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Progressive Plans and Urban Realities in St Progressive Plans and Urban Realities in St. Louis, 1890-1918 A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2019 Katie C. Myerscough School of Arts, Languages and Cultures 2 Contents Abstract 3 Declaration 4 Copyright Statement 5 Acknowledgements 6 Introduction 8 Chapter One - Inspiration, Instruction, and Imperialism: Constructing Racial and Gendered Knowledge at the World’s Fair 39 Chapter Two - Private and Public Interests in the Progressive Projects of the St. Louis Civic League, 1901-1916 79 Chapter Three - The Expansion and Contraction of the Female Dominion in St. Louis’s Public Space, 1890-1916 120 Chapter Four - Clubs, Committees, and Commercial Practices: How African American Women in St. Louis Attempted to Rework Race and Respectability 151 Chapter Five - Silent Films, Swimming Pools, and Segregated Housing: Enforcing and Protecting White Space in St. Louis, 1913-1916 183 Conclusion - ‘In Order That the City Might Become Something of a Satisfactory Economic and Social Entity’: Zoning and Further Attempts to Determine City Space 225 Bibliography 238 Word count: 86,873 3 Abstract A synergy of spatial and social analyses of the city of St. Louis is made in this thesis. It provides an interrogation of the built environment and how people perceived urban space, what they wanted it to look like, what they imagined it represented, and who they thought belonged there. In this way, both the description and the experience of the city is considered. Issues of belonging and exclusion, the public good and private interests, and real and imagined geographies are of central concern. This thesis argues that women’s activism and reform activity in the city increased as their private concerns about the household and child welfare expanded into the public domain. However, female influence and authority was quickly usurped by male reformers and city boosters, who claimed expertise and professionalism in the urban environment. The experience of curtailment differed according to race, because African American women created opportunities to direct racial uplift and develop notions of respectability in their community. Hence, African American women used the marked and increasingly segregated racial space of the city to their advantage. They were, however, still contained by racial and gendered prejudice. Race, and how it was enacted in city space, is further investigated and this thesis argues that certain types of segregation happened in the city due to the particularity of St. Louis and the places within it. New leisure spaces, an increased concern about property prices, and civic celebrations of white successes and superiority contributed to the imposition of segregation measures. Contentions around ethnicity continued throughout this period. By supporting segregation measures the small, but not insignificant, ethnic population of St. Louis chose to be white. The description of whiteness is both made, and further complicated, through the occupation and claim to certain spaces and activities. By investigating the relatively under-studied city of St. Louis this thesis offers new approaches to how space was perceived and how it was used to underscore or change social categories. Cultural geographers have been interested in how definitions of place and space are made, how they change over time, and how they are related to and help enforce concepts of race, gender, ethnicity, and class. This thesis provides concrete examples of how such processes happened in an American city during the Progressive period. 4 Declaration No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. 5 Copyright Statement i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trademarks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=2442 0), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/about/regulations/) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses. 6 Acknowledgements This thesis has been a long-time in the making, so there are many people to thank. Firstly, my wonderful supervisors David Brown and Natalie Zacek. Without their continued support and guidance, I would have been lost. They have both pushed and cared for me, and I cannot thank them enough nor can I put into words what this experience has meant to me. Charlotte Wildman was also incredibly helpful in the early stages of this project, and Julie Fiwka has been fantastic as it comes to its close. During my short-but-sweet time in St. Louis I made use of the excellent Missouri Historical Society, the State Historical Society of Missouri-St. Louis, the St. Louis Mercantile Library, and the Washington University in St. Louis Department of Special Collections. Thank you to everyone who helped me and guided me on my first research trip, particularly Charles Brown at the Mercantile and Zelli at SHSM. Extra special thanks goes to Dennis Northcott at the Missouri Historical Society for showing me around St. Louis, trying to introduce me to American sports, feeding me, and making me laugh. Mary Dee Brown was also the best Air BnB host a girl could wish for, thank you so much for all your help and hospitality. The many friends I have made at conferences organised by HOTCUS, SHAW, and BAAS and others also deserve much thanks. Thank you to Mark McLay and Malcolm Craig for inviting me to appear on their podcast American History Too, to talk about my research. Having the opportunity to present and discuss my ideas has been a nerve- racking joy. I have also met and been supported by many lovely people at the University of Manchester, thank you to everyone in the American Studies department. I want to give special mention to Matthew Stallard, Carina Spaulding, and Patrick Doyle because they have kept me sane and well hydrated; thank you for the conversations, the laughs, the ideas, and the inspiration. I would also like to thank all my colleagues at Marks and Spencer. I have worked there throughout the lifetime of this project and I have been supported and encouraged by so many people, particularly a host of my very understanding managers: Jill Polley, Lisa Caveney, Joanne Foster, Ian Smith, Amanda Quinn, and Dawn Navarro. Thank you for the shift swaps, reduced hours, and extended holiday time to go to St. Louis. To my current colleagues, you do a great job supporting retail and an even better job supporting me. My friends and family have supported me in many ways and I thank them all. I cannot wait to spend more time playing with my little nephew Elliott and catching up on everything I have missed. Thank you all for your patience and understanding. This thesis is dedicated to my Gran and Nana, Edna Myerscough and Elsie Greenwood who sadly both passed away during its writing. I am so blessed to have had, and known, such wonderful grandparents. Part of the focus of this project has been to uncover the influence of women, and these two certainly have had a great and lasting influence on me and many, many others. Last but certainly not least, my amazing partner Patrick Taylor. Thank you so much. I owe you many years of making the tea, putting the bins out, and cleaning up. Over the seven years this project has taken there has been deaths and divorces, births and marriages, festivals and festive jollity, a marathon has been run and Hadrian’s Wall 7 has been walked (well nearly), and the one constant has been your love and support. Thank you for the proof reading, the emotional support, the motivation, and the distraction. I literally could not have done this without you. I love you. 8 Introduction Floating in a hot air balloon high above the Mississippi River, Camille Dry quickly sketched the cityscape before him. He was looking at St. Louis in 1875. The cartographer was in the process of creating the monumental Pictorial St. Louis, a precise and detailed perspective drawing of the city.1 The inland city Dry looked down upon was situated at the confluence of major natural waterways and was a hubbub of activity.2 He drew the waterfront which was jammed with steamboats carrying passengers and cargo, the customers huddled outside store fronts, and the horse-drawn carriages and trolleys which trundled up and down the wide city streets.
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