ring and tightens the halter against then split back to the sides the left side of the animal's and to the driver.' Use a sur- head and begins to bring the cingle with siderings to sup- nose around to the right. port the lines as they pass You must slacken the left back., line as you pull back to the right. A left turn is made by doing Team Systems the reverse. A stop Is made by pulling both lines at once, drawing the muzzle into Team lines with coupling.A the chest. A hard snap of long line called a team line the lines will usually stop is fastened to the outside of

90 coupling

Team Lines With Coupling

team lines each animal's headgear (bri- ver has no leverage for stop- dle, halter, or nosering). ping. The insides of the headgear Team lines without coupling. are then linked together with When a team is working in a a short piece of rope or weeding yoke, the distance chain. This is called, a between the animals is so, coupling. great that the driver' may want When the driver pulls the to attach team lines to the left team line, the left ani- insides o the headgear. This mal turns to the outside gives him/her shorter, lighter (left). As it turns, the lines to work with. coupling tightens and pulls To make a right turn, the.dri- the right-hand animal to the ver pulls the left line. This left. A right turn isaccom- pulls the left animal's head plished by the opposite pro- to the inside (right). As it cess. turns, it puts sideward pres- This system works well with sure on its bow and the whole animals in a yoke, o'r well- yoke is pushed to the right. trained animals in harness. This signals the'right-hand It is not recommended for cart animal to turn right. or wagon work because the dri- 9,9 91 cross-check or .stublines

Cross-checks are supported as team they cross over. If the team line is in a yoke, the yoke stock can serve as a support. If team the team is in collar harness, line the lines go through rings on or attached to the inside hames of the opposite animal. It is important that the cross- checks are the same length and connect,to the team lines equal distances back from the headgear. They must also connect at the right distancgl Adjustment of the cross-checks is made by trial and error. Pull back on both lines evenly. If the team backs up straight, the lines are adjusted cor- Actly. If the animals crowd Team Lines with Cross-Check together as they back up, the checks are connected to the Team lines with cross - .heck. team lines too far back. If A complete steering system the animals split apart, the lets the driver turn both ani- checks are connected too far mals--not just one. Each out- forward. side line (see above) is equipped with a second, shorter line that branches off and crosses over to the headgear of the Breeching other animal. When the driver pulls the left line, for Harness example, he/she is pulling the end of a Y-shaped line Breechink(britching) harness that connects to the left side is a kind of harness that enables of each animal's headgear. a team to exert backward pressure A set of it- shaped liats is called team lines. Each line on the shaft of a wagon or cart, is made up of a long outside causing it to brake or back up. It line called a team line and a short cross-over line called a can be used with all types of yoke cross-over check line or stub. and harness. line. 200 92 Breeching harness looks like a cle is being pulled forward on flat breastband collar worn around the terrain. When the load begins to rear quarters. Its main part, move downhill, the shaft (of wagon, called the breeching seat, is a wide or cart) drives forward against band of leather that circles an ani- the yoke or harness, the eidestraps mal's buttocks. It is held in place tighten, and the breeching seat by a band which passes over the top closes against the buttocks. The of the rump: The band is called a animal brakes by resisting the pres- hip strap. The breeching is con- sure of the breeching seat. nected to the yoke or harness by a Used for backing up, the pair of straps (or ropes) called breeching works like a breastband sidestraps, hold-back straps, or collar in reverse. The sidestraps pole straps. tighten and pull aginst the yoke or Sidestraps are adjusted so harness the same way traces tighten they are slightly slack when a vehi- and pull against a singletree. The

hip strap breechin3 seat

NN.4"7"1:4;i40

side strap leather thong

1 01, 93 yoke or harness pullsback on the front 8f the wagon shaft and the vehicle backs up.

How Breeching Works as a Brake

without breeching

'Yoke driven forward by shaft when The yoke is held in place with load is moved downhill. The ani- breeching. The animal brakes with mal brakes with its head and neck. its rear quarters.

The illustration on page 95 a shows the breeching in dark lines. The

breeching is not ih use, so the pole strap is clipped or tied to the hame. When the animal is hitched to a wagon, the strap is connected to a jockey yoke, which works like a singletree. Correctly positioned, the breeching seat crosses the base of 102 94 -Nt

back strap collar have back pad hip pad bridle line (sadd .&of /psiINIT.,--ergumulas"x\--4 hip strap ...,,.... bit iimpr)iii...4.,,,,..r Ilp have draft lazy strap forpole breeching seat litmor I 1. sleeve for side trace trace carrierTrstrapa pole strap or lazy stra. belly (connects to jockey band -yoke as indicated -by dotted line)

Full Coll Harness with Breeching' Parts Highlighted

the buttocks. The height is adjusted by the hip strap.

Back straps are needed when breeching is used. These connect the hip strap to the collar and help stabilize the entire harness.

103

95 6. Hitches

A hitch is the connection Both implement and vehicle, between the power and the load. hitches are discussed in this chap- Hitches to field implements are ter, with attention given to common made by hooking .a chain from a yoke types within each group. Types are or swingtree to a ring or hole on identified according to the system the implement. Hitches to vehicles used to transfer and connect power are made the same way, but involve to the load, and by the number of connection of steering systems animals in the hitch. (wagon shaft and lines) and braking systems (britching) as well, so that Safety the "hitch" is really a combination of hitches. Rules Ina broad sense, a hitch is Hitching is.a procedure that -an arrangement of equipment and ani- exposes owners and animals to a cer- mals that will supply adequate, tain amount of danger., Animals are efficient power for a particular injured when they back into equip- job. A four-horse plow hitch is a ment,'get hung-up in chains, swing- unit designed for pulling a large trees, or over the shaft of a wagon, plow through very heavy soil.A or when they bolt forward half- four-horse wagon hitch is a unit hitched. People are injured when designed for pulling a wagon, but animals kick or step unexpectedly, if the wagon has no brakes, the or more seriously, when a team pulls hitch necessarily includes gear the load forward before they can get which performs this important func- out of the way. tion. Attentionto these rules will

'97 104 minimize danger to all involved: Implement Watch th.= animals; look for nervousness or potential Hitches causes for movement or spooking--noise, insects, sudden appearance of persons, vehi- An animal or team pulling a cles or other animals. log (skidding) or a field implement Never hook a chain or traces to the load before: needs only a forward pulling system, - the hook or harness is fully because the load can't roll forward secured and all buckles are checked and hit it from behind. The digging - the lines (reins) are con- or dragging- action of the load acts nected to bridles and are within easy reach like a brake and eliminates the need - the wagon shaft has been for breeching. Backing up is usually lifted so the neckyoke connects it to the collar. accomplished by the manual effort of When you are ready to make the the equipment operator, or, if the hitch, have someone stand in equipment is too heavy, wide turns front and steady the animal or . team. are used to reverse the direction. When making the actual hitch, position yourself soyou can get out of the way if the ani- Yoke to mals spook. Take these pre- Implement cautions: (two animals) - Don't stan4 over the chain or wagon shaft; don't cross Walk. out and over it. This type of hitch is made by around if you need to get to the opposite side. connecting a chain from a yoke to a - Dcn't stand between a swing- ring or hole on the front of the tree and the shaft of a wagon. implement being pulled. The team pushes against the yoke and its power is transferred back to the load, through the chain., The chain is called a draw chain. The chain is hooked to a 106 98 r

yoke stock

S -hook

draw chain clevis

horizontal regulator of moldboard plow

clevis located in the center of the of the beam. The adjustment is dis- yoke stock. The clevis is held in cussed on page 125. Sometimes an place by an L-shaped pin which should Adjustment must be made on the yoke be easily removable. A three-meter stock itself:Normally, the stronger chain is normally used for plowing; animal is placed on the right or if the chain does not have built-id "off" side of the chain; during plow- hooks, locally made S-hooks can be ing, it walks in the furrow where used. footing is soft and greater effort is Most implements are drawn needed. If this animal is very short directly off the buckhead, the front and the othe'r (left side) tall., the 'end of the tool-carrying beam. A added difference of the furrow-depth moldboard plow, however, is offset on will pitch the stock down to the a horizontal regulator, a perforated right and may give both animals yoke plate that allows the operator to galls. In this and other instances, move the line of draft to the right the weaker animal should be placed

99 1.06 7

adjustment hole yoke center

) .

41 Evening a Pair by Yoke Stock Adjustment

stronger weaker animal animal

in the furrow. To equalize the tutes or replaces one of theanimali, pull and ensure that the animals he can adjust the yoke as needed. work as a unit, the chain is moved to the left of the yoke center. Tandem Yokes This will give the weaker animal a to Implement (four animals) longer lever to push against and allow it to step up and maintain the pace of the stronger. .The process Two teams of oxen can be yoked is called "evening" the pair: the to an implement where heavy soils stouter animal is given the short (argilous, black cotton land, paddy end of the yoke. land) are being Plowed, or where a If the yoke stock is of very heavy harrow, roller, or ridger is . strong wood, two holes can be bored, being used. (See page 102.) one in the center, one just left The weaker pair is used as the . of center. When the operator substi- front or level team. The stouter .

r 10010/ .... v3

pair is put behind; it is called The backbend traverse is the wheel team. Because the lines needed to support the lengthy chain. are attached to the lead team for steering, cross- checks are used (see page 92). Singletree The lines may bd to Implement attached to halters or noserings, (one animal) but an alternate horn-to-ear method can be used (see page 107). An animal wearing a collar or With a little practice, the driver breastband harness, or a sling or can learn to snap the lines across single head yoke, needs a special the back of a lagging animal. system to convey its power back to Lines pass through the clevis of the the load. Ropes or chains are rear (wheel) yoke; this gives them attached to sides of the harness or support. \yoke and connected to a bar located The chain leaves the clevis behind the animal. The bar is a of the lead yoke, passes under the clevis of the second, passses over a support rope, or strap tied between the backbands of the wheel team (called chaiR6Stpport) and then to trace the implement. Tho wheel team is connected tb the main draft (chain). witha short piece. of chain (extension chain) attached to its clevis. This avoids the problem that results when the lead-team is tied into the wheeleFs' yoke proper (the stock would be yanked forward onto the team's horns whenever the leaders pulled). Source: Hopfen, Op. Cit.

101 108 Lead Team lines (for steering)

yoke stack main draft clevis

extension Wheel chain Team

...

backstrap S -hook

line (left turn) chain support line (right turn)

Tandem Yokes to'Implement- (with magnifications of hitchpoints)

102 109 ------7--__ b.

piece of wood furnished with rings or grooves that hold the ropes. The bar is called a singletree, or swingtree (other names include swingletree, whippletree, tree). The lines that attach to it are called traces. The singletree has a ring in the center which is connected to- the load with a hook and short piece of chain. Doubletree Doubletree to Implement (two animals)

singletree A team in collar or breastband harness can have its traces attached to a longer bar called a doubletree. A short chain connects the doubletree to the load. As with the yoke, advantage can be given to the weaker animal by moving the chain off center and toward the other. An improvement over this arrangement is achieved bygiving each animal an individual tree, or singletree. The two singletrees are then connected tothe doubletree. The implement is connected to the doubletree

103 110 weaker animal

Doubletree to Implement Evening the Pair with a Hitch (Standard) SWingtree Adjustment doubletree. Doubletree to Implement: Use of singletrees and double- Multiple Hitches trees lets the driver make very fine adjustments in the amount of pull delivered by each animal.When one of the animals begins to lag, he Multiple hitches are easy to shortens its traces or the-chain arrange and can be extremely valua- connecting its singletree to the ble to farmers owning lighter draft main.tree. This lets the animal animals. Donkeys or young cattle meet the point of resistance sooner: (two or three years old) can be

it no longer has to catch up with worked in tandem pairs, three the other animal in order to meet abreast, or in a one-two pattern. the load. An adjustment of a link Collars or breastbands must be used or two, coupled With some gentle with, equines, but single head-or prodding, will "even" the pair and sling yokes can be used for cattle. In a tandem pair hitch,-the the pull.

104 ie -in tie - in line

line

tti

Tandem Pair Hitch Three-Abreast Hitch Wedge-Shaped Hitch

leaders are driven with team lines lead animal is driven with lines and cross-checks. The wheelers are and wheelers controlled with tie-in connected to the leaders with tie-in lines and a coupling. lines--short ropes which connect Note: If the wheelers walk their halters to the traces of the too fast and tend to close up on the leaders. Couplings are used on leaders, they can be held back with both teams for additional control. bucking straps. Bucking straps are In a three-abreast hitch, the lines arranged just like team lines outside animals are driven with team with cross-checks. However, the lines and the middle animal control- free ends are not held by the dri- led with couplings. Additional ver, but attached to the draw chain. steering control can be obtained by Attach them to the chain where it adding cross-checks. passes between the wheeler's single- In a wedge-shaped hitch the trees. For more on multiple hitches, see page 234.

'105 112 Animals or teams in sling or Vehicle breastband harnesses have no braking Hitches or backing power at all. Those in collar harnesses have very limited ability. A general rule is that ani- Most titches to vehicles are mals in harness should wear breech- designed and made so the animal or ing when pulling vehicles. team can brake and back the load up Basic types of vehicle hitches as well as pull it forward. are discussed below. Some involve Teams in yokes can get some yokes, others harnesses. leverage for breaking by lifting Yoke to Wagon their heads and resisting the pres- Yoke to Wagon sure created when the shaft of the (Two Animals) wagon pushes against the back of the yoke. Horned cattle can back a load There are many ways to connect up by pushing back against the yoke the shaft or tongue of a wagon to a stock with their horns. The stock yoke. The method shown here is is connected to the wagon shaft and recommended because it minimizes wheniCgoes back, the shaft and strain on animalsand vehicle and the wagon go back. because the component parts are eas- These controls are effective ily made in a local forge and can only with very light carts or wagons, be mounted or removed, without

., or when the vehicle has an indepen- wrenches, as needed. dent braking system (mechanical The hitch is made by attaching brakes). They are not adequate if a draw chain to the centerpoint of the load is heavy or if the terrain the stock by means of a pin and cle- is'hilly. In the latter instances, vis. Two rings are kept on the cle- animals should be fitted with breech- vis, a small draw-ring for the chain ing harness before being hitched to and a larger pole ring for the shaft the load. of a cart or wagon. A field imple-

106

113 Yoke-to-Wagon Ditch Top View Detail of connection between yoke and Rope circles wagonshaft. opposite ear before going back. yoke cIevis in

draw ring

11 clairlaTwagon

If pole ring shaft from wagon

draw ring Side View yoke wagon stock

clevis

chain to yoke stop wagon shaft tongue pole ring

107 114 meat can be .attached, by chain and subtract 20 cm. This figure should hook, to the i- levis, or' to either" equal the length of the fully-ex- of the two rings; however, when a tended chain. wagon is pulled, the chain should The shaft, correctly used, is be attached to the draw-ring and for turning, braking, and balancing the wagon shaft passed through the the load; it is used as a hitchpoint

pole ring. The load is pulled by only if a second team is used in the chain, not the shaft. This front. lets the shaft slide forward and back through the ring, eliminating Tandem Yokes much of the jarring produced by to Wagon (fou animals) a "hard" or fixed connection. The shaft is furnished with a stop More power can be supplied to that prevents it from sliding too the yoke-wagon hitch (above) by hook- far forward. The chain keeps it ing a second team to the metal cle- from sliding too far back. vis located on the tongue of the Chain Adjustment--When the wagon (the tongue is the end of the chain is fully extended, it must he shaft). The front team (lead team)

shorter than the length of the wagon ' pulls the shaft. The back team shkift. If it is equal or longer, (wheel team) pulls by the chain con- the team will "walk of the tongue" necting its draw-ring to the wagon. --the shaft will slide out of the Use the more obedient, well-trained pole ring before the chain tightens team as the lead, the stronger as and begins to pull. the wagon. In the wheel team. this case, the tongue will be bang- ing on the ground as the load moves -forward. This can frighten the team and cause a serious accident. in make the proper adjustment, mew.ury 0-.e length of the shaft and

115 neckyoke is a wooden trossbar Doubletree the same length as the double- to Wagon tree, but made of lighter wood. (two animals) It has a ring in the center and one on each side. The center ring is large enough so the tongue can slide through it. Preparation The side rings are smaller; Connect the doubletree and sin- they connect the neckyoke to gletree to the back of the the harness via shorter yokes wagon shaft and connect the called jockey yokes. A jockey neckyoke and jockey yokes to yoke has a ring in the center to front of the wagon shaft and one at each end. (tongue). ,To prepare the tongue for The tongue of the wagon (end hitching, lay the neckyoke on of the wagon shaft) must be the ground just in front of fitted with equipment that can the tongue. _It should be at be connected to the team's har- right angles to the tongue. Then ness. The equipment lets thc: fasten the jockey yokes to the team hold up the shaft and neckyoke. The center ring of brake and back the load. The the jockey yoke hooks to the

Top View of Wagon Before Team Is Hitched

doubletree \ jockey yoke wagon singletree \ * /

.1.+,.-...... wagon shaft

. . ' neckyoke pole ring s .. .,,...... 11=11..1... ,0a. -+.1.- -

ow. 11111111,

...... : - ''...... tongue of wagon .. _ 1 neckyoke

109

0 . 6 116 4 end ring of the neckyoke. pick up the neckyoke (jockey Now slide the center ring of yokes attached). In doing theneckyoke over the tongue. this, you will have also lifted the wagonshaft. Next, Check the alignment of the you want to free your hands equipment at either end of the so you can connect the jock,...), shaft. A straight line drawn yokes to the lazy straps on through the midpoint of each the collars. To do this, bend jockey yoke should intersect your knees and use them to the midpoint of each single- hold up the neckyoke. tree and be parallel to the wagon shaft. NoW fasten the inside ring of each jockey yoke to the Harness the animals. Use the inside lazy strap on each harness shown on page95. collar. With this done, the Position the team and hitch shaft is now held up' by the the lines. collar, and so you can stand up and finish the job bY con- Position the animals on either necting the outside lazy° side of the shaft so their col- straps to the outside rings lars are roughly over the neck- of the jockey yokes. yoke. Do this by leading each animal:to the correct position- Hitch the braking/backing up or by driving them into posi- system. tion as a unit. To place the team as a unit, At this point, the shaft is fasten their lines and drive being,held up by the collars. them toward the shaft. The tops of the collars are Approach it from the side and bearing down on the tops of the behind. Let one animal step animals' necks. This is hard over it and then straighten on the team, and it is better the team and ease it up toward to transfer this weight to the the neckyokb. Once they're in backPad at the top of the jack a position and steady, tuck saddle. This is done by con- the lines in the britching, or necting the pole straps to the somewhere they can be reached jockey yokes. easily, and go forward to When not being used, pole place the neckyoke. (Don't straps come forward out of the walk between them--go around.) jack saddle side rings and fas- If the animals were led into ten to the hames (see page 95). position individually, fasten Take them off the hames and the lines before, proceeding. connect them to the ends of the jockey yokes. Tighten Hitch the neckyoke. them until tension on the Stand in front of the team and lazy straps is relieved, and

110

117 N

Doubletree to Wagon Hitch

then unhook the lazy straps forward. Jockey yokes, pole and hook them back up on the straps and sidestraps are all names. pulled forward until the Connection of the pole straps breeching seat closes against puts the weight of the shaft the buttocks. The animal on the animals' backs, but it resists tha pressure by lean- also links the breeching to ing back into its breeching. In this instance, breeching . wagon tongue. When the animal backs up, the breeching works like a brake. closes against the buttocks The pole straps are adjusted and pulls the side straps, pole by trial and error. straps, and jockey yoke. The jcckey yokes then act like If the straps are too short, singletrees, pulling the longer the breeching will interfere neckyoke (equivalent of dou- with the animal's normal gait. bletree) which in turn pulls It will squeeze or tighten on the tongue of the wagon. against the buttocks when the The wagon is backed up. animal is walking on level ground. When the wagon is driven downhill, the shaft drives for- If the straps are t'bo long, ward, pulling the neckyoke the shaft will drive too far ill 118

0 forwAd before the breeching the neckyoke slipt of the has a chance to work. This tongue. can causetwoproblems: a) the breeching slams into the animal's rear quarters insteadof meeting them; there isstrain Double-shafted on both theanimal and the har- Cart Hitch ness; b) the singletrees come (one animal) forward with the shaftand bang the animal's heels. One-animal carts are double- Hitch the pulling system. 3hafted. Shafts are supported by The pulling system isconnected by fasteningthe,ends of the loops hung from a saddle. The sad- singletrees. traces to the dle is a thick pad or backpad which Connect the inside traces first, walking out andaround distributes weight and pressure from the team to reach theother the shafts across the animal's back. side. Make sure the traces are the samelength, and that The cart is pulled forward by they pull the loadbefore the short traces which connect the col- team walks sofar forward that

112 i 1 9 0

lar or breastband to the middle of each shaft. In the illustration below, the trace is shown as a rope tied to a ring on the end of the breastband. It connects to an iron U-bolt located halfway back on the shaft. Backing' and braking are accomplished through use of breeching and 0 hold-back straps. In the illustra- :.ion, the hold-back strap (or side- strap) ties to a ring on the end of the britching seat and runs forward to a U-bolt located toward the front of the shaft. When the cart goes downhill, the shaft slides forward in the loop, and the hold-back strap tightens and pulls the britching seat up against the donkey's, rear quarters. The donkey brakes the cart by resisting the pressure of the britching seat. The cart is backed up when the driver backs the animal into its britching. The hold-back straps then act like traces, pulling back on the front ends of the shafts.

113 A- 120 7. Field Operations and Implements

41, 0 Animal traction can be used to pact soil. Hilling (mounding) or accomplish a variety of operations ridging by hand, plowing with a mold- related to crop production. Opera- board plow, or breaking land with an tions which loosen and improve the and or discing plow are examples of soil where crops are grown are primary tillage operations.They called tillage operations; plows, are used on virgin land (never cul- harrows, weeders, cultivators and tivated), fallow land (used, but ridgers are tillage implements. since overgrown with grass or for- Other field operations include skid- est), or on fields which have har- ding (clearing fields of logs and dened during winter or off-season brush), planting, and harvesting. months. Tilling is any process that Later operations, such as har- loosens the soil where crops are rowing, clod crushing, weeding (cul- grown. The work may be done by tivating)., and ridging are forms of. hand, using hoes, or wi animal or secondary tillage. These operations

engine-powered equip nt. Tilling are used to prepare the seedbed'or' improves soilstruhreand helps improve the soil where crops are crops root and ow. maturing. Primary tillage refers to operations which loosen very com-

A 115 121 Clearing Fields With Animal Power

Animals can be used to clear fields.of fallen trees or other debris that will interfere with plowing. Skidding is the process of dragging a log on the ground. Bob- sledding is similar, but one end of the log is lifted onto a sled to reduce friction and make pulling easier. 1 Skidding a Log

Bobsled

116 122 r

Standard procedure is to Plowing attach the chain to the log or sled Plowing is most often done ..and then drive the team into a post- tion where the chaincan be hitched with a moldboard plow. This is s- to its doubletree, or to a drawchain tool that loosens earth by cutting dragged from a.yoke. When moving a slice and turning it partially

the load, the driver should standto over so that air and water reach the side of the log or sled and the area where plants root, often

watch out for stones, debris,or referred to as theeroot zone.The variations in slope that can throw soil is cut by a blade, called a' or roll the end of the log toward share. The soil is lifted and him/her, causing injury. turned by a moldboard.The cut

made by a plow is called a furrow - and the soil thrown is called a furrow slice.When the moisture Moldboard Plow

moldboard

a multi-purpose frame

frame with moldboard plow attachment added

Source: Centre d'etudes et d'experimentation du machinismeagriculture tro- cal (CEEMAT). Manuel de Culture avec Traction Animale. 1968. CEEMAT, Parc de Tourvoie, 92160 Antony, France.

117 - 123 . -. ...

Turnin: Over the Furrow Slic

unplowed land

'.."- furrow slice

1 Source: CEEmAT, On, Cit .

vel of the.soil is right (damp, remain after plowing, but these can not sticky), the furrow slice curls be broken afterwards with harrows or off the upper portion of the plow other equipment. moldboard and is thrown into the Width of the slice varies with side of the adjacent slice. the length of the share. Depth is The furrow slice loses its controlled by setting the wheel or internal tightness as it is tumbled, by th length of the chain between jarred, and then squeezed between the yoke and the implement; an aver- the moldboard's tail and the adja- age depth is 10-20 cm. cent slice. Although the slice appears to hold its form, separa- tions between soil particles permit entrance of air and water, and later make it easy for seedling roots to branch out. Clumps and clods may

118 lizer. Good plowing Effects of Plowing row slice so decaying material is spread evenly through the loose soil. Good plowing stimulates plant As oxygen and water penetrate and as growth by opening the compact upper sun dries exposed roots, the materL surface of the soil so roots can ial decays and provides nutrients for develop quickly, taking nutrients, the crop. water, and oxygen from the soil. Plowing done after a crop is Moisture isabsorbed easily, seep- harvested is called backplowing. ing down to deeper areas where it Stubble and surface debris is turned can act as a reserve during dry back into the soil where it decom- periods. poses and returns nutrients to the Plowing also serves to turn soil. If the plowing was deep, it under weeds and organic surface mat- is followed in the spring with light erial that becomes valuable ferti- backplowing or scarification. Back-

Effects of depth of plowing relative to width of furrow on the final position of the furrow slice: 1) Unbroken layer of sod between the seedbed and pan. Bonding is slow. 2) Too much contact between furrow slices. The bed stays rigid longer. It does not settle. 3) Upper edge of furrow slices can be readily worked down to a seedbed without the interference of sod. Later packing and preparation should break down the lower edge of the furrow slice and bring topsoil into contact with subsoil. Correct angulation of the plow slice can be achieved when the depth of plowing iabout one-half the width of the furrow.

119 125 ARD (breaking plow, or chisel plow)

buckhead

"4"%ft.ftinterchangeable share

weed Ing swoer

Source: Hopfen, Op. Cit., plowing to a depth different frog straight line when pulled by a sin- initial plowing prevents fixation of gle animal. the pan ("hard pan") and aids maintenance of a healthy soil profile. Adjusting Shallow tillage plows, which the Plow break the soil surface but do not turn it under, are called breaking Draft tools can be adjusted to plows, chisel plows, or ands. They deliver the kind and quality of til- are used where short growing seasons lage farmers want, and minimize the and dry soil conditions make shallow effort required by the operator. plowing a desirable technique (typi- Plow adjustment features include cally in Africa's Sahelien and sub- the adjustable wheel, the horizontal Sahelien zones). A breaking plow regulator, and the vertical regula- has no moldboard and hence no side tor. In addition, handles on some draft; as a result it will hold a plows can be adjusted according to

1.20 12' Multi-Purpose Tool Frame (Arara brand)

handles wrench 17x22- 19x22 C:044012') wrench holder_ traction chain

beam (leg)

verticle regulator'

shin *--"' nut

support stay wheel support horizontal breast shaft regulator mold- 1heel board cutting edge ---1# of share 4I----- landside share wheel -HO, cotter pin 40°1)4

\IP*"wheel axle Source: Dineur, Op. Cit.

121 127 the height of the operator. Adjustments are made by trial and Adjustments are better under- error. If the objective is to plow a furrow 15 cm deep and Ehe plow is stood with experience as the opera- working at 12 cm, lengthen the tor learns the "feel" of the tool, hitch by adding a few links to the drawchain where it connects to the how land is supposed to break over front of the plow. 'If the cut is a ridger, or curl ofa moldboard. too deep, drop a few links. Until then, an animal traction If the team is pulling in harness rather than a yoke, regulate the instructor can point out adjustments length of the hitch by adding 'or which minimize operator effort while dropping links on the short drawchain connecting the doubletree to maximizing tillage objectives.An the front of the plow. The adjust- instructor can adjust the equipment, ment can also be made on the traces, but each of four traces will have to demonstrate its use, and then let be adjusted. the farmer use it. Later, adjust- Plow with wheel: Plows with wheels ments Can be made that change the are adjusted by raising or lowering the wheel in relation to the beam. blade action and produce different If the wheel is high, or close to results. In this way, the farmer the beam, plowing will be deep. If it is low, far from the beam, plow- learns about the performanCe range ing will be shallow. of the equipment through supervised, The wheel is mounted on a shaft that slides up and down through a hands-on experience. hole in the beam. To set the plowing depth, the operator slides the shaft up or down and locks it into Depth of Plowing place with a bolt (see plow diagram, page 117.) When the bottom of the wheel is even Some plows have with the bottom of the plow, there Plow without wheel: is zero depth of tillage; the plow, no wheel in front,and in these plowing depends on if pulled, will ride on the surface. cases the depth of In order for the plow to descend, the length of the hitch, thatis, the the shaft/wheel assembly must be connection between theanimal(s) and raised so the wheel is closer to the Lengthening the hitch the load. beam. increases the depth of theplowcut. Shortening the hitch reducesthe Adjustments are usually made by depth of the cut. trial and error, but a very precise

122 adjustment can be made in this man- On some plows, the drawchain ner: hooks to a pin that slides through put the plow on flat ground the beam and lockd at various and steady it so the plow bottom is level and the beam par- heights. 'On others, it hooks to a allel to the ground. perforated bar welded to the front loosen the bolt holding the of the beam. These devices, and shaft/wheel assembly to the beam and let the shaft slide others like them, are called verti- down until the wheel hits cal regulators. the ground. The adjustment is made by 411 decide how deep you want to plow and raise the wheel the trial and error. After the wheel is same distance off the ground. set, the operator begins to cut a If you want your furrows 12 cm deep, raise the shaft until furiow., If the wheel presses hard the bottom of the wheel is 12 into the ground leaving a deep trace- cm above the ground, and then .lock the shaft in plate. -mark, and/or if the plow snags and bounces, even when there are no roots,

the chain is too high. If the wheel Correct Line of Traction: Vertical lifts off the ground and the plow Regulation tends to ride up to the surface, the chain is hitched Coo low. When a plow is cutting cor- Vertical regulation is correct rectly, it works flat on the fur- when the plow bottom works flat. row bottom: the point of the share The plow glides smoothly, maintain- and the bottom of the heelpiece are ing its depth.The wheel rolls eas- level. this does not happen auto- ily and the beam is parallel to the matically. The operator usually has ground. The operator doesn't have to make an adjustment called verti- to help the plow maintain its dig- cal regulation. The adjustment is ging plane by exerting pressure on made by raising or lowering the the handles. point where the drawchain meets the When this is happening, the front of the plow. drawchain will be riding on the line

123 12.9 onmaimaimummammumumaimaimmmmemmumenumumemaimaimaimmiersumumummumumaimanumanammumumumumummmmusm-was INCORRECT vertical adjustment: The plowpoint angles down, the heel - piece/li is up, the entire-plow-

,bottom p tches down, causing ... ging and 'heel pressure. The oper-r / ator has to keep pulling up or lift - ing to plow handles.

MUNI= ilimmtmrumnamemii ammumumaimm.m.umemommoumm

INCORRECT vertical adjustment: The plowpoint angles up, the heelpiece presses down, the plowbottom pitches. up, causing the plow to ride to the surface..The operator has to keep pushing down on the plow handles.

124

130 4

, t1 '12> rmeiffssismiffinewl.sommulr======nem ======iUS I CORRECT vertical adjustment: The plowpoint and the heelpieces are on the same level. The plowbottom works flat. of draft, or line of traction--an on the horizontal regulatbr--a imaginary straight line that con- notched or perforated bar fixed to nects the point of draft (yoke cle- the vertical regulator. As the vis or hame draft) to the point of chain is moved toward the right end resistance. The point of resis- of the bar, the plow cuts a broader tance is located near the midpoint furrow. As it is moved to the left, of the share/moldboard joint; it is it cuts a narrower furrow. the point where the plow meets the The plow is easiest to control most resistance from the soil. when the chain is hooked to the hole in the center of the bar, or to the Width of Plowing:. hole just right of center. When Horizontal Regulation this hitch is made, the beam runs parallel to the furrow cut. The

Width of plowing is estab- forces on the moldboard are very lished by positioning the drawchain uniform and the plowman does nothing

125 131 tf Width of Plowing: Horizontal emulation

but balance the plow and help it speed and thrust to knock the

around roots and stones. (Fig. A) whole, slice over. A strong, steady- When broader or narrower cuts pulling team is needed and the are made, the plowman must use more operator must keep constant prEs- control. If the chain is hitched sure on the left plow handle. (Fig. B) to the right, the plow will angle If the chain is hitched to toward the unplowed land. The the left of the regulator midpoint, operator keeps it going straight by the plow will cut a narrower furrow. tipping it to the left, and the plow The operator uses slight pressure on is bearing down slightly on the left the right handle to keep the furrow handle. But if it's hitched all the uniform. If the chain is hitched way to the right, the share may not all the way to the left, the plow have a long enough edge to cut all will angle into the open furrow of the furrow slice. In this case, unless the operator compensates the operator must develop enough with manual effort. (Fig. C)

126

132 Aids for Plowing Heavy Vegetation

Some plows are equipped with a coulter, a knife-like blade which is fixed to the beam in front of the moldboard. It extends downward so it pre-cuts roots and sod and makes-it easier for the moldboard to turn the furrow slice. If grass is very tall or vegetation heavy, it may stick up Use of Coulter and Aid Chain between the turned furrow slices

andcontinue,to grow. In these furrow, the plow operator must cases, pre-flatten it by attaching a stand on the end of the wire until heavy chain to the outermost hole the slice begins to turn over on of the horizontal regulator (or to top of it. the right-hand end of a tingletree) and loop It back to the beam. Field. An alternative method is to -Layout stretch a heavy-gauge wire from the

horizontal regulator to a point on 'A sturdy, well-trained pair of the ground behind the moldboard. of bulls can, plow a hectare (ha) of When plowing begins, the weight of clear, root-free land in four days. the turning furrow slice puts ten- Farmers who learn to break the hec- sion on the wire and keeps it in tare into standard-size strips or position to flatten the oncoming parcels will know how much work grass. At the beginning of each their bulls can produce per'day,

127 133 and this knowleage will help them illustrated below. If no measuring plan the labor effort of the family ropes or chains are available,work - A practical work strip is strips are laid out approximately 60 12 m wide and 50 m long. With this paces long (a pace = a normal walk- field layout animals will not tire ing step) and -15 paces across.t At and the driver will waste no time least four meters (5- paces) of or energy turning the plow at the unplowed land, or.headland, must be end of the rox. If a plowteam left at the tap and bottom of each turmi four of these strips a day,._ strip to allow room for turns. Two it will have completed one-fourth meters of clear land should be left hectare. 'along the side of the first strip if The recommended layout for the field is bordered by a forest; plowing a one-hectare field is this space will be needed when the 8 paces headland from corner corn: --uncleared land

central ---side land turnaround., strip M

rr 4m Arl.'"fne.1,4173:10? Well-planned field showing use of central turnaround strip.The turnaround strip is plowed last.

128

134 Setting the Crown

Pis ---.

74 ;

S illt 0 -410" 1 Awl

. i. , 011. 1 , AIL% t Amaa.+-417, t r4 iOa 'SsW

1 3 to.

team weeds the outermost row. A called a crown. Plowing begins by setting the crown. central turnaround strip is used so Steps to set crown: that the team and driver do not have Place the plow just to the to make turns on already-plowed land. right of the first stake (A) This strip is plowed last. and cut a shallow furrow to the opposite stake (B) (Pig. 1). Before plowing the first work- , strip, mark the corners of the head- Reverse the team and put the lands, sidelands, and central turna- plow. back into the furrow just round strip. Then take eight paces made. Return to Point A, cut- along the inside-of the headland and ting the furrow a little deep- place a stake there. Put another er. The result is that. ou stake .:iposite the first, and on the have made a well-defined border of the turnaround strip. trench whose sides are banked with loose,itoil (Fig. 2). The workstrip is plowed by the making a series of clockwise passes Turn to the right and put (right-hand turns) around a ridge made plowpoint next to the loose between the two stakes. The ridge is soil.

.129 135 Return to the opposite end of :sets a new crown and begins the the field, throwing this soil /next workstrip. f back in:to4the trench. Then' turn to the right and come back along the other side of i Concentric Plowing the trench, throwing the res1t of the loose soil in (Figure 3). A concentric pattern may be Readjust the plow,settingithe effective.if plowing is expanded wheel so the moldboard wil around a block made of two or three work at the full, desiredt depth. Then cut a furrow in completed workstrips. However, a the land just to the lef of the filled trench. The thew pattern that works.inward toward an furrow slice will fold 1 increasingly smaller square of against the soil in the trench and partially co'er it. unplowed land is not practical. On the return trip, morie dirt Land is trampled with each turn, will be thrown against it, and on top of it. The result and when the central workstrips are will be a ridge of. ear h that plowed, there is no headland for wille slightly highe than the rest of the plowed field. turning. This is the "crown". Notes on Using pie Plow Correctly made, the crown is The followingsusgestions will made of loosened, turled earth. Some plowmen ake the be helpful to instructors teaching crown simply by throwing a farmers to use thP plow. 2 set of furrow slices over a center of hard, unplowed land. Choose "easy" ground--an old The result is that later, the field free of roots,. rocks and plants'in the rows eiiher trees. Plow,one or two days side of the crown doof have after rain. During the dry access to well-tilled soil. seakon, farmers can practice on sandy or pebbly soils; how- Once the crown is set plow- ever, these soils may be too ing proceeds in a clockwise1 manner loose or powdery to be plowed until the plowed strip is a proxi- into uniform furrow slices. mately 15.paces wide. Then stakes A and B are pulled out and Filaced Make-sure the plow is.adjusted eight paces to the right of the edge correctly. Set it to cut a of the plowed land. The stakes shallow but well-defined fur- mark the line where the plo row. Lower the handles if

I130 136 r.

possible. Do not teach'far- During a turn, farmers should mers abSut adjustments until lift the handles and wheel the they have the "feel". of a cor- plow like a wheelbarrow. If rectly working plow. the plow is not equipped with In the beginning, walk beside a wheel, they lean it on its the farmers and drive the right and let it drag. They bulls for them so they can should not cut the headland concentrate on using the plow. (turning area) because it is When starting new strips, lead time-consuming and makes foot- the bulls from the front so ing difficult. they do not veer. Remember If the team is working poorly, that once the guide cuts are as may be the case with a new made, the bulls follow them pair, let the farmer practice quite easily. using a pair that pulls well Do not let farmers push the and obeys commands. The demon- plow or bear down on the stration pair is ideal for handles, since this drives hands-on learning. the plowshare into the ground and makes the animals' work harder. Advise them to stand Harrowing' erect; show them that their job is simply to balance and steer the plow. They can cut a broader slice by dip- Harrowing is the process of ping the handles slightly to smoothing and leveling a plowed field. the right; they narrow the slice by dipping them to the The harrow breaks clods and works the left. Eventually the far- tops of furrow slices into a fine, mers will learn to feel roots and rooks as they come moisture-retaining bed where seeds across the share and help germinate easily. Higher germination the plow around them with these same dipping motions. rates resulting from harrowing are Teach them to walk in the fur- explained by improved structure of row acid lean to the landside. the seedbed: If they walk on the high ground, they will tend to push it is better aerated their plow Lo the right and it is moisture-retaining make unnecessarily narrow cuts. there is more contact If they straddle the?cut, they between the seed and.soil will tire from constantly step- particles; large' air pockets ping up and down. and clods are eliminated and

137 131 seeds are easily covered, depths. They are especially-use- some weeds are killed. ful for pulling:up vines, roots A further advantage of harrow- and stones; they require greater ing is that it breaks down the tubes draft than apike-tooth harrows. or coils of earth which are the rem- Disc harrows work the soil to an nant of furrow slices, making it even greater degree, slicing and easier to use line tracers or mech- partially turning the bed; they are anical seeders. highly effective in soil that is There are several major types heavy, sticky, or broken into large, of harrows. Spike-tooth harrows hard clods. are wooden or metal frames studded Spike-tooth harrows are useful with rows of pegs or teeth (tines). in granular, lateritic soils or in Spring-tooth harrows are much like sandy soils that have been plowed cultivators, but they have more when slightly wet and then left to teeth and can work to greater settle; they are pulled perpendicu-

Spike Tooth Harrows

Source: Hopfen, Op. Cit.

138 132 Planker

lar to rows. In heavier soils it using a rope or set of handles. may be necessary to harrow parallel Teeth should be long enough to work to the furrows and afterwards at the top several inches of soil. angles to them. They should have a pointed tip, and Spike-tooth harrowscan be the shafts should be made and fit- made locally and at little cost. ted so the leading edge cuts into The frame must be sturdy and able the soil (teeth made from round to carry weights such as logs or iron should be hammered into a rocks; the weights help hold the har- triangular or diamond shape). row down, preventing bouncing, jar- An affordable, easily-made ring and poor penetration of teeth. alternative to the disc harrow is In fields where stumps and protrud- the planker, or plank drag. Used ing rocks can cause interference, in combination with a spike-tooth wedge-shaped frames are used, or harrow, it works heavy soil into an the operator guides the harrow excellent seedbed.

133 139 Line Tracing for rows got closer. Parallel Rows A line tracer is a frame made of a handle and a crossbar and Since animal traction can pulled by hand or animal power. reduce the labor needed for primary The crossbar is equipped with move- tillage, farmers can increase the able teeth. The teeth are set at size of their fields. However, intervals that correspond to the they run the risk of insufficient recommended row spacing for a par- labor for hand-weeding the extra ticular crop. The operator makes area, so mechanical weed cultiva- a set of marks the length of the tion of parallel rows becomes a field, turns, sets the outermost necessity. tooth on the outermost line made Parallel rows are established during the previous pass, and then by scoring the seedbed with a mark- draws the tracer back across the ing device called a line tracer, field. This gives the sowers a and then planting along the score- visible mark by exposing the darker, marks. As plants mature, farmers moist soil just under the surface; can weed (cultivate), fertilize, if the operator gets too far ahead ridge, and in some cases harvest of the sowers, the lines will dry them using animal power. This would and be harder to see. not be possible if inter-row widths A tracer can be made of light, varied, as is often the case when sturdy wood or bamboo and fitted .sowers line up shoulder to shoulder with hardwood or metal teeth.' The and advance across the field plant- pole used for the crossbaromust be ing the seeds. Variations as lit- of straight, uniform stock because tle as 10-15 cm would make mechani- a tapered pole is heavier on one cal maintenance of the crop impos- end and will throw the tracer off sible; animals would step on plants balance when it is pulled. Teeth and blades or cultivator tines must be long enough to pass through would sever roots each time the the crossbar and accommodate con-

134 Relationship. of parallel line-tracing to later weeding operation Line 'Tracer

120 80 60 6080 120 2m 60cm

Holes should be made at distances that correspond with recommendations for crop being planted. cl A

In the crossbar shown, teeth can be moved to make 60- and 80-cm row 3.5m widths. Forty cm width would be made by setting the teeth at 80 cm and tracing a second set of lines halfway between the original set.

136 142 siderable irregularity in the sur- point and lift the free end so it face of the field. The center is hip high (pulling position).. tooth must be long enough to pass Mark and join the two pieces so through the crossbar and the handle; they fit at this angle. it is not removeable. Other teeth Line tracing for parallel can be moved into various holes in rows has other advantages besides the crossbar. those already mentioned: The bar and handle should be It makes it easier to calculate joined so the teeth travel perpen- densities and yields, and determine fertilizer require- dicular to the ground when the mar- ments ker is used. -To'do this, fit the Drawing two sets of parallel bar with teeth and have an assis- lines perpendicular to each other provides intersects tant hold the bar on the ground in where seeds can be planted;' a working position. Then lay one later, cross-cultivation is possible for both inter-row end of the handle over the bar mid- and intra-row weeds. -Parallel rows can also. be made by planting along a stretched rope or string, or by using a mechanical seeder.

Mechanical Seeders

A mechanical seeder is a hand- or animal-drawn machine that cuts a shallow furrow in the seedbed and then deposits and covers seed. The advantage of seeders is that they Side view of handle crossbar joint drill seed at uniform depth and at showing how joint affects tooth penetration angle. regular intervals along the row,

137 143 Seed Drill or Seed Planter

Handles for holden') and guiding the drill

Wheel to press down the earth

Teeth to cover the seeds

Furrow opener Marker traces Seed box. the next row

Seed tube places 7 seed in soil

I el

- Seed planter wish inter- change able seed plates and stars for dill'erent seeds.

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

138 144 4.

reducing seed loss and ensuring Mechanical proper density. They are useful Weed Control also because at planting time,

manual labor may be involved in : In most cases, the farmer who .late soil preparation and early uses animal power wilil plow and plant weeding operations as well as more ground-than can be weeded by planting. With the help of mechan- hand. Plants are'no longer tended ical seeders farmers can achieve individually, but by the row. The desired seed densities without placingweeding operation can be accompan- strains on labor. The main drawback ied with a'weeding sweep or with a, of seeders is their relatively high cultivator. cost. Sweeps work at shallow depths, uprootidg weeds and looseding soil between row crops. They come in various widths to accommodate var-

Sweeps

oi leg -oil it! rli 500mm share Long-Winged V Sweep 350mm share 4. 4

Weeding Sweeps

- sweep for Ridging Potatoes

Source: Dineur, Op. Cit.

139 145 Weeding peanuts with a sweep. Cross-section Showing proximity of blade to .peanuts.

sous inter-row distances. Correct It builds a light bank of choice of blade and depth of work soil against the row. The soil helps shade and support ensures that pruning of crop roots roots of the plants, and also covers fertilizer distri- does not occur. Generally speak- buted at the base of the ing, a 35-cm blade (350 mm) is plants. suitable for rows spaced 60 cm It loosens soil, improving aeration and moisture reten- apart, a 50-cm blade (500 mm) for tion. rows'80 cm apart. Timing is very important. The sweep has several rum-. Weeds must be killed before they tions: compete with crops for soil nutri- It scrapes a shallow furrow' ents and water reserves. The first between rows, cutting or uprooting weeds in its path. weeding is performed as soon as weed In additon, it pushes some seedlings appear between the crops. soil to the sides, covering weed seedlings growing It is delicate work because crops between plants on the row. are young and easily knocked over if

140

146 too much soil is pushed to the sides. Two adjustments are made to concentrate blade action on weeds: Bottom depth of work is determined by height of the wheel. Depth increases as the shaft/ wheel is raised.

Wheel Adjustment

Adjust wheel so that blade undercuts weed. 9111111k

Intensity of work is determined by the position of the blade up or down in the slots at the base of the leg.

A B

141

147 Weeding /Banking Operation ttg

For early weeding (weeds at one-knocked over and soil is pushed to or two-leaf stage; crops Young): set the sides where it can cover weeds the blade in the lowest position in growing near plant stems (B). the slots. The blade will slick No horizontal regulation of under weeds, dislodging their roots; the drawchain is necessary with weeds wilt and die. In this position, sweeps because the blade& are sym- the blades will not push.soil out of metrical and have no side draft (page the furrow toward the crop (A). Weeding with a sweep can be For late weeding/light banking done by one animal if soil condi- (large or creeping weeds; crops older' tions do not create too high a trac- with stronger stems): set.the blade tion effort. In heavy, wet, or very in the highest position in the slots. weedy soils, two animals may be The blade face is then more vertical needed. In this case, the height resulting in greater contact between of the plants will determine the the blade and the soil. Weeds are type of hitch used. A doubletree

142 148 can be used if plants are very low, and fastened behind the horns (page 79). but if it hits the tops of the plants, Equine animals wearing halters or the animal's will have.to wear a bridles can usually be controlled yoke. Donkeys can be placed in a by tugging on the rein opposite yoke if the withers are protected the direction of head movement. with pads and collars (see page 85).

Cultivators Weeding Muzzle Cultivating is the process of In some instances, it is nec- scratching, mixing or stirring the essary to muzzle an animal to keep uppermost layer of earth.A culti- it from eating the crop during the vator can be used as a plow or weed- weeding operation.' A muzzle can be ing device or to break ridges and made of rope or woven rafia (palm mounds left from the previous sea- leaves). It is worn over the muzzle son. A typidal, animal-drawn

143 149

4 cultivating tool is a set of five ;,..tie casein semi-arid regioni flexible tines mounted on a tool- where crops musthe planted soon frame; duckfoot shovels or chisel after the first rains in order,to points are attached to the ends of mature. The cultivator's wide track the'tines. Smaller cultivators allows quick tillage; its shallow have three tines, while larger ones spirring action provides a seedbed may have up to 15 tines. without pulverizing soil and creat- The cultivator, with its ing the danger of erosion. Repeated capacity to carry multiple tines _cultivations, however, can lead to with sweeps of varying widths, has erosion. several important uses: Cultivators also are used for As a plow--Cultivitirig is an preparation of rice lands. The top- alternative to plowing when time or soil is stirred and later, the soil conditions do not permit use field is banked and flooded. Rice of a moldboard plow. This is often planted in 40-cm rows can-be weeded

Three- Tooth' Cultivator

4 frame clamp headstock

frame chisel point

rame Source: CEFMAT, Op. Cit.

tine.414 frame clamp plate shovel (share) time clamp /t'`

Five-Tooth Cultivator' Source: Dineur, Op. Cit.

144 150 , .

9 with a single 25-cm shovel mounted assume a vertical pitch; the culti- on the cultivator frame, or with vator will skip, catch, and veer. two shovels (a double shovel) spaced When the wheel is too low, the sho- on either side of the row. vel points will not penetrate and As a harrow--When used for the operator will have to press very harrowing, the cultivator is equip- hard on the handles. Correct trac- ped with the maximum number of tines tion is achieved when all shovels which are spaced and arranged so that run at the same depth. clods are broken and soil worked into As a leveler--The Cultivator's a finer seedbed. The operation is considerable weight allows for the performed soon after plowing, when leveling of old ridges or mounds. soil is moist and clods break apart In rain forest zones, hoe farmers easily; dry clods glance off the plant a second crop soon after the

tines. Very heavy or root-bound harvest of the-first.They weed clods catch between the tines and the field, reshape the worn ridges cause it to drag or float to the by hand, and then plant a new surface. crop in the stubble of the old. A As a weeding device-- Cultiva- cultivator can break up the ridges tors can be used as general purpose and stir in organic material simul- weeding tools. Though new antrac taneously; when the new crop is farmers may find this tool expensive established, the cultivator can per- and complicated, its versatility is form a combined weeding/ridging an important feature. Agents should operation. be able to demonstrate its potential. In drier areas, mounds and Cultivators work at fairly ridges can be broken directly after shallow depths with a limited range the harvest or at the beginning of of adjustment. If the wheel is too the new season. In the latter high (too close to the beam), the case, the soil may be loose enough front tines work at a greater depth after cultivating to permit effec- than the rear shovels which will tive pre-plant ridging. 'Otherwise,

145 151 1.., Ridger with Adjustable Wings

leg (standard)

adjustable right wing

,/1--- adjustable left wing

O -adjustment slot

ridging body

reversible point Source: Dineur, Op. Cit.

a moldboard plow and harrow would weeding/ridging operation required be used to level the field, crops for most grain crops. Like the would be planted on a flat seedbed moldboard bottom, it is mounted on and ridging would be done later, a special leg that bolts to the after the plants were growing. toolframe.- A ridger cuts a furrow between row crops, uprooting weeds and throw- Ridging ing soil right and left against the crops. The soil buries weeds grow- A ridger is a wedge-shaped ing at the base of the crop,'amd at shovel that throws equal amounts of the same time stabilizes the crop dirt to the right and left of a cen- stem and helps it, support the matur- tral furrow. It is a popular tool ing fruit. It also covers organic because it is easy to use and or chemical fertilizer destributed because it quickly accomplishes the along the row.

152146 Ridging can be performed any the drawchain. Width of operation time after the crop is established is controlled by position of the and won't be knocked over by the adjustable wings in relation to , soil pushed against it. In many the ridger body; as the wings are instances, early weeding is done lowered, soil is pushed further to with a sweep or cultivator and the side. later weeding/ridging operations No horizontal regulation is done with a ridger. Once the crop needed. has developed a leafy canopy, the shade greatly reduces weed compe- Ridging tition and, further weeding becomes Tall Crops unnecessary. Adjustments: lo increase the In corn and sorghum that has amount of soil thrown, raise the grown too tall to allow clearance shaft/wheel assembly or lengthen of a yoke, a single strong animal

Ridging an Established Crop

147 153 can be used to make ridges. The animal is harnessed in a collar or breastband, traces are fastened to a singletree, and the singletree hitched to a ridger.

Primary Tillage With a Ridger

The ridger may be used for primary tillage where the land was plowed the preceding season. Farm-

Single Animal Ridging Maturing Corn ers make ridges directly in unplowed soil and then plant. The

148

154 'operation is less time-consuming buried as the ridge is formed. .The than plowing with a moldboard, but procedure is called pre-plant band- it has the disadvantage of burying ing. The ridger can also be used hard soil under a relatively nar- to cover fertilizer applied to the row crown of loose soil.The hard top of an already-formed ridge. soil has less water storage potential than plowed soil; also, it Smaller interferes with fast rooting. Ridges

Ridging and Small, closely-spaced ridges Fertilizer can be made by removing the ridger wings and using/the ridger body Chemical fertilizer can be alone. Used this way, the ridger spread along evenly-spaced trace is an effective tool for banking lines made on a flat field and then soil against peanut plants. A sin-

Pre-Plant Banding

4-- fertilizer

Source: Dineur. Op. Cit.

149

155 Banking Peanuts since once the ground hardens, the stems holding the pods become brittle. They break when the soil is loosened and many peanuts are lost. In practice, the ground is often hard or hardening by harvest time. As a result it is extremely important to adjust the lifter.correctly. The operator sets it to slice under the root zone. The entire horizon of soil containing the peanuts is Illifted". As it is lifted, the soil is broken apart by the leg arm of the sweep. The peanuts will remain attached to the gle animal usually can supply the plant, but will have been freed from power needed for this operation. the hardening crust of earth. 4 Afterwards, it is easy for workers to pull out the plants and pile them, Lifting Peanuts with upside-down, so the pods dry in the a Sweep sun. A 30-40-cm V-sweep is well Because peanuts grow under- suited for the work; it is long ground, a carefully adjusted weeding enough to cut under the plant and sweep can be an effective harvesting stiff enough to remain level. device. A sweep adjusted to uproot Longer blades are more flexible, and peanutsis craled a lifter. In in hard soil, set the blade in a theory,peanuts are planted early slicing rather than a pushing posi- enough so that the soil still has tion by fixing it in the lowest humidity when the crop is harvested, part-of the slot on the leg (page 141).

150 156 Depth of work increases as Lifting Peanuts with a Sweep the shaft/wheel assembly is raised and decreases as it is lowered. The blade must cut below the peanuts, but not so deep that it creates extra work for the team. Depth varies according to the variety of peanut and soil conditions, but gener- - ally falls within an 8-12 cm range. The nose of the blade should pass 2-3 cm under the plant; establish the proper depth of the cut by trial

and error. To find out if the cut Nose of blade cuts just underneath is too shallow, use whoe to dig entire plant. under an area where the lifter has been used. If there are peanuts, portions of the field where the the cut was too shallow, and the ground is raised or contains a high wheel mist be raised. clay content. No horizontal regulation is The wedge-shaped three-animal necessary. hitch should be used if donkeys do A strong team is needed for 'the lifting. If four donkeys are lifting because the work is at a used, the strongest pair is put in deep level and the ground may be the back. hard. When the lifting is done If the soil is not too hard, with oxen, the standard plow yoke a cultivator can be used. The is used. If the longer weeding teeth are arranged in a tight wedge yoke is used, the team veers and the wheel is set close to the when the blade hits a very hard beam. The method is useful where pocket of earth. This occurs peanuts have been sown on tradi- toward the top of hills and in tional wide ridges, since these

153. 157 ridges tend to be soft underneath and break apart easily. Where the crust is very hard, the flexible quality of the tines makes penetration difficult; once below the crust, the ends of the teeth (shovels) catch in hard pockets, jump, and drive the machine upward, making cutting depth difficult to maintain.

152

158 0

8. Economic and Tedmical Assistance

Farm planning assistance, ized support. equipment options, and financial help are basic elements of many animal traction programs. The programs are designed so farmers can choose Farm Planning a combination of animals and equipment that will meet their individual Assistance needs. The combination is called .a technical package. It includes animals and, materials, as well as the Farmers thinking about using advice, information, and instruction animal traction probably have con- of extension agents. sidered its advantages already. Of Increasingly, the approach of 'equal importance is an understand- extension services is to offer a num- ing of how animal traction will ber of standard technical packages affect the overall farm operation. which allow agents to accommodate This is where an animal traction individual needs and preferences instructor can be especially help- and at the same time supply growing ful. numbers of farmers with basic organ- Instructors should visit the

153 159 fields which the farmer intends to (clearing), planting, and harvesting, plant during the forthcoming season, and decreases the amount needed for and the fields left fallow. Only primary tillage and weeding. Other after understanding the existing points concerning labor include: pattern of land and labor use, and Traditional fields can be how the farmer calculates yearly plowed before laborers hoe them into the mounds or needs, can an advisor begin to see ridges where crops will be where and if animal traction can be planted. The labor saved in this operation can be used used to advantage. to plant additional lands plowed with the animals. Understanding how and why a In mid-season, laborers might farmer uses traditional cropping be busy weeding traditional methods takes both time and great fields and,unable to help weed fields plowed by animal effort. This effort is required in traction. ,These fields, order to match plans and needs; therefore,could be arranged so the fariser and the draft quick judgments concerning the use team can yeed them alone. If of animal traction easily can lead crops ard grown in regularly- spaced rows, the animals will to failure. be able to walk between them After studying each situation, and pull a weeding device. This concept can be demon- an instructor can offer advice con- strated by laying a weeding cerning the purchase of equipment, yoke across four lines or ridges representing a planted how much must be produced to cover field. The farmers can then the cost of expanded operations, see where the animals will whether donkeys would be more walk and where the weeding plow goes. The line tracer, efficient than bulls, and how the used to mark the rows befoid seeding, can also be demon- use of animals would affect the strated. distribution of labor. It is Additional lands planted would extremely important, for example, not exceed the maximum number of/hectares the family labor to point out that animal traction force could effectively har- increases the amount of manual vest. -1a,r needed for land preparation

154

1 6 0 'Equipment ted with a mounding blade, a ridging blade, and a weeding blade is especial- Options ly designed for options. In programs where toolframes are used or avail- ..able, agents can help farmers understand the versatility of ani- A number of factors must be mal-drawn equipment by showing considered when choosing equipment: them toolframe options -- moldboard type of crop, area cropped, climate plows, ridgers, weeders, cultivators, and soil conditions, availability and peanut lifters. and type of animal power, potential A one-piece, one-purpose tool of local artisans to repair and appears less complicated and less manufacture parts. Equipment must expensive to beginning farmers, but be durable, affordable, and easy to can cause them trouble later. A transport, use and maintain. non-adaptable moldboard plow lets Many farmers have recognized them turn many hectares of land, the economy and versatility of the but unless they hire extra laboiers multi-purpose breakdown toolframe to ridge and/or weed it, the crops and purchase it as the core of an suffer and the yield is poor. They equipment package which includes may solve the problem later, by pur- a number of standard attachments. chasing a ridging plow or a culti- Frame-based equipment is popular vator, or they may decide that ani- because it is easy to move and mal traction is too expensive and can be fitted with an assortment simply return to traditional of relatiVely inexpensive blades methods. that achieve various tillage objec- Ultimately, it is less expen- tives. sive to purchase a multi-purpose For many African farmers, toolframe with attachments than to the concept of a toolframe is not buy a set of single-purpose tools, new. A handhoe which can be fit- unless those specialty tools are

155 161 locally made and are cheaper than an that artisans can produce replace- imported toolframe. Although tool- ment parts for local or imported frames look complicated, attachments equipment. Individuals, equipment are easily changed. centers, or farmer associations can purchase, stock, or sell them Locally-Made as needed. Equipment Skilled artisans also can supply bustom -made equipment such Many of the tools used by far- as yokes, harness, sweeps, and mers can be manufactured locally. sleds. Some artisans work at Yokes, harnesses, harrows, line tra- regional or national manufacturing cers, plowshares, ridger points, centers, where wagons, toolframes, and many to frame parts can be made and other types of equipment are by villag094 artisans who are given a produced on a large scale. model, prototype, or picture to work from. The equipment is often less expensive than imported goods, and it is more readily supplied to far- Credit for mers. In some programs, instructors Equipment encourage village blacksmithi, car- penters and leathermakers to attend clinics or workshops where they can Without 'financial help, many learn additional skills and tech- traditiqffal. farmers would not be niques. Credit to purchase new able or willing to buy animals and tools or.materials may be extended animal-drawn equipment.Those with to those who attend. few or no cash reserves could not Quality control and tool risk precious food or animal stores standardization should be major for the potential benefits of new objectives of training programs, so methods. Those who could afford

156 162 the materials might consider it too this support, a return to tradi- great a risk if the program were tional methods is the only logical new and the quality of related tech- and economical choice. nical assistance unproven. As The experience gained in past result, many programs offer farmers projects has led to the development credit or loans. of credit systems based on low-inter- Two approaches have been used est, medium -term loans. The project to extend credit to farmers; either may be financed through grants or the animal traction instructor and/ national banks, or it may operate or local extension agent handles with its own earnings. 0 applications, contracts, equipment In some credit systems, the distribution, and payments, or the farmer pays 5-10 percent simple agricultural supervisor or a special interest on a 2-5 year loan. The credit supervisor handles these func-'loan usually is reimbursed in a ser- tions. Administrators increasingly, ies of equal or increasing annual fa4Or the second apprdach because payments which may begin after a instructional agents feel that one-year grace period. Rebates ma.)-._ their image and effectiveness as be offered to farmers who make full, teachers is hampered when they are early repayment. Because cash down forced to collect loan payments. payments are thought to discourage Whatevir the arrangement, new farmers, most projects accept the ability and willingness to repay the purchase of animals, yoke and a'loan is based on the ability and chain, or harness equipment as ample willingness of extension services sign of commitment. to deliver proper tools, skills, As part of the loan agreement, and support. From the farmer's farmers may be required to do some viewpoint, the continued presence, or all of the following: interest and guidance of a qualified Produce a minimum of one or two hectares of a government- field instructor is a prerequisite marketed cash crop and concur for repayment of the loan; without with extension-recommended

157 163 cropping procedures, including use of hybrid seed, fertilizer, Credit for pesticides, planting and weeding procedures. Animals Comply with an animal health care plan including construction of shelter, designation. of compost area, prepayment In some areas animals may be. of one-year vaccination and' , available only through projeCt-run' deworming treatments, growing and storing forage for dry- holding stations or permanent season feeding, and obtaining ranches. Animals are bred, castrated, animal insurance or maintaining substitute animals. raised, and trained by project person- . Participate in an extension- nel, and then sold to farmers. Or organized clinic on equipment animals may simply be imported, assembly, adjustment, repair, and maintenance. medically screened, and then sold, . Agree to pay penalty on over- either by themselves orips part of a due payments, or in case of larger-animal/equipmentechnical foreclosures and repossession, to pay outstanding debt and/or package. depreciation costs. Farmers requesting loans for Become a member of a group or the puichase of animals may have to association of animal traction farmers which stocks supplies, -meet the following preconditions: organizes instruction, and maintains a common fund. In Provide an animal care plan some cases, the group is char - (see abovA).

- tered. and lends money to memo,. Purchase a "Healthfard". bers who are unable to make ' This'is.a prepaid form or annual payments. ticket which lists both scheduled and actual treatments (Examples of equipment title or checks performed by veter- and payment records are found inary personnel. The card in Appendix E.) is purchased each:year; it may be a standard feature of aft. animal insurance policy. Enroll in an animal' insurance policy program. An increas-

158 164 ingly popahar idea wi0 pro- conditions of the loan. grammers and farmers alike, Write the contract. The the-policy covers credit- t, farmer, credit officer (or bought animals lost to dis- extension agent acting as cre- ease or accident. Premiums dit officer) and national pro- are paid annually. ject organization each receive Become a member of, an ani- a copy. The animal traction mal clinic. In some programs, agent may serve as witness to farmer associations purchase signing of the contract. and stock veterinary supplies to ensure against national Visit farms and ensure that preconditions of the loan are shortages; animals are then met and maintained through the grouped and treated by life of the contract; that is, trained veterinary personnel. Vaccination days, or organ- that animal shelter, vaccination schedule, equipment care, izational meetings of the and the clinic and meeting association, may be used as attendance requirements are forums where preventive medicine, disease control, or ani- met. mal nutrition are discussed. Collect annual payments on loan and insurance premiums; write yearly report/summary. Handle all defaults, foreclosures, repossessions, defer- rals, rebates, and late pay-

Procedures . vents. and Controls In addition, the officers may order and deliver equipment; help' 'organize training clinics for farm- The credit officers or super- ers, artisans, agricultural and visors cooperating with animal trac- veterinary personneWand establish tion personnel may perform these credit for animal traction farmer duties: associations.Associations with com- Idfintify credit candidates mon funds may be awarded credit to and fill out application forms. buy material stocks; in some cases The application includes information on the size and status the size of the common fund may of the farmer's operation and determine the amount or terms of his or her ability to meet pre-

159 165 individual credit extended to mem- bers. Credit officers may report or review the effectiveness of agents or agencies supporting bor- rowers. .

When Credit is Not Available

Animal traction can be econ- omically feasible even.when credit is not available. For example, some farmers may be able to use their equipment to do contract work. A person who owns just a moldboard plow or a ridgeplow can use it to maintain rather than expand present operations, and then rent out services to,other farmers. A farmer who canpurchase a locally-mide wagon can begin to pay for other equipment by,selling transportation. Such possibilities can and should be pointed out to people with limited interest in animal traction' and to those who do not quaktfy for a.credit package, but who can afford a wagon or a simple plow.

166

160 9. Animal Traction Extension

Many countries -have agricul- be satisfied with their current agri- tural extension services of some cultural production level and feel kind in which locally-based exten- no need to increase production. sion workers or agents visit far- Social or cultural practices and mers and advise them on new plant traditions may dictate the types and species, pests and diseases of number of crops grown, the cropping crops, and the use of fertilizers method, and even when crops are and pesticides. Extension agents planted or harvested. Farmers using understand the need for farmers to traditional toola and techniques for produce more for the national econ- many years know how much work is omy and are expected to help farm- required for a certain harvest. ers increase their production to Changing to animal traction or to a meet both the family's needs and new type of crop involves taking a those of the national government. risk; farmers may, as a result, be People who work small farms, reluctant to try it. however, may not view changes in Extension agents provide the methods of production as beneficial, support necessary to encourage the for several reasons. Farmers whose farmers and reduce risks of failure.' needs have been met traditionally from improper use of new systems. at the family and village level may Extension programs can provide edu-

161 P7 cation and equipment, and health care the village extension agent who for the animals. The success of an becomes the farmer's key resource on animal traction program may depend animal traction, it is often a spe- upon the availability of these ser- cial instructor who has the job of vices to farmers. popularizing the method in a given region. The instructor may be an Extension outside technical aseietant such as a Volunteer, missionary or pri- Education vate consultant, or a trained agent of the country's agricultural Extension education is a way service. of supplying new ideas, information, . and technology to people who are Animal Traction: far from schools or who have no time Instructors to attend classes. The teacher, or extension agent, is a trained spe- The animal traction instruc- cialist who lives in a small town or tor shows farmers the advantages of village and circulates to outlying the method and helps them acquire communities where people have shown animals, tools and practical skills. interest in improving traditional Instructors also help local arti- skills or developing new ones. sans learn to make and repair ani- The extension agent's class- mal traction equipment; room may be a cornfield, forge, fam- The instructor must ensure ily kitchen, shop or marketplace, that farmers will continue to or dispensary; the student is usu- receive local support after that ally a successful, long practicing agent has left the village.This is professional farmer; the method of accomplished by transferring instruc- teaching is informal discussion, tional skills to local extension demonstration, and application. personnel. In the field, animal While it is ultimately traction specialists transfer

1 skills to veteran agents at work- village of residence is selected for shops and clinics, during coordi- its accessibility by road and for nated farm visits and often through its staff of supportive government informal contact. In some instan,- personnel, such as medics, veteri- ees, the instructor may be assigned nary nurses, agricultural supervisors a counterpart who is his or her assis-or general agents, primary school tant, and finally, replacement. This teachers, or other administrative assistant may be. the local general staff. Sometimes called a pilot agent, the agent supervisor, or a village or village center, it is a member of a cadre of national ani- natural location for supply distri- mal traction instructors. In older, bution, demonstrations and meetings well-developed programs, the vil- because it is a hub of traditional lage agent has become the "special- market and social activities.Thus ist". travel between the central village and those surrounding it is part of the normal, established pattern of Instructional Settings the villagers. Instructors may'be given sets of demonstration equipment and funds Animal traction instructors to buy and maintain teams of draft may be assigned to work at a animals. They live and work in the regional center, where group instruc- village and visit the surrounding tion is the central activity, or in areas on a regular basis. As farmer a centrally located village, where interest grows, instructors may field visits constitute the bulk of -become involved in systems of local the work. and national support, such as: When instructors are assigned farmer associations or cooperatives which supply parts, to a central village, they may be equipment and veterinary sup- expected to visit and work plies. in the surrounding villages. The workshops where artisans build

163 169 and repair animal traction Assignments may vary because farm- equipment. er reaction to instructional settings training sessions for agricul- varies. Some farmers will not use tural and veterinary personnel who already work or intend to technologythat requires them to work with farmers who use ani- seek training, equipment or services mal traction. outside the village. Farmers also Regional centers are usually may object to being organized in non- located on the outskirts of a town traditional groups while at the cen- or area adminstrative center and Farmers who are willing to try serve a broad geographical zone. ter. These stations are often composed new methods expect the attention and interest of an instructor who is of residences, barns, workshops, nearby and who has time to listen, storehouses, trucks and a staff of visit fields and give personal assis- animal trainers, herders, fieldwork- tance. ers and extension service trainees. These centers may serve as administrative points for pilot villages. Guidelines for Field Visits The instructor is responsible. for coordinating a number of programs, including courses for both farmers and agents in animal husbandry and The instructor must be present training, and equipment maintenance. the first time farmers use a new There might also be programs in tool, and until they show that they stock breeding, artisan training, can adjust and handle it. In prac- and crop trials. During the crop- tie, this means finding out when ping season, group training is sus- and where the farmer is going to pended and the instructor makes regu-. plant each crop, recommending which lar visits to villages, fields, and fields can be plowed, maintained, workshops where techniques are being and harvested with draft equipment, put into practice. and being there when it is done. Agents should listen and

164 1"O observe, respect standards of social initial and follow-up visits for courtesy and obligation, and explain each farmer. and demonstrate useful techniques in A sample visitation and instruc- order to earn the confidence and tion form is given in-Appendix E. trust of farmers. Although relatively short Cooperation assignments make it difficult, the Between Extension instructor must be able to speak the Agents and farmer's language. This effort, how- Instructors ever limited, is a sign of interest and commitment. Lt allows the Many of the small villages instructor to establish the social within the animal traction instruc- relationship which often precedes a tor's reach are served by a resident business relationship. general agricultural extension agent A fundamental approach to who knows each farmer and who visits instruction requires the agent to those who are using techniques pro- adjust the tool and demonstrate the moted by the national extension technique before the fame- begins. organization. The village agent's Until the farmer gets the feel of knowledge of local language, customs, the tool--sees what it does, and and existing farm practice makes him/ what it is supposed to do--he or her 4 valuable colleague and she cannot be expected to understand ...tsource for the animal traction how an adjustment affects the per- instructor. The agent's knowledge formance of that tool. This learn- of individual farmers' abilities and ing process and the fact that a interests makes him/her a natural, given tool, used under different con- informal counterpart. , ditions (soil; power of animals) Working with village agents by must be custom-adjusted, make it accompanying them on their rota- obvious and critical that the tional field visits is the easiest instructor establish a program of yet most frequently overlooked

165 1.71 method of reaching the farmer. The fined official relationships, con- agent is often in the field or flicting work schedules, cultural spends the night or several days at and even occupational differences a family farm or village. Field are cited as causes of the problem. visits should be arranged before- The fact remains, however, that hand at the monthly meeting of the instructors who spend all of their agricultural supervisor, at a market, time with farmers not only deprive or by leaving messages. themselves of the valuable experi- It is importAut to visit both ence of the extension agent, they

traditional and agent-supervised ° also deprive the agent of valuable fields. The latter may be grouped animal traction skills. Veteran into sections or "blocksTM, where the agents who ignore newer methods same crop (usually a cash or hybrid because it means more study 'or work variety) is sown by individual fami- or exposure to/the authority of an lies. Agents want intructors to outsider are soon unable to supply meet these farmers because they have farmers with the information they already shown interest in new tech- need. nology. The more traditional far- The instructor can take sev-

mers may be harder to visit. Their,. eral steps to expose village agents fields may be widely scattered, they to animal traction and prepare them may have shown little interest in to assume responsibility:

4 new crops and techniques, and agents Express interest and partici- patein meetings held by the may not have had the time or inter- agent supervisor. Because est to visit them. Meeting these animal traction is part of a growing package of technology farmers is often a matter of instruc- offered to the farmer through tor initiative. extension services, instructors who are isolated from the The tendency of instructors information and problems dis- and extension agents to work inde- cussed at these meetings cannot do their jobs. Meetings pendently of each other has been usually are held monthly, or observed in many projects. Unde- as necessary, and all village

166 172 agents within the supervisor's same day, it is extremely area must attend. important to have animals and Coordinate field visits. equipment ready to go and to Touring fields with the local keep demonstrations short and agent is a good way of meeting to.the point. farmers and learning about Encourage agents to.use animal their technlques. Once far- traction. Many agents hire mers have begun to use animal laborers and farm several hec- traction, the instructor tares of crops for personal should continue to work consumption and sale, or as through and with the local part of a subsidized trial or agent. Agents should be demonstration program. The encouraged to assist in demon- animal traction agent can strations and field instruc- ecnourage the agricultural tion; they should be notified agent to buy or rent a draft well in advance and briefed on unit, or obtain a program- the operation to be performed. funded demonstration unit to It is helpful for the instruc- effect this operation. tor to chart the skills of each agent; efforts should be made to expose him or her to all techniques. For anexam- ple of a chart used in the Demonstrations field, see Appendix E. Organize clinics/workshops. In some areas where animal Agent supervisors and area traction is being introduced for the supervisors are often recep- tive to the idea of organiz- first time, the instructor may pro- ing demonstrations for vil- mote interest by demonstrating tech- lage agents. During the off- season it is easy to arrange niques in the fields which belong to two- or three-day sessions the village agent, school, youth in animal training and/or equipment maintenance. When club, or farmer association. the cropping season begins Open demonstrations are gener- and ground is cultivable, short demonstrations can be ally well received, but must be scheduled on market or meet- scheduled when the ground is worka- ing days when all or some agents will be in the same ble--the time when farmers are bUs- village. Because they will iest and may not attend. Individual have come from considerable distances and must return the demonstrations are effective but

173 167 inadvisable if they involve labor While instructors could plow, output that may be seen as a gift, weed and transport their crops alone, or if they indicate favoritism. The or with the aid of a counterpart or most effective demonstration is an village agent, they could not clear, indirect one. plant, or harvest without hired help. One way to provide an indirect These operatic6 require intensive demonstration is to maintain a small use of hand labor and traditional field or fields using a combination farmers depend on spouses, children, of traditional and animal-powered and often hired labor to accomplish labor. One problem with instructor- them. By hiring labor, instructors

. maintained fields, however, is that not only generate interest in their some farmers may attribute success work, they demonstrate that what to the instructor's special they teach is an integrated system, resources or abilieies. combining manual and animal-powered Ideally, the land under cul- techniques. tivation should be located along The advantage of practicing roads or major paths where farmers agriculture in the village is two- can see the work being done.Per- fold: it lets farmers see what mission to use the land is given by agents are talking about, and it the'village chief, mayor, or what- lets the agents see what the farmers ever person or council controls are talking about. By personally land use. Compensation for use of using established local technology, the land may be given in the form the agents begin to see the impact of labor (the instructor helps the of proposed changes from the far- landowner plow, weed or transport mers' viewpoint. The agents become some of his crops), or in cash or sensitive to the limitations and credit supplied by the project. potential of tools, particularly The field could be located in the the ones they are selling. All too block managed by the local exten- often, equipment tested at agricul- sion agent. tural stations fails to perform in

168 1 74 the less-than-optimal conditions cial or instructional assistance of the field. Techniques recom- through government channels. mended for their cash-producing By cooperating with local potential may upset delicate labor teachers, club officers, agricul- balances that farmers have learned tural personnel, and regional youth over centuries to respect. club supervisors, the animal trac- Once farmers have begun to tion instructor can familiarize show interest and touse animal these groups with draft agriculture. traction, instructors should con- This cooperation might include: centrate'all of their efforts in A visit to the group's field. the fields. The success or failure A pre-arranged visit to a classroom or club meeting. of these first few animal traction An invitation extended to the farmers often determines the extent group to attend a demonstra- of subsequent interest.At this tion and participate in "hands-on" activity. The point, the instructor may want to demonstration could.be in the loan his or her animals and equip- instructor's field, or in the school or club field. The ment to a school or youth club, to student or farmer is allowed a village cooperative or farmer to lead or drive the team, or handle equipment. Beginners association, or to a local extension find it easy to harrow. agent. Labor-sharing. The group helps the instructor plant or harvest his or her fields (man- Schools and ual assistance); the instruc- Youth Clubs tor, in turn, helps plow, weed, or harvest the group's fields (animal assistance). Many village primary schools

and youth clubs grow cash crops and Invitational Use the profits to buy room furnish- Competitions ings, sports equipment, musical instruments, or other supplies. The use of animal traction has They often get organizational, finan- been successfully promoted by hold-

169 175 ing competitions among farmers. Ideally, the event should be scheduled toward the end of For example, in Benin from 1970 to the cropping season (between 1976, competitions were organized weeding and harvesting opera- by cooperating local extension per- tions) when farmers have time to attend. Though pre- sonnel and funded by a joint United parations may be made through ,Nations-Beninese Agricultural Minis- the local animal traction farmer association or by farm- try animal traction project. ers in the instructor's vil- Arrangements were made with the help lage, all animal traction farmers within the area cov- of local animal traction farmer asso- ered by the instructor should be invited. Planning should ciations. The focal point of each begin 6-8 months beforehand. competition was an hour-long contest The event should fall on a where farmers used their oxen to market day. The event should be public. plow adjacent strips of cleared land. In Benin, it took the appear- Points were awarded for depth and ance of a festival. The vil- regularity of plowing, obedience of lage chief, family heads, and market vendors were noti- animals, appearance of animals, and fied well in advance. Inter- speed of work. Prizes were given est spread primarily through word of mouth. Farmers, vil- to all contestants; a typical first lege agents, instructors, and, prize was a sum equal to the yearly supervisors from distant areas came to watch; the event paymen't on an equipment/credit pack-I became an occasion for numerous social activities. age. Other prizes included replace- It should be organized through ment ploughshares, traction'ehains, established channels; partici salt licks, and tubes for cart pation and cooperation of agricultural personnel--national, tires. No entry fees were required. regional, local, and animal All bulls were given free prevent- traction--is one of the goals of the competition. Invita- ive treatment for trypanosomiasis. tionsshould be extended to d. Animal traction agents who appropriate officials and arrangements made for their would like to try such a demonstra- comfort. tion should keep these poilts in The competition should he pre- mind: -.ceded by a morning-long veter- ,

.170 176 ' J inary clinic. A team of regional veterinary medics could treat the animals, assess their health and physi- 4 cal appearance, discuss feeding requirements, disease control and prevention, and organize schedules for prophylactic treatment. The field should be cleared by the local animal traction association or by participa- ting farmers, then divided and staked into plow strips 50 to long and 12 m wide, mea- sured by the village agent. After the contest, the field could be used to grow a seed crop of forage grass for par- ticipating farmers. Judges should be agricultural agents, supervisors, and veterinary medics from outside the immediate area. A project-funded, instructor- hosted reception should be given after the competition for all participants, village officials, visiting officials, and organizers.

171

6 -4

Appendix A Animal Power

The formulas below can be used The first two formulas (below, A and to approximate the size of the hitch B) are used to calculate the weight (animal or animals) which will sup- of animals that will be used alone; ply the desired amount of power. the other formulas allow for the "W" is the weight of a single ani- losses of efficiency that result mal, "d" is the draft requirement when multiple hitches are used. (this is taken from the chart on Assuming a farmer needed a page 17),;and"c"'is the animal's draft unit that supplied a total of ,power coefficient. For a bull, "c" 57 kg of force, the following calcu-

is 8 or 1/8 of 1.11; for a donkey, lations would be made.

it is five (or 1/5 of W). If animals W= 57 x 8 or W = 246 will be working new or hilly land, 1.85 or will be harnessed in yokes rather or, each of two bulls would have to than collars or breastbands, coefi- weigh 246 kg. (Note that, used ficients should be increased to 9 or alone, this animal will supply 1/8 10 for bulls, 6 or 7 for donkeys. x 246, or 30.8 kg draft. In a

A One bull W = 1/8 d B One donkey W = 1/5 d C Pair of animals W = dc/1.85 Team of three animals W = dc/2.55 E Team of four (tandem pairs) W = dc/3.12 F Team of fiVe W = dc/3.5 G Team of six W dc/3.78

173 178 team of two, it is 7.5% less effi- afternoon shifts. If the dOneys in cient, supplying Only 28.5 kg'-' the area were of a small breed, it draft - -or half of the 57 kg needed. might take three or four animals to deliver the necessary power: w 57 x 5 or W = 154 1.85 W ft 57 x 5 or W 11*2 If the farmer could not buy 2.55 or obtain a pair of bulls, the don- or each of three donkeys would have , keys might be a practical alterna- to weight approximately 112 kg. Or tive. However, donkeys work only W = 57 x 5 or W = 91 3-4 hours per day, so the farmer 3.12 might consider buying two pair and or each of four donkeys would have working them in separate morning/. to weight about 90 kg if the draft requirment of 57 kg were to be met.

4o.

174

a 179 ..t

Appendix B Animal Nutrition

Several systems have been designates one (1) forage unit. devised which make it possible to express the nutritional requirements -of work animals and formulate diets based on corresponding nutrient and Energy Needs energy values of feeds.A simple and Animapractical method used in many parts Bovine ls of Africa is based on a standard called the forage unit.A forage unit is de -fined as the net energy Oxen are ruminant. This means value of one kilogram of barley. It that they swallow large amounts of is the energy. contained in the pro- unchewed food as they graze and eat. teins, carbohydrates (starches), Later, they regurgitate this feed and fats which compose the barley in small portions. (boluses) and and which the animal does not lose chews it thoroughly. The micro-organ- through elimination of feces, urine isms (bacteria and protozoa) in the or gas, or in heat (work) produced animal's forestomach (rumen) break by digestive organs. Net energy down fibrous feeds (including the is defined as the energy available cellulose) and use them as a substance for maintenance of body functions for growth. These micro-organisms --heartbeat, respiration, heat, and their products then become diges- motion. Energy intake above main- tible nutrients for the animal. For tenance level is stored as fat or this reason, ruminants can derive used for production or work. The many nutrients from roughage whereas abbreviation U.F.(Unite" Fourragere) other animals cannot.

175

ISO Deficiencies in energy, pro- kg of dry barley grain--or 2.6 U.F.--to sustain its weight. tein, phosphorous and Vitamin A are The bull's maintenance require- likely to occur in animals grazing ment is expressed as E = 2.6 U.F. ( CEEMAT, Manuel de Cul- forage on arid land. If the land ture avec Traction Animale, has very poor forage,, the animals 1971). may use up more energy obt.iining 4, The size of the animal affects feed than they can get from feed. its maintenance requirement:

This creates a net loss of energy Daily. maintenance requirements of to the animal. An energy supplement oxen (idle). (Taken from two tests; figures are must be given daily to the animal, approximate values.) but protein, phosphorus and Vitamin Weight of 'Maintenance A supplemehts may be effective if Animal Requirement ("E") provided only once a week. Daily Kg_ U.F. hand feeding of a supplement is the 100 1.2 best method for updating tilt. amount 150 1.6 200 2.0 consumed. 250 2.3-2.5 The following energy require- 300 2.6 350 2:9 ments for ruminant draft animals 400 3.2 have been established at agricultur- 450 3.5 500 3.8 al research centers in Africa:

The total daily energy require- Bovine Animals ment is the sum of the matnte- nance ration--the food energy needed to keep a non-working animal from gaining or losing The maintenance energy require- weight--and a quantity which ment--the amount of feed ener can be called the work ration. gy needed to keep a non-working CEEMAT suggests that for an animal from, gaining orlosing oxen doing light work, the represented as "En. total energy required is "E" Tests show that a 300-kg idle (maintenance) + 1/2 E. This bull needs the equivalent of can be easily expressed as T = the energy contained in 2.6 3/2 E. CEEMAT further suggests

176

181 for oxen doing medium work T = 2 E, and for heavy work T = 5/2 Energy Needs: E. Using this information in con- Equine Animals junction with tables which give the Horses, donkeys, and mules energy values of various feeds, the are non-ruminant animals. They do farmer and/or extension person can not store food and later chew it, formulate or "compound" a ration of as oxen do. In addition to their roughages and concentrates which molars, they have a set of upper can be expressed as a specific num- and lower front teeth suitable for ber of forage units. For example, grinding roughages. (Bovines have if a 300-kg ox is going to be used no upper front teeth: they pull the for plowing (heavy work), it needs grass loose, swallow it, and later about 6.5 U.F. = 5/2 E; or T = bring it up and chew it with their 2:6 x 5/2= 6.5) to maintain its rear molars.)With equines, diges-

,, weight. Later in the season, when tion beginein the mouth, continues lighter weeding and cultivating in the stomach, and is completed by operations are performed, the diet various intestinal organs. would be reduced to about 5 forage Equine animals must be fed units (2.6 x 2). If the animal with respect to their particular were used for occasional cart work, digestive functions and abilities.

as 'might be the case during harvest Where an ox can be fed its entire . operations, or if it were being ration at the end of the day, a trained, the energy requirement working horse, because of its smal- would range between 3 and 4 units ler stomach and faster rate of meta- (light work). bolism, should be given its feed in small quantities. This facilitates complete, regular digestion of nutrients and ensures that the animal will be comfortable when working.

177 82 a

A common plan is to feed the grain Working horse: 5.0 U.B. per day (Assume 4-5 hrs. pulling (concentrate) ration in three equal cultivator, medium soil.)* parts, morning, noon, and night; Idle donkey: 1.5 U.F. per day the roughage ration 1/2-3/4 at (Assume 100-kg donkey.) night; the remainder being given in Light work donkey: 2.5 U.F. pqr day the morning and at noon. (Assume 3 hrs., cultivator, light soil.) Body weight being equal,

= Continuous work horses have somewhat higher mainte- donkey: 4.0 U.F. per day nance energy needs than oxen (Assume 5 hrs.., cultivator, light-medium soil.) because they are naturally more aptly°. Their activity is related Unfortunately, very little data is to their more nervous disposition available on the value of feeds as and higher rate of metabolism (rate they apply to equine animals in the of using digested nutrients to tropics. Thus it is necessary to build and repair body tissue and to use the tables adapted for bovines produce heat and work). But horses when formulating diets. Experience can store more energy in their mus- indicates that the values are gen- cles than oxen and this explains erally applicable with the excep- their ability to produce greater tion of straws. Bacteria in the bursts of power and work at a fas- ruminant'sstol6chenables it to ter rate. digest straw'

Idle horse: , 2.5 U.F. per day (Assume 250-kg horse.)

178

183 Nutrient Needs ledge of the classes of feeds and of Draft Animals: their nutritional composition. Protein, Minerals, The protein and mineral needs of draft animals are summarized in Vitamins the table below. While nutrition lists have shown that these needs- - with the exception of salt, which is It can be assumed, generally, lost in sweat--do not increase as that a ration formulated from high- the animal performs more work, ser- quality pasture grasses and grains ious problems can result from defi- will supply, in addition to an ani- ciencies.Without protein, the mal's energy needs, the proteins, body cannot renew cells that form vitamins, and minerals necessary muscles and other tissues. Miner- for overall health. However, im- als are important in the growth and balances can result from seasonal maintenance of skeletal structure unavail bility of feeds or condi- as well as in metabolic and diges- tions which /Affect the quality of tive function. Calcium and phosphor- feed. As pasture grows older, for ous values are giyen in most feed example, the minerals tend to move composition tables; if they are from the leaves and stems downward absent in natural feeds, they must intp the roots where the grazing be given as an additive in the con- .. animal does not get them; or, if centrate mix (grains or meal) or in soils are low in phosphorus (as is a block lick with salt. often the case on tropical range), A stAndard mineral supplement the grass which derives its nutri- is made of two parts calcium, one ents from the soil also will be part phosphorus and one part salt. low in phosphorus. Such consider- Bone meal is prepared by boiling or ations make it advantageous for /steaming fresh bones and then pul- the stockowner to have some know- verizing and drying they. This

179 -184 DAILY PROTEIN OD MINERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DRAFT ANIMALS

Animal Digestible Protein Calcium Phosphorus Salt

Bull 80-130 grams per 5 g 3 -5g 5g forage unit (U.F.) per 100 kg per 100 kg per 100 kg live weight live weight live weight- Horse 325 g 15 g 8 g free (250 kg) access system (salt

V.- block)

feed contains about 20% calcium and requirements for energy, protein, 10% phosphorus, a good ratio of vitamins and minerals. Since the these important minerals. chemical composition or nu ritional Requirements may be adjuste value of grain or pasture is deter- depending on the elementsavailable mined by soil, weather, and other in the pasture where the animal environmental factors, rations grazes. A mineral-starved animal should be formulated using data should not be given 'ree access to obtained from regional testing cen- a lick or loose mixture. Instead, ters. When this is not possibly, mix the correct does in with its other tables may be used, but with concentrate. attention to the system of measur- A ration is a combination of ing as well as basic principles o5

feeds which provides the daily feeding. j

180

186

p , Feeds and a feed analysis is made on roughages, all of the moisture is removed Feed Composition and composition is given on a "100% dry matter basis". That is, only the plant solids are analyzed. The feed given to draft ani- Concentrates include low fiber, mals is called forage. Forage some- highly digestible feeds like grain, times refers to the leafy, fibrous, grain by-products, and high, protein or tuberous portion of plants con- meals. They are analyzed on an "assumed by animals, but it may also fed basis"; which means the feed is

refer to any edible portion the analyzed as it is normally fed to the plapt. Forage may be wild or domes- animal.

Pasture and stored. When green forage is fermented in a pit or silo, it is Pasture refers to any grass or

ttcihace1,1 legumes, usually green, which are It is important to distinguish fed to animals. Pasture may also the various types of forage mate- refer to the land area where the- rials, know their basic nutritivepro- plants grow and where the animals perties, and understand how they are graze. Pasture is highest in nutri- analyzed before using feed composi- tional value when it is young and tion tables. (Feed Composition succulent (high in moisture). Tablesiare found on page 188.) Forages are divided into Green Chop or :1 roughages and concentrates. Rough- Soiling Crop ages include green pasture (pasture grass), hays, legumes, and fodders. Normally, work animals are They are classified together allowed to graze. At times, how- because of the fiber content. When ever, plants are cut and brought to

182 196 a them. Cut pasture is called green cut belce it goes to seed. Cut chop or soiling crop. The rainy grass is allowed to dry, or "cure," season work schedule may limit day- in the field. Because the grass time grazing and the farmer may want contains moisture, it must be- turned to feed fresh-cut pasture in the to expose the underside iosun-

. stable or paddock area rather than light; otherwise, it will mold. send animals out at night. The hay is cured when it snaps A maturing pasture loses mois- tlwithout releasing juice or moisture tune. Feed composition tables (this usually takes 1-3 days in reflect water loss by the increas- the tropics). Hay is stored in an ing percentage of dry matter and enclosed compartment (an old house decreasing amounts of digestible or hut.is suitable if not termite- protein, minela:;, and digestible infested) where light and wind can- . energy (forage value). Most gras- not enter and cause further drying. ses with a dry matter content In the humid tropics wheremolding between 20 and 30% have greater is highly likely, air circulation than maintenance nutrient content. (wind) is an advantage, and storage Grass with a dry matter range of should allow for this. If late sea- 20-40% is sometimes classified as son rains make it difficult to cure standing hay". hay, grass can be preserved by making it into silage (see below): Hay Good quality hay is green in color,, slightly brittle, has a clean, fragrant smell, and is free Hay is any grass or legume of dirt, stones, and woody stems. which is cut (or mown), dried, and If hay is offered from a rack or preserved as a winter or dry season trough, it does not pick up dust; forage. The dry matter content of dusty hay should be sprinkled hay ranges from 40-85%. Hay has a with water before it is fed to keep high nutrient quality when it is animals from developing heaves

182

18 ,

(coughing condition) which can lead research, list hay under grasses to pneumonia. having very high percentages of dry Most kinds of grass hay matter. In the table below, which (except legume hay) of the same is adapted from some of these stu- (quality '-'r grade have about equal dies, roughages are grouped accord- nutritional value. The definition ing to the following general char- of "hey" varies. Some tables, espe- acteristics: cially those based on arid area

tzt Roughage % dry matter % digestible digestible protein* enerm (U.F.)-

. Green pasture under 20 over 6 over 0.6 Standing hay 20-40 2-5 0.5-0.6 Cured hay 40-85 1-5 0.4-0.5 Grass straw 85 under 1 under 0.4

*Values based on 100% dry matter.

Straw when animals are kept on low-energy

diets (during the 0." -on) ;then Straw is dead or dying grass. it should be fed *pith protein and It contains very little moisture, is mineral: supplements. Straw con- high in coarse fiber and low in tains few vitamins; these are sup- nutritional value. Bovine animals, plied in the high quality hays-and b because of unique digestive abili- silages which should comprise the ties, are able to derive more nutri- greater part of the roughage diet.. ents from the fibers than horses or donkeys. Straw is especially useful

183 188

0 ., Legumes avoided or restricted.-

Fodder Legumes include nitrogen-fix- . ing plants like clover, alfalfa or Fodder is the combination of beans which are much higher in pro- leaves, stems, husks, hulls (peanut tein, calcium, and Vitamin A and D shells), cobs, or grain which is content than grasses. Legumes can chopped, mixed, and usually fed in a be offered fresh, as silage or as dry state. Corn (or sorghum) grown hay. Their ability to "fix" or put specifically for animal feed and cut nitrogen into the, soil makes them before the grain matures is called an important part of crop rotation corn fodder. Corn fodder may be schemes. Planted in association cured, ensiled, or fed fresh. Shock with grass crops, legumes improve corn is similar to fodder but the both the soil and the crop, adding"' grain has beeriallowed to mature fertilizer (nitrogen) to the pa before the plant is cut and chopped. ture mix. The leaves (and ste s) Corn stover is,a mixtL:e made of of cowpeas, soybeans and pea is dried stalks, leaves, and husks; the can be dried as hay or wilt d and ear (cob and grain) has been preserved as silage after he seed removed. Tree fodder is a term is harvested. These fee when applied to the leafy tree branchee mixed with drier, coars r forages, which graziers (herders) cut for improve the nutrition value of their animals. In Africa, many spe- the ration, and also have a mild cies of Acacia are used as tree fod- laxative effect that helps the ani- der. The leaves and stems are mal eliminate the indigestible green during the dry season; they fibers. However, fast-growing lush are high in calcium and phosphor- young legumes in the pre flowering ous. stages may cause bloat or colic when offered to cattle or equine animals, and therefore shoUld be

184

18,5? Grain , 1 kg of crushed millet = 7 kg of 4 pasture 1 kg of crushed corn =9kg of Grain is the seed portion of pasture cereal plants--corn, sorghum, millet, 1 kg of cotton seed = 6 kg of pasture. and rice. Grains are low in the Some grains have a ti.F. value greater bulky fibers that constitute the than one (1) because of high fat con- plants which produce them; as a tent. Fat has 2.25 times more result, they are classified as "con- energy per unit than carbohydrates.

. centrales". They are high in Overfeeding of grains results starch value (carbohydrates) and in serious digestive problems. therefore an important source of Generally speaking, an animal energy to work animals that have should not be fed more than 2 kg of limited time to graze. They are grain per day. Horses may "bolt" not low in protein, but the proteins grain by swallowing it whole or only found in grain are not as easily partially chewed. This can be pre- digested as those found in legumes. vented by mixing grasses or legumes P.nimals not accustomed to eating in with the grain or by placing sev- grain may find it unpalatable; in eral large, round stones in the these cases the grain should'be feed. partially crushed and a small quantity of salt or brewers' wet Grain meal added (see below). The feed- By-products ing of shock corn or fodder/grain mixes is an effective means of These include the hulls, brans, introducing grain into the diets of polishings and germs (centers) of animals raised on pasture. Some the grain kernel. They are separ- tests made in West Africa approxi- ated from the meaty, starchy por- mate the total nutritional value tion of the kernel during the mil- of grains as compared to quantitisp ling process. The hull is the hard, of mixed natural pasture: outer shell of the seed. Softer

a 185. .190

60. layers called bran may be found or cake. Sometimes the meal con- between the hull and the meat, or tains some hull material; it almost in'the outermost coating (wheat has always contains some oil.Meal and no hull but rather cake have the same composition, but bran layers). Polishings are pow- meal is loose and finely ground dery residues that are separated whereas cake consists of large from the finer flour when rice chunks. grain is milled. Brewers' wet meal is the residue of sprouted millet, corn ar sorghum which is boileckto make beer. In Africa brewers' meal is sometimes mixed with water and Silage is succulent forage offered as a mash to horses. Grain material which has been cut, chopped by-products (except for hulls) are and preserved in an air-tight com- a generally high in fiber, protein partment. It is a palatable, inex- and minerals and.are less expensive pensive feed which is higher in to feed than whole kernels. moisture and nutrient content than either hay or dry fodder. It is Seeds and extremely useful in areas where sea- Seed Cake sonal dryness limits natural graz- 'ing. Green forage, preferably corn The seeds and seed cake of cot- or sorghum fodder, young grass, and ton plants (oil teed) and bean, pea, legumes are wilted in the field to and peanut plants (legume seed) are a moisture level of 60-70%.This high in energy and fat and,may be takes from 2 to 24 hours depending fed whole or in a processed form. upon the humidity.. Theforage is When the hulls (shells) of peanuts dropped when stems can be twisted dr cotton are removed and the oil without breaking, but before leaves extracted from the raw meat, the show any signs of dryness. The chopped plants then'are layered and

186

19.1. compacted in a 2mx2mx2m earth- examples using Table A,(see page. 188). walled pit (or longer trench of Example 1. To calculate the equal depth, slightly pitched to amount of Sudan Grass #1 needed to allow for drainage). The pit is meet the U.F. maintenance*require- covered with earth and a natural ment of a 300-1kg bull. The value fermentation process occurs. If in Table A for digestible protein, the plant material has been tightly phosphorous, calcium and U.F. are compressed without air pockets or based. on 100% dry matter. However, leaks, no molding or rotting should one kg of fresh roughage has less occur. Hay, dry fodder, or par- than 100% dry matter.Therefore, tially-wilted legume tops (such as the first step is to adjust the the leaves of the harvested peanut amount of dry matter per kg of fresh plant) also may he ensiled, but in roughage. to 100% drys matter. For

drier regions, some water may have ' Sudan Grass #1, the percentage ofoor to tie sprinkled in with the forage dry matter pefekg.is 29.7%. One kg

as it is trampled down to ensure , of fresh Sudan Grass #1 is adjusted that fermentation occurs. (Foi fur- to a 100% dry matter basis by the

ther informationon, silage, see following calculation: ICE Reprint No. 15e, Utilization 1 ai 3.36 kg (100% dry and Conscruction of Pit Silos.) 29.7% . matter basis) Tnts means that 3.36 kg of fre'sh

1 Sudan Grass #1 contains one kg of dry matter. Step two is to locate Calculating the U.F. maintenance requirement of A Ration a 300 -kg bull. The daily maintenance requirements of oxen chart (see page 176)shows the U.F, value of a 300-kg bull As 2.6. Step three Ration calculation can be is to calculate the amount of fresh demonstrated by the following Sudan Grass #1 needed fora I

187 192 TABLE A: COMPOSITION OF SOME AFRICAN FEEDS

I X Dry MatterX DigestibleX PhosphorousX U.F. (Forage

protein . units) for

. ruminants . . .

------(100 X dry matter basis)-- -r -- ---

GREEN PASTURE GRASSES Sudan (Andropogon avanus) 18.0 6.2 0.02 0.35 0.66 Guinea 1Pinicus maximum 16.6 6.7 0.27 0.45 0.57 Elephant (pennisecum purpureum) 18.5 6.9 0.26 0.60 0.58 * Digicaria 15.3 9.4 0.23 0.49 0.60 mixed fresh shoots 17.7 18.2 0.45 0.29 0.77 mixed young pasture 24.8 5.8 0.24 0.31 0.61 S824 Viso= Isgusalimixed in 25.6 7.5 0.10 0.87. 0.72

DRIER PASTURE (standing hay) Sudan 41 29.7 4.2 0.12 0.34 0.57 a Sudan 42 34.6 3.5 '0.15 0.39 0.63 Guinea 34.7 3.6 0.22 0;54 0.57 Digicaria 32.7 2.5 0.33 0,64 0.54 mixed - average quality 30.8 3.2 0.18 0.30 0.48 mixed - poor quality 39.6 2.0' 0.10 0.48 0.35 Para grass (Brachiaria) 28.6 0.08 0.22 0.58 a CURED RAY - average quality 64.0 2.6 0.09 I 0.69 0.46 STRAW Sudan 93.2 0.5 0.06 0.39 0.49 Guinea 95.7 0 0.08 0.48 0.49 Elephant 93.2 0 0.04 0.17 0.15 * "Ivory Coast hay" 87.0 3.1 0.24 0.42 0.44 3rachiaria 94.1 0.1 0.06 0.62 0.37 * mixed (standing or cut) 96.4 0-4 0.10 0.40 0.30 GREEN LEGUMES Stylosanthes gratin's 21.0 12.4 0.23 1.65 0.73 siiie-r 44.0 5.9 0.18 1.22 0.72 Cencrosema pubescens 21.8 15.5 0.21 1.04 0.70 same-older 29.4 14.7 0.18 1.15 0.68 Lemma HAY Scylosanthes 92.8 6.1 0.17 0.85 0.54 Cencrosema 87.0 12.5 0.27 1.88 0.54 Peanut hay (as -led basis) 92.1 6.3 0.13 1.19 0.40 Bean hay (Dolichos lablab) 93.9 14.2 1.2 0.15 0.56 as-fed basis) Cutopea hay (yisaas sinensis 89.0 7.62 0.26 0.57 0.61 (a;:i;17- FODDERS . Corn-whole young plant 21.9 4,8 0.20 '0.34 0.89 'Cora-same wtch cub forming 48.2 4.9 0.25 0.69 0.75 Cora-dry leaves+scalk+husk 93.6 0.8 ------0.53 Millet (sorghum almum)whole 27,4 16.9 0.54 0.62 0.70 Millet-whole plant-older 15.0 4.7 0.35 0.30 0.41 Millet-same-older 30.9 2.7 0.28 0.23 0.42

`fillet-leaves+stalks dry AA Met 1.9 0.14 , 0.55 0.36

* (asterisk) indicates foodstuff analyzed by Essai Rural, Upper Volta. 1978. All others analyzed by CEEMAT, Africa. 1971.

188

193 TABLE 8: COMPOSITION OF SOME AFRICAN FEEDS - AS-FED BASIS

1 4 Dry MatterZ DigestibIel% Phosphor -t % Cal- O.F. protein one cium (ruminants)

GRAINS 'Corn (coastal-West Africa) 87.0 6.61 0.34 0.03 1.05 'Corn (Savanna-West Airics) 72.6 7.73 0.33 0.02 1.08 'Corn (Upper Volta) 88.5 8.7 0.36 0.07 1.23 * !Millet (Upper Volta) 91.8 7.3 0.37 0.40 0.97 * rice 87.3 4.7 0.26 0.06 0.82 iPaddySorghum 89.9 5.9 0.29 0.02 0.92 ;Fonio

1 BRANS !Corn (traditional milling) 6.23 0.72 0.06 0.92 9.0 0.61 0.09 0.86 * ;Rice 4.16 0.41 0.09 0.42 ISar.hum A A A A& A An A 7A CAKES AND MEALS Peanut cake 92.7 47.3 0.65 0.II 1.13 * `Cottonseed meal Omdustrial) 1.2 0.15 7DN .56 SEEDS !Cottonseed (whole) 94.4 9.6 0.49 0.1I 1.05 * 'Peanuts 90.8 14.0 0.29 0.12 I.I1 !Caw peas (y1122) 90.4 19.1 0.42 0.17 1.06 ,Beaus (Dolichos 2abla0) 89.6 19.9 0.29 0.26 SILAGE-wilted Sudan grass 95.0 5.5 0.16 0.33 0.41 ** LEAVES ;Banana (Tanganyika) 16.2 1.26 0.03 0.17 0.14 ;Manioc (Cassava) 27.3 9.4 0.51 0.92 0.64 'Sahel acacia 60.8 10.1 1.9 3.05 0.46 Acncia albida (day leaves) .92.8 7.2 0.15 0.23 ,%49 FaAab (dr.') V. Africa 91.0 SI 40 !OR MISCELLANEOUS Brewers wet meal (local) 30.7 17.6 0.41 0.26 0.80 Brewers meal fried (local) 92.3 21.6 0.33 0.03 0.87 * Breadfruit (Artocarpus cos.) 30.0 o 0.04 0.02 0.31 Mango (greenipulp) is 14.5 0.16 0.01 0.02 0.18 Yam - fresh 36.8 0 0.05 0.II 0.39 474 dried 89.6 5.04 0.12 0.19 0.57 .Z.134V41 (manioc) - fresh 34.2 0 0.04 0.04 0.34 Cassava-driad 88.0 0 0.08 0.09 0.38 Rice husks (chafE) 92.0 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.29 :Baan hulls (Vigna sinensis! 39.3 5.60 ---- 0.44 0.85 Saco.: pods 92.1 4.13 0.15 0.20 0.46 _ors 4obs 88.3 0 0.03 0.01 0.40 '2crh-maivre cob - grain chop 93.i 5.4 0.01 0.22 0.84 ,Aole banana 24.10 0.58 0.02 0.01 0.26 ' Banana pulp 24.12 0.55 0.02 0.02 0.25 :Sugar cane molasses 83.3 0.9 0.03 1.49 1.04 * 'Nara powder (Mali) ------1.00

,Rice siraw 92.5 0.35 0.07 0.19 1 0.'9 *Nitic.nal Zoorechi:al lesearih Center, Bamako. Mali, 1974; Ensilage research project by ..*.Amzeer ener4F aioe is in TD::.

189 194 value. If 3.36 kg of fresh Sudan the Sudan hay in order to balance Grass #1 yields 0.57 U.F., then the the ration. needed calculation is: Feeds presented on an "as-fed" 3.36 x 2.6 = 13.3 kg. basis do not need adjustment for dry 0.57 matter content. Therefore, the bull requires 13.3 kg To formulate a ration for a Of green Sudan Grass #1 per day. 300-kg bull: Example 2. To calculate the 1) Determine the animal's weight. amount of Sudan cured hay to meet the Here, the weight is given as 300 kg. U.F. maintenance requirement of a 300 - 2) Determine the maintenance kg bull, follow the same steps: requirements (per day basis). Step 1) U.F. (forage units) = 2.6 for a 300-kg bull 100= 1.07 D.P. (digestible protein, or, 93.2 in some charts 1H.A.D." --matiere azote diges- Step 2) tible) = 80-130 g per 1.07 x 2.6= 6.78 kg (U.F. value U.F., or assuming a 300- 0.41 1 kg dry kg bull needs and aver- matter) age 105 g/U.F.2.5 x 105 = 273 g. P, (phosphorous) = 3-5 g Therefore the bull requires 6.78 kg' per 100 kg live weight, of hay to meet its maintenance or using an average of 4 requirements. Calculation of pro- g: live tein and mineral contents of Sudan 300 kg weight 100 grass indicates that the fresh Ca (calcium) = 5 g per 100 material meets nearly all of the kg live weight, or animals' needs, but that the hay 300 x 5 = 15 g 100 is deficient in every category. NaC1 (sodium chloride; salt) During the dry season, then,,,the = 5 g/100 kg live weight stockowner would give the bull a Or grain supplement or mix a legume 300 376 x5 = 15 g. hay (high nutrient value) with

190

1 9 3) Determine the energy value of b) In 13.3 kg of green Sudan the roughages the animal would grass there are 3.9 kg of normally consume. If left to dry matter: graze freely, a bovine animal 13.3 kg green Sudan grass* will consume between 10 and 20 kg of pasture (grass) per day. 3.36 kg green Sudan #1 giving 1 kg D.M. Since its digestive organs must process regular amou'ts = 3.9 kg D.M. of bulky material in order to *Ration consumed function properly, it is rea- by bull sonable to base the maintenance ration on roughages and c) In 3.9 D.M., there are 164 the work or production ration g of digestible protein; in on concentrate-supplements the 13.3 kg of fresh grass (grains and other low-fiber, consumed by the bull, there high-energy feeds). It has are 164 g protein. already been established that 42 g x 3.9 kg = 164 g diges- 13.3 kg of green Sudan grass tible protein will furnish'a 300-kg bull with its maintenance energy This ration is deficient in needs; in this example, this protein, since the requirement represents the average qual- is 273 g (established earlier). ity of mixed pasture grass However, in a wet season, free- that would be found early in grazing situation, the animal the rainy season. would find a mixture of grasses that would meet all of its 4) Determine the protein content needs. The feeding of a pro- of the roughage (maintenance) tein supplement would be diet. Recall that for a work extremely important when the animal, protein, mineral and 'grasses begin to dry out, or vitamin intake need not if grazing time was limited to increase with production; only less than eight hours per day. energy needs increase. 5) Determine the phosphorous The following steps would be value of the roughage. taken to find the number of grams of digestible protein a) One kg of 100% dry Sudan contained in 13.3 kg of green grass contains 0.12% phos- Sudan grass: phorous; or, 0.12% of 1000 g - 1.2 phosphorous a) One kg of 100% dry Sudan per kg D.M. grass contains 4.2% pro- b) 13.3 kg of green Sudan tein, or 42 g of digesti- grass contains 3.9 kg D.M.; ble protein per kg of dry or, 3.9 x 1.2 = 4.7 g of matter. phosphorous.

191 196 This ration is deficient in' and limited amounts of pro- phosphorous, the requirement tein can be fed in a salt mix being 4-g per 100 kg live or block. The intake can be weight, or 12 g. The differ- regulated by the feed formu- ence would probably be made lation or texture of the block. up in the pasture mixture as long as grasses remained 8) Calculate the work needs of the animal and determine the lush, but the stockman would supplemental ration that will be wise to furnish the animal be fed. with a mineral lick contain -. ing phosphorous year-round. A bUll doing heavy work (plowing) needs 5/2 E, or 5/2 of . 6) Determine the calcium value its maintenance requirement. A of,the roughage. 300-kg bull needs 5/2 x 2.6, a) One kg of 100% dry Sudan or 6.5 U:F. per day. grass contains 0.34% Ca or In the example used, the bulky 0.0034 x 1000 = 3.4 Ca per portion of the full ration con- kg D.M. sists of 13.3 kg of green b) 13.3 kg of green Sudan Sudan grass; the grass has a grass contains 3.9 x 3:4 U.F. value of 2.6. The supple- g of Ca = 13.2 total Ca mental work ration must provide about 4 additional U.F. The bull's Ca requirement is if the animal is to get the 5 g per 100 kg live weight, required 6.5 U.F. These units or 15 g total. Again, by pro- can be supplied from any of viding them with a mineral the feeds listed in the table, lick, the owner ensures the but consideration would be animals' health regardless given to these points: of fluctuations in grazing conditions. a) Cost of feed. Grain is very expensive compared to 7) Salt needs. While CEEMAT sug- grain by-products and other gests that 5 8/100 kg live concentrate feeds. It is weight is sufficient for a also in short supply during working animal, it may be the work season; most of it found that a bull consumes has been used during the dry more if given free access to months. a block--especially during heavy work when salt is lost b) Some feeds, particularly in sweat. Except in the case lush young pasture, leg- of salt-starved animals, the umes, and brans, have a free-access system works well laxative effect. Too much because animals will not nor- dry grain can also cause mally consume more than they digestive trouble. It is need. Phosphorous, Vitamin A generally advisable to

192

19 t

feed a supplement made of a tion of mixed green pasture (early combination of various wet season grasses) has an apProxi- feeds. mate forage value' of 2.5 U.F. and c) Animals have individual preferences and may refuse to this quantity will be consumed if eat the supplemental ration the bull is allowed 6-7 hours graz- as given. Pre-cracking 0 grains or adding salt, brew- ing time: In practice, 2-3 hours ers' meal or bone meal to (grazing) would be given at mid-4ay a ration may make it more palatable. The owner (after the morning work session) should make an effort to and the remainder would be given in discover what the animal likes, what it digests late afternoon/early evening.. easily, and when it will Examples of Daily Rations for a eat. Normally, an ox is i..300-kg Bull: fed its concentrate ration (approximately in the evening after it has I. equalto) grazed. However, a small portion of the ration may 13 kg mixed green pasture 2.5 U.F. be given in the morning, or 2 kg mixed cracked corn at noon if the animal has and sorghum 2.0 been allowed to graze and 1 kg peanut cake 1.0 drink first. Animals do 2 kg legume hay (night- not work well when overly fed at stable) 1.0 full and so it is prefer- Total: 6.5 U.F. able to have them eat at II. the end of the day. a.m.--1 kg brewers' meal d) Time of year determines the mixed in 4 liters availability of certain water 1.0U.7. feeds. Green corn or sorghum fodders are not avail- 13 kg mixed green pasture 2.5 able during the plowing 4 kg mixed green chop season when they would be (night-fed cut past- most useful. The farmer ture) 1.0 shOuld store silage, hay 2 kg cottonseed 2.0 ' and grain reserves for this Total: 6.5 U.F. heavy work period. Suggested daily rations for a a.m.--1 kg peanut cake 1.0 U.F. 300-kg bull doing heavy work (plow- 13 kg mixed green pasture 2.5 ing) are given below. A 13 kg por- 2 kg legume hay 1.0

193 198 2 kg mix wet brewers' meal parasites, quality of food. and cracked corn_ 2.0 In feeding ruminants, chang-s Total: 6.5 U.F. in diets from high roughage to low roughage (high concentrate) affect the population of mi- crobes in the rumen. Rapid changes can result in serious upsets in the animals' physio- Recommended Rations logy. Any major changes should be made gradually over a two- and Feeding week period. Practices. Rations should be altered as experience and observation suggest. In addition to the recommended guidelines, some specific suggestions follow on how and when to feed ani- The rations given below are mals. intended to serve as general guide- Note: Research and practical lines for. establishing a success- experience have demonstrated that the' ful feeding program. When formulat- nutritional needs of animals and the ing rations, conaider the'factors nutrient values of various diets can which may lower the benefits of the be. calculated quite accurately. ration, including: Environmental factors which affect the compositkon and Oxen hence, nutritional value.of food: soil, climate, seasonal changes, insect damage, mold. Oxen need pasture, grain, and ..Animals will adapt to a wide may need additional protein and min- variety of feeds, but the change must be gradual to pre- eral supplements in order to meet vent the animal from going nutritional requirements. Supple- off feed. ments are expensive but may be prac- Digestibility: Individual digestive ability can be tical and necessary (especially if affected by age, teeth, con- mineral deficiencies are present). dition of digestive organs and functions, presence of Here is-an example of a feeding

194

199 schedule for a working ox kept on feeding of 2 kg of pasture: legume hay. Water, hay and mineral block 5:30 am 1/2 kg cracked corn + are left where the 1/2 kg peanut cake animal can reach them (mixture) during the night. (1-12 noon) (plowing) 12-4 pm short drink followed by Roughages free grazing (super- Bovine animals need roughage vised). Let the animals graze toward a (pasture grass, hay) in order to stream or well and maintain basic nutritional and give it free energy needs. Most oxen grazing on access to water. (4-6) (plowing) young pasture can consume enough 6 pm short drink feedand,nutrients to maintain a 7 pm mixture containing 1-1/2 kg'crushed grain sor- healthy status in six to eight hours. ghum + 1/2 kg peanut Oxen that do not have sufficient cake or cottonseed meal time to graze must be fed cut pas- 8 pm free access to water and mineral block: stall- ture in the stall at night.

CHART A RECOMMyNDED PASTURE ALLOWANCES FOR OXEN (idle or working)* Type of Pasture (in kg per day) Weight. of ox (in kg) Mixed Green (approximate numberMixed Green Mixed Cured Grass (Early- of grazing hours Grass--Drier (Mid-Hay Mid Rainy Season) needed)** late Rainy Sseason(Stall-fed)

200 16.5 (5 hr) or 11. or 6.5

250 20 (6 ) or 13 'or 8

300 22.5 (6.5 ) or 15 or 9

350 25 (7.5 ) or 16.5 or 10 1- 400 30 (8.5 ) or 20 "or 12, *based on the maintenance needs of ruminant animals as found on page 176 and on energy values of Afri,can pasture grasses as recorded by CEEMAT and Essai Rural. **based on study by Lander (1949); testing was done during the rainy season.

195

207 Chart A approximates' the 22.5 (kg pasture needed by 300-kg bull--obtained amount of roughage an ox needs daily. from Chart A). Other types of roughage which - 15.0 (kg pasture eaten'during ing free grazing) oxen eat include fresh legumes, grasses, hay, straw, corn or sor- = 7.5 (kg roughage to feed at ghum fodder, and tree fodder. Theie night) products should be included in the 3) Establish a suitable standard diet whenever possible. of measure by using a bucket or container. Pack the buc- When workschedules do not per- ket with grass, weigh it, and mit adequate grazing time, oxen then subtract the weight of the bucket. Check the weight should be stall-fed hay or cut green of the measure every few weeks, pasture at night. Estimate the adjusting the amount to allow for changes in moisture con- ,amount of pasture to feed at night tent of the grass. by using the following method: Grain and Other Concentrates 1) Estimate the amount of pasture Grain is the seed portion of consumed daily by the animal. For example, assume an ox eats cereal plants such as corn, sorghum, 3 kg of pasture per hour (rainy millet and rice. Graini are low in season; grass in abundance). Multiply the number of hours fiber and thus are called "concen the animal grazed by three. trates". Grains have a high starch 5 (number of hours grazed content (carbohydrates) which is an during day) x 3 (kg of grass eaten per important source of energy to work hour.durinvrainy season) animals that have limited time to graze. Other concentrates include = 15 (kg grass eaten while grazing during the day) beans and mill by- products, such as 2) Subtract the amount of pas- peanut cake, cottonseed meal, and ture eaten during free grazing breviers' meal (described on page from the total amount if needs. This gives the approxikate kg 185). of pasture to cut and feed at Amount of Concentrate to Feed night. For working animals, use the table below (Chart B) to determine

196

20j the amount of concentrates to feed. The concentrates may be This should provide sufficient decreased by 1 kg if the roughage energy needed by working animals. intake includes 2 kg of legume hay Feed intake varies with the weight or 5 kg of green legumes. of the animal and the work load. For non-working (idle) oxen, The terms "light," medium" and feed the following amounts of con- "heavy" are used to define the work centrates: load. Off-day during the work sea- Hours of Work son--light work ration (see Chart B). LIGHT MEDIUM HARD Off-season or dry season--one- Ox pulling 1/8 its half light work ration (each weight 2-3 3-5 5-7 day). Donkey pulling 1/5 its weight 1-2 2-4 4-5 Horse pulling 1/7 its weight 2-3 3-5 5-8

CHART B CONCENTRATE NEEDED FOR WORKING OXEN

Weight Amount of Grain to Feed per Day of ox (in kg) (in kg) At Light Work At Med. WorkAt Heavy Work 200 1.00 2.00 3.00 250 1.25 2.50 3.75 300 1.30 2.60 3.90 350 1.45 2.90 4.35 400 1.60 3.20 4.80

The figures ai based on maintenance needs of ruminant animals (see page 176) and the assumption that one kg of grain (corn, sorghum, millet, and/or barley) has a forage value e'q'ual to one (one kg of 100% dry grain = 1 U.F.; see explanation of forage value on page 175.

197

202 ti

When to Feed Concentrates als necessary for overall health. Working oxen: Feed 1/4-1/3 of However, nutrition deficiencies can the ration in the morning, the result from unavailability of feeds rest in the evening. Do not feed when the animal is hot or conditions which affect the qual- (i.e., immediately after work) ..ity or digestibility of feed. The or after it has hadlarge quantities of water. following supplements should be fed Non-lporking oxen: Feed the to provide balanced 'diets: entire ration in the evening Protein: Mature oxen should when the animal returns from be provided with concentrates pasture: that supply additional pro- How to Feed Concentrates tein. Examples of this would include feeding a daily allow- Feed concentrates in a con- . ance of one of the following: tainer that cannot be knocked 143 kg peanut cake, 3/4 cot- over. Stake or corral oxen so tonseed meal, 1 kg wet brewers' each has access to a separate meal, or 1-1/2 kg sorghum container. This way you can bran. see how much and what each animal eats. Also, it keeps Minerals and salt: Animals more aggressive individuals should have free access to a from taking other animals' salt block lick with contains food. two parts calcium, one part Experiment with grains to phosphorous and one part salt. If a lick is not obtainable, find out which ones an animal mix Pone meal (or other source If an ox refuses to likes. of calcium and phosphorous) eat grain, crush it and add a and salt in the feed. (For Leave it near little salt. quantities, see Appendix B, the ox throughout the night'. A little water added to cot- page 192.) tonseed will make it a little - more palatable. Give the animal fresh rations Equines every day. Keep the feeding container clean. Feed Supplements Equine animals must be fed A diet consisting of high with regard to their particular

R quality grass, hay, and grain should needs and digestive capabilities. supply protein, vitamins, and miner- While an ox can be fed once at the

198 O

end of the day, a working horse straw or dry. corn leaves can should be given feed in,small quan- be offered along with the grain. These feeds encourage, tities. This practice facilitates the animal to chew more thor- complete, regular digestion of nutri- oughly. ents and ensures that the animal 7) Both idle.and working horses need one-third of a high protein will, be comfortable while working. supplement like bran, brewers' Horses and Mules meal or cottonseed meal mixed' with the grain. Brewers' mek. 1) Feed the right anrunt. Total can be mixed in water and daily,consumption of rough- given as a drink. ages and concentrates com- 8) Allow animals free access to a bined should be between 0.8 mineral/salt block lick, or and. 1.0 kg for every 40 kg add bone meal and salt to the of live body weight. A 320 - kg horse, for example, concentrate ration as recommended in Appendix B, page 192. should get between 6.4 and 8 kg of feed per day. Recommended Rations 2) Idle horses are fed chiefly on For a 300-kg horse the recom- grass and hay. One-third to mehdations are: ooe-half of the roughage silould be grass or legume hay. Idle: 3-1/2 kg cured grass hay + (Straw should not be fed to 2 kg legume hay + 1/2 kg grain horses, for they do no,` have mixed with several handfuls of the ability to digest 4.t.) wet brewers' meal with the grain; 3) For working horses, abo.t or half of the total ration 4 kg green pasture containing should consist of roughage, legumes + 1 kg grain + 1/2 kg half grair1 and other concen- cottonseed meal; trate. or 4) Working horses should be fed 3 kg dried pasture grass ration in three equal parts at (standing hay) + 2 kg legume 1 morning, noon and night. Idle hay + 1/2 kg grain + 1/2 kg horses may be given the entire sorghum bran. ration in the evening, or half Medium work: 2 kg green pasture in the morning and half in the + 2 kg legume hay + 3 kg grain evening. + 1/2 kg brewers' meal; 5) (rain should be partially or crushed to aid digestion. 2 kg green pasture (legumes + 6) A few handfuls of chopped grass) + 2 kg cured grass hay + 3 kg grain + 1/2 kg cotton-

199 204 O seed meal (or cowpea meal or 2) Provide a 1/3-kg mixture of peanut cake). grain plus oilcake daily. As workload increases: 3) Provide a 90-110 kg working donkey with additional grain Replace cured grass hay or along with the above rations, green pasture with legume hay. according to the following Increase the concentrate meal guidelines: portion by 1/2 kg and decrease light work: 1 kg additional the grain portion by 1/2 kg. grain As workload decreases: medium work: 1 -1/2 kg additional grain Decrease the grain portion and hard work: 2 kg additional increase the. roughage portion. grain Adjust the ration according to (Larger donkeys should be the weight of the animal using given grain in proportionate the rules given above (1-3). amounts.) Use the rations given for the 4) Provide free access to mineral/ 300-kg horse as a guide for salt lick and water as with establishing the proportions of horses. various feeds. Donkeys Generally speaking, donkeys are fed like horses. However, donkeys can subsist on very coarse forages like straw, crop stubble, and leaves and stems of desert plants. Unlike horses, they will not over- eat when given free access to pasture or grain. They prefer to nib- ble throughout the day. Donkeys can be fed according to the following rules: 1) Aflaw-free_access to pasture whenever poigible. ,Otherwise, supply the donkey with-fresaL___ hay and straw.

200

205 .

Appendix C Disease Recognition and Control

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) sometimes effective. The disease is caused by a Prevention: Rotate pastures; spray animals with fly repellents. spore which can live in the soil for Nine types of serums, bacter- many years. It is ingested in pas- ins and vaccines are now avail- There may be veterinary ture, feed, or water. It may also able. intervention according to the be transmitted into a wound from area. Quarantine infected herds. brush, fertilizer or contact with Remarks: Carcasses and contami-' another animal (rubbing; wound to nated materials should be wound contact), or through fly or buried at aminimum depth of two meters. A disease of mosquito bites. Incubation is 1-5 lower animals that is trans- days. All warm-blooded animals and missible to humans. humans are susceptible. Brucellosis (Bang's disease, undu -. lant fever) Symptoms: High fever, prostration, colic, diarrhea, An infectious disease which increased heartbeat and res- causes pregnant heifers and cows to piration, swellings around the throat, blood in milk, abort the fetus, retain afterbirth, urine or mucus; upon death, or develop uterine infections. The lack of rigor mortis, . enlarged spleen, liver,, and bacteria are transmitted through inges- kidneys. tion of feed or bedding, or through Treatment:'; Early administration licking of wounds. vaginal discharge of massive doses of penicillin

201 or aborted fetus. Also affects animal carry the bacteria). Incuba- sheep, goats, swine, horses and tion 1-5 days. humans with varying symptoms and Symptoms: Lameness, swellings in joints, back, loin, and hind- results. quarters (these are gas-filled Symptoms (in cattle): Aborted lumps which crackle when pres- fetus (7-8 months); relaxed sed). Also: fever, loss of placenta, enlargement of appetite, rapid breathing, joints and testicles, ster- depression. Death in two days ility, uterine infection, after onset of symptoms. reduced conception rate. Treatment: Massive doses of anti- Treatment: French vaccines are in biotics in early stages of dis- experimental stage. ease. Prevention: Vaccinate calves 2-10 Prevention: Immunization of months old in areas where dis- calves 1-4 months old. After- ease is present. Slaughter wards, these animals are vac- infected animals. cinated every 6-12 months until three years of age. Remarks: The meat of slaughtered animals may be consumed if Remarks: Burn and bury carcasses; cooked. Pasteurization kills the disease does not affect the bacteria in contaminated humans, but the meat should milk. not be consumed. Blackleg (Blackquarter) Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia A highly infectious and fatal This is a chronic respiratory disease affecting cattle and sheep. disease which causes the lungs of Young animals are particularlysuscep- the infected animal to fill with tible; older animals develop some liquid. natural immunity. The disease often Symptoms: Chronic cough, dimin- ished appetite evidenced by occurs regularly in the same herds irregular grazing habits. and localities. The bacteria lives Affected animal may be too weak to move with the herd. in the soil; it is ingested or Elevated temperature. Dis- enters the body through a wound and charges may contain pus, blood, or be of unusually then spreads through the herd by way strong odor. Pinching of nos- of contaminated feed (saliva or trils will induce a short, dry cough. other secretions from the infected

202

201 Treatment: No known treatment. animal; use of antibiotics and/or sulfonamides. Prevention: Annual vaccination. Prevention: Annual vaccination; Remarks: Cured animals which have good management and feeding. been infected with this disease do not make good draft Remarks: Newly acquired draft ani- animals. Lesions in the lungs mals should not be trained, (damaged tissues) make the castrated, or dehorned in the animal short-winded. days following transfer. Use of animals which have been Pasteurellosis (Shipping fever; sometimes called "Hemorrhagic Septicemia", infected and recovered from but this is considered a misnomer. the disease may be uneconomi- cal to use due to lesions on The disease is caused by vir- the lungs. uses and/or bacteria commonly pre- Rinderpest (Cattle plague) sent in the lungs or mucous mem- A highly contagious virus branes of cattle, horses and other affecting cattle. Three forms are animals. Strains vary in their known, two of which result in very ability to cause disease, but ani- rapid death and one which is chronic. mals under stressful conditions Transmission of the disease is pri- (shipping, transfer to new environ- marily through ingestion of contami- ment) are particularly susceptible. nated food or water. Incubation 3-6 Exposure, overcrowding, physical ten- days. d sion, improper feeding lower the Symptoms: Fever, poor appetite (slow emaciation of chronic- resistance of the infected animal ally affected animals), dehy- and increase the presence and dration due to diarrhea, discharge from nose and eyes, strength of the micro-organism. salivation, swelling and clo- Incubation 2-10 days. sing ofeyes. Lips, muzzle, vaginal membranes bear white Symptoms: Diarrhea, loss of appe- spots inside a raw ring 1/2 tite, variable high tempera- cm wide. ture, difficult breathing, prostration, discharge from Treatment: No known treatment. eyes and nose, swelling in Prevention: Annual vaccination; neck region. Can kill in 2-3 life-long effective vaccine days. now available. Treatment: Isolation of infected

203 203 Tetanus (Lockjaw) This is a highly fatal disease Parasites and which is usually the result of an Parasitic infected wound. Bacterial infection Disease causes the release of powerful poi- sons into the bloodstream. Horses and donkeys are particularly suscep- Parasites are organisms that tible, but ruminants, swine, and live at the expense of another organ- humans also are affected. Incuba- ismor "host". Internal parasites tion: one week to several months. live inside the host in blood, mus- Symptoms: Increasing stiffness cle, or other body tissue which pro- of the head and neck with vides a favorable environment for accompanying difficulty during chewing and swallowing._ growth and reproduction. External The inner eyelid draws over parasites live on or under the skin, the eye. After 24 hours, the animal shows extreme sen- or pierce the skin and feed on the sitivity to noise, becoming animal's blood. In general, para- excitable and frightened. Spasms occur in the neck and sites do not kill the host, but back, the head and neck extend cause a chronic state of ill-health The animal will not lie down, remaining standing until close which is reflected in low producti- to death. vity and high susceptibility to Treatment: Tetanus antitoxin other diseases. Young, pregnant, administered immediately after appearance of first symptoms. lactating, or malnourished animals Prevention: Immunization with are those most seriously affected by antitoxin and annual booster. parasites. Proper disinfection of all wounds. Helminthiasis This is a general name for any one of a number of conditions related to the presence of worms in the digestive system. While inside the host animal, they absorb food,

204

.209 interfere with digestion, or reduce asite eggs; good feeding and the efficiency of blood-forming tis- management coupled with regular administration of anthel- sue. Sometimes the worms migrate to mintics (as prescribed). other parts of the body. The life Remarks: Worms may be classified cycle is completed when the female in three major groups: lays eggs which are passed out in ROUNDWORMS the feces and which continue to incu- Ascarids affect pigs, cattle, poultry, and especially hor-

bate in pasture, manure, bedding, ses; they are intestinal . worms which can impair to `water, or intermediate host. except growth or cause death in in the case of hookworm (see below), young animals. Worms may migrate to lungs and cause the eggs are ingested by the new damage. host (the draft animal) and hatch Hookworms are blood-sucking inside its digestive tract. worms which are ingested or Symptoms: Chronic weight loss, which enter the skin and migrate to the intestine, variable diarrhea and constipation, weakness, lower- causing gastro-enteritis ing productivity. Other and anemia in ruminants and pigs. symptoms are specific to the type of worm. Strongyles affect horses and mules, causing anemia, Treatment: Numerous products are emaciation, colic, and some- available and should be used times death. Some species as recommended by local veter- of the worm appear in the inary or sanitary officials. Commonly used anti-worm treat- feces. ments (anthelmintics) are FLUKES are found in all animals, phenothiazine, thibenzole, and especially those which graze Vadephen. Administration in wet or marshy areas. The varies from 2-4 times per year liver is damaged and fluids according to site and type of leak into the body cavity, animal, and climatic condi- giving the animal a "pot- tions which affect the pre- bellied" appearance. Rumi- sence of the particular organ- nants are especially suscep- ism. tible. The disease is called Distomatosis. Prevention: Rotation of pastures and use of sanitary watering TAPEWORMS primarily affect troughs reduces the likelihood sheep and goats, but may be that an animal will ingest par- present in horses or cattle.

205

21.0 Worms in the digestive tract by mites and are similar in can be very long and rob the other respects. It may be animal of nutrients. Wdrm noted that Morioptic Scabies larvae may live in the bladder or lea mange is present in or muscle tissue and cause gen- West Africa, especially in eral weakness and lowered pro- equine animals. ductivity. Ringworm Mange (Scabies) This fungus grows on the outer contagious skin disease hly layer of skin, causing itching, and, transmitted by mites which burrow in severe cases, secondary infection under the skin and breed in large due to rubbing. Ringworm is conta- numbers. The itching causes the ani- gious, affecting all animals and mal to rub, depositing the organism humans. 0- on trees or fences where other ani- Symptoms: Raised, quarter-sized mals then contract the disease. patches of hair with crusty edge, especially on the ear, Symptoms: Hair falls out, grey nose, eyes, lips, or any area scabs appear, skin thickens and develops folds. Itching that tends to be moist or humid. The patch becomes raw is intense and may cause ani- when the animal rubs or bites mal to bite or rub itself, it in an attempt to relieve causing open lesions. With the itching. demodectic mange (present in West Africa), small bumps Treatment: Cut the hair, remove appear on the shoulder, neck, the scabs with a brush or and trunk. curry comb; wash with soap and Treatment: Cut the hair; apply boiled ;miter and apply full strength iodine, creosote, or iodine, creosote or mixture fungus ointment every 2-3 days. of two parts oil, one part kerosene. Prevention: Isolate infected animals; clean and disinfect Prevention: Isolate infected ani- brushes and tack (harness) mals; keep harness, bedding regularly; ensure that stable and stable area clean. Spray is well-ventilated and sani- animal with solution of 0.66% lin- tary. dane. Burn hair clippings of treated animals. Remarks: Fungus diseases are most common during humid seasons, Remarks: Mange is sometimes classified along with scabies with animals recovering during the dry months. because both are transmitted

206 Ticks parasites called trypanosomes which Ticks attach themselves to the live in the blood and which are car- skin, burrow, and feed off the ani- ried by the tsetse fly (glossina), mal's blood. They also spread or other biting insects. The dis- fevers: piroplasmosis, brucellosis, ease affects the nervous system, typhus, East Coast Fever, heartwater. making the animal lethargic and 'Grazing animals are most likely to chronically thin; sometimes death be affected because ticks cling to results. All animals and humans are tall grass and attach themselves to affected. Zebu cattle and horses the passing host (especially during are particularly susceptible. summer months). N'dama cattle and some donkeys have Symptoms: Ticks are visible on a high resistance. 'The disease is the underside of the animal and around the ears. The ani- especially prevalent in a band or mal kicks up at its belly "vector" which crosses the African shakes its head. Eventually it becomes anemic and starts continent just north and south of to lose weight. the equator. Treatment: Dab on kerosene, tur- Symptoms: Intermittent fever, pentine, or parafin poor appetite, chronic thin- Prevention: Regular application ness (especially seen in sun- of insecticides as recommended ken flanks), swelling of by local veterinary service. lympth glands, eye mucus and Sprays or dips can be very watering, accelerated respir- effective if done every 5-7 ation. days; commonly used products Treatment: No known treatment. include Tigal liquid (mix one Part tigal in 800 parts water), Prevention: For cattle--Vaccina- Tox (2.5 parts in 1,000 parts tion with Ethedium three times water), Gamatox(1 kg in 500 yearly, or with Prothedium or liters water). For ear ticks, Berenil as prescribed. use Lindane, Gamatox (mix 1 kg For horses--Vaccination with in 500 liters of water), Tox Trypadine as prescribed. (2.5 parLs/1.001 parts water). Trypanosnmils.is

This n c:".iLtd

`.:*1)7 Appendix D Workshop and Spare Parts Inventory

It is important for animal A. Basic Tool List .traction workers to keep an inven- metric tape measure hammer tory of tools and parts which can be saws: one wood (crossput saw); used to show farmers, local crafts- one metal (hacksaw w/spare blades) men and agricultural extension files: one coarse wood; one agents how to maintain, repair, and medium metal; one triangu- larfile for sharpening in some cases build essential equip- saw ment. Once farmers have seen the wood chisel draw knife need for these tools and parts, work- Exacto knife and spare blades ers should encourage them to cooper- adjustable wrenches (2) pliers (with wire cutter) atively purchase and manage the. leather punch or awl inventory. They should also help machete crow bar artisans learn to build yokes, line large clamps (2) tracers, and basic harness equipment one bit brace (ratchet type Land diill 2/assorted bits) that farmers cannot make alone. In B. 'Supplementary Tools and Supplies some instances, animal traction work- oilstone (for sharpening ers may be able to help the artisans knives, chisel) acquire tools or special training rope wire through the projects. nails (assorted) glue (wood) cotter pine 12 mm round iron (for making yoke bows and clevises, hooks, line tracer and/or-

209 213 harrow teeth) Demostration Equipment' hoof pick Animal traction workers loca- curry comb hard brush ted in villages or areas where ani- first aid kit containing: mal traction has not been previously, disinfectant sterile gauze and cotton introduced may need animals, harness, tape and field equipment for demonstra- antibiotic powder antibiotic cream tions. razor blades Basic Demonstration Unit snakebite kit syringe and needles one pair of three -year-lold antibiotics oxen halters (2) C. PlowframeRelated Equipment and. running W-harness (2) Spare Parts plow yoke (double) nuts and bolts (sizes stocked weeding yoke (double) according to plowframe speci- weeding .yoke for single ani- fications) mal: wrenches line tracer plowframe wheels plowframe plowframe wheel axles plowframe attachments includ- tempered plowshares ing: tempered sweeps (various sizes) moldboard plow ridger points weeding sweep or 5-tine cul- landside heels tivator plow handles ridger chain

If rubber-tired carts or wagons are use4, the follcoing additional equipment should be stocked: tires tire rims tubes valves grease (for repacking wheel bearings) patch and glue kits tire irons

210

214 I xipuaddV a faupw uoRmi uanamistq stubm

VIZ Record of Instruction

Field Techniques Enc.. Enc. Enc. Enc. Chef S.S. Issa Yerima N'Dvie Gunou Esso

Construction of weeding yoke--60 cm d 80 cm _.. ... ___ )1(E. Y E options

. Construction of line E__ 4Inm ... tracer X E

Construction of stan- ...... dard 'plowing yoke )( , . Train bulls C x 6 X S D Plowing DX E DX DXeDX a Weeding peanuts with 350-mm blade--single DX .. D D DX yoke Weeding peanuts with .... 350-mm blade--60-cm DX I) D DX e yoke (2 bulls) ... Ridging peanuts with ridger body--single yoke (I bull)

Lifting peanuts with 350-mm blade; 2 bulls DX ...... D D X (60-61 yoke)

Combined operation- - applying fertilizer and weeding cotton-- X ...... X 500-mm blade--2 bulls, 80-cm yoke Weeding/ridging cotton--2 bulls--80-cm D X A D X A yoke

212 Record of Instruction (cont.)

Chef S.S. Eild Techniques Enc. Enc. Enc. Enc. Issa Yerima N'Dvie Gunou Esso

..1 Weeding/ridging corn/ sorghum--2 bulls - -80- b)( D X cm yoke

Weeding/ridging corn/ sorghum--] bullsingle .... yoke . 0 Weeding corn/sorghum-- 500-mm sweep--2 bulls --80-em yoke ,

Weeding corn /sorghum --- 500 -mm sweep--1 bull- - =. IP single yoke

Code: "D" indicates that the agent attended a pre-season demonstration of the technique. "X" indicates that the agent performed the operation in a farmer's field during the season with the Volunteer present. "E" indicates that the agent can demonstrate the technique to a farmer without the assistance of the Volunteer.

Animal traction instructors can keep track of individual farmer's progress using a simiLar form. N

213 217 Equipment Title and Payment Record Equipment Title and Payment Record (cont.)

CREDIT PURCHASES 5 years/5% fixed interest

Credit Annual Item Cash Price Rebate I Date Comment Price Payment

T"4 44 -. 70 0 -LI IS I. if ZS 11J; 2441-71 A rebate is 041W .5.S0 0 6.V /.375 V S 0 made if more

0 S*0 , N than one annual 114.4404° 2.6.0o 3. 2S0 /10 WINWIA, 11,SJ to payment is made wie00-,svai i g 0 0 3..iS(.1 90 30041140144 .900 1.125 224 K s at a time. 4 1.4-V.enu- I q..so 6 '224.31 S. 4 .$15 97( 34..000 4/"'. 006 9,006

PAYMENTS

Sector Witness Amount Rebate Date Comment Chief

141,01.1r4". 46.4..,010-001,44^64 0 e u 7c

0 a u 76

a Jo is .77

0 )1 is 78

Example of cupment title and payment record used in Benin. Copies go to buyir, suning agent, and the pttjc.-- siistrator.

215 219 Appendix F Animal Breeds Used for Power

Characteristics of African Cattle Breeds Suitable for Animal Traction

N'Dama. This breed of cattle origi- a practical animal in wetter, nated in Guinea but is found coastal zones where the dis- in Senegal, Mali, the Ivory ease is prevalent. (In these Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, and respects, it is similar to the Central African Republic. the Lagunae breed of Togo Translated, the name means and Benin.) Excellent draft "small cattle". The animal animals are produced when has square, compact features N'Dama and Zebu breeds are that are highly desirable in crossed. (See illustration page 26.) a draft animal. The following characteristics are typi- White Peul Zebu. This breed is one cal of the breed: short, of a group of breeds herded broad head; lyre-shaped horns; by the nomadic Peul or Fulani short legs; small dewlap; people of West Afiica. The broad back; undefined withers. animals are usually white 1- Coat is short and usually fawn- with black eyes, ears, muzzles, colored (also can be white, tail switches, hoofs and horn yellowish, black, brown or red). tips. Faces are squarish with Animals are 95-120 cm high at flat foreheads and eye sockets the withers (ground to with- flush (as opposed to protrud- ers); males weigh 300-400 kg, ing). They are long-legged, females 230-350 kg. Approxi- long-necked and heavy. Bulls mately 45-552 of the carcass average 550 kg, 135 cm high at is usable meat. the withers; cows, 350 kg and 125 cm. The breed is small and in some tests, animals did not The large hump makes the ani- work efficiently for more than mal suitable for work in a three or four hours per day. yoke; however, the overall It is, however, resistant to high carriage elevates the trypanosomiasis and therefore line of draft and makes pulling

217 220. White.Peul Zebu with Good Conformation

O Bahima Zebu with Good Conformation

218

221 r,

more diffiCult. The animals work slowly, sustain an effort for five to six hours per day, and can exert great force when momentary resistance must be overcome. They are noted for their even temper. Bahima Zebu.This breed is of the Ankole cattle group of central Africa. Like the White Peul Zebu, it is a large animal with a long body and '..ong legs. At two and a half year.; (work age), it may weigh as m ch as 300 kg, later attaining a weight of 500 kg and a height of 145 cm. Adult cows weigh 350 kg and are 120 cm high at the withers. Horns are long, high and graceful; common color is deep red. A more practical draft animal within the Ankole group is the Bashi Zebu of %ire. It is a smaller breed, with bulls averaging 300 kg and cows 250 kg. It can work five hours per day in hard dry soil (plow). A cross between the Bashi and the Bukedi--a short-horned East African Zebu--gives a very muscular, medium-sized animal excellent for draft (Nganda).

219

222 Characteristics of African Donkey (The sketches are based on actual Breeds Suitable for Animal Traction: subjects; discussion includes com- Female Masai ass (Kenya, Tanzania, ments on individual conformation.) Malawi). The average adult is 100 cm high at the withers, 110 cm long, and has a girth of 115 cm (circumference). Note the well-fleshed rear quarters and flank, the muscular shoulder, and straight, well-set legs. However, the slightly swayed back is typical of older animals and mares in foal (carrying young). Note. the attentive face and overall strong appearance of the animal. Female Libyan ass. The animal has a number of readily visible conformation faults: a roach back (rather than being perfectly straight), forelegs too far under (compare to: the animal above, whose legs are straighter and whose hoofs are in line with the shoulder). Note the square,_well-proportioned head and thick neck. The shoulder stripe is typical of the breed and is common in the wild breeds from which the animal descends. West African ass, showing qualities of the Minianka breed of south- ern Mali. Note the overall small, delicate appearance of the animal, the shoulder stripe, the white underside and leg markings, the high. croup, 'the size of the head in proportion to the body. The thick-set, full-looking torso and shoulder are also typical

220

22j of the breed. However, the poor angulation of the hoof to the pastern relate to the individual animal. Such problems are generally caused by a combination of genetic weakness (individual), poor nutrition, and exposure to improper work conditions (poorly balanced loads, overwork).

Sahel ass. This is a large, heavy- set animal well suited for draft. The breed is typically grey, 105-115 cm high at the withers, and has a large, long head and face. Shoulder stripe is usually present. The back is long and straight, the croup fairly short (as with most African breeds), the heart and barrel girths deep, the neck full and strong. The individual pictured shows all' of these qualities with one exception: the back is swayed, possible the result of heavy cart work. Gourma ass. Note the overall thick- ness of the individual shown. The back is straight, the flanks full, the girth deep, and the legs heavy-set with ample bone and strong-looking joints. The front hoofs need trimming, as indicated by the long toe and short heel. The animal has good conformation from the standpoint of draft efficiency as well as breed. Average height of the breed is 105-110 cm; color is grey to whitish; distribution ranges throughout the Sahel area with -high concentrations near the Niger River bend. 221 224 Bibliography

Anthony, Kenneth R.M., et a].. 1979. Campbell, John R., and Lasley, John Agricultural Change in Tropi- P. 1969. The Science'of Ani- cal Africa. Cornell Univer- mals that Serve Mankind. sity Press, Ithaca, NY, and McGraw-Hill Book Company, New

London. . York. Aten, A., Innes, R.F., and Knew, E. Centre egtudes et d'expgrimentation 1954. Flaying and Curing of du mechanimeagricole tropi- Hides and Skins as a Rural cal (CEEMAT). 1968.' Manuel Industry. Food and Agricul- de Culture avec Traction Ani- tural Organization of the male (The Employment of Draft United Nations, Rome. Animals in Agriculture). Eng- Bamtey, C.R.A. de. 1967. A propos lish translation 1972. Food d'un materiel de traction and Agriculture Organization bovine. Institut de Recherches of the United Nations, Rome.- Agronomiques Tropicales et des Available from Editions Cultures Vivriares, Paris. Eyrolles, 61 Boulevard St. Benor, Daniel, and Harrison, J.Q. Germain, 75005 Paris, France. 1977. Agricultural Extension: Price 69.50 fr. The Training and Visit System. This comprehensive manual on World Bank, 1818 H St., N.W., animal traction was prepared Washington, D.C. by a French organization spe- Berg, Liv, Krisno Nimpuno, and Roger cializing in research and Van Zeanenberg. Towards Village Industry. Interme- development in tropical agri.7 culture. It disdusses the diate Technology Publications, animals, tools, and techniques Ltd., Forest Grove, OR, USA. used in various parts of Blood, D.C., and Henderson, J.A., Africa and contains sections Veterinary Medicine. William and Wilkins Company, Baltimore. on the development of rural handicrafts (artisan support; Boyd, John. 1976. Tools for Agri- village industry) and the economics of mechanization. Information on selection and British Veterinary Association. use of equipment will be of Handbook on Animal Diseases in special interest to Volunteers the Tropics, 3rd Edition. Lon- working in dry or irrigated don.

223 225 regions or in programs where Cockrill, Ross W., ed. 1974. The animal-powered sowing, har- Husbandry and Health of the vesting, and transportation is Domestic Buffalo. Food and practiced. Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 1974. Aide Memoire du Moniteur de Culture Attelge de Wilde, John C., et al. 1974. (Schemes). CEEMAT, Parc de Experiences with Agriculture Tourvoie, 92160 Antony, France. Development in Tropical Africa. Available from Editions John Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Eyrolles, 61 Boulevard St. Case studies of animal. trac- Germain, 75005 Paris, France. tion,in Upper Volta and other Handbook for animal traction countries. extension agents. This is the Dineur, Bruno, Georges Morieres written complement to CEEMAT's and Pierre Canard. 1976. course in animal traction. It Guidd pratique de la culture was originally published for atelge au Benin. Food and use by extension agents in Agriculture Organization of Niger, serving as both a the United Nations, Rome. 84 course. guide (during formal pages. training) and a field handbook. It was then expanded The manual explains and illus- for use in other countries, trates the fundamentals of particularly those in tropi- animal traction technology as cal Africa. was being introduced in Benin, Veit Africa. It is intended It consists of a 130-page as a guide for Beninese exten- text and a separate 65-page sion agents,who are working book of sketches, drawings; with farmers using draft ani- nnA diagrams. Subjects mals and equipment for the include animal power, husban- first time. It is very dry, harness, plowing, plow clearly written and illus- adjustments, cultivating, trated and will be of interest seeding, weeding, ridging, and value to French-speaking crop protection, harvesting, Volunteers. transportation (grain) and water-lifting, equipment Drew, James. 1943. Blacksmithing. assembly and maintenance, Modern Energy and Technology re-hammering of plowshares, Alternatives, P.O. Box 128, and a section on teaching Marble Mouth, WA 98268, USA. these techniques to farmers . Ensminger, M.E. 1978. The Stock- and other extension personnel. man's Handbook. Animal Agri- Highly recommended. Avail- Series. The Interstate Prin- able in French only. ters & Publishers, Inc., Dan-

224 I 226 vole, Illinois, USA. 1192 United Nations, Via delle pages. Terme de Caracalla, 00100 The textbook deals with funda- "'Rome; or from_UNIPUB, Box 433, mental and more technical Murray Hill Station, New York aspects of animal science as 10016. Price $8.50. they may be applied to manage- 1977. Better Farmin ment of beef cattle, dairy cat- Series. FAO, Rome. tle, sheep, swine, and horses. Twenty-six titles have been Subject breakdown (partial): animal behavior; breeding; published in this series, feeding (nutrition and feed designed as handbooks fora two-year intermediate-level value charts); production of agricultural education and pasture and range forages, training course. They may be hay and crop residues, silages, hay, and grain; conforma- purchased as a set or as tion; animal health and dis- individual documents. ease; marketing animal pro- First Year ducts. Also contains compre- 1. The.plant: the living plant, hensive list of agricultural the root magazines and helpful agricul- 2. The plant: the stem, the tural resources (with addres- buds, the leaves ses). 3. The plant: the flower' Animal Science, 7th edi- 4. The soil: how the soil is tion. The Interstate Printers Made up & Publishers, Inc., Danville, 5. The soil: how to conserve Illinois, USA. the soil 6. The soil: how to improve Epstein, H. The Origin of Domestic the soil Animals of Africa. Afficana 7. Crop farming Publishing Corporation, New 8. Animal husbandry; feeding York. and care of animals Farnham, A.B. Home Tanning and Lea- 9. Animal husbandry: animal ther-Making Guide. Modern diseases: how animals Energy and Technology Alterna- reproduce tives, P.O. Box 128, Marble Second Year Mount, WA 98268, USA. Food and Agriculture Organization 10. The farm business survey 11. Cattle breeding of the United Nations. 1974. 12. Sheep and goat breeding Rural Tanning Techniques. FAO 13. Keeping chickens Development Paper #68. Avail- 14. Farming with animal power able from Distribution and 15. Cereals Sales Section, Food and Agri- 16. Roots and tubers culture Organization of the

225 227 17. Groundnuts Herausageber, ed. 1960. Farm Imple- 18. Bananas ments and Machinery: multilin- 19. Market gardening pal illustrated dictionary. 20. Upland rice H. Steinmetz, West Germany. 21. Wet paddy or swamp grass 22. Cocoa Hopfen, H.J. 1969. Farm Implements 23. Coffee fort Arid and Tropical Regions. 24. The oil palm Foodand Agriculture Organiza- 25. The rubber tree tions of the United Nations, 26. The modern farm business Rome. 159 pages. This is a compact yet thorough 1977. Training for Agri- description of hand tools and culture and Rural Development. Available from Distribution animal-drawn machinery cur-, rently used in different coun- and Sales Section, Via delle It was prepared for Termi de Caracalla, 00100 Rome. tries. extension workers, farm mach- Price $8.50. inery specialists and techni- 1978. Animal Health cal assistants who are working with small-scale farmers and artisans to improve quality of Fort, tools. Subject breakdown: Y;:aa:iFuii Aglit- lentoansir manpower, animal power, har- tionnelles en tone Sahelienne ness, toolmaking, implements du Nord. CEEMAT, Paris. for tillage, seedbed prepara- Friend, John B. 1978. Cattle of tion, earthmoving and fertil- the World. Blandford Press, izer, spreading, harvesting, Dorset, England. threshing, winnowing, hand ling and transportation. Harmond, Paul, ed, 1978. The Farm- stead Book. Cloudburst Press Intermediate Technology Publications, of America, Inc., 2116 Western Ltd. 1978. Tools for Home- Avenue, Seattle, WA 98121, USA. steaders, Gardeners, and Small- Scale Farmers. Rodale Press, Hasluck, Paul N., ed. 1962. Sadd- Emmaus, PA, USA, 512 pages. lery and Harness-Making. J.A. Allen & Co., London. This book is a very complete catalogue of small farm machin- Hayes, Captain M. Horace, F.R.C.V.S. ery available through various Veterinary Notes for Horse North American and interna- Owners. No. 656. Arco Pub- tional manufacturers and dis- lishing Company, Inc., New tributors. In addition to York. giving descriptions, photo- Hennings, M. W. Animal Diseases of graphs, and ordering informa- South Africa, 3rd edition. tion for equipment, it con- Central News Agency, Ltd., tains numerous essays and Johannesburg, South Africa.

226

228 articles on the design and Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824, application of tools. For USA.465 pages. example, the section titled This is a documented field, "The Continuing Role of Draft study of the hand-, animal- Animals" includes (1) cata- logued subsections on plows, and engine-powered farm tech- harrows, ridgers, cultivators; nology used in Africa today. The concept of mechanization

(2) address lists of North . American harness-makers, wagon- and the impact of agricultural makers and wheelwrights, black- change is viewed through case smith equipment suppliers, studies made in 19 African draft horse publications, countries.The studies draft horse workshops; (3) become the basis for an index of recommendations and guide- articles titled: "Farming with Horse Power," Power for Field lines which could help extension Volunteers identify pro- Work," "Thoughts of a Designer blems and develop solutions of Animal-Drawn Equipment," related to animal traction "The Efficient Use of Animal The bibliography Power." Major sections are as technology. is extremely thorough. It follows: Tools for Cultivating, cites the major references on Continuing Role of Draft Ani-, mats, Tractors, Equipment for agricultural mechanization in equatorial Africa and uses a Seeding and Planting, Harvest- "key word" annotation system ing Equipment, Cleaning Grains to specify subject material. and Seeds, Processing Equip- ment, Tools for Adding Organic Leese, A.A. A Treatise on the One- Materials to the.Soil, Woodlot Humped Camel in Health and in

and Orchard Management, Live- Disease.Haynes and Son, Lin-, stock Equipment, Tools for colnshire, England. Fishfarming. Macpherson, George A.--1975. First Johnson, Paul G. 1976. Farm Imple- Steps in VillagedMechanisation. ments in the Making of America. Tanzania Publishing House, Dar Wallace-Homestead Book Co., Es Salaam. 235 pages. Des Moines, Iowa, USA. Mansfield, Toots. 1961. Calf Rop- King, J.O.L. 1978. An Introduction ing. Western Horseman, Inc. to Animal Husbandry. John COlorado Springs, Colorado, Wiley & Sons, New York. USA. 56 pages. Available from The Western Horseman, Kline, C.K., et al. Agricultural Mechanization in Equatorial 3850 North Nevada Avenue, Col- orado Springs, Colorado, USA. Africa. Institute of Inter- s national Agriculture Research McDowell, R.E. Ruminant Products: Report No. 6. Michigan State More than Meat and Milk. Win- University, 118 Agriculture rock Report, Winrock Inter-

227 229 .r

national Livestock Research Production in Africa. Inter- and Training Center, Petit African Bureau of Animal Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Resources,. Nairobi, Kenya. Arkansas, USA. Available from Eleza Services, Michael, A.M., S.C. Knierim, and Scientific Publications Divi- sion,Box 14925, Nairobi, R.M. Reeser. 1964. Simple. Kenya. Bullock-Drawn Implements for ($10.00/year) Efficient Irrigation. Univer- Partridge, Michael. 1973. Farm sity of Udaipur, India. - Tools. Promontory Press, Bos- ton, MA, USA. Miller, W.C., and R.D.S. Robertson. 1943. Practical Animal Hus- Rao, S. 1965. A New Bullock Har- bandry. Oliver & Boyd, Edin- ness for More' Bullock Power. burgh, Scotland. Allahabad Agricultural Insti- tuge, Allahabad, India. Avail- Morrison, Frank B. 1948. Feeds and able from Allahabad Agricul- Feeding: A Handbook for the tural Institute, Inc., M.O. Student and Stockman. Morri- Stony Point, New York, son Publishing Company, Ithaca Center, NY. NY, USA. Sargent, Merritt W. 1979. Recom- Morss, Elliott R. 1975. Strategies mendations to National Govern- for SmaX1 Farmer Development. ment and International Donors Development Alternatives, for the Design and Implementa- Washington, DC. tion of Animal Traction Pro- This is a study funded by the grIm3. Michigan State Univer- U.S. Agency for International sity, East Lansing, MI 48823, Development to improve the USA. design and implementation of 1979. A provincial_plan- projects to assist subsistence 1 agriculture farmers. nidg and implementation guide for the Introduction and Main- Muller, J. 1977. Promotion of tenance of Animal Traction. Rural Implement Manufacture in Michigan State University, Tanzania. Production of Tools East Lansing, MI 48823, USA. for Food Production in East - 1979. A Village Level Africa. Centre for Develop- Extension Guide for the Intro- ment Research, Copenhagen. duction and Maintenance-of Ani- Needham, Josh. Science and Civili- mal Traction.. Michigan State zation in China, Vol. 4. Cam- University, East Lansing, MI bridge University Press, New 48823, USA. York. Shulman, Robert. 1979. Strategy Organization of African Unity. Bul- for the Advancement of Animal letin of Animal Health and Traction in Mali. U.S.. Agency

228 230 for International Development, Farming, as well at newer B.P. 34, Bamako, Mali. material developed specifically for this book. Subject Seigmund, 0.H., ed. 1973. The breakdown:return of draft Merck Veterinary Manual. horse, conformation and breeds, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA. buying a team, feeding and care, shoeing and foot care, Spaulding, C.E. 1976. Veterinary harness and hitching, breeding, Guide for Animal Owners. machinery for horsepowered' Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA, USA. farm. Stamm, Gustave W. 1963. Vete4rinary UNIDO. 1975. Animal-Drawn Agricul- Guide for Farmers'. Hawthorne tural Implements, Hand-Opera- Book3, Baltimore. ted Machines and Simple Power Equipment in the Least Devel-. Steijnetz, H. 1976. Farm Implement and Machinery:Multilingual oped and Other.Developing Coun- illustrated dictionary. 524 tries. Publication ID/148. Betzdorf/Seig, Western Germany. Free to serious groups, from United Nations Industrial Stout, B.A. 1966. Equipment for Developient Organization P.O. Rice Production. FAO Develop- fox 707, A-1011, Vienna. ment Paper 1184, FAO, Rome. Volunteers in Technical Assistance. Telleen, Maurice. 1977. The Draft 1979Directory of Development Horse Primer. Rodale Press, Resources: Africa. VITA, 3706 Emmaus, PA, USA. 380 pages. Rhode Island Avenue, Mt.Rain- Available from Rodale Press, ier, Md. 20822, USA. Price 33 E. Minor St., Emmaus, PA $9.95 plus 5 percent service 18049, USA. Price $10.95. charge. This is a guide to the _care Wakeman, D.L., and TJ. Cunha. 1967. and use of work horses and Light Horse Production in Flo- mules. The author notes that rida. Bulletin No. 188. the work "Ils made up largely Department of Agriculture, of materials from booklets State of Florida. published by U.S. land grant schools during the twenties Ward, Fay E. 1958. The Cowboy at Work. Hastings House Pub.'. and thirties. when they had an active interest in heavy lishers, New York: horses as a major source of Wijewardene, R. 1977. "Small-Farm agricultural power." The Vehicle."Proceedings of ITDG author hat. included reprints Seminar: Simple Vehicles for of articles he has written Developing Countries. Informa- for The Draft Hourse Journal, tion Paper 3. Intermediate Western Horseman Magazine, Technology Development Group, and Organic Gardening and Transport Panel, London.

229 O Williamson, G., and Payne, W.J.A. 1959. An Introduction to Ani- mal Husbandry in the Tropics. Longmaqs, London. 435 pages. The author presents very specific information on the most important classes of produc- .tion livestock. This is a key reference for Volunteers Iran- aging or raising livestock in tropical areas. Major sections include climate (effects of), health mainte- nanc nutrition, breeding, animal products; husbandry: traditional (cattle), beef cattle, dairy cattle, oxen, buffalo, camels, sheep, goats, swine, poultry. World Bank. 1978. Appropriate technology in rural development: vehicles designed for on- and off-farm operations. Regional Development Unit, Transportation Department, Washington, DC. A literature review of the work output of animals with particular reference to their use in civil construction. Washington, DC, IBRD, 1976. (Technical Memorandum No. 21) Study of the Substitution of Laboc and Equipment in Civil' Construction.

230 O Resources

Agricultural-RWsearchOrgsnizations students in new methods; and and Institutions U.S. students in tropical needs. Agricultural Tools Research Canter, Department of Agricultural Economics Suru chi Vesahat, P.O. Box 4, and Rural Sociology, Institute Bardoliz, 394-601 Dist. Surat, of Agricultural Research, Sam- Gujarat, India. aiu, Ahmadu Bello University, Applied Scientific Research Corpora- P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria. tion of Thailand (ASRCT), 196 Phabronyothin Road, Bangkhen, On request, mails information Bangkok-9. Publishes monthly on agriculture extension and newsletter, "ASRCT Research research. News." Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, SU eauau pour le Developpment de la Production Agricole, 202 Rue Via delle Terme de Caracalla, de la Croix-Nivert, 75738 00100 Rome. Publishes FAO Paris CEDEX 15. Information "Books in Print," which lists all annual publications, and ) on camels in animal traction. booklets in the Better Farm- yptre d'Etude et de'Experimenta- ing Series. Also available tion du Machinism Agricole are filmstrips on animal trac- Topicale (CEEMAT), Parc de tion using a. horse and a camel. Tourvoie, 92160 Antony, France. Publications available throUgh Adaptions of agricultural_mach- . UNIPUB, 650 First Avenue, P.O. inery to tropical conditions. Box 433, Murray Hill Station, Three-times-a-year review New York 10116. "Machinisme Agricole Tropicale.!, Fundacao Gauche de Travalho, Porto and a newsletter "Lettre d'in- Allegre, Rio Grande do Sal, formation." Brazil. Has published 12 Center for Tropical Agriculture, field manuals for agricultural University of Florida, Insti- extension workers. tute of Food and Agricultural Institut de Recherches Agronomiques Sciences, 2001 McCarty Hall, Tropicales et des Cultures Viv- Gainesville, FL 32601, USA. ritres (IRAT), 110 Rue de l'Un- International agriculture dev- iversitfi, 75340 Paris CEDEX 07. elopment, training of foreign Institute of Agricultural Research

231 233 (IAR), P.O. Box 2003, Addis vice (Nris), 5285 Port Royal Abba, Ethiopia. Road, Springfield, VA 22161, Intermediate Technology Development USA. Write for publications Group (ITDG), 9 King Street, list. London WC2 E8HN. All ITDG pub Socigtg d'Aide Technique et de Coop- lications can be ordered from gration (SATEC), 110 Rue de International Scholary Book l'Universitg, 75340 Paris Service, Inc., Box 555, Forest CEDEX 07. Grove, OR 97116, USA. Socifitd d'Etudes et de Ddveloppement International Center for Arid & Agricoles Associgs (SEDAGRI), Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas 202 Rue de la Croix-Nivert, Tech University, Lubbock, Paris XV. Texas 49409, USA. Studies on Stichting Tool (TOOL), (Foundation new plants, animals bred for for Technical Development in arid lands; also solar energy, Developing CountrIssl Maurits- soil sciences, waste disposal, kade 61a, Amster am. Write desert ecology, salinity, etc. for publications lists. International Crops ResearchInsti- Technical Assistance Information tute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Clearing Houae(TAICH), 200 (ICRISAT), 1-11-256, Begumset, Park Avenue South, New York Hyderabad 500 016 U.P., India. 10003. Write for list of International Institute of Tropical titles available. Agriculture .(IITA), P.M.B. Tillers Research International, c/o 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria. Pub- Richard Rosenberg, 1402 Hill lishes "IITA Newsletter," crest Avenue, Kalamazoo, MI quarterly (free). 49008, USA. International Office of Epizootics, U.S. Agency for International Devel- 12 Rue de Prony, Paris XVII. opment (USAID), U.S.'State International Rice Research Insti- Department,'320 21st Street, tute IRRI), P.O. Box 933, Man- N.W., Washington, D.C.Write ila. Publishes "IRRI Reporter," for list of reports to AID quarterly (free). R&D Report Distribution, P.O. Koninklijk Instituut foor de Tropen Box 353, Norfolk, VA 23501, (Royal Tropical Institute), USA. Department of Agricultural U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- Research, Mauritskade 63, 1092 ington, D.C., USA. A list of AD' Amsterdam. D.S. Department of Agriculture National Research Council, 2101 Con- publications can be obtained by stitution Avenue, N.W., Wash- directing a request to the ington, D.C. Publishes bul- Office of Information, U.S. letins on the nutrient require- Department of Agriculture, ments of domestic animals. Washington, D.C. 20250, or National Technical Information Ser- write to the Foreign Develop-

232 234 ment Division. U.S. PeaceCorps/Information Collec- Hillcraft School of Horse- tion & Exchange, Room M-700, shoeing 806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., 10890 Deer Creek Canyon Road Littleton, CO 80120, USA., Washington, D.C. 20525. Peace Corps ICE makes available a Office of Continuing Education wide range of publications on North Adams State College agriculture and agricultural North Adams,MA 01247, USA. extension. Lists of these publications are available at 'Offers courses in draft ani- local Peace Corps offices or mal use (horses). can be obtained by writing Equipment Manufacturers and Suppli- directly to Peace Corps. ers Volunteers in Asia (VIA), Inc., Box Agro-Util, Inc. 4543, Stanford, CA 44305, USA. Write for publications list. 404 Broadway, Box 271 Volunteers in Technical Assistance, South Haven, MI 4909, USA. inc. (VITA), 3706 Rhode Island Simple, low-cost tools to Avenue. Mt. Rainier. MD. 20822 help small farmers. USA. This organization Cumberland General Store answers technical questions Rt. 3, Box 479 from the field Crossville, TN 38555, USA. and has a publications list that includes Peace Corps and Has a catalogue for ordering ITDG manuals and pamphlets. equipment. Write to ICE for publications Detweiler's Harness Shop ' lists or with specific quest- Rt. 1, Box 228 tions to be referred. Hazleton, IA.50641, USA. Draft Animal Workshops Has a catalogue for ordering Draft Horse Institute, c/o equipment. Ted Bermingham Freeport Harness Shop Indian Summer Farm Freeport, ME 04032, USA. Cabot, UT 05647, USA. Hamburg Plow Works, Inc. Offers five-day intensive 1021 S. Fourth Street course in care and use of Hamburg, PA 19526, USA. draft horses with emphasis on development of student skills. H. B. Harness Mfg. Co. Subjects: selection of horses; 75 Bathurst St. selection and use of harness; Toronto, Ontario, Canada animal husbandry and health. Holt, John, Agricultural Engin- Draft Horse Workshop eers, Ltd. Clarksburg, MA 01247, USA. P.O. Box 352, Zaria, Nigeria

233 235 Siscoma Nord."From: Machinisme Agri- B.P 3214 cole Tropical, Centre d'Etudes Dakar, Senegal et d'Expgrimentation du Mach- inisme Agricole Tropical (CEE- Socigte des Forges Tropicals E.P. 706 MAT), No.41 (January-March 1975). Douala, Cameroun Further information may be Tanzanian Agricultural Machin- obtained by writing: ery, Testing Unit (TAMTU) Box 1839 Bureau pour le Dfiveloppement Arusha, Tanzania de la Production Agricole 202 Rue de la Croix-Nivart Wengend's Manufacturing 75738 Paris CEDEX 15. R.R. 2, Box 267 Dalton, OH 44618, USA Mules: Wiggins, L.L., and C.L. Evans. Mule Power in Ethiopian Agri- Small moldboard plows. culture, Bulletin 15. Dire Wheat State Harness Company Dawa: Imperial Ethiopian Col- 406 West Adams lege of Agriculture and Mechan- Pittsburg, KA 66762, USA. ical Arts, Experimental Station. Periodicals CEEMAT may be able to furnish Evener, The information on breeding trials Putney, VT 05346, USA. carried out in Mali between 11 issues annually, $6.00/year. 1930 and 1944 (crossing with Draft Horse Journal Poitou and Moroccan he-asses). Rt. 3 or, request information from: Waverly, IA 50677, USA. 4 issues annually, $6.00/year. Division of Machinism Agricole B.P. 155 Mr. Longears Bamako, Mali. Rt. 5, Box 65 Denton; Texas 76201, USA. Multiple hitches:The hitching Publication of American Donkey techniques shown in these arti- and Mule Association. cles and booklets are still applicable and will be of Small Farmer's Journal great help to persons using Box 197 multiple hitches. Junction City, OR 97448, USA. 4 issues annually, $8.50/year. American Society of Agricul- tural Engineers. "The Effi- Special Applications (for camels, cient Use of Animal Power." mules, and multiple hitches) February 1922 issue of their Camels: Fort, J., "Mgcanisation des publication Agricultural Engi- Pratiques Agricoles Transition- neering. For photocopy, nelles en Zone Sahelienne du write:

234 23.6 et

American Society of Agricul- tural Engineers St. Joseph, M1, USA. Send $2.00 and letter of o inquiry. Horse and Mule Association of America, The Hitch Booklet, 1926. Three-, four-, five- and six-horse hitches; text and illustrations. Horses-Mules, Power-Profit, 1934. Three-sixteen horse hitches. Photocopies available through USDA Library, Beltsville, MD, USA.

235 237 Glossary 11!

animal traction- -use of draft ani- marily to kill weeds and let mals to power farm equipment. air and water penetrate. bovine--of the ox family (Bovidae); draft (draught)--l. pull; pulling includes cattle, domestic 2. the thickest, widest part water buffalo, carabao, zebu, of a collar, fitting against:. yak. the shoulder where pressure breeching (britching)--a kind of har- will be greatest when the ani- ness which circles an animal's mal pulls. rear quarters, permitting it drawchain--the chain connecting to brake or back-up a wheeled the power source to implement implement or vehicle. or vehicle being pulled. cast--l. to immobilize an animal by driver--person guiding a team of forcing it to the ground and draft animals from behind, tying it. using use of lines (reins) 2. to be on the ground and in and/or voice commands. The a position where movement is driver often steers or-oper- impossible; as, "a horse cast ates equipment at the same in its stall." time. clevis--a piece of U-shaped metal equine--of the horse family (equi7 which fits onto the tongue of dae), including horses, asses a wagon, the midpoint of a (donkeys), and mules. yoke, or the front of a plow, fixed loop--a small ,permanent loop

and serves as a hitch point . knotted or spliced at the for a chain or hook. The cle- end of the rope. A lasso or vis is held in place by a pin running noose is made by pas- whiCh passes through.the two sing the free e:id of the rope ends and the bar or beam through tt :pJp. between them. forage--any pla- 'erial, fresh conformation--the overall form or or dry, usu.. as feed for domes- shape of an animal, including tic animals. Commonly refers both its individual character- to vegetation, but also istics and those of its spe- includes. grain. cies and breed. furrow--a narrow trench made by a cultivate--the process of loosening plow or other farm implement. the earth around plants, pri- The land thrown out or to the

237 238 side of the trench is called being pulled. a rurrow slice. moldboard--a curved piece of metal hames--a set of wooden or metal bars which turns the furrow slice which are seated against the on its side after it has been collar of a pulling harness, cut by the plowblade, or share. one either side, to which neckyoke--wooden bar worn under the traces and other straps attach. necks of animals in harness, hitch--1. the connection between permitting them to hold up the power and the load tongue of a wagon, and brake 2. the combination of animals and back up the wagon. and equipment used to supply point of draft--the point where the power and connect it to the drawchain or trace connects to load the power. On a yoke, this is 3. action of connecting the the clevis located at the mid- power to the load. point of the stock (crossbar). hitchpoint--the point where the draw- It is called the yoke draft. chain hooks, or connects to On a collar harness, it is the the load. point where the trace connects harness--a combination of leather to the hame. It is called the straps, worn by a draft ani- hame draft. mal, permitting it to pull, or point of resistance--point where pull, brake, and back up a there is greatest opposition load. Bridle and lines are to pulling. The centerpoint also part of the harness. of the load. On a plow, this jack saddle--1. a harness part which is roughly the midpoint of circles an animal's torso and the share/moldboard joint. distributes pressure from the power--rate at which an animal can wagonshaft or cart shafts onto transform its energy into pull the back work. 2. any padded surcingle which ration--a fixed allowance of feed helps stabilize the harness and water. and carry lines and traces. skidding--1. a process of dragging lines--a set of long ropes or lea- loss or fallen trees, usually thers which fasten to an ani- as part of logging or field- mal's halter or bridle and clearing operations. pass back to the driver, let- 2. a training procedure which ting him steer and stop. teaches the,animals to pull by line of traction (line of draft)- - having them draft light logs. the line between the point of swingtree--any bar used to transfer draft and the point of resis- pull from the traces to the tance. load. One-animal swingtrees load--the field implement (plow, cul- are called singletrees. Longer tivator, etc.) or vehicle bars are called doubletrees. (cart or wagon) which is When two animals are used,

238 239 each of the two singletrees is connected to the doubletree, which is in.turn connected to O the load. surcingle-strap which encircles an animal's torso and helps stabilize other parts of the harness, or helps keep lines, ropes, or traces trim dragging on the ground: tandem--positioned one behind the other. traces--a set of ropes or leather straps which transfer draft from an animal's harness back to the load. Traces attach to rings on the hames,-or to the ends of a,breastband, sling, or singleyoke. Behind the animal they attach to a singletree. traction--1. drawing or pulling 2. kind of power used to draw or pull loads. vehicle--a cart or wagon. yoke--1. a wooden bar carried across the neck or horns of oxen, permitting them to pull 2. a pair of oxen fastened in a yoke.

240 239 A

Index

Abscess 43 Conformation25-28,217-221 Agricultural Extension 6,153,161,231 Corral 33 Demonstrations 167-169 Coulters 118,127 Extension Agents 153,162-167 Credit 156-160

Instructors, 6-7,153,159,162,212 For Animals 158_ Invitational Competitions 169-171 For Equipment 156-158,214-215 School and Youth Clubs 169 Cross Ties 64-66 Ard120 Cultivators 143-146 Bloat 43-44 Diarrhea 45 Breaking 51 Diseases Cattle 58 -64 Bacterial and Viral Equine Animals 68-73 Anthrax 201 Breastband Harness 80,82-83 Brucellosis 201-202 Breeching Harness 92-15,110-112,113" Blackleg 202 Buffalo 11 Contagious Bovine Burns 47-48 Pleuropneumonia 202-203 Camels 11,234 Pasteurelloses 203 Casting Rinderpest 203 204 Cattle 56-58 Tetanus Equine 66-68 Parasitic Helminthiasis (worms) 39,204 Cattle 9 206 Breeds of African217-219 Mange Catching and Restraining 52 Ringworm 206 Ticks 207 Feed 38-40,194-198 Trypanosomiasis 207 Harness 76-32 Donkeys (see also Horses)10,178,200,220 Power 19 Draft Animals Selection21-22,217-219 Importance of 1,5-6,161 Shelter 13,31 Power of 12-14,172-173 Training 58-64 Types of 9-11,217-221 Water Requirements 40,194 Draft, Line of 123-125 Castration 24',50,60 Draft, Point of 84 Catching 52-58,64 Draft Requirements (tables) 12,14-17 Collar Harness81-82,84-85,111 Doubletree 103-104,109-112 Colic 44 Dutch Collar 83-84

241 241 Energy Needs 38-39 Halter Cattle 175-177 Halter Breaking 68-70 Equine 177-178 How .to Make 3335 Equipment (see also Field How to Place 34,36 Equipment) 155-156 Types 34-36 Credit for 156-158 Harness 75-76 Spare Parts 209-210 Breaking to 71 Suppliers 156,233-234 How to Place 86-89,109-112 Equine Animals (see Horses, Parts of 86,95 Donkeys, Mules) Types of Evening, Evener 99-100,104 Breastband Extension (see Agriculture) Cattle 80 Equine 82-83 Feed Breeching Harness 92-95,110 Composition of (tables) 188 Collar Harness81-82,84-85,109 Concentrates 181,196-198 Sling Harness Feeding Practices 79 193,194' Harrowing 131-133,145 General Rules for 39-40,194 Hay 182-183,189-190,195 Roughages 39,191-192,195-196 Types of 181-187,188-189 Hitches 97-98 Size of 15,104-105 Feeding Schedules Types of Cattle 194-198 To Implements 98-105, 122 Equine 198-200 To Vehicles106-113 Field Operations 115 Hoof Problems 46 Clearing 116-117 Horses (Donkeys and Mules) 10,20-28 Cultivating 143-146 Feed 38-40,117-178,198-201 Harrowing 131-133,145 Harness 82-89 Line Tracing for Parallel Power 10,12-13,18-19 Rows 134-137 (Seeding) 134 Restraint 69-68 Peanut Lifting 150-152 Shelter 32-33 Plowing 117-131 Training 68-73 Ridging 146-150 Tying 34-36,64-66 Weeding 139-143,145 First Aid 43-48 Information and Restraints233-235 Fixed Loop 33-37,53 Lameness 45,46,47 Fodder 184 Lead Rope 36,53-54,68 Founder (Laminitis) 45 Lean-to 31-32,65 Forage 181 Legumes 184 Grain185 Lifter, Peanut 153-152 Green Chop 181-182 Line of Traction 123-125 Grooming 41-42 Line Traer (for Planting in Ground Driving Parallel Rows)134-137 Cattle 60-61 Relationship to Yoke 77,135,139 Equine 72 Lines (Reins)

242 242. Types of 90-92,102,105,107 Line of Traction123,125 Use of 89-90 Parts of 121,127 Lunging (Longeing) 70-71 Width 99,118,119,125-126 Power Maintenance of Equipment 42,209 12-20,173-174 Maintenance Requirements Amount Needed for Imple- ments (tables) 16-17 . Cattle 176,190,192 Of Animals 14,18,19 Equine 178 Mechanization Relationship to Harness 14,17-18, 99-100,104,173 Mineral Supplements 179,191,198 Moldboard Plow 117-118 Rations Mules10,199-200,234 How to Calculate 187,190-194 Importance in Africa 10 Recommended for Cattle 194-198 (see also Horses, Donkeys) Recommended for Equines 198 -200 Restraints -Neckstall (illustration of) 37 Cattle 33,52-58 Neckyoke 119,110 Equine 33,64-68 Noserings .37-38 Ridging Nutrition (see also Feed) 38,175 Corn and Sorghum147-148 Energy Needs Placement of Fertilizers 149 Cattle 175-176,191,193 Peanuts 149-150 Equine 171-178 Ridger 146 Feed Composition Charts188-189 Roughages 39,181,183,191-193,195-196 Feed, Types of 181-187,188-189 Running Noose 53 Forage Unit 175,176-178,188,192 Running-W Harness 53-60 General Rules for Feeding Selection of Individual Draft Grain and Concentrates181,185,196 Animals 21-25 Importance of 38-39 Sex (Influence on Power/Perfor-. Minerals 179-180,191,198 mance of Draft Animals)24,25 Protein 179-180,191 Shelter 31-33 Rations Silage 186 How to Calculate 187-194 Singletree 101,103-104 Recommended Rations Size of Hitch 15,97,173 Cattle 194-198 Equines 08-200 Skidding 63-64,72-73,116,117 Vitamins 176,179-180,198 Snakebite 46 Spiral 37 Water Requirements 40 Sprains 47 Pasture181,195 Stalls 33 Planting (Parallel Rows) 134,138,139 Steering System (see Lines) Plowing Straw 183 Effects of 119-120 Supplements 176,192-193,1P8 Field Layout 127-130 Swingtrees 101,103-105,109-112 Instructional Techniques 130-131 Plows (Adjustments)120,122 Technical Assistance (see also Depth 118,119,122-123 Agricultural Extension) 6-7,153

24P13 Cradit 156-159,161-162 Weight of Animals 18-21 Equipment Options 155-156 Workshop Inventory209-210 Farm Planning Assistance 153-155 Wounds 47-48 Temperament of Draft Animals 28-29 Yokes Tillage Breaking to 61-63 Primary 115,148 Hitches with Secondary 115 Yoke to Implement Hitch 98-102 Toolframe 121,155-156 Yoke to Vehicle Hitches 106-108 Traction How to Make 76-78 Definition 9f 1 How to Place 62 'Line of.123-125 Types of Point of Resistance 125 Bow 76,83,147 Tests 13,14 Head 78-79 Training 49-52 Jockey 109 Cattle52-64 Neck 109 Breaking Single Animal 58-60 Safety 76 'Ground-Driving Single Single Animal 78,79,150 Animal 60-61 Sling 79,84 Yoke-Breaking Team 61-63 Yoke for Equines (Pulling) 83,84 Breaking Team to Pull 63-64 -Yokes for Backing Up and Braking Horses, Donkeys, Mules 68-73 Vehicles 78,109-112 Halter Breaking 68-70 Lunging 70 Harness Breaking 71 Ground-Driving 72 Skidding 71-72 Training in Team 73 Trypanosomiasis 10,207 Tying Cattle 33-37 Equine33-36 Vehicles Braking and Backing with Harness92-95,106-113 Cart 112 Hitches to 106-113 Wagon106-112

Wagon, Hitches to 106-113 Water Requirements 40,194,200 Weed Control 139-145 Sweeps 120,139-143 Weeding and Banking 142 Weed Muzzle79,143 With Cultivator145 .o0 11911 -7117

244 244 Since 1961 when the Peace Corps was created, more than 80,000 U.S. citizens have served as Volunteers in developing countries, livingand working among-the people of the Third World as colleagues and co-workers.Tbday 6000 PCVs are involved in program designed to help strengthen local capacity to address.sudh fundamental concerns as food, production, water supply, energy development, nutrition and health education and reforestation.

Ioret miller Ruppe, Director Edward Curran. Deputy DirectorDesignate Richard B. Abell. Director, Office of Program Development

Peace Corps overseasoff icess SIERRA LEONE' BELIZE FIJI MAURITANIA" 1701Prvatai Bag P.O. Box 487 P.O. Box 1094 BP222 Freetown Belize City Suva Nouakchott SOLOMON ISLANDS BENIN GABON MICRONESIA P.O. Box 54 0-11798 T7571;57-136 g-01 Honiara Cotonou Libreville Saipan, Mariana Islands SWAZILAND BOTsWANA GAMBIA, The P.O. Box 362 P.O. Box 93 P.O. Box 582 MOROCCO ! Mbabane Gaborone Banjul 1. Zanquat Benzerte Rabat CAmkNOUN GHANA TANZANIA 111177, P.O. Box 5796 Box 9123 Yaounde Accra (North) NEPAL Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 613 Kathmandu CENTRAL AFRICAN GAMMA THAILAND REPUBLIC 6a Avenida 1-46 7237Korprasong 2 17-1U Zona 2 NIGER Petchhuri Road Bangui Guatemala UP M37 Bangkok 4 Niamey HONnuRAS TOGO OJSTA RICA Apartado Postal Apartaoo Postal MAN BP 3194 C-51 Lome 1266 Tegucigalpa P.O. Box 966 Sar, Jose muscat JAMAICA TONGA PAPUA NEW GUINEA 9 Musgrove Avenue RP 147 P.:/. Box 1790 Kingston 10 Nuku'Alofa Boroko KENYA DJPInICAN REPUHL1C TUNISIA P.O. box 30518 B.P. 96 Apartado Mostal PARAGUAY Nairobi 1002 Tunis - belvedere 1414 c/o American Enhassy Tunis Santo Dooingo LESOTW3 Asuncion P.O. Box 554 tAsTERN CARP UPPER VOLTA Maseru BP 537 -Sanandin Including: Antigua PHILIPPINES Ouagadougou Barnados, Grenada, LIBERIA P.O 013 Montserrat, Box 707 Manila. St. Kitts-Nevis, Monrovia St.Lucia,St. MANUA WESTERN SAMOA P.O. Fax 88U Vincent, Dominica c/o American Embassy MALAWI Apia "Erin Court" 71708 Kigali bishmps Court hill Lilongwe YEMEN P.O. Box 696-C SENEGAL P.O. Pox 1151 bridgetodn, Barbados MALAYSIA BP 2534 Sana'a 17771ifin Raja Ruda Dakar Kuala Lumpur ECUADOR ZAIRE SEYCHELLES BP 697 Casilla 635-A MALI Quito N716 Box 564 Kinshasa Bamako Victoria 0.

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