Appendix A Assessment Instruments for Trauma Exposure and PTSD
This Appendix presents instruments for assessing: a) trauma exposure; b) the PTSD diagnosis; and c) PTSD symptom severity. Separate tables present information regarding adults and for children and adolescents. Although DSM-5 will not cause any revision of trauma exposure instruments, it does require revision of diagnostic and symptom severity instruments. Whenever possible, contact information is provided so that readers can fi nd out the current status of a particular instrument. The following tables are included: 1. Self-report screening instruments 2. Trauma exposure scales for adults 3. PTSD diagnostic instruments for adults 4. PTSD self-report instruments for adults 5. Trauma exposure scales for children and adolescents 6. PTSD diagnostic instruments for children and adolescents 7. PTSD self-report instruments for children and adolescents Recent comprehensive reviews on assessment can be found elsewhere [1 , 2 ] (Keane, 2014; King, 2014).
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 137 M.J. Friedman, Posttraumatic and Acute Stress Disorders, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15066-6 138 A Assessment Instruments for Trauma Exposure and PTSD
Table A1 Overview of self-report screening instruments for PTSD Scale Full name #Items Use References PC-PTSDa Primary care 4 Primary care [3 ] PTSD screen VA and DoD Surveys TSQ Trauma 10 Disasters and emergency [4 ] Screening Questionnaire Rooms SIPS Single item 1 Primary [5 ] PTSD screen Care a The PC-PTSD is being revised. Please check the National Center for PTSD’s website at www.http:// www.va.gov/professional assessment/DSM_5_Validated_Measures.asp for further information
Table A2 Overview of trauma exposure assessment instruments for adults Self- Structured Instrument report interview References General Traumatic stress schedule (TSS) X [6 ] Potential stressor experiences inventory (PSEI) X [7 ] Traumatic events questionnaire (TEQ) X [8 ] Evaluation of lifetime stressors (ELS) X [9 ] The trauma history questionnaire (THQ) X [10 ] Traumatic life events questionnaire (TLEQ) X [11 ] Stressful life events screening questionnaire X [12 ] (SLESQ) Life stressor checklist—revised (LSC-R)a X [13 ] Childhood Child abuse and trauma scale X [14 ] trauma Childhood trauma questionnaire X [15 ] Familial experiences inventory X [16 ] Retrospective assessment of traumatic X [ 17 ] experiences (RATE) Early trauma inventory (ETI) X [18 ] Domestic Confl ict tactics scale (CTS) X [19 ] violence Abusive behavior inventory (ABI) X [20 ] Sexual experiences survey (SES) X [21 ] Wyatt sex history questionnaire (WSHQ) X [22 ] War zone Combat exposure scale (CES) X [23 ] trauma Women’s wartime stressor scale (WWSS) X [24 ] Torture Harvard trauma questionnaire (HTQ) X [25 ] a The LSC-R is being revised. Please check the National Center for PTSD’s website at < http://www. ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/DSM_5_Validated_Measures.asp> for further information A Assessment Instruments for Trauma Exposure and PTSD 139 > for ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Clinical Symptom severity [ Clinical diagnoses assessed All DSM-IV [ (Lay interviewer) interviewer) http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/DSM_5_Validated_Measures.asp http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/DSM_5_Validated_Measures.asp Sx severity Administration Main use Comments References X LI Survey All DSM-IV diagnoses [ X X CI Clinical All DSM-IV diagnoses [ X X CI Clinical PTSD Sx: intensity and frequency [ b interview schedule—revised Structured interview for DSM-IV X CI (Clinician a PTSD diagnostic instruments for adults PTSD diagnostic instruments for adults Clinician- administered PTSD scale PTSD symptom scale interview X X CI Clinical Combined Sx severity/frequency [ b Composite international diagnostic c d Scale SCID.IV Full name Diagnostic CAPS PSS-I SI-PTSD Structured ADIS-R interview for PTSD Anxiety disorders interview PTSD-I PTSD-interview X CIDI DIS-IV PCL Diagnostic X interview schedule-IV PDS DTS PTSD checklist CI X DAPS Posttraumatic stress diagnostic scale X Davidson trauma scale Detailed assessment of traumatic X stress X X Clinical X LI X LI X X Symptom severity Self Self X X Survey Self Clinical Self [ Clinical All DSM-IV diagnoses Symptom severity Sx severity Clinical/survey Clinical Symptom severity [ Symptom severity [ [ [ [ The CAPS is being revised. Check the National Center for PTSD website at < for information about the CIDI-5 The CIDI is being revised. Please check
140 A Assessment Instruments for Trauma Exposure and PTSD > for ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 [ [ Foa at [email protected] for civilian version has not performed as well PTSD, dissociation, and sexual depression, anger, concerns/behavior http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/DSM_5_Validated_Measures.asp http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/DSM_5_Validated_Measures.asp Sx severity Diagnostic # Items Comments References PTSD self-report instruments for adults PTSD self-report instruments for adults Posttraumatic stress diagnostic scale X X 17 Used extensively in treatment research [ PTSD checklist X X 17 Used very widely for clinical and survey research [ a b PDS DTS DAPS IES-R M-PTSD Detailed assessment of traumatic stress Davidson trauma scale related PTSD Impact of event scale-revised Mississippi scale for combat- X X PK-MMPI-2 Keane PTSD scale of MMPI-2 TSC TSI X symptom checklist X Trauma X Penn symptom inventory Trauma 104 X DEQ 35 Comprehensive measure of trauma and PTSD Penn inventory criticism; Does not directly correspond to DSM-IV X Distressing event questionnaire X [ X 22 47 17 Does not directly correspond to diagnostic criteria X Subscale of MMPI-2 [ Used in medication trials 40 X 100 Used with adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse TSC with 10 subscales to anxiety, Expands [ 34 and grief Also assesses guilt, anger, [ 26 [ Used with both veterans and civilians [ [ Scale PCL Full name The PDS is being revised and will be renamed the PSS-SR-5 (Posttraumatic Stress Scale-Self- Report-5). Please contact Dr. Edna Report-5). Please contact Dr. The PDS is being revised and will be renamed the PSS-SR-5 (Posttraumatic Stress Scale-Self- The PCL is being revised. Check the National Center for PTSD’s website at < is being revised. Check the National Center for PTSD’s The PCL
b more information a Table Table A4 information about the PCL-5 A Assessment Instruments for Trauma Exposure and PTSD 141
Table A5 Overview of trauma exposure assessment tools for children and adolescents Self- Structured Tool report interview References My worst experience survey (MWES) and my worst school X [ 45 ] experience survey (MWSES) Traumatic event screening instrument for children (TESI-C) X [46 ] When bad things happen scale (WBTHS) X [47 ] Children’s sexual behavior inventory 3 (CSBI-3) Xa [ 48 ] Child rating scales of exposure to interpersonal abuse X [ 49 ] (CRS-EIA) The Angie/Andy CRS (A/A CRS) X [50 ] a Administered by parents or primary caregivers
Table A6 PTSD diagnostic instruments for children and adolescents Sx Scale Full name Diagnostic severity Administration Comment References DICA- 12 Diagnostic X LI (Lay Used for [51 ] interview for interviewer) clinical and children and survey adolescents research revised CAPS- CA a Clinician- X X CI (Clinician PTSD Sx: [52 ] administered interviewer) intensity PTSD scale for and children and frequency adolescents DISC Diagnostic X LI Survey [53 ] interview research schedule for children CPTSDI Children’s X X CI Trauma [54 ] PTSD exposure, inventory PTSD Sx, and functional impairment UCLA- UCLA PTSD X X Self Assesses [55 ] PTSD R1b reaction index PTSD and Sx severity K-SADS-PL Kiddie X CI Assess [56 ] schedule for present and affective lifetime disorders and PTSD schizophrenia- present and lifetime version PTSD-SI PTSD X CI Child and [57 ] semistructured parent interview interviewed a The CAPS-CA is being revised. Please contact the National center for PTSD’s website at
≥ 5–14 25/30 parent report of posttraumatic symptoms UCLA-PTSD reaction index 6–17 22 Assesses PTSD diagnosis and symptom severity [ a PTSD self-report instruments for children and adolescents PTSD self-report instruments for children and adolescents IES-R PTSS-C TSCC TSCYC Impact of event scale—revised CPSS Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children CROPS/PROPS symptom checklist for children Trauma 6–18 Child report of posttraumatic symptoms/ symptom checklist for young children Trauma 30 3–12 PTSDPAC 90 Child PTSD symptom scale CBCL Used in chaotic disaster contexts 8–16 54 Completed by caregiver PTSD symptoms in preschool-aged children 3–5 depression, and anger Assesses PTSD, anxiety, 18 Child behavior checklist—PTSD subscale Completed by caregiver [ 8–18 24 4–18 [ 13 Assess PTSD symptoms and functional impairment [ Completed by caregiver [ [ [ Scale UCLA-PTSD-RI Full name Ages # Items Comments References The UCLA-PTSD-RI is being revised. Please contact Dr. Alan Steinberg at [email protected] for more information [email protected] at Alan Steinberg The UCLA-PTSD-RI is being revised. Please contact Dr.
a Table Table A7 Glossary
Adrenergic response Neuronal activation mediated by either norepinephrine (nor- adrenaline) or epinephrine (adrenaline) Affect lability Rapid and unpredictable shifts in mood state Amnesia Mental syndrome characterized by partial or complete memory loss Amygdala Principal nucleus in the brain for appraising emotional input and threat- ening stimuli and then mobilizing protective, defensive, or escape behavior Anxiolytics Medications that relieve anxiety Ataques de nervios A common symptom of distress among Hispanic American groups involving anxiety, uncontrollable shouting and crying, trembling, heart palpitations, diffi culty breathing, dizziness, fainting spells, and dissociative symptoms (e.g., amnesia and alteration of consciousness) Benzodiazepine family of drugs A very effective and widely prescribed class of medications for anxiety that includes diazepam, lorazepam, alprazolam, and clonazepam Borderline personality disorder A personality disorder characterized by extreme instabilities fl uctuating between normal functioning and psychic disability Calor A stress-related syndrome observed among Salvadoran women described as a surge of intense heat that may rapidly spread throughout the entire body for a few moments or for several days Cognitive-behavioral approaches Therapeutic approaches derived from learning and conditioning models to extinguish fear conditioning and cognitive psychol- ogy to correct erroneous cognitions Comorbid disorders Major psychiatric disorders that are present at the same time an individual has full-fl edged PTSD Cortisol A hormone produced by the adrenal cortex plays a prominent role in the human stress response; it increases energy by raising blood glucose levels, decreases immune processes, and causes other metabolic and neurobiological actions
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 143 M.J. Friedman, Posttraumatic and Acute Stress Disorders, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15066-6 144 Glossary
Countertransference The clinician’s personal psychological reaction to something the patient said or did Depersonalization An alteration in the perception or experience of the self so that one feels detached from, and as if one is an outside observer of, one’s mental processes or body (e.g., feeling that one is in a dream) Derealization An alteration in the perception or experience of the external world so that it seems strange or unreal (e.g., people may seem unfamiliar or mechanical) Dissociation An abnormal cognitive/emotional state in which one’s perception of oneself, one’s environment, or the relationship between oneself, and one’s envi- ronment is altered signifi cantly Dissociative identity disorder Previously called multiple personality disorder, which is characterized by one’s personality becoming so fragmented that pro- nounced changes in behavior and reactivity are noticed between different social situations or social roles Extrapyramidal Part of the brain’s cortical neuronal system that activates muscle tone and motor movement. Unwanted extrpyramidal effects (such as uncontrol- lable involuntary motor movements or excessive rigidity) are sometimes pro- duced by antipsychotic medications. Fragmented thoughts The inability to sustain continuity and coherence in one’s cognitive processes Generalized anxiety disorder A psychiatric disorder marked by unrealistic worry, apprehension, and uncertainty as well as physical symptoms, such as: muscle tension, restlessness, dry mouth, and frequent urination Hallucination A compelling perceptual experience of seeing, hearing, or smelling something that is not actually present Hematopoietic Referring to the bone marrow’s capacity to produce red and white blood cells Hyperreactive psychophysiological state A state in which emotions are height- ened and aroused and even minor events may produce a state in which the heart pounds rapidly, muscles are tense, and there is great overall agitation Hypervigilance Preoccupied by watchful or protective behavior motivated by excessive fears for personal safety Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis Three anatomic structures that participate collectively in the hormonal response to stress: the hypothalamus (in the brain), the pituitary gland, and the outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland Imaginal exposure Systematically assisting trauma survivors to confront distress- ing trauma memories through the use of mental imagery In-vivo exposure Patients practice techniques learned in therapy in the environ- ment that represents their most-feared situation Lifetime PTSD Those who developed PTSD at any time in their lives Neurotransmitters Chemical messengers that transmit signals from one nerve cell to another to elicit physiological responses Neutrality A psychoanalytic technique by which clinicians reveal as little of themselves as possible so that thoughts, memories, and feelings generated dur- ing therapy come from the patient’s intrapsychic processes rather than from an interpersonal relationship between patient and clinician Glossary 145
Panic disorder A psychiatric disorder marked by intense anxiety and panic as well as many physical symptoms, such as palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, sweating, and a sense of impending death Pathological changes Changes resulting in an abnormal condition that prevents proper psychological functioning Peritraumatic dissociation Dissociation during and shortly after the trauma Personality pathology Maladaptive pattern of relating to other people that severely impairs social functioning and adaptive potential Pharmacological probe A drug that can activate psychobiological mechanisms involved in the stress response Physiological reactivity Quickening of the heart rate, blood pressure, and breath- ing, resulting from exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resem- ble an aspect of the traumatic event Physioneurosis An historical designation for the clinically signifi cant physiologi- cal as well as psychological changes observed (during the 1940s) among veter- ans with “war neurosis” syndrome Postsynaptic neuron The downstream neuron that is the target of neurotransmission Presynaptic neuron The neuron that initiates neurotransmission by releasing the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft Psychic balance A dynamic equilibrium state between those thoughts, feelings, memories, and urges the conscious can tolerate and those it cannot Psychodynamic approaches Therapeutic approaches that focus on unconscious and conscious motivations and drives Psychogenic amnesia The inability to remember emotionally charged events for psychological rather than neurological reasons Psychological debriefi ng An intervention conducted by trained professionals shortly after a catastrophe, allowing victims to talk about their experience and receive information on “normal” types of reactions to such an event Psychological fi rst aid An approach designed to ameliorate immediate posttrau- matic distress based on the expectation that every survivor, no matter how upset, will achieve normal recovery Psychological probe A visual or auditory stimulus reminiscent of a traumatic experience to which a person with PTSD is exposed Psychometric instruments Tests that measure psychological factors, such as personality, intelligence, beliefs, and fears Receptors Membrane-bound protein molecules with a highly specifi c shape that facilitate binding by neurotransmitters or medications Repression A hypothetical, unconscious process by which unacceptable (often trauma-related) thoughts and feelings are kept out of conscious awareness Saccadic eye movements Rapid intermittent eye movement, such as that which occurs when the eyes fi x on one point after another in the visual fi eld Schizophrenia A major psychiatric disorder characterized by disorganization and fragmentation of thought, delusions, hallucinations, apathy, disturbance of lan- guage and communication, and withdrawal from social interaction 146 Glossary
Secondary traumatization Feelings, personal distress, and symptoms sometimes evoked in people who live with an individual with PTSD Self-cohesion Knowledge and integration of previously unconscious motivations Somatization The expression of emotional distress through physical symptoms such as peptic ulcer, headache, asthma, or chronic pain Startle reactions “Jumpy” behavior manifested as a tendency to exhibit an exag- gerated startle response to unexpected noises or movements by others Subjective units of distress scale A scale ranging from 10 to 100 with 10 being the least anxiety provoking and 100 being the most anxiety provoking; the SUDS scoring system allows the patient to express exactly how upsetting or distressing certain stimuli are in comparison to other anxiety experiences Sympathetic nervous system Part of the autonomic nervous system that regulates arousal functions such as heart rate and blood fl ow Synaptic cleft The space between one neuron and the next that must be traversed by neurotransmitters Teratogenic Producing fetal abnormalities during pregnancy Validity The extent to which the instrument actually measures what it purports to measure Vicarious traumatization Feelings, personal distress, and symptoms that are sometimes evoked in clinicians working with PTSD patients Well encapsulated Psychological buffers that prevent a person from experiencing current distress from a previous traumatic event Bibliography
1. Reardon AF, Brief DJ, Miller MW, Keane TM. Assessment of PTSD and its comorbidities in adults. In: Friedman MJ, Keane TM, Resick PA, editors. Handbook of PTSD: science and practice. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford; 2014. p. 369–90. 2. Briggs EC, Nooner K, Amaya-Jackson LM. Assessment of childhood PTSD. In: Friedman MJ, Keane TM, Resick PA, editors. Handbook of PTSD: science and practice. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford; 2014. p. 391–405. 3. Prins A, Ouimette P, Kimerling R, Cameron RP, Hugeishofer DS, Shaw-Hegwer J, et al. The primary care PTSD screen (PC-PTSD): development and operating characteristics. Prim Care Psychiatr. 2004;9:9–14. 4. Brewin CR, Rose S, Andrews B, Green J, Tata P, McEvedy C, et al. Brief screening instrument for post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2002;181:158–62. 5. Gore KL, Engel CC, Freed MC, Liu X, Armstrong DW. Test of a single-item posttraumatic stress disorder screener in a military primary care setting. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2008;30:391–7. 6. Norris F. Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1992;60:409–18. 7. Kilpatrick D, Resnick H, Freedy J. The potential stressful events interview. Unpublished instrument. Charleston: Medical University of South Carolina; 1991. 8. Vrana S, Lauterbach D. Prevalence of traumatic events and post-traumatic psychological symptoms in a nonclinical sample of college students. J Trauma Stress. 1994;7:289–302. 9. Krinsley KE, Weathers FW. The assessment of trauma in adults. PTSD Res Q. 1995;6:1–6. 10. Green BL. Trauma history questionnaire. In: Stamm BH, Varra EM, editors. Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation. Lutherville: Sidran; 1996. p. 366–8. 11. Kubany E, Haynes S, Leisen M, Owens J, Kaplan A, Watson S, et al. Development and pre- liminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: the traumatic life events questionnaire. Psychol Assess. 2000;12:210–24. 12. Goodman L, Corcoran C, Turner K, Yuan N, Green B. Assessing traumatic event exposure: general issues and preliminary fi ndings for the stressful life events screening questionnaire. J Trauma Stress. 1998;11:521–42. 13. Wolfe J, Kimerling R, Brown PJ, Chrestman KR, Levin K. Psychometric review of the life stressor checklist-revised. In: Stamm BH, Varra EM, editors. Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation. Lutherville: Sidran; 1996. p. 198–201. 14. Sanders B, Becker-Lausen E. The measurement of psychological maltreatment: early data on the child abuse and trauma scale. Child Abuse Negl. 1995;19:315–23. 15. Bernstein DP, Fink L, Handelsman L, et al. Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. Am J Psychiatr. 1994;151:1132–6.
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 147 M.J. Friedman, Posttraumatic and Acute Stress Disorders, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15066-6 148 Bibliography
16. Ogata SN, Silk KR, Goodrich S, Lohr NE, Westen D, Hill EM. Childhood sexual and physical abuse in adult patients with borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatr. 1990;147:1008–13. 17. Gallagher RE, Flye BL, Hurt SW, Stone MH, Hull JW. Retrospective assessment of traumatic experiences (RATE). J Pers Disord. 1992;6:99–108. 18. Bremner JD, Randall P, Scott TM, Capelli S, Delany R, McCarthy G, et al. Defi cits in short- term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychiatry Res. 1995;59:97–107. 19. Straus M. Measuring intrafamily confl ict and violence: the confl ict tactics (CT) scales. J Marriage Fam. 1979;41:75–88. 20. Shepard MF, Campbell JA. The abusive behavior inventory: a measure of psychological and physical abuse. J Interpers Violence. 1992;7:291–305. 21. Koss MP, Gidycz CA. Sexual experiences survey: reliability and validity. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1985;53:422–3. 22. Wyatt GE, Lawrence J, Vodounon A, Mickey MR. The Wyatt sex history questionnaire: a structured interview for female sexual history taking. J Child Sex Abus. 1992;1(4):51–68. 23. Keane TM, Fairbank JA, Caddell JM, Zimering RT, Taylor KL, Mora CA. Clinical evaluation of a measure to assess combat exposure. Psychol Assess. 1989;1:53–5. 24. Wolfe J, Brown PJ, Furey J, Levin KB. Development of a wartime stressor scale for women. Psychol Assess. 1993;5:330–5. 25. Mollica RF, Caspi-Yavin Y, Bollini P, Truong T, Tor S, Lavelle J. The Harvard trauma ques- tionnaire: validating a cross-cultural instrument for measuring torture, trauma, and posttrau- matic stress disorder in Indochinese refugees. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1992;180:111–6. 26. First MB, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Gibbon M. Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research; 1996. 27. Blake DD, Weathers FW, Nagy LM, Kaloupek DG, Gusman FD, Charney DS, et al. The devel- opment of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. J Trauma Stress. 1995;8:75–90. 28. Foa E, Riggs D, Dancu C, Rothbaum B. Reliability and validity of a brief instrument for assessing post-traumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 1993;6:459–74. 29. Davidson JRT, Smith RD, Kudler HS. Validity and reliability of the DSM-III criteria for post- traumatic stress disorder: experience with a structured interview. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1989;177:336–41. 30. DiNardo PA, Brown TA, Barlow DH. Anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV: life- time version (ADIS-IV-L). San Antonio: Psychological Corporation; 1994. 31. Watson C, Juba M, Manifold V, Kucala T, Anderson P. The PTSD interview: rationale, descrip- tion, reliability and concurrent validity of a DSM-III based technique. J Clin Psychol. 1991;47:179–85. 32. World Health Organization. Composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI), version 2.1. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1997. 33. Robins LM, Cottler L, Bucholz K. Diagnostic interview schedule for DSM-IV. St. Louis: Washington University; 1995. 34. Weathers FW, Litz BT, Herman DS, Huska JA, Keane TM. PTSD checklist (PCL). Boston: National Center for PTSD; 1995. 35. Foa E, Cashman L, Jaycox L, Perry K. The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Assess. 1997;9:445–51. 36. Davidson JRT, Book SW, Colket JT, Tupler LA, Roth S, David D, et al. Assessment of a new self-rating scale for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Med. 1997;27:153–60. 37. Briere J. Detailed assessment of adult posttraumatic states: phenomenology, diagnosis and measurement. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2001. 38. Weiss DS, Marmar CR. The impact of event scale—revised. In: Wilson JP, Keane TM, editors. Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. London: Guilford; 1997. p. 399–411. 39. Keane TM, Caddell JM, Taylor KL. Mississippi scale for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: three studies in reliability and validity. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1988;56:85–90. 40. Lyons J, Keane T. Keane PTSD scale: MMPI and MMPI-2 update. J Trauma Stress. 1992;5:111–7. 41. Briere J, Runtz M. The trauma symptom checklist (TSC-33): early data on a new scale. J Interpers Violence. 1989;4:151–63. Bibliography 149
42. Briere J. Trauma symptom inventory (TSI): professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1995. 43. Hammarberg M. Penn inventory for posttraumatic stress disorder: psychometric properties. Psychol Assess. 1992;4:67–76. 44. Kubany ES, Leien MB, Kaplan AS, Kelly MP. Validation of a brief measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: the distressing event questionnaire. Psychol Assess. 2000;12:197–209. 45. National Center for Study of Corporal Punishment and Alternatives in Schools. My worst experience survey. Philadelphia: Temple University Press; 1992. 46. Ribbe D. Psychometric review of traumatic event screening instrument for children (TESI-C). In: Stamm BH, editor. Measurement of stress, trauma and adaptation. Lutherville: Sidran; 1996. p. 386–7. 47. Fletcher K. When bad things happen scale. Washington, DC: National Center for PTSD Assessments; 1991. Available from the author, Dept. of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Medical Center, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655. 48. Friedrich W. Evaluation and treatment: the clinical use of the child sexual behavior inventory: commonly asked questions. Am Prof Soc Abuse Child Advisor. 1995;8(1):17–20. 49. Praver F. Child rating scales—exposure to interpersonal abuse. Unpublished copyrighted instrument; 1994. 50. Praver F, Pelcovitz D, DiGiuseppe R. The Angie/Andy child rating scales (Available from Praver, 5 Marseilles Drive, Locust Valley, NY 11560; Pelcovitz, Dept. of Psychiatry, 400 Community Drive, Manhasset, NY 11030; or DiGiuseppe, Psychology Dept., St. John’s University, Grand Central and Utopia Parkways, Jamaica, NY 11439); 1994. 51. Reich W, Leacock N, Shanfi eld C. Diagnostic interview for children and adolescents-revised (DICA-R). St. Louis: Washington University; 1994. 52. Newman W, Weathers FW, Nader K, Kaloupek DG, Pynoos RS, Blake DD, et al. Clinician- administered PTSD scale for children and adolescents (Caps-CA). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services; 2004. 53. Shaffer D, Fisher P, Lucas CP, Dulcan M, Schwab-Stone M. The NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children, version IV (DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions and reliability of some common diagnoses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39: 28–38. 54. Yasik AE, Saigh PA, Oberfi eld RA, Green BL, McHugh M. The validity of the children’s PTSD inventory. J Trauma Stress. 2001;14:81–94. 55. Pynoos RS, Rodriguez N, Steinberg A, Stauber M, Frederick C. UCLA PTSD index for DSM- IV- child version. Los Angeles: UCLA Trauma Psychiatry Service; 1998. 56. Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent D, Rao U, Flynn C, Moreci P, et al. Schedule for affective disorder and schizophrenia for school-age children—present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36:980–8. 57. Scheeringa MS, Zeanah CH. PTSD semi-structured interview and observational record for infants and young children. New Orleans: Department of Psychiatry and neurology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center; 1994. 58. Ahmad A, Sundelin-Wahlsten V, Sofi MA, Qahar JA, von Knorring AL. Reliability and valid- ity of a child-specifi c cross-cultural instrument for assessing posttraumatic stress disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;9:285–94. 59. Briere J. Trauma symptom checklist for children (TSCC). Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1996. 60. Foa EB, Johnson KM, Feeny NC, Treadwell KR. The child PTSD symptom scale: a prelimi- nary examination of its psychometric properties. J Clin Child Psychol. 2001;30:376–84. 61. Greenwald R. Child report of post-traumatic symptoms (CROPS) and parent report of post- traumatic symptoms (PROPS): manual and measures. Baltimore: Sidran; 2000. 62. Levandosky AA, Huth-Boks AC, Semel MA, Shapiro DL. Trauma symptoms in pre-school- age children exposed to domestic violence. J Interpers Violence. 2002;17:150–64. 63. Achenbach TM, Rescoria L. Child behavior checklist for ages 1½–5. Burlington: University of Vermont; 2000. Index
A Alcohol/drug abuse , 18, 41, 43 ABC. See Attachment and biobehavioral Amygdala catch-up (ABC) adrenergic activity , 98 Acceptance and commitment CRF , 95 therapy (ACT) , 39, 40, 73 mPFC , 94 ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic Anticonvulsants/mood stabilizers , 109 hormone(ACTH) Antidepressants Acute stress disorder (ASD) buproprion , 107 CBT (see Cognitive behavioral MAOIs (see Monoamine oxidase therapy (CBT)) inhibitors (MAOIs)) COSR and battle fatigue , 124 mirtazapine , 107 description , 117, 124 nefazadone , 107 DSM-5 diagnostic criteria , 126–129 TCAs , 104, 107, 108 pharmacological treatment , 131 venlafaxine , 107 psychological fi rst aid (PFA) , 130 Antipsychotic agents , 110 vs. PTSD , 125–126 ASD. See Acute stress disorder (ASD) risk factors , 125 ASR. See Acute stress reaction (ASR) Acute stress disorder interview (ASDI) , 129 Attachment and biobehavioral catch-up Acute stress disorder scale (ASDS) , 129 (ABC), 81–82 Acute stress reaction (ASR) combat injuries , 118 and COSR (see Combat operational B stress reaction (COSR)) Benzodiazepines , 105, 109 counseling, patient , 119 Brief eclectic psychotherapy (BEP), 71 description , 115, 116 Brief psychodynamic psychotherapy military resilience , 117 (BPP) , 70 psychological debriefi ng , 122–124 Bupropion , 104, 107 resilience , 121–122 symptoms , 118 TBI , 118 C treatment approaches , 119–120 Catastrophic stress Adrenergic system cognitive therapy , 61 pharmacological probe , 98 countertransference , 49 psychological probe , 98 prevalence rates , 7 Adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) , 95, 96 psychoeducation , 54 Affective disorders, 31 public health , 4
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 151 M.J. Friedman, Posttraumatic and Acute Stress Disorders, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15066-6 152 Index
CBITS. See Cognitive behavioral intervention DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for trauma in schools (CBITS) ASD CBT. See Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) ASDI , 129 Child and family traumatic stress ASDS and SASRQ , 129 intervention (CFTSI), 131 clinical interview , 128 Child-parent psychotherapy (CPP), 81–82 description , 128–129 Clinician-Administered PTSD instruments , 128 Scale (CAPS), 28 PTSD Cognitive behavioral intervention for trauma anxietydisorder , 10–11 in schools (CBITS), 81–82 description , 11–15, 20–25 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) dissociative symptoms , 20 CFTSI , 131 hallucination , 16 children and adolescents , 79–80 physiological reactivity , 16 cognitive-based CBT , 80 preschool subtype , 19 DESTRESS , 67 traumas , 16 effi cacy , 67 traumatic stress , 11 Interapy , 67 internet approaches , 66 mobile devices , 68 E pharmacological treatments and acute Eye movement desensitization distress, 130 and reprocessing (EMDR) psychological fi rst aid (PFA) , 130 CBT , 71 psychotherapies , 40 eye movements reprogram , 58 PTSD treatment , 60 PE/CPT , 69 randomized clinical trials , 129 psychotherapies , 40 telehealth approaches , 67 saccadic , 68–69 telephones , 68 therapeutic effi cacy , 69 trauma-focused therapy , 38 traumatic experience , 38 virtual reality (VR) , 66 Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) , 63 Combat operational stress reaction (COSR) G brevity, immediacy, contact, expectancy, General adaptation syndrome proximity and simplicity ACTH , 95 (BICEPS), 121 human stress response , 96 proximity, immediacy, expectancy hypothalamus , 95 and simplicity (PIES), 120–121 Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) , 32 resilience , 121–122 Global treatment issues, PTSD symptoms , 118 business and clinicians , 37 Comorbid disorders clinician self-care , 49 alcohol/drug abuse , 41 comorbid alcohol , 37 psychiatric disorders , 41, 42 countertransference , 46, 48–49 PTSD , 29 cross-cultural considerations , 44–45 Complex PTSD , 31, 43–44 D-cycloserine , 40 COSR. See Combat operational stress emotional diffi culty , 36 reaction (COSR) environmental considerations , 42–43 Countertransference , 46, 48–49 medications , 40 CPP. See Child-parent psychotherapy (CPP) multimodal treatment , 37 pharmacotherapy , 40 psychiatric disorders , 35 D psychotherapeutic approach , 38 D-cycloserine (DCS) , 104 safety , 38 Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) , sexual abuse , 36 44, 65, 73 somatization , 44 Dissociative amnesia , 17 therapeutic neutrality vs. advocacy , 46, 47 Index 153
H MAOIs (see Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Hippocampus , 94, 95, 98 (MAOIs)) Hypervigilance , 18, 32, 43 nefazadone , 105 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical neurotransmission , 101, 102 (HPA) axis psychobiological abnormalities , 96–98 brain neurotransmitter , 95 resilience and prevention , 110–111 PTSD , 99 serotonergic system , 99 and serotonergic systems , 98 SNS , 94, 95 SSRIs , 105–106 TCA , 107–108 I topiramate , 103 Imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT) , 64, 77 venlafaxine , 104 Phobias , 32 Physioneurosis , 4 M Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) , arousal and reactivity , 18 94, 95, 97, 98 assessment instruments , 27–28 Medical disorders , 31 avoidance symptoms , 17 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) catastrophic events , 2, 3 hyperarousal symptoms , 107 characteristics , 9–10 TCA , 107 clinical formulations , 3–4 treatment , 107 cognitions and mood, negative mPFC. See Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) alterations, 17 Multimodality trauma treatment (MMTT) , 81 continuous remission , 6–7 delayed expression , 20 diagnostic instruments N for adults , 137, 139 Neurotransmission for children and adolescents , 137, 141 medication impacts , 101 dissociative symptoms , 20 presynaptic neuron packages , 100 dose-response relationship , 2 DSM-5 diagnostic criteria (see DSM-5 diagnostic criteria) P DSM-IV-TR disorders , 29, 30 Panic disorder , 32 epidemiologic research , 5 Partial/subsyndromal PTSD , 31 intrusion symptoms , 16 PCT. See Present-centered therapy (PCT) irritable behavior and angry PE. See Prolonged exposure (PE) outbursts , 18 Pharmacological treatments, PTSD medical/psychiatric disorders , 5 adrenergic system , 98–99 patient interviews, clinicians , 25–26 antiadrenergic agents , 108 pharmacological treatments , 5 anticonvulsants/mood stabilizers , 109 prevalence rates, comorbidity , 29, 30 antidepressants , 107 psychological stress , 2 antipsychotic agents , 110 psychological transformations , 3 atypical antipsychotics , 104 public health , 4 benzodiazepines , 103, 109 remissions and relapses , 6 bupropion , 104 resilience , 2, 5 CBT and DCS , 101 self-report instruments general adaptation syndrome , 95–97 for adults , 137, 140 HPA , 99 for children and adolescents , human stress response 137, 142 amygdala , 93 stressful events , 1 hippocampus , 94 TBI , 29–30 mPFC , 94 traumatic exposure , 1 indications and contraindications , 100–102 war neurosis , 4 154 Index
Present-centered therapy (PCT) CPT , 63 CBT , 71–72 DBT , 65 description , 38 EMDR , 68–69 psychotherapy , 53 group therapy , 54 SIT , 72 individual psychotherapy , 53 traumatic experience , 58 IRT , 64–65 Prolonged exposure (PE) PE , 59–61 benzodiazepines , 109 psychodynamic psychotherapy CBT , 58 ( see Psychodynamic psychotherapy) imaginal and in vivo exposure , 59–60 psychoeducation (see Psychoeducation) pharmacotherapy , 40 school-basedgrouptreatmentmodels , remission , 6 80–81 SIT , 64 SIT , 64 SUDS , 60 UCLA trauma/grief program , 81 trauma-focused treatment , 38 PTSD. See Posttraumatic stress disorder VR , 66 (PTSD) Psychiatric emergency , 37, 49 Psychodynamic psychotherapy BEF , 71 R BPP , 70–71 Recovered-memory therapy CBT and CPT , 77 false memory syndrome , 46 couples/family therapy , 74–75 psychotherapy , 45 group therapies , 75 traumatic memories , 45 interpersonal focus group therapy , 75–76 PCT , 71–72 S psychic balance , 69, 70 Selective serotonin reuptake repression , 70 inhibitors (SSRIs) social rehabilitative therapies , 78–79 augmentation strategies , 106 supportive group therapy , 77–78 clinical advantages , 106 third-wave/mindfulness approaches , 73 depression , 105 Psychodynamic therapy prolonged exposure (PE) therapy , 106 ABC , 81–82 sertraline and paroxetine , 105 CPP , 81 Self-report screening instruments , 137, 138 Psychoeducation Serotonergic system , 99 CBT ( see Cognitive behavioral therapy Social rehabilitative therapies , 40, 78–79 (CBT)) Somatization disorder , 44 community , 56 SSRIs. See Selective serotonin reuptake diagnostic assessment , 54 inhibitors (SSRIs) EMDR , 58 Stanford acute stress reaction questionnaire peer counseling , 57 (SASRQ), 129 present-centered therapies , 58 Stress inoculation training (SIT) , 39 psychodynamic psychotherapy , 58 distraction techniques , 64 SUD , 54 PTSD patients , 63–64 supportive therapies , 58 social skills training , 64 therapeutic activity , 55–56 Subjective units of distress scale(SUDS) , 60 third wave/mindfulness approaches , 58 Substance use disorder (SUD) , 32, 41, 54 Psychological treatments, PTSD biofeedback and relaxation training , 65 CBITS , 81 T children and adolescents , 54, 79 TBI. See Traumatic brain injury (TBI) cognitive therapy , 61–62 TCAs. See Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) couples/family therapy , 54 Therapeutic neutrality , 46, 47 Index 155
Third-wave/mindfulness approaches , 73 PE , 59 Trauma exposure scales psychodynamic psychotherapy , 69–70 for adults , 137, 138 trauma-focused therapy , 38 for children and adolescents , 137, 141 Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) , 104, 107–108 Trauma-focused therapy CBT , 38 EMDR , 38 V PE , 38 Venlafaxine , 102, 104, 107, 111 psychodynamics , 38 Vicarious traumatization , 47–49 psychosocial treatments , 40 Virtual reality (VR) , 66 Traumatic brain injury (TBI) , 29–30, 118 Traumatic memories EMDR , 58 W intrusion symptoms , 16 War neurosis , 4