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u.s., Department, of Justice Bureau qf Justices Special Report 2! ' \:\ \\ 1.\ 1\ ,I, -1 \\ I

\'\ " ~ " \, , J, ~ II \\

.' " e Prevalence" \\, ' ' ",' "'f;::'''''',' ' \

Imprisortment 'l

r~· By Patrick A.Langan, Ph.D. w~th the assistance of July 1985 Lawrence A. Greenfeld ,/ '~ BJS Statisticians With this study, the Bureau of dynami(J terms, however, ~eveals Justice Statistics introduces a,new that ttie proportion of the Nation's , In the 1960s, While crime soared, statistical indicator measuring the population affected by imprison": prfson populations declined. What fol­ useof imprisonment as a sanction mel1~ is higher than might " lowed in the 1970s was a marked shift for crime. The prevalence of. pr~~iiottsly, have. been l'ealizrd. in national opinion: increasingly, the imprisonment indicator, along with Mc;reover, it suggests that the public began,tci demand thatthe jUitice the annual count of prison inmates, <errent and incapacitative system get tougher with criminals. gives a comprehensive portrait of pbtentialof prisori ma;f be larger The response of ,the justice system the,~mericanprison system, in than previously thought. seemedimIUediate. From 1970 to 1979, both static and dynamic terms. Estimates of the prevalence of the imprisonment rate surged a record While the, annual count of inmet~~ , incarceration are useful for 8.' ',~

39%, the largest single decade increase reveals the number of prison in-:­ number of otherl'l:!8.sonsas well. " , since the, 1920s, when the Federal mates on 1 day, the prevalence Presenting incarceration rate data government started keeping records on ';."" indicator measures the cumulative in this form facilitates comparison 1 '", State and Federal pr~son populations. effect on the~ation's population of the likelihood of imprisonment· The 32% increase during the 1930s is of admitting and releasingcoinm,?tes with other prevalence indicators of the closest any other decade has come froin State. prisons. , , ' significant liCe events increasingly '" to this record.· , The findings of this st~dy ques­ being used to convey important Since the 1970s, imprisonment rates tion some widely held beliefs about epidemiologicalinfOl;ination to the \ ,0 have continuedto climb. With a 36<;'6 prisons, about deterrence (the public. TheSe dEl.ta are valuable , increase in just the first five years of inhib~ting effect of the threat, of for planning purposes irianticipat':' .~\ the 1980s, and with further increases imprisonment.on the criminal ac­ ing future prison populations. The ::', 'projected for the remainder of the de,­ tivity of people),a,nci about, inca-::­ prevalence indicator is also useful '\,~~ , cade, indications are that the impris­ pacita~ion (the effect thatrprisons for measuring recidivism, or the 1\ " o!1mentrl!cte increase of the 1980s ;nay have on reducing crime by 0pre~ , ' percentage released from prison turn out to be the biggest ever. " " venting offenders from committing who eventually return to serve The significance of these statistic'S crimes.in society). The fact that another sentence. These, detailed " on the changing imprisonment rate Is so few criminals go to prison measures ,of IiCetimerecidivism 1) of~ that they area measure-perhaps the relative to the large volume establish a natiol1al benchmark" \ \' II .. measure-bywhiqh the public gauges serious crime convinces ,many tliat (the Cirst ,oilts killd) against which ,.1, government response to crime. But prisons9annQ(possiblyhave much future claims of superior cOrl'ec­ r~. \ ' these statistics do not speak for them­ of 8. deterrent orincapacitative tional eCficacy can1>e evaluated. . ,1 selves. The chahging imprisonment effect on crime., Assessing toe Steven:R; Schlesinger "', rate is actually a measure ,of the num­ States' use of imprisonment in Director " \ ber ,of persons (usually per 100,000 pop­ \ \ .~ ulation) in prison on a single day in ,one year relative to the number:inprisonon a single day 'in anptherYear.The vari­ This study translateS imprisonmel1t lions of ;recol'd prison population growth iii' , . ousirnplications ofa change in these , rates intomoreea~ily understood , in the 197(1s. Thefin~rrigspresented •• single-day counts are not q,bvious. terms, better to convey the implica- disclose tha tthe proportion of thE! pop- .' \~ ,~: 00 "

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1,'- ii; \\ {I ,,, ula~ion ?un~shedby imprisonment (and II ,I f~ Diffltrences in recidivisll\, betweEln ", l by. Implicatl(~n'; found guilty of serious: obt~in~ its statistical da.ta through ~l n cru~e) is m~ch larger than many may , the sexe&\, and betwElEln the raCeS are perIodIC censuses and surveys. An f'~ . \~ I r~alIze and I~ also"much larger than the found to be much smaller than differ­ 11 % of the total adult popUlation of the of both males and females increased 1 in every 10,000 adult white females in r ! ences in p~evalence. In other words an!lual cens~!,l of inmates' of State 1 1 s~ngle-day prison population counts in\\. United States was black. Throughout each year between 19781, and 19~2. At the United States were in a State I recidivism \\ates among male and fe~ I,>rlsons provides counts of the number dlCate. " , ' ,~ mi· . Ii Is this same period (the most recent yearend 1982, .455% of the Nation's prison. 1 a e crlmIn~\ show small differences and dem.ographic characteristics of ~ I The study also shows that abovV!(alf persons In prIson confinemElnt. A '/ period for which national datu 01) the adult males(or 1 in every 220) versus 01' the three male population seg­ of all prison admissions do not riturn although mallls nave a much higher ' ra.cial composition of State prison popu­ .01896 of the Nation's adult females (or ments, other males ar~ apparently least tf pr?bability th~f1 females of being in survey of inmates of Stat~i>risons, 4'7% of prisoners l for subsequent reincarceration. cond.ucted about every five years, lations are available), 1 in e'very 5,556) were in State prisons." likely to be in prison. From 1978 to The study introduces a new statisti­ pr~son on any g\v,en day or of serving a confined in adult State prisons were 1982 other males were conSistently, p~ls?n sentence ~~,n their lifetime. provlde~ more extensive information cal indicator measuring the pervasive­ on COnfIned persons. blEi,<:k."However, during this period, Sex and race (table 1). Differences though only sligh tly, less likely than ?es:' of State imprisonment. The BJS SI~~arly, recidivism rates among black blacks were also 44% to 47% of all the in the prevalence of imprisonment bt;l­ white males to be in prison. On ~rlmmaIs and white criminals show , . BJS has sponsored two nation­ indicator of prevalence of imprison­ wI.de surveys of inmates of State persons arrested forUCR index violent tween the sexes are larger than diff(ir­ December 31, 1982, 1 irt every 376 ment measures both the percentage of little ~ifference although blacks are 17" Gr-.irne and 29% to 33% of all those ar­ ences between the races, indicating, for white males vs. 1 in every 437 other m?re likely than whites either to be in prisons. The firljf was conducted the Nation's population confined in m January 1974, the second in rested for UeR index property crime. example, that the probability of being males were in State prison confine­ State prisons on any given daY'lind the pr~son on any given d~y or to serll.e 7 The report begins with the preva-, in prison varies more bysex than by ment. prIson sentenc,e in tneir lifetime ;S,! October 1979. Both involved Cace­ lence of State imprisonment in the Of the three female population percent~ge that will ever have se,t'ved a to-fac: interviews with large, repre­ race. Throughout the period from1978 S.tate prison sentence in their life- During the period from 1978 to 1982 United States on ariy given day in the to 1982, blacks, regardless of their sex, segments, black females have the high­ (the .m.ost recent peri9d for which race­ se~tatIvl samples of inmates of State years 1978 (the' first ye,llr in which the were typically about 8 times more like­ est chances of being in prison on any time. This indicator is more readily prisons. (See appendix tables A and specIfic national data are available) annual prison census collected informa­ ly ~o be in prison than either whiteS or given day in the United States. understood than the conventional "rate B for details.} 0- per 100,000" used to measure impris­ t1~e preval~nce of imprisonment on ~ny tion on race) to 1982 (the most recent others; but m!lles, regardless of their Throughout the period from 1978 to gIVen day mcreased for all six of the The most recent inmate censuses onment leve~s; i~ facilita.tes com pari­ year for which race-specific national race, were af least 17 times more likely 1982, black females were at least 8 segments that makeup the Nation's and. the two inmate surveys form the data are available). " to be in prison;.than females of the times more likely to be in prison than s~ns of the likelIhood of Imprisonment population: white males, black males, baSIS ~or a .study of the prevalence of prevalence indicators of I same race. white females'imd at least 6 times Y:'lt~ ~ther other males, white females, black State Imprisonment. "Prevalence" re­ s.lgm.flCant life events (such as the What is the prevalence of adult ~~te Of the six population segments, more likely than other females. females, and other females. The fers to the proportion 9f the Nation-'s imprisonment on any given day? black males have the highest chances of From 1978 to 1982, the prevalence 1!f~tlme probability of being iiI a population in prison. The, term can ap­ largest increase Occurred among white 11 being in prison on any given day. This serIOus automobile accident dr of con­ ply. to the entire popUlation of the of imprisonment increased ovel'all tracting a particular disease)} females; the smallest increase occurred Total (table I}. Data indicat~ that, conclusion is supported by data from among each of the six population seg­ among other females. Umted States, as in the question "what on any given day, prisoners in al;! the the years 1978 to 1982. During this ments. The largest increase over the . The prevalence of imprisonment in­ percen!age of the total U.S. popUlation dicator has many other appliciitions. It !rom 1973 to 1979 (the most recent adult State prisons in the Unite~ States perjod black males were at least 8 five-year span occurred among white perIod for which extensive national' IS m prIson on a single day?" or "what number about one-fifth of 1% fOfthe times more likely to be, in prison than females (a 43% increase); the smallest ?l~y .be valuable for planning ~urposes p~rcentage of the total U.S. popUlation If I~ I~ applied in local contexts to ~a ta. are avaUable), estimates of the Nation's total adult populatio~j (or about white, males or other males, 204 times occurred among other females (a 9% lifetime prevalence of a first impris­ ~Ill ~ve;,~ave been in prison in their anticipate future needs for prison 1 in every 500 adults). Durintl the more likely than white females, 25 increase). I onment increased for all four of the l~fetlme. It can also refer "to popula­ spa~e. Researchers may use it ina period from 1978 to 1982, th!'~ preva­ times more likely than black females, C;, var.lety of contexts to study public pOP?lation segments for which data are tIon segm~,nts,as in the question "what lence of State imprisonment: increased and 151 times more likely than other Sex, race, and age (table 2). Data aV~ilable: white males, black males, pe!,centage ~f the Nation's males are in policy toward crime control. , It can be ~1ach year from a low,~f. .17!~% in 1978 females. On a single Clay in 1982, the, from the inmate surveys (the only e prIson on a smgle day?" or "What per­ used to measure prison recidivfs[h, or whIte f:males, and black females. The (or 1 in every 571 adults) to a high of mos,t recent year for which race­ available source of national data on the the percentage of State prison inmates largest Increase occurred among black centageof the Nation's males will ever .227% in 1982 (or 1 jn every 441 adults). specific national data are available, age composition of the prison popula­ have been i~ prison in their lifetime?" who return to "prison to serve additional female~; t~e smallest increase occurred 2.04% of the Nation's adult black males tion) indicate that the'~l?revalence of among white females. The subject of thisstudy is the pre­ Sex (table 1). On any, given day (or 1 in every 49) were in State prisons. imprisonment is highest among blacl< sen~el\ces. The~stablishment oC such a valence. of imprisonment among six !1~tlOnal barome{er (the first of its T~e probabili ty of being in prison on males are about 26 times more likely to On any given day white females are males in their twenties. On a single", an;r given day or of eyer serving a populatIon segments: white males, be in prisori than females. From 1978 the l\lBist likely of the six popUlation day in 1974, an estimated 2.55% (01' 1 in kmd) of ~ow successful the Nation's prison sentence (aside from being State prisons are in reducing crime may black males, males of all other races to 1981 the'ratio fluctuated between 26 segm~iit5 to be in prison. This conclu­ every 39) of all the black males aged 20 convicted) varies more by sex than by (hereafter rElferred to as "other" males and 27 to 10 In 1982 the ratio dropped sion is supported by data from the peri­ to 29 in the United States were in State beco,me .a benchmark against which fu.., race. Still, among males and females are Asian, Pacific Islander 14 tur~, claims of superIor correctional ' ~hey A,mer~ to 25 to 1, indicating a slight narrowing' od 1978 to 1982, throughout which prisons. On a single day in 197 9 (the efficacy can be evaluated. blacks a;e found to have higher chanc~s Ica!! Indian, and Alaskan Native), 9 of the difference, in the prevalerice of white females had the lqwest one-day , most recent year for which age-sl?ecific t~an whites of being in prison on any white females, black females, and fe- " , imprisonment betWeen males and fe­ prevalence rates. Their highest rate national data are available), a Signifi­ Ii Summary of findings gIVen day or of ever servilll! a prison ~ales of aU othElr rllces (hereafter re­ males.The prevalence of imprisonment over this period Occurred in 1.982, when cantly higher (at the .05 level) percent­ sentence ,in their lifetime S' This f ferre~ to as "?!her" ~emales). A long­ ag~ or an estimated 3.03% (1 in every As used in this st~dy. the term finding ~e~t.her confirms;or rules out standmg tradItion eXists in criminologi­ Table 1. 'The prevalence or State imprisonment or adults in 'the United States on 33)~all the black males aged 20 to 29 the pOSSibility of racial discrimination cal researc~ for investigations into the ,pecember 31, 1978,to 1982, total aduJ,t population, by sex, and by sex and race in the \Tffited States, were in State :'p::valence" of Stat.. ,:'imprisonment by. the justice system. Comp~l1ing demographIC characteristics of appre­ Im.tla~y re~ers to the probability of prisons~[ The 1974 and 1979 estimates eVidence relevant to that issue comes hended ~ffe~ders. The subject is rf~'te­ PopUlation Percent o~ adUI~',population').s and over in State prisons on December 31, for blaak males are significantly higher bemg m prison on any given day~ and 1/ :'1979 1980 1981 1982 not from studies comparing the racial vant to key Issues in criminology, in­ segment 197j~ Ii I l?te~, to the probability in a per~on's' D (at the ~h5 level) than comparable age- composition of prison popUlations with cluding, for example, the causes ~nd 'J, lifetime Of ever serving a prison Total- .175%,' .179% .204% .227% sp:c¥1{! estimates for white males, ;. -;" 0186% the rac~al compositionl'of, the 'national prevention of crime, the prediction of " // " othff males, white,,females, black fe­ sentence: Recidivism refers to the populatIon, but from stlliHes co'mparing future criminality, the, me,llsurement of Male· ), ,;" .353 :/,1 ,', •359 .373 . .411 ;455 l ", m-a.es, or other females • chanc~s In a person's lifetime of the rac~al co"!position of 'prison ?f~end.er characteristics, Md equality White ':',f) , 204 (I c .209 .218 I' .242 • 266 re~urnmg to prison after serving a prior Black '::,1"1:665': 1.667 1.703 " 1.859 2.044 populatIOns With that of all offenders In Justice administration.1U 'I' ','1'92, " I, prison sentence. ' Other·· .202 .1.89 .207 .229 What is the lifetime ~rValence of adult engaged in serious" illlprisonable crime. Interestin populstioll segments also , (~1" " State imprisonment?" . Bet~Jeen 62 and 71 % oC all first­ " "', Female· 'r'~:,I .. 0,Ja,!r, , ,.!; .014 .014 .016 ,.018 stems, ~rom two facts about. prisons in .( White " .00'[' '" .007 7 .009 .010 tU!le prison admissions do not return to () ·U0 The data the. Umted States. First, inmate popu- f Black .0(\2 .063 .062 .a73 .082 p.rlson ~ second' ~ilne. Among second- ' Althqugh oJlly about one-fiftll of 1% Other" .ob .011 1009 .Olt .012 of the Nation'S aqult population is in time prison admissions, between 54 and .This report is one in a series using la tIons a, r, e a, 1m,,,0, s, t exc,lusiV,"e, ,lY (In ale., ' "I,,j, For example, from 1978 to 1982 males I NOTE: Rounding obscures certain year- State prison confinement on any given 60% do not return for a third impris­ natIonal data on crime to address 'issues were n~t quite 50% of thEl gener~l: "I Cor !re years 19'U!, to 19B1 are r~om U.S.' onm~nt; While 47 to 58% 'of third",time to-year Increases In the prevalence of im- Cens\ls Bureau, Current Population Reports, day, this seemingly small figure can be of public arid' policy concern, The re­ populat~on of th,e United States but " prlsonment. Also, some table percentages Series" P-25, No. 917',Prellminary Estimates ",0' ' admissions do not serve a fourthp'M~on mi~leading. Imprisonment of even a port presents results from a study based were a~proximately 96% of State priso~ are very slightly inflated since they a~e . of the POl!ulation of Ihe United Statesl b;t small fraction of a population as large sen~e!!~e. As would be expected, the based on a numerator (the number of m- " Agel Sex and Race: 1970 to 1981, USGPO, on surveys and censuses sponsored by populations. (, During this p,eriod they , 1 as that of the United States (roughly reCidiVism rate amollg inmates in­ the Bur~au of Justice Statistics. were also 90% of the persons arrested ' 'I mates) that includes persQns under age 18" washington, D.C., 1982; for the year 1982, creases with the num'ber of prison scn­ ;. and a denominator (the adult population) from. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Popula- 175 minion adults) translates to The Bureau of JUstice Statistics f?r FBI U~iform Crime Reports Inde'xf ,i that only includes persons 18 and over. ' tion Reports, SeriesP-25, No. 929, Estl- hundreds of thousands of persons in ten~es served, since the more hardened, (~JS) is ~ Federal government agency v~olent crIme and from 78% to 79% oil Inmate population data are from the annual mates of the P0l!ulatlon of t.heUnited ?abltual offenders make up, anincreas­ State prisY9s (429,603 as of December Y:'lth major respon~!bility for the collec­ all tho~e,arrf£ted, ~?,r,Uo,R,'i' ind, ex propJ , I publication Prisoners in State and Federal Statesl b;t Agel Sex, ,and Race: 1980 to 31, 1984). Moreover, the small frac- Ing pr()P?rtion?f secOn?f;"hird and ' analYSIS, and 'tissemination of sta- Institutions on December 3~ 1978,1919" 1982 USGPO, washlngton, 1983. fourth-time prison admlsslbns. t~OJy erty crl.me.) Se~,Ond, prIsons contaii 1980, 1981,and1982, U.S. epartment of ifricft'udcs lorna tes whose race Is not I{nown. tion in confinement on a single day , bstIcal data on crim'e andjustice.BJS proportIonately more blacks than the, \1' ,I J\lstlce, Bureau of Justice Statistics, ,r .·InciUdes Aslan,Paclfic Islander, American masks the possibility that over some general popUlation. Ft'om 1978 to 1982' .' Washington: USGFO, 1980, '81, '82, '83,'and Indian, and, Alaskan Native. period longer than a day (say, a life- \1 , '., ' ,j? '84, respectively. population estimates 2 u.S. () /' 3 --~------

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J) A' II

Table 2.:\~ prevalence of State imprisonment of adults in the United Sta~s V 1979 Jmd therbfore could not possibly states today is estimated tll have be-.. in 40) and 4% (or 1 in 25) chance in hiS Sex and race (tll.ble3). Differences 01\ a sing~e day in 1974 and 1979, by sex, race and age I "have included ewery inmate admitted in tween a 1.396 (or 1 in 77) and 2.196 (or 1 lifetime of sel'ving a State prison sen­ in the lifetime prevalence of imprison- , "---"1" 197M A 1973 census and a 1979 census in 48j lifetime chance of serl'ling a sen­ tence, whereas a female has between" a ment between the sexeS are larger. than' Percent of [!opulation in State prisons on a single, day , " ;1 " of ad!llissions of sentenced persons to tence 11n an adult .State prison. These .1796 (or 1 in 588) and .2796 (or 1 in 370) differences between the raq~s, indica­ Population 60 and \: adultState prisons both provide an figuresdo not show that betw,een 1.396 lifetime 'Chance. t.ing that the lifetime probability of segment '\ 13-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 'J over \1 • . (' ',) \ \ oye~estllnate of the total number of and 2.1'~ of all the elderly people in the At 1979 imprisonment levels, a male imprisonment varies more by sex than 19t4 \ sentl~nced adults admitted to State Nation 1.oday have a prison re~prd in is about 14 times more likely to serve a by race. Based on both 1973 and 1979 Male prisons in 1973and':1979 because it is their background. What they do show is State prison tet'ffi in his lifetime than a prison data, blacks, regardless of their White .057% .304% .208% .106% .045% .014% ( likE1iY that some of the inmates were that, if ,imprisonment rates continue female. Betwlden 3.296 (or 1 in 31) and sex, are 6 to 7 times more likely than Black .396 2.550 1.444 .753: .329 .091 colintep more than o,pce in the censuses long into the future at :their 197~\ 5.196 (or 1 in 20) of the males born in whites to serve a sentenc('!~ ;heir Female " White *.001 :m2 .010 .004 *.001 *.0001 When, for one reaSon.or another, they . levelS, the day will eVentually cOI:ne the United States, versus between .25% lifet.ime; but males, regak'1ess of their Black .012 , .079 .040 ·.OO~ *.004 *.001 '. ,,{ere aqmitt~~ to prison rore than, one II whep between 1.396 and 2.1 % of the (or 1 in 400),and .37% (or 1 in 270) of racc\, are more than 12' times more 'i II; ,/ 2 1979 ',/ time in ;1.973 or 1979. . Nation's elderly will have ser~ed at the females; would be expected to likely to serve a sentence in th'eir Male f .. '~, The i974 and 197.9 inmate surveys least one prison sentence in their life­ serve a Sta.te prison sentence in their lifetime than females of the same race. -W!lite .069 .410"" • 246 .ills .043 .011 bd\h provide an estimate of the number time• lifetime if 19.79 imprisonment levels Bl!lck .442 3.027 2.003 ·156 .390 .123 continue into the future. Female of ~,entenced persons at each age who From 1973 to 1979, a significant (at It i.~ estimated that a black male White .003 .016 .010 005 , .002 ·.0001 were admitted to State prisons fOli, the the .05 level) increase in the:Rfevale~ce The slight narrowing of the differ­ born in\the United States today is 6 (at Black .009 .124 .094 'j:.035 .012 *.003 \\ first time in their lives in,th21.2grs " of first admissions occurred. Cons\~­ ence in the lifetime prevalence of im­ 1979 inh>risonment levels) to 7 times 1973 and 1979, respectively.' (See quently, estimates of the lifetime pre~­ prisonm,Emt between males and females (at 1973\levels) more likely to serve a NOTE: Estimates applicable to all other U.S. popuI!!tionestimates are fromU.S. appendix tables 'i:A and B for details.) valence of imprisonment based on these that oC,curred froln 1973 to 1979 re­ State prison sentence in his lifetime races are not shown becauSe of known Bureau of~hle Census, Current Population years increased significantly by about' flects the fact that female incarcera­ inconsistences between census and survey . Reports, {,eries P-25, No. 917, Preliminary These numbers lire used to calculate than a w~,ite male. Between 10.2% (or procedures for designating "other" race. Estimate!s of the Po[!ulation of the DOlted inmate survey estimates of the lifeti~e 3096 from 1973 to 1979. At 1979 im­ tion r~~es during this period incre9sed 1 in 10) arId 16.5% (or 1 in 6) of black TaQle percentages are computed from data prisonment levels, a person born in the Statesl ~,y Agel Sexi and Race.,1970 to 1981, prevalence of imprisonment. When faster than male i·ates. Nevertheless, males, versus between 1.5% (or 1 in 67) contained in two sources: . estimates of USGPO,/Washington, 1982, Ts,,'I'e 1, pp.l1- . multiplied by certain constants corre­ United States today is estimated to for b,oth males and females a signifi­ and 2.496 «()r 1 in 42) of white males, inmates of adult State prisons are from the 12 18-$9. '--.l have between a 1.796 (or 1 in 59) and cant'(at the .05 level) increase occurred 1974. and the 1979 nationwide surveys of is based'-on 10 or fewer sample 'isponding to the factor by which ~~nsus would be expected to 'serve at least one .E~tilT),~te 2.7% (or 1 in 37) lifetfme cha.nce of inmlltcs of State correctional institutions; cases.!! counts exceed survey estimates, CrolA 1973 to 1979 nn the number of State senter~ce in their lifetime if 1973 ail I. these numbers are also used to calcu­ serving a sentence in adult State , fir~tadmissions to prison. As a result, impri~ollmen~ rates continue into the ;(I' late admissions Census estimates·of the pl'ison. estimates of the lifetime. prevalence of future. 3U At 1979 rates, a black male time) the p'ercentage of the population persons admitted to State pris(ms in the lifetime prevalence ofimprisonment. imprisonment based Ion data from these born in thEil Uhited States is estimated that will eVer have been in prison may United States in 1973 (see app~ndix Admissions census estimates take into Sex (table 3). At 1973 imprisonment y,~ars also increased signi~icant1y for to have betwe:~n an 11.696 (9r about 1 in be substantiaL tables A and B) and, in conjunction with account the fact tha.t more sentenced levels, a male in the United States is both males and J;emales. Admission 9) and 18.7% (or 1 in 5) chance in his The lifetime prevalence of impris­ a 1973 Census of the number 'of State persons entered prisons in 1973 and almost 15 tim4f's more likely to serve a census estimate.~'increased 30% for lifetime of serving a sentence in an onment in an adult State prison is esti­ prison admissions, is used to produce 1979 for the first time in their lives pl'ison term in tlis lifetime than a fe­ males and 3496 for females.' . adult State p!:isonj a white male has be­ mated from. information on persons en­ two estimates of the lifetime than the 1974 and 1979 inmate surveys male. A mal~ has between Ii ~'~,~(or 1 tween a 2.1% (or 1 in 48) and 3.3% (or 1

tering adult State prisons in the United prevalence of State imprisonment in indicatej the constants give some indi­ " in 30) lifetime chance. States in a single year. The number of the United States: an inmate survey cation of how many more. Table 3. Inma~ Surveyed Admissidaw b'ensus estimates of the lifetime prevalence persons entering at each age for the estimate and an admissions census To illustrate, the 1979,inmate sur­ of imprisonmcrit.in adult State lX'~ in the United States, based on 1973 and 1979 A black female is 6 (at 1973 impris­ first time in their lives is critical for estimate. The second s'1rvey, vey estimates that 87,881 sentenced prison data, total U.s. population. by sex, and by tleX and race. onment levels) to 8 (at 1979 levels) this purpose. The nUmber of such first conducted in October 1979, provides males entered State prisons in 1979. Prevalence estimate: percent of population expected to serve a first times more likely to serve p. prison sen­ admissions at each age, as a fraction of details on a sample of persons admitted The 1979 admissions census records senten~e in lifetime, based on number and demographic character- tence in her lifetime than Ii white fe­ 0 the t.otal U.S. population at toat age, to State prisons in the United States in 141,4'/7 admissions of sentenced males Isticsci:(persons admitted to prison for the first tim~ in th¢ir lives male. At 1973 imprisonment levels, a indicates the proba.bility of a first the year 1979 (see tables, A and B in the in 1979. Thus the census suggests about 's..~.' in 1973 1~'1979 " white female born in the United States .imprisonment occurring at each age. If appendix) and, in conjunction with a. ~.6 times (1.6098702 to be precise) Population Inmate Admissions Inmate Admissions today would have' between a .1196 (or 1 first-time imprisonment rates are 1979 census of the number of State more male admissions than the survey. segment Survey Census Survey Census in 909) and .1896 (orl in 556) chance in stable over a long period of time, then prison admissions, is also used to Multiplying the inmat(l survey estimate her ,lifetime of serving a sentence in an the sum of the probabilities of first produce two estimates of the lifetime of the number of male first admissions Total· 1.306% 2.107% 1.713% 2.742% a,dult State prisonj a black female, be­ imprisonments at each age forms an prevalence of State imprisonment in at each age by,- the constant 1.6 (actu­ Male· 2.453 3.954 3.182 5.123 tween a .6% (or 1 in 16'1) and 196 (or 1 estimate of the lifetime prevalence of the United States: an inmate survey ally 1.6098702) produces the numbers White 1.491 2.404 2.053 3.305 in 100) lifetime chance. A,t 1979 irri'­ 0 Black 100226 16.488 11.590 18.658 imrydsonmerit in an adult State pris- estimate and an admissions census that are used to calculate the 1979 ad­ " prisonment levelS, a white female born on. ThUS, for example, the lifetime estimate. .. " missions census estimate of the life­ Female· .166 .273 .251 .367 in the United States today would have White .110 .181 .138 .201 prevalence of imprisonment for males The reason for two estimates (an time p2~valence of imprisonment of Black .610 1.004 1.030 1.509 between a .1496 (or 1 in 714) arid .296 (see appendix table C) is the probability inmate survey estimate and an admis­ males. (or 1 in 500) chance in her lifetime of of a male serving a first sentence at sions census estimate) in each case . In summary, data for each of two NOTE: Estimates applicable to all other races 1975), and Prisoners in State and Federal Insti- serving a sentence in an adult State are not shown separately because of known age 13 (the youngest age, recorded in (1973 and 1979) rather than a single es­ years (1973 and ~979) are used to calcu­ tutiO/lS on December 31 1 1979 (National Prls- prisonja black female would have be­ Inconsistences between census and survey pro- oner Statistics Bulletin No. NPS-PSF-7, NCJ- an inmate survey, of a male entering an timate is that the number of first ad­ late two estimates of the lifetime pre­ cedures for designating "other" race. Demo- 73719, U.S. Dept of Justice, BJS, Washington: tween a 1% (or 1 in 100) and 1.5% (or 1 adult Stat1!prison to serve a first missions to State prisons in a given valence of adult State imprisc)flment (an graphic characteristics (including the ordinal USGPO, February 1981). U.S. population estl- 'in 67) chance in her lifetime. sentence), , plus the probability of a year-which, to repeat, is critical for inmate survey estimate and an admis­ number of sentence admitted for) Md, in the mates used to calculate prevalence estimates male serving a first sentence at 14, plus" estimating the lifetime prevalence of sions census estimate). Each estimate's case of inmate survey prevalence estimates; are from U.S. Census Bureau, Current Popula- For-all four popUlation segments for number of persons admitted to adult State tion Reports, Series P-25, No. 917, Preliminary which data are available-white males, the probability of a male serving a first imprisonment-is nowhere recorded ex­ size'is determined by the number of prisons are from the 1974 (Survey of Inmates Estimates of, the Po[!ulatl6n of tile United \,,~entence at 15; and soon through age plicitly. Available national data are persons estimated to have been admit­ of State Correctional Facilities and Census of State;!! b:i Age. Sex and Race: 1970 to 1981, black males, white females, and black '·."rJ4 (an arbitrarily selected upper age capable only of establishing a range ted to priscn for the first time inthe.ir State Aau[t correctlona[ i'aCllltiesl 19'14. Washmgton: USGPO, 1M2, Table 1, pp.ll-12, females-:a signific,@( (at the .05 level) limit). Though estimates of lifetime within which the actual number proba­ lives in 1973 and 1979, which in turn is ICPSR 7811, U.S. Dept of Justice, BJS, Ann 18-19. Also, inmate surveys provide under- increase occurred 1973 to 1979 in Arbor, MI: ICPSR, Fall 1983) and 1979 (~urve:i estimates and admissions censuses provide from o prevalence determined in this way are bly lies. determined by imprisonment levels in the estimated number of first admis­ of Inmates of State Correctional Facillttesl overestimates of the prevalence of imprison- in one sense hypothetical, they will The 1974 and 1979 inmate surveys 1973 and 1979, respectively. Because 1979 -ICPSR 7856, U.S. Dept of Justice, BJS, ment.In the case of Inmate survey estimates sions to adult State prisons. As are-" apply to I:eal populations if the annual both provide an underestimate of the theinma~e survey provides an under­ Ann Arbor, MIl .ICPSR, Fal1l981) surveys of for admission year 1979, correction for some sult, estimates of the lifetime preva­ imprisonment rates from which they total number of sentenced adults ad­ estimate"and the admissions census an inmates of State prisons. In the ca,se of ac!- or the underestimation 'can easily be made. lence of imprisQnment based on data , missions census prevalellce estimates, number Since the 1979 survey was conducted in Octo- from these Years also increased signifi­ are c01Buted remain stable into the mitted to State prisons in 1973 and overestimate of the lifetime prevalence or persons admitted to adult State prisons ber 1979, and therefore could not possibly have future. 1979 because it is unlikely t.hat all ihe of imprisonment, the true figure lies based on the inmate surveys are prO-rated to included all 1979 admissions, 1979. inmate sur- cantly. Admissions census estimates Lifetime prevalence estimates pre­ s~ntence~ adults ad,mitted in 19732 somewhere in between. . admission counts pUblished in Prisoners in vey prevalence estimates are ba.sed on data for indicate' that the lifetime prevalence of sented nere are primarily based on the and 1979 2 were in prison at the pre­ I. State and Federal Institutions on December 31; 10'out of 12 months in 197'9. To pro-rate 1979 imprisonment increased 3796 for white two .inmate surveys carried out during cise time the inmate surveys were con­ Total (table 3). At 1973 imprison­ 1971 1 19721 and 197~.JNational Prisoner Sta- " inmate survey prevalence estimates to the fuli males, 1396 for black male;;, 1196 for tlstlcs Bulletin No. SIJ~NPS-PSF-l. U.S. Dept 12 months, they~hould be multiplied by 1.2. c the 1970's. The 1974 survey provides duc.t~d. (To illustra!e,th~ 1!l.'79 inmate E!~~~n~y.5l1~~=~.J?~J·~gn=g.orn in the U_nite_d of.JYstl.!le, NCJl~5,WA!!h!naton! USGPQ,M.e" =o=~ '.Inclu"~~'-r-~~&.vf-an-vthorrai:c5. ·=-~~"·_~=~-'.·~'=·O - detailed informatlonoil iisamW;~of~~ surVey was conducled fiefore the end of 0_-_ .: / \,,4 • ,« > - « 1 + 5 ~--~~--, ~-- --~------\\ \ ------.------~'------~~:1 '\

',,'" .....--.---- ...... ------=~======~~~~~~~~w~~-- () , """>r>'e'",'"';"C;:::W"':<: '\' 'c" ' __"" "N""'"'' "__ '; .~~~~---,-L,-~-----_.~-.---~.~~_~~,_~~--=~~=~-a~-~~~-~-~-~".. ":,, "'~~-\- •. . ,: .' if '.' _ _. __., _=~~---=~~ ~ ~,. _~:X.:::_=::.::~_; ,-r~ \, , , II " I:~) \ Q 1\ \ ~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~, ... ~~~~ \ \ ' ~

•• C~ white females, 'and 5096 for black fe- ! tl'mers return to prl'son to serve a imprisonments, but this,lzannot be Table 4. 't\~mate Survey and Admissions Census estima~s of the lifetime )!Table 1. Estim'a~~d rates of recidiv~m from ,', " oc males. The biggest increase 'Was thus prevalEm~(pf a second imprisonment ill adult/~tate pr~~ in the United States, adult State priscl,IS!!in the United States, second sentence at a higher rate (35%) confirmed until the pl£\fI,oed inmate \~ 35 among black females; the smallest in­ based on. 9~ and 1,979 prISOn data, total U.S. P9PWation, ~y seX,i .. based on 1973 and i979 prison datil, total '\1, than white" male first-timers (28%), but survey is conducted in lat~ 19'&;5. and by sex It d race., \, " crease was amofl(5 white females. \~ . . . , '\ State prisoners, byi[Sex, and by sex and race. 'I the difference, though, statistically sig- : Estimates of the,Jifetime preva­ \, nificant (.051evel), is very small com­ Research procedures Prevalence estimate:. p(lrcent of p6~UlatiOn expected to serve a second Percent. of '. lence of imprisonment of males and sentence in lifetime, bascd on riumb€,r and demographic characteristics ~ pared to the sevenfold 9ifi'erence in I) 15t- 2nd- 3rC\- females of all other races are not pre­ of persons admitted to priSOn for the'\secQnd ti~e in their Uves II' . ti!llers timers., time~s \ imprisonment prevalenl:le rates between T~i& study uses research proce­ sented because of known discrepancies " in 1973 I' in 1979 i,:,'\ expected to return I black males and white males. T/le only dures that have long been known to between inmate ,surNey and admis~ions, , Population Inmate Admissions Inmate Admissions \\ .to prison to serve a \ avEl'ilable comparable data on recidi- criminologists (e.g., Ball,Ross, and census proceq}lreS for lassifying m­ segment Survey Census \1 SurvllY Census \ vism,;among female first-timers are Simpson, 1964; Belkin, Blumstein, and 3I ~\ 2nd ~ 3rd . 4th mates of other races. II seht~\nce sentence' sentence Ifrom the year 1979. Estimatesrrom Glass, 1973; Gordon, 1973; Gordon and Total· \ .502% •810% ~501\l% 8jO% . \. '~ "~ iI Ithat yef?-r show no significantdifferElflce Gleser; 197.4; Gordon, 1976; and Far­ What is the rate of recidivism among " Male· 'I .987 1.5.91. , .963' 1973 8'etweerl the rates at which white fe­ rington, 1981) but have only J~ecently 1:5 ~ Total" 4096 53% State prisoners? .". White .607 .976' , .581 .93 38l males (18%) and black females (18%) been applied for the first time to the Blackc 6.830 \ 4.006 Male· 40 II 41 55 ,.'" 41 38 53 return, to prison to serve a second sen'" subject of the lifetime prevalencriminal justice practice, crimes NOTE: (see note at table 3) 0 third sentence (table 5) to the lifetime ··Estimate not shown because It Is based on female second-timers, the 36%~~,ate ficant at .05 level) than the ra.te f.or are 'not neatly dividedlnto those that *Includes persons of all other, races. 10 'or fewer sample c5lises. prevalence of a second (table 4) forms () based on 1979 imprisonment da:ta •. Male black male third-timers (36%). The dif­ are imprisol1able and those t)1at are another' recidi~ism rate: the percent­ third':'timers return to prison to serve a ference, however, is again sinall. and, nonimprisonable. Whether a crime is age of second..;timers (persons who . fQurth 5entence at the rate· of 43% to moreover, in the opposite diil'e.ction as imprisonable (meaning the offender Table 6. Inmate Survey and Admissions Gensus estimates of the lifetime i,serye a second sentence) who return t9 compared t9 differences in imprison­ stands Ei' high chance. of going to prison prevalen.eeo( a fourth imprisonment in adult State prisons in the United. States, . 55% (at 1979 and 1973 If;lveisi . prison to serve a third ser/tence. Last:' based(,on 1973 and 1979 prison. total U.s. population. by sex, . . respectively). Becau~e few females ment. prevalence between the races•.. if'apprehended and convicted) usually ly, 'the ratio of the lifetime prevalence and by sex and race. '. ever serve a third sentence,reliable Finally, brief mention is made .of " depends largely on some combination of of a fourth sentence (table 6) to the datao.n the percentage who retu'rn to the, only consistent temporartrend ev'i­ how ser.ious it Is and who c9mmits~it. lifetime prevalence of a third (tableS) Prevalence estimate: percent»f population expected to serve a fourth delft in the limited recidivism data That is, the most serious· crimes are sentence .In lifetime, based on number and. demographic characteristic.s serve .a fourth sentence are not forms another recidivism rate: the per­ available. available from the years 1973 .and imprisonable regardless of who commits of persons admitted to prison for the fourth tllIle in their lives, " , centage~qf third-timers (persons who 34 , (i "",1979. From -197.3 to 1979 therecid- , them;.crimes that are not among the ,.~ in 1973 serve a third sentence) who return to in 1979 Sex: and .-ace (table 7). Although. ivism .rates of both white male and most serious are imprisonable if they prison to .serVe a fourth sentence. Popu}a tion " Inmate Admissions Inmate AdmiSsions. black males are more' likely than white ,blaCk male firs.t-til:nersdeclined (signi2 are committed by s9meon'e with a long segment Survey. ,,<:~,.. Census' Census . ,-, Thesll~ecidivism rates are examined Survey males to be in priS9n .on any.given day ficantat the .Q5level).Some idea of or grievous prior record. next. 'fotal- ~10!l% .114% .096% .153% and .are also more likely than white· why the' conflistentdecline occurred in It isnot possiblet9 specify very ,.the recidivism ra tas of male first­ 0 males ever to serve a"prison sentence in precisely what the volume of imprison- Male" .221 .355 0 .192 .309. Total (table 7). It is estima.ted that 0 timers Call be aedved by looking at White .124 .199 " .136 .• 219 their lifetime, differences in recidivism '=' able crime is. Th~ most complete a(irst~timer (a person serving a first 0 BlaQk '". 1.041 1.679 .676 " 1.0811 rates betWeen black male prisoners and tables 3, through 6. For example, table source of crime data, the National ~, ., adult state prison sentence) has a 29% Female· 0 •• 3 shows an increase in first imprison­ Crime Survey sppnsored by BJS, obtains •• •• Q .. wJiite male p!,isone;rsare smallalld, in c (at 1979 iinprisonrnent levels) to 38% ments between 1973 and 1979, while informationfrolia representative sam- S") NOTE: (see note at table 3) •• Estimate not shown I>ecause It.ls most cases, not statistically signifi:­ (at 1973 levels) lifetime c/lance of re­ b~sed table 4 shows littl¢ change in se.cond pIes of the crime victims. *Includils persons of all other races. l:1 on 100r fewer sample eases. cant. Simil!irly, black females are Nat,~bn's turning to<,priSon to servl~ asec9nd sen­ '1"-;" imprisonments. Inevitably, theref9re, . ~ c more likely than white females either Crime Victims (!an provide many facts C tence. A second-timer (a person ser~ to be in prison on any given day or to the probability of .a secgnd imprison­ 'about the seri9Usness of the crimes ~ ving a second S(Jntenee) is estimated t9 Sex (table 7). EV(ln though males both 1973 and 1979 prison data, male serve ·a. sentence in their life~ime, but ment foll9wing a first decreasesfrom committedagifinst them but usually have a 40% (at 1973 levels) to 46% (at are 26 times more likely than females first-timers are more likely, lifetim'e .chance .~~ returning t9 serve a these differences; and, in one case, tht'/" second-timers ... eturnto prisont9 serve. male first";timers (41 %) d9 not return to a follow,~,il by an increa~e in second In i979, .to pick one year, more:than r;) II" . \ fourth sentence. c· i' difference is not statistically sig- ,i a third Sentence at therilte .of 41 %.(at prison a t significantly differeritratest () nificant (at the.05 level). Based 1973 levels) tl? ' II (.,") -:J ~'b; 4~% (at1979Ie,YeJ~)htije~ BaseOA:m,1979 data; black male first'- II "~_ ---=_=---,-;=~~_=":"'-'------'::'-'==~-=----== .;...;o.:;=....~.~ - . . (, ") . . . , ___. ii {~. i i

j "~ 6 7 ~ : , 1 , > .• (; u

41' million rapes, 'robberies, assaults, significaqJ proportion of the Nation's burglaries, larcenies, and motor vehicle USGPd, March 1976; Profilll of State Prbon In­ pOl?ulation is at some point incarcer­ Table C. 1979 inmate survey estimate of t1te lifetime Bure~u of Justice Statistics Special' mates: Sociodemo ra hic Findin s from the 1974 ,9 c~hefts w!~e committed against crime at€d in the estimated 403,210 State prevalence of State imprisonment oC males. c' Reports are prepared principally by Surve:l 0 Inmates 0 'State Correctlc:na Facl~lttes, , " victims, and approximately 150,000 prison spaces and that about halfof all " U.S. Dept. of Justice, ~ational,Crimmal,JUstlC~ "" BJS staff. 'This report was written Age Number Percent Cumu; . Age Number G" Percent Cumu- criminals were sent to State prisons. prison admissions do not ret~6n4ror a ' Information and StatIstiCS SerVIce, ,:fl ashmgton, by Patrick A. Langan, assist!'ld by USGPO, August 1979; and; Surve:l of Inmates of at ad- admit- 1979 o( lative, % at ad- adrri'it- 1979 of lative % BecaUSe 150,000 criminals could not subsequent pl'.isoil sentence., ~) possibly commit 41 million crimes (at Lawrence A. ,Greenfeld, and was State Correctional Facilities and Census of State mis- ted for male 1979 of 1979 mis- ted for male 1979 of 1979 Whatever the cause of the lattek' fact, Adult Correctional Facilities; 1974 (ICPSR 7811), sion first U popu- male " male sion first popu- male male least not these 150,000 and not in a edited by Jeffr~y L. Sedgwick, popu- popu- .popu- popu- whether it results from deterrence, U.S. Dept. of Justice, BJS, A~n ;Arbor, MI: ,Inte,r­ in time in lation in time in lation formerly deputy director, for data (X year's time), it would seem that many correction, or simple maturation, it university Consortium for Polttlc,al and SOCial 1979 life (X 1,000) " lation lation 1379 life 1,000) lation lation crimes and many criminals go analysis. MarilYI1 Marbrook, ~, Research (lCPSR), FaIl1~83. .. establishes a benchmark against which 13 0 1,898 0.0000000 0.0000000 49 217 1,168 0.0185788 3.0102310 unpunished. , 0 publicationsunif Chief, administered Ii the effectiveness of alternative Q 7 Technical documentat,ion .for the 1979 survey i~ 14 0 2,016 0.0000000 0.0000000 50 176 1,088 0.0161765 3.026407,~ publicatiJurIsdIction of State 32 1;1l73 1,942 0.0552523 2.3912659 68 28 734 0.0038147 3.1513662 (9,009) (3,226) (2,029}, (711) (262) (128) () (136) 1The, Gallup Poll of public opinion toward' ~apit~i'" correctional authorities. Examplcs of the latter , Male ,,184,313 33 963 1,391 0.0692307 2.4604959 69 0 732 0.0000000 3.1513662 65,344 40,344 14,756 5,464 2,759 2,022 punishment, If it is any indication, orters dramatic arrangement ere inmates committed to State meri­ 0.047,6584 2.5081539 28 3.1559858, (8,711) (3,078) 34 692 1,452 70 606 0.0046205 (1,907) (693) (256) (128) (94) evidence of a shift in the public's, mood toward, tal hospitals and inmates housed in YMCA's while 35 944 1,453 0.0619690 2.5731220 71 0 617 O.OPOOOOO 3,.1559858 ( White 93,953 34,523 21,081 7,914 ,2,795 1,316 1,417 criminals. From the early 1950s to the mid lJI6Qs, ,~ assigned to work-release programs. The expression 3,6, 5,·14 1,507 0.0360982 2.6092196 72 0 542 0.G030000 3.1559858 " (4~455) (1,634) (1,006) (371) (130) "adult State prisons," as usedthroug~o}lt thIS stU?!, (61) (66) progressively smaller proportions of the pop)llation 37' 668 1,326 0.0503771 2.,6595964 73 0 522 0.0000000 3~,155p858 Black 87,046 29,496 18,522 thus refers to wide variety of faciltttes used b~~) 6,582 2,500 1,335 757 said they favored the death penalty. The trend re­ e '/ 38 633 1,228 0.0515472 2.7111435 74 0 478 0.0000000 3.155YS58 (4,099) (1,381) (865) (310) (118) the States to confine inmales. " " (62) (26) versed itself in the mid 1960s. From then into the 39 477 1,202 0.0396838 2.7508268 75 2 427 0.0168618 3.1728468 Other· 3,315 " D , , ' • f 7.. 1,325 741 259 170 109 46 1980s, larger and larger proportions'ilxpreSSed sup­ 2.7723198, ' 76 0.0000000 3.1728468 (157) (63) ''''r9The, rac,e designat~on "C:,ther," as, used tn,J~l~ ,st~dY, 40 259 1,205 0.0214938 0 394 (36) (12) (8) (5) (2) port for the death penalty (T. Flanagan, ~al., 41 349 1,149 0.0303742 2.8026934 77 32 333 0.0096096 3.182456,0 Female 6,398 3,138 ~\ does !lot refer to Hlspantcs. Inmate censU~ and m­ 2,579 390 124, ':, 0 0 45 eds. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics- 42, (298) "",mate survey procedures call for Hispanic whit!\~ to 551 1,115 0.0494170 2.8521099 78 0 350 0.0000000 3.1824560',: (148) (122) (18) c (6) (0) (2) 1981, BJS, WashIngton: GPO, MI82)., White 3,681 l)e~e~ig~~;;'cf"white" and Hispanic blac]{s to bede- 43 315 1,093 0.0288197 2.8809290 79 0 321 0.0000000 3.1824561l§,' , 1,669 1,454 '" 173 20 0 23 407 0.0371689 2.9180975 80 0 232 0.0000000 (169) J78) 2Mostof the discussion in the study focuses on the sign~iei:i "black." . 44 1,,095 3.1824560,\ (68) (8) t\ (lb (0) (1) 45 346 1;058 0.0327032 . 2.9507999 81 (j 224 0.0000000 Black 2,678 1,429 chances of ever serving a first sentence. Neverthe­ 3.1824560l ~ 1,125 197 85 0 22 10c6rlcerning equality in justice administration, two 46 170 1,070 0.(1158878 2.9666872 '82 0 204 0.0000000 3.1824560 (127) (68) (54) (9) less, the term prevalence, as used in the study, also (4) (0) (1) major studies that use aJS d~ta to address the , 47 208 1';077 0.0193129 2.9860001 83 0 185 0.0000000 3.1824560 Other· 40 40 refers, to th, e chances of ever servin~ second, third, , 0 20 20 0 0 subject are M. Hindelang, "Race and,ln,volvement In 48 61 1,079 0.0056534 2.9916525 84 , 0 160 0.0000000 3.1824560 (2) (2) (0) (1) (1) (0) (0) and fourth. sentences. i'JI., Common Law Personal Crimes," American Socio­ '7 3D• Glaser (nle Effectiveness of a l'A"ison and , logical Review, 43 (Feb.), 1978: 93-109;,.and, A. NOTE:, DetaUmay not add to total shown NOTE: Table estimates of the number of male Qurrent Population ~~ports. Series P-25, 1:'0. shows 9,009 sample caSes (or an estimated Parole S:lstem, New Vork: Bob~"M'errill. 1969: ~8- Blumstein ",Op the Racial D1sproportionali~y ?f first admissions by age wet':! obts.lned from the 917, Preliminar:f Esttmates of the Po[!ulatton " because of rounding. Also" the 1974 survey 190,7).1 inmates) because race data were 29) also concluded that studies of State Jand ' United Sti!teG' Prison POPUlations,',' J. of Crlmmal actually obtained data on a stratified 1979 survey ,of inmates of Stater.:~isons. Also, r' of the United Statesj'b:l Agel Sex1 and Race: missing on some of the sample cases. 'Federal) prisoners indicate little differen!!e inreci­ Law and'~ rimin~m73 (3),1982: 1259-1281. because the sample on WhiCh thli prevalence 1970 to 1981, U.S. Government Printing random sample 'of 9,040 inmates (or an -Includes '~sian, Pacific Islander, American divism between whites and blaciks. ' 11UCR iribex crimes are the seri'bus crimes selected estimate is ba~d happened not ,to contain,' Office, Washington, D.C., 1982, Table 1, pp. estimated 191,367 inmates). The table Indian, and Alaskan Native. 4A• Blumstein and E. Graddy ("Prevalence and bf'the Fsl for measurement purposes and tabulated persons ()f certain ages, SOIll(1 ages show no 11-12. Lastly, the total estimated number Recidivism in Index Arresbi: A, Feedback Ap­ annually Ib its Uniform Crime Re~orts. Index admissions for tbe first time. 'l)his does nO,t admitted for the first time in, their lives is mean that people at these ages have no chance 59,313. DetaU may not add to this total ,- proach," 16 taw and Societ:l Review, 265, 1981"' violent ciiimes are murder, fordb e rape; ro~bery, of imprisonment. Also, U.S. population because of rounding. 0 1982), andL. GreenCel arson. -~. the Amedcan Society of Criminology meeting, the survey estirilated 72,862 black male!l1R their as an adult WIll be sent tl> an adult prISon, mother November 12,,1981) elso foul\l!,.majcir differences in EstillJated total' 12In thislsection I~f the study~ dealing with"State twenties (cstlmated from a sall!ple of' 2,484 such States such juve'itiles will begin their sentences in a number of prevalence between the races but very sim,Uar, reci­ "Estimated numb~r"of sentenced inmates wbo 0 divismgrobabllities. prison PO~ulatiom, on, a single d, ay, an inmnt't WIlS, black males) by the Nation's 1979,total estimated juvenile failUity. sentenced and Said the:l were admitted to State [!rison in 1979 counted! s being :In prison whether or not he or she 2,407,000 black males In their twenties. unsentenced wasserv ng a sedierice. Available,data indicate 2°It mlgbt 1;le thought that the ideal research design 5 A m'!J,or advantage of epidemiologica.lstudies of 16The previous section dealt with both sentenced Population inmates at time 1st time 2nd time3rd time this'kind is that they facilitate comparisons of the that, ~~ any giveil day, approximately 296 of all fo~ investigating the liCatime prevalence of impris­ segment 4th time 5th or mete and unsentenced inmates of adult State prisons. onment is the longitudinal study involving a follow­ of 1979 survey Total In lire in life in life in life time in life probabUities of diverse life events. porexample, State prison inm~ltes are 'hot sentenced., The~,.,are mainly l;lrulLadBij ts committed f?r treatrMfilt:under This section pe,rtalns to sentenced inmates only. up of a cobort of indiViduals born in a particular " the findings of this study can be compared to those Total 274,563 93,542 63,863 17,717 of a study of lifetime murder vIctimization (Langan 17BJS In 1984, Bulletin April year (sa!! 1920). The cumulative percentage of im­ 7,394 2,844 1,72'1 CiVill1~: cotics O~~dangerOus drug ~tatutes .In heu of Pri~ollers NCJ~97118, prisonment up to the present, 1984, could then be (11,397) (4,221) (3,t;l03) (746) antrial 01 release ~In bail, or detainees bein~ held for, White (56) comouted in this way can range from a low of 096 to 1934), etc. up to age 64 (in 1b84). Longitudinal 13~,250 ,48,052, 32,607 9,0~9 3,730 United States in 1982. The study concludEid that the other 1/ uthoritieli- Inmates of Federal prisons, milI­ 1,672 996 a high of over 100%. Practically speaking,.neither studies may be quite valuable, particularly for '" (4,647) (1,1l5) (1,165) (324) (132) (60) (34) metime chances of being murdered ~ere: tary S ockades,local jails, or juvenile institutions 0 causal analyses;'but they may not be the ideal Black 125,573 37,278 24;992 7,346 0 limit is possible. An estimateo! 0% would only 3,199 1;104 635 " are !I~t il1ClUdell1 in any Of, the prevale, nce sta tlsUcs design in all respec'ts. Suppose one did estimate (4,260) (1,267) (851) (251) (107) (37) (21) BJS estimate of lifetime risk of murder: l' out of- presented in th I study. , " .. occur if, in, R year's time, nQ, one In the United Other" 6,652 States were admitted to prisons for the Clrst time in prevalence by following a cohort born in 1920. 2,551 1,714 562 218 27 30 (235) (91) - 13Some of the. States submitting annua!: pO,P ula, tlon their lives. An estimate oven~1l00% would only oe­ What would one hl\.Ve? An estimate for a ,cohort (61) (20) -';') (8) (1) (1) U.S. t~tal 13,3 () Female countS ()laSSlfy~aS "race not known" all inmates who born in 1920, now 1'4 year~l\old-a long walt for a ,,11,080 S,661 4,550 (j cur if imprisonment rates in the UnIted Statcs sud- " ,', 760 246 40 66 Male 84 arll neither wh te nor black. The conclusion that 6 datum that may refcr mahlly to historical condi­ (2,255) (1,148) (926) (151) (50) (8) (13) White denly became far higher:. than they Iiave tlver b6en. White (;;,041 131 ,other males e a slightly rate ,;, tions long past. At any rate, the data do not exist 2,637 2,110, 364 ' 123 "Black hJ low~r pr~f,!alence , 19In the Unlted,States a person below the age of 18 "(1,068) 2~ 15 'c, , 21 than wiilte is therefore suspcct. to calculate cUmulative prevalence from such a (558) (449) (76) "(25) (5) (3) . Female m~les can be sententiel! ih'iUi adult State court to an adult Black 5,752, 2,883 282 longitudinal study" An approximation to this cal­ 2,327 382 Q 123 9 42 White Stat!(\prison. Although in most States a perso~ does (1,125) (559) 369 UTIle, estima~r with Its 9,5,96 ,confidence Interva,l" is culation can be achieved by adding up first impris­ (452) (72) (25) (2) (8L Black 2.55% (:1:.157)1, The estimate is formed by dividing not become an adult In'the eyes of the law until age 'Other· 287 141 , lP4 onments In one particular year at different ages, 114 14 " 0 ", 4 9 6 II the survoy's ~,t1mated 49,134 black males in their 18, In some ,States thc age jurisdiction of adult (62) , (31) (25) (3) (0) (1) (2) but this will give accurate figures only for lifetime 0 'I " n twenties (estimated from, a sample of 2,312 suc!) courts Is beloW 18. Moreover, ill most Sta~l$,tatu­ prevalence under steady-state condition'S. If .rirst­ 6TeQibnlcai documenl:,!1tion tor tbe 1974 survey Is black males) by tbeNatlon'1I197 4 total estimated tory waiver provisions exist tl1at llerrnit o~'''i!en NOTE: DetaU may not addto total sh~)Vn time Imprisonment probabilities have Increa~ed oV,~r sample. 1 927 000 black males In their tWe,ntles. require the, case 0["0. young person (SUCh as"a 13- conft!ined in Survey of Inmates of State Corree­ t t. ,~ time, this method will ove~,estimate cumulatIVe becauSe of rounding., Also, .the survey ~ oIncludes Asian, PaciCic Islander~ American sample is described as a stratlCied ,random tiO,dill Facilities 1974: Advance RjlXlr,rk U.,S',Dept. 15The estimato, with its 9596 .cOll'U{ence interital,ls year-old) charged with a vrr3ry serlous'crime to be !3revalericefor those people born years ago.(e.g" in Indian, and Alaskan N~tly~~ , 'OrJustice, ijatioD81 CrImInal Justce, fo~mat\on prose-cuted In an adult court. In some of tbese 3.02796 (•• 141). The estimate is formed by diViding 1920). The method essentially shows ~hat the ~ife­ and Statistics Service (now:IUS), Washlilgton: " States a juvenile convicted and sentenced to prison time p~eValence would be Cor peo~l,e born now If " 8 • 9 1973 and 1979 imprisonment rates continued long definition by submitting admission counts whiCh oC blaek male third-timers declined significantly (at 29The 1.974 surv'ey questionn!lire was changed , the .05 level) from 1973 to 1979, but the compar­ Criminal Justice, 1, 1973; R. Gordon, "An Explicit imprisonment were investigated by comparing them into. the future. A desirable feature of this method inCluded some persons with a maximum sentence. slightly for the 1979 survey. It is therefore pOSSible is its contemporaneity, a feature which cannot be length of less than a year and a day. Moreover, In able rate for white males did not. Estimation of the Prevalence of Commitment to a to official records. It was found that prison inmates that some portion of the increase from 1973 to 1979 Training School, to Age 18, by Race and by Sex," iI. do not deny faets about their criminal histories: approached by the longitudinal method, especially both tables cited, a footnote reports that s!,me in the estimated number of first admissions may 35This brief discussion draws attention to the when the period'at rislds a long one, as in the case inmates were involved in more than one prisoner , of American Statistical Association, 68 (343), Sep:- their accounts included more arrests than, and as ' have been due to minor changes in the survey ques­ dflfi0ulties arising from the assumption of steady 1973; R. Gordon and L; Gleser, "The Estimation of many convictions as, their official records. It was of adult imprisonment. ,movement, and that the published number of admiS- tionnaire. sta te conditions. sions is therefore larger than the act~al ~umb,:r of the Prevalence of Delinquency," J. of Mathematical also found that the self-reports were equally "accu- 210ne reason the 1974 survey is said to underesti­ 30The possibility was explored that perhaps some t, 36The procedll,e is a straightforward application of Sociology, 3, 1974; R. Gordon, "Prevalence,';.!n 'rate" for white and nonWhite inmates. mate the nUmber of sentenced persons admitted in different persons admitted. The publication glv,:s Klein ed., The,Juvenile Justice System, BeV'l~rly " ;,\ no indication of the extent of such do.uble-countlng substantial number of the persons admitted to a statistical model known to demographers as a life 1973 is the large discrepancy between the survey prison for the first time in 1973 and designated table. For an excellent discussion of the model, see Hills: Sage Publications, 1976; D.-. Farringtori'j"The 39BJS Criminal Victimization in the United States.. estimate (68,482) and the 1973 admissions census of people. In view of the census' potential for, Prevalence of Conv.ictions,~' British J. of Crimi? 79. A National Crime Survey Report, NCJ-76710, ; , counting people more than once; the 197~ admiS­ "black" WE're not native-born. That possibility is of Chapter 150f H.S. Shryock, J.S. Siegel, and Associ­ colint (110,516). Another reason is explained as fol­ ates, The Methods and Materials of Demo~raPhY, ~ 21 (2), 1981; L. Greenfeld, "Measuring the, _d NCS-N-19, Washington: USGPO, September 1981. lows with an example. The 1974 inmate survey was sions census is said to provide an overestimate of concern because including such persons with riative­ the number of different persons admitted to prison born blacks would artificially innate the prevalence VolUme 2, U.S. Bureau or the Census, Was Ington: Application and Use of",l';;;;l::!1.ment," a paper pre- ',-. 40BJS Prisoners in 1984, Bulletin NCJ-97118, April conducted in late January 1974. Based on the sur­ rate appli'&able to native-born blacks. To check this USGPO,1971 •. sen ted aUhe American societ~.~of Criminology 1985, table 11. vey, an estimated ~84,313 males were in adult State in 1973. The 1973 admissions census esti~ate of , the lifetime prevalence of impriso.nment IS based, In possibility,. data from the 1974 survey on the birth­ meeting, Nov. 12, 1981. \ 41Estimates of the lifetime prevalence of imprisCln- prisons at that time, of whom asurvey estimated 37 J. Ball, A. Ross, and A. Simpson, "Incidence and In part, on the 1973 admissions census count. C?nse­ places of inmates admitted in 1973 were ex­ Estill)ated Prevalence of Recorded Delinque'lcy in a 38 the most comprehensive to date o'n the ment in this report did not talprison overcrowding), many ly) an overestimate of .the lifetime prevalence'of of other 'males is slightly lower than that of white/,,, prisoners receivin'g adult State pris0l1:sentences imprisonment. males whereas the inmate surveys, in fact, indicate/ exceeding one year actually serve lesS· than one year that other males have significantly higher one-day before being:releitsed. In recognition of the survey's 25The 1974 survey est1matesthat 62.7% of all 1973 prevalence rates than white males. Potell.tial for underestimating 1973 admissions, the admissions, 61.7% of alll~t'3 male admissions, and Name: 82.2% of all 1973 female admissions were lifetime r survey is said to provide an underestimate of the 32It is logically po.ssible for recidivism rates com­ number oC males admitted to prison for the first first sentences to adult State prisons. The 1979 puted in this way to exceed 100% as a result of" Title: time in their lives in 1973. The 1974 survey esti­ survey estimates 68.3% of all 1979 admissions, either sampling error or ehanges in imprisonment r mate of the lifetime prevalence of imprisonment 67.5% of all 1979 male admiSSions, and 80.4% of all rates over time. A longitudinal study of inmates re'" among males is based on the survey estimate of the 1979 female admissions were lifetime first sen­ leased from prison could not have this defect. Also, Organization: number of males admitted for the first time in their tences to adult State prisons. inmate survey estimates are said to underestimate lives in 1973. Consequently, the 1974 inmate survey 26The inmate surveys actually provide various esti­ prevalence, partly for the reason that some of the Street or box: is. also ~id tQ provid~ ·an underestimate of lifetime mates t.ltat·are--used· to celculatc~th3~liretirrH;·preva-~ . inm!l.te-s admitted in~!1' survey· yaar·:wculdO"already, prevalence. . .lence of imprisonment: estimates of the total num­ have been released by the time of the survey. The City, State, Zip: 220ne reason the 1979 survey is said to under­ ber of sentenced persons admitted to prisons ,for the degree of such underestimation may be related to estimate the number of 1979 admissions is the large first time in their lives, by age, race, and sex; the the o.rdinal sentence number. To illustrate, rela­ discrepancy between the survey estimate (93,517) second time in tlleir lives, by age, race, and sex; the tively many first-timers bllt very few fourth-timers Telephone: .( ) and the 1979 admissions census count (149,741). third time in their lives, by age, race, and sex; and admitted in 1973 would already have been released Another reason is that the survey was conducted be­ the fourth time in their lives, by age, race, and sex. from prison as a result of early release laws. Re­ Interest in criminal justice: fore the year was ended, in October 1979, and cidivism rates computed here do. not take this 27 The size of the constant is a function of how POss!!?!!! relationship into account" ' thcre:fcro could not"'pV5Sibly- tiave ifieluded ull me mUch larger the admi~siohS census count is than the inmates admitted in 1979. A third reason is that inmate estimate. The 1973 census count of 110,516 33 A';'ong iirst-, second-, and thircl-timers, some of the inmates admitted in 1979 were probably total admissions in 1973 is 1.6137963 times larger 'first-timers tend to have the lowest rates. D; already released by the time of the survey•. In re­ . than the 1974 inmate survey estimate of 68,482 to­ Glaser (The Effectiveness of a Prison and Parole Please add fIle to the follovling list(s): ~ognition of the survey's potential for un~ere~ti­ "tal admissions in 1973; the census count of 105.349 System, New York: Bobbs~Merrill, 1967: 27) also mating 1979 admissions, th~ 1979 survey IS said to male admissions, 1.6122215 times larger than the repor~,ed that first-timers have lower recidivism 0 provide an underestimate o~ the ?um~er of, m~es . survey estimate's 65,344 11,Jale adrriissicns; and, the rates than second-timers or subsQuent "losers." Jlmtiee expenditure and employment reports-annual spending and staffing by admitted to prison for the first time In their lives In census count of 5,167 female admissions, 1.6465902 The finding of lower recidivism rates among ,first­ Federal, State, and local governments and by function (pOlice, courts, etc.) 1979 and consequently (as explained in the pre­ times larger than the, survey estimate's 3,138 fe­ timers might be expected~ Since the probability of cedi~g footnote) an underestimate of liCetimepre- male admissions. Consequently, 1973 admissions recidivism is known to increase with the length of 0 Computer crime reports-electronic fund transfer system crimes valence. ." census estill\i'J,te of the lifetime prevalenee of the prior record, first-timers should have lower 23The reastln the 1973 prison admissions census is imprisonment lire higher than inmate survey esti­ recidivism rates than second-timers or subsquent 0 and said to:.provide an overestimate of the numbe.r of . mates by corresponding factors. Similarly, the .1979 losers. However, differences between the recidi­ Privacy and security of criminal history information irlformation policy-new sentenced persons admitted to adult State, prISons In census count of 149,741 total admissions is vism rates of first-timers and subsequent losers legislation; maintaining and releasing intelligence and investigative records 1973 is further explained here. Prisoners irl State 1.6012169 times larger than the survey estimate's would not be expected to increase forever because c' , and Federal Institutions.on December 31t'1971, 93,517; of 141,477 male acjmisslons, 1.6098702 times onhe counter effects of aging. That is, the 0 B1S Ililletins 1l'l1d Special ReportS -timely reports of the most current justice data 1972 and 1973 (NPS Bulletin No. SD-NP "PSE-l, the survey estimate's 87,881; and, of 8,264 female probability of recidivism is known to decrease with ,ui U.S. 'Dept. of Justice, National Criminal Justice admlssions,1 •. 4598128 times larger thar, the survey age. Since it takes time to become, say, a secoJ)d­ Information and Statistics Service, Washington: estimate's 5,661. Consequently, 1979 admissions timer or a third-timer, third-timers ten~ ~!?be"older 0 Courts n;;port:s;-State courlcaseloadsurveys, model annual State reports, State tlSGPO, May 1975) reports, for 1973, 105,349 (Table census estimates of the lifetime prevalence of than second-timers who, In tllrn, tend tei 00 older court org~.nization surveys 6, p. 21) admissions of sentenced males to State. imprisonment are higher than 1979 inmate survey than first-timers. Consequently, differences be­ prisons in the U.S. and 5,167 (Table 7, p. 23) admiS­ estimates bt,corres[l'1~ding f~ctors. tween the recidivism rates of first-time.rs Ilnd subsequent losers would grow,but only up toa 0 sions of sentenced females. The publication defines 28Multiplylng survey estimates by such constants is CoITectionsreports-results of sample surveys and censuses of jails, prisons, parole, admissions as: eommitments from court, parole or point, the porntat which the efCects of aging be-- probation, and other corrections data justified if It can be assumed that the sentenced come pronounced~" . a conditional release violators returned to prison, or Q inmates who were admitted in 1973 and 1979 and escapees returned under an old sente!lce. Further­ who Were present at the time of the 1974 and 1979 34That is, comparable data for' the perWd 1'973 to. 0 more, the definition restricts admisSions to persons Inmate surveys are representative or all the sen­ 197.9 are not available on the female population Natiooal Crime Survey reports-the only regular national survey ofcrime victims sentenced as adults or youthful offenders whose ,7, tenced inmates admitted to State prisons in 1973 segments; the recidivism rate of white male second­ maximum sentenc~ length exceeds on~ y~ar. How­ " and 1979, respectively. This assumption has not timers Increased significantly (at the .05 level) from 0 Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics (annual)-broad-based data from 153 ever, in both tables cited, a footnote indicates ~at been investigated. 1973 to 1979, but the comparable rate for black sources in an easy-to-use, comprehensive format (433 tables, 103 figures, index) three States probably departed from the prescribed male second-timers did not; and, the recidivism rate ( 1\ 10 ~? 11 .. o

Bureau of Justice Statistics reports Prisoners inState and Federal institutions on (revised July 1985) {: . . .' . Computer security techniques, • Dec. 31, 1982 (final), NCJ-93311, 12/84 , NCJ-84049, 9/82. • . · . Call toIHree800-732-3277 (loc;:11 Capital punishment 1982 (final), NCJ-91533, Electronic fund transfer syst6ms and crime, ·251-5500) to order 8JS reports, to be addeq~ "11/84 . ',,"'0 .' 0 NCJ-83736. 9/82 . to one of. the8JSmailing lists, or to speak~ 'J .1979 suliteyofinnlatesor>g'l 'tatecorrec .. t"lone IfaCI! "/'t' les Legislative resource manual, NCJ-78890. 9/81 to a reference. specialist in,statistics at the - and 1979. census pfStatecorrectiorial facilities: Expert witness manual, NCJ-77927,9/81 Justice Statistics Clearinghouse, National Criminal justice resource manual, NCJ·61550. 8JS special reports:..,' 12/79 Criminal Justice ReferenceService; .Career patterns in crime, NCJ-88672, 6/83 Box 6000, Rockville, MD20850. Single Privacy and secOurity of criminal history BJS bulletIns: '., . • ' information: copies of reports are free; use NCJ number . Prisoners and dru9s, NCJ·87575, 3/83 to order. Postage and handling are charged A guide- to. research and statistical use, Prisoners and alcohol, NCJ·86223, 1/83 NCJ·69790.5/81 for bulk orders of single reports. For single Prisons and prisoners, NCJ-80697, 2/82 copies of multiple titles, up to 10 titles are "Veterans in prison, NCJ-Z9232,11/81 A guide to. dissemination, NC.}40000•. 1/79 Compendium of State legislation: " • free; 11-40 titles $1 0; more than 40, $20; Census of jails and survey of jail inmates; NCJ-48981.7 /78 libraries call for special rates. The 1983 jail census (BJS bulletin, NCJ-95536, 1.981 supplement, NCJ-7g652, .3/82 . Public-use tapes of 8JSdata s6ts and 11/84 . .' . . "'.j , Criminaf'justlce information policy:" . ". other criminal justice data .are available Jall inmates 1982 (BJS bulletin), NCJ-87161, 2/83 Census of jails, 1978: Data,for.indi\/idual jails, Intelligence and investigative r.eqords, - 'from the Criminal Justice Archive and . NCJ-95787, 4/85 . . CI .. Information Network, P. O~ Box 1248, Ann \/ols, HV, Northeast, North Central. South. West. NCJ-72279-72282, 12/81' Victim/witness ·!egial!ltion: An overview, Arbor, MI48106 (313-764-5199). Profile of jail inmates, 1978, NCJ-65412. 2/81 NCJ-94365.12/84 .. . hiformation policy and crime control strategies National Crime Survey (SEARCH/BJS conference), NCJ-93926. Parole and probation 10/84 _ Criminal victimization in the U~S.: .0. . 1982 (final report), NCJ·92820, 11/84 8JS bulletins: .. Research access to criminal justice data, 1973·82 trends, NCJ'90541, 9/83 Probation and parole 1983, NCJ·94776. . NCJ·84154. 2/83 . 9/84 Privacy and juvenile justice records, . Setting prison terms, NCJ-76218. 8/83 . NCJ-84152.1/83 .' 8JS special reports: Characteristics pf .person~ entering parole The risk of violent crime, NOJ-97119, 5/85 during 1978 and 1979, NCJ-87243, 5/83 elY .. The economic cost of crime to victims, NCJ- Characteristics pf the parole population, 1978; Federal offenses and off.enders 93450.4/84 NCJ-66479.4/81 8JS specla:! reports: . "I: . Family violence, NCJ;93449. 4/84 earole in the U.S;, 1979; NCJ:69562,3/81 Pretrial'release and misconduct; NC;)-96132. 8JS bulletins: " 1/85' . Households touched by crime,'1984, NCJ- Courts BJS .bulletins: 97689. 6/85 . 8JS bulletin: , Bank robbery, NCJ·94463. 8/84 . Ii . The crime of.rape, NCJ·96777.3/85 TtJe growth of appeals: 1973·83 trends, Fed.eral drug law violators, NCJ·92692. 2/84 !" Household burglary, NCJ-96021, 1/85 NCJ-96381, 2/85 Federal justice ~tatistics, NCJ-80814. 3/82 Ii. : Criniinal victimization 1983, NCJ·93869. 6/84 Case filings in State courts 1983, NCJ-95111. General (J Violent. crime by strangers, NCJ·80829. 4/82 10/84 , iI • " Crime and the elderly, NCJ-79614. 1/82 BJS bUlletins: . • j1· Measun'ng .. crl·me·, NCJ-75.710, 2/81 8JS,special reports: Tracking offenders: The child Victim, NCJ- .' .... Ii' Felony sentencing in 18 local " 95785; 12/84. _ .' , f.' I,,;,': Response to screening questions in the National . jurisdictions, NCJ·97681,6/85 The severity of crime, NCJ.92326. 1/84 • U Crime Survey (BJS techoi.cal report). NCJ- The prevalence of guilty pleas, NCJ-96018. The American response to crime: An overview I;) Vi~~~~:~~~~5and fear of crime: World s:~(e8n~ing practices In 13 States, NCJ-95399, Tr~~k~~~i~~!~~~~~,s~~~~f5~~~;~~~6, 12/83 ! I perspectives, NCJ·93872, 1/85 ,10/84 Victim and Witness assistance:. New State I, Criminal defense systems: . A national laws and the system'sresponse, N,CJ-87934, ),)1P . I survey, NCJ-94630. 8/84 5/83 . . II ~'! Expenditure and emp oyment Habeas corpus, NCJ,92948.3/84 3. ... 1.,'.1; JUstice expenditure and employment extracts:~.Case.fmngSjn.,State .. COI,lrtl>,j.983, •. B.JSJe!'l!lhQni;!AjOntactsB'J··!lJS-Gd'J~5sn(b5, ~O!8i1.). I'D . .-~,n -Justice ... 1.980.and4981rNC,}9600T.6!85- expenditurE! and employment in the StateNGJ·95111, court case 10/84 load statistics, 1977. and How8C'000022, to gain access 9/84 to .' a ,:.,a roc ure,' .".'.' .. 11 U.S., 1971;79, NCJ-92596.11l84 198.1, NCJ-87587, 2/83 . SourcebookofCriminaIJ~sti~e!S.tatistics,1983, 1,.1 Justice expenditure and employment in the The prosecution of felony arrests, 1979, NCJ- NCJ·91534, 1~/84 d' .l,· . t I i U.S.; 1979 (filial report), NCJ-87242.12/83 86482,5/84 Information pohcyan <;l~7'econ fO II' strategies, NCJ-93926;;j 0/84 f Proceedings .of the 2nd workshop on law and H': CClrrections. Privacy and security .. -- =-=-~-==-=-~-~-justi~S'-~tQtistiiiSF~S84f'NG~3310,-8/84~"'-~~=-:-"--= .== ,~, . -'n ~=-~"~'==BJ:;i~~:;~%~Z:i:~:V~~~~;'~::S~ ~;~~-=="~. ····'"'~;:pu::~~;:::~s: =.=== '., R%~rtd~!~~~j~~~:, ~~'Fa~ and justice: ~:4 NCJ..97995.7/85 '. Electronicfundtransferfraud, NCJ-96666,3/85 r~ Prisoners in 1984., NCJ-97118. 4/85 Electr()nic fund transfer .and crime, ";~ i i Examining recidivism, NCJ-9650t, 2/85 NCJ-92650, 2/84 -oU. S, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19as 4.61-537/20001 Q n. Returning to prison, NCJ-95700, n /84 I" Capital punis~ment1983, NCJ-93925,7/84 \ 11 : · Time served ii'f prison, NCJ-93924. '6/84

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