MAGAZINE from MEDIEVALISTS.NET the Medieval Magazine Volume 2 Number 6 March 7, 2016

MEDIEVAL STUDIES MAGAZINE FROM MEDIEVALISTS.NET The Medieval Magazine Volume 2 Number 6 March 7, 2016

6th-Century Foot Bell-ringing rivalries in Saint Aldhelm's Riddles Prosthesis Discovered Canterbury

6 18 26 Anglo-Saxon Island Discovered The Medieval Magazine March 7, 2016

Page 6 6th-century Foot Prosthesis Discovered in Austria

Archaeologists discover a man who had his left foot amputated and replaced with an iron and wood prosthesis.

Page 14 A Medieval Fixer-Upper

Interested in buying this 15th-century shop in France?

Page 16 Medieval Academy of America Annual Meeting

Reports from this major conference, held this year in Boston

Page 29 The Tudor Cook Book

Read an excerpt from this new book. Table of Contents

4 Anglo-Saxon Island Discoverved

6 6th-century Foot Prosthesis Discovered in Austria

9 New Online Resource: The Registers of the Archbishops of York

11 Battle site shows the Noman Conquest took years longer than 1066 and all that

14 A Medieval Fixer-Upper: 15th-century Shop for Sale in France

16 The Medieval Academy of America - Report from the Annual Meeting

18 Rivalries in Sound: Bishops, Monks and Hierarchy in Canterbury, c.1000-1300

20 Written in the Stars: Medieval Astrology between Magic and Science

22 The Funeral of Queen Elizabeth of York

26 Saint Aldhelm's Riddles

29 Book Excerpt: The Tudor Cook Book: From Gilded Peacock to Calves Feet Pie

32 Tales from Sacchetti: Checkmate

THE MEDIEVAL MAGAZINE

Edited by: Peter Konieczny

Website: www.medievalists.net

This digital magazine is published each Monday.

Cover Photo: Detail showing the British Isles and Northwestern Europe from the Anglo-Saxon Mappa Mundi, 1025-1050 - probably created at Canterbury, it is now kept at the British Library

Medieval News Anglo-Saxon Island discovered The remains of an Anglo-Saxon island have been uncovered in one of the most important archaeological finds in decades. The island which was home to a Middle Saxon settlement was found at Little Carlton near Louth, Lincolnshire by archaeologists from the University of Sheffield. Little Carlton Timelapse It is thought the site is a previously researchers raised the water level digitally unknown monastic or trading centre but to bring it back up to its early medieval researchers believe their work has only height based on the topography and revealed an enticing glimpse of the geophysical survey. settlement so far. Dr Willmott commented, “Our findings The exciting discovery was made after a have demonstrated that this is a site of local metal detectorist Graham Vickers international importance, but its reported an intriguing item to the discovery and initial interpretation has Lincolnshire Finds Liaison Officer (FLO), Dr only been possible through engaging with Adam Daubney, from the Portable a responsible local metal detectorist who Antiquities Scheme which encourages the reported their finds to the Portable voluntary recording of archaeological Antiquities Scheme.” objects found by members of the public in England and Wales. Students from the University have subsequently opened nine evaluation Mr Vickers unearthed a silver stylus, which trenches at the site which revealed a is an ornate writing tool dating back to the wealth of information about what life 8th century, from a disturbed plough field. would have been like at the settlement.

This was the first of many unusual items They found a number of intriguing items found at the site which held important including an area which seems to have clues to the significant settlement lying been an area of industrial working, as well below. as very significant quantities of Middle Saxon pottery and butchered animal bone. The large number of artefacts now include a total of 21 styli, around 300 dress pins, “It’s been an honour to be invited to work and a huge number of ‘Sceattas’, coins on such a unique site and demonstrate the from the 7th-8th centuries, as well as a importance of working with local people small lead tablet bearing the faint but on the ground; one of the greatest legible letters spelling ‘Cudberg’ which is strengths of the University of Sheffield is a female Anglo-Saxon name. its active promotion of an understanding of our shared pasts for all concerned,” After the interesting finds were reported, added Dr Willmott. Dr Hugh Willmott and Pete Townend, a doctoral student from the University of Sheffield’s Department of Archaeology, visited the site to carry out targeted geophysical and magnetometry surveys along with 3D modelling to visualise the landscape on a large scale.

The imagery showed that the island they had discovered was much more obvious than the land today, rising out of its lower surroundings. To complete the picture the 6th-century Foot Prosthesis Discovered in Austria Evidence of prosthetic devices from pre-modern times are very rare. Therefore a find made in 2013 is offering new insights into medical care during the early Middle Ages. A team of researchers writing in the International Journal of Paleopathology have reported that a man from the sixth century was discovered in Austria with his entire left foot replaced by an iron and wood prosthesis.

Grave with the burial of the wearer of the prosthesis. Image credit: OEAI / Austrian Archaeological Institute The skeleton of adult male, between the with The Medieval Magazine that “we can ages of 35 and 50, was discovered at a dig see some differences in joint of a church cemetery at Hemmaberg in degeneration in the shoulders which southern Austria. Researchers from the perhaps indicates that he would have Austrian Archaeological Institute (OEAI) moved around with a crutch. How the examined the remains and discovered his prosthesis itself was fixed to the leg is left foot had been amputated just above difficult to infer because the organic the ankle and a type of prosthetic foot substances did not survive in the grave. made up of iron and wood was added. The However, there is some dark staining in individual survived the procedure for at and around the left lower leg, this could least several weeks, and probably some represent the remnants of a leather pouch years, as evidence suggests that he was strapped to the remaining leg in order to able to have some mobility with that leg. fixate the wooden component of the prosthesis. Similar devices were used up Michaela Binder, the lead archaeologist in until the 19th century.” the discovery, explained in an interview

The iron component of the prosthesis Image credit: OEAI / Austrian Archaeological Institute The article describes the foot prosthetic: The article notes that only a handful of individuals from this period have been In place of the left distal thirds of the tibia and discovered with prosthetics. For example, an fibula as well as the entire foot, a sub-circular adult male from the seventh or eighth century iron band with a diameter of 6.8–7.3 cm was was discovered in Germany with his leg found in the grave. The band itself has a width amputated below the knee and a foot made of 1.5–1.8 cm and a thickness of 0.3–0.4 cm. of bronze. The ring was closed with two small iron rivets. Remains of heavily deteriorated wooden slats Dr. Binder, a bioarchaeologist who has on the inside of the ring were preserved as well, researched finds throughout Europe, Africa fixed to the iron through four iron nails. In and Asia, adds: addition, there is dark staining on the remaining part of the left tibia and fibula of Having the opportunity to study the prosthesis the individual.This perhaps represents and the skeleton together allows us to see if remnants of a highly deteriorated structure and to what to degree people in the early made from an organic substance, perhaps medieval period had to knowledge to construct wood or leather, which served to fix the such devices so they could actually be used. prosthesis to the leg of the individual. The discovery further shows that they had sufficient medicinal knowledge to treat such The scholars could only speculate on the severe wounds, one of the reasons why we cause of the amputation, with the likely rarely find such early examples may lie in the causes being medical treatment, mutilation fact that before the introduction of adequate (as punishment for a crime) or trauma caused medical care most victims suffering the loss of by an accident or violence. a limb or part thereof would have simply not survived. The individual also had a range of other health problems, including osteoarthritis, a The article “Prosthetics in antiquity—An early damaged nose, an injury to his right leg likely medieval wearer of a footprosthesis (6th caused by blunt force trauma and severe century AD) from Hemmaberg/Austria,” dental disease. Nevertheless, the evidence appears in the International Journal of also suggests that the male would have been Paleopathology, Vol.12 (2016) considered to have high social status among . his community, not only because he received a prosthetic, but also because his grave contained a short sword and a brooch.

Church cemetery where the skeleton was discovered. Photo credit: OEAI New Online Resource: The Registers of the Archbishops of York Over 10,000 folios from the medieval Registers from the Archbishops of York have been been digitized and published by online by the University of York. This website – York’s Archbishops Registers Revealed – makes available one of the most important collections of historical materials related to England’s ecclesiastical history.

The Registers produced by Archbishops of Funded by the Andrew W Mellon Foundation, York, which cover the period from the digitisation project took 15 months, with 1225-1650, are one of the earliest, largest specialist conservation and imaging work and longest locally-produced series of undertaken at the University’s Borthwick archives from the medieval and early modern Institute for Archives, and technical periods. Starting fifty years before development carried out by the University of corresponding examples for the Archbishops York Digital Library. of Canterbury, they are unparalleled in Europe. A highly technical process, each Register had to be individually assessed and treated by a Recording activity across the whole of the specialist conservator before, in some cases, North of England, the Registers provide ultraviolet imaging was used to reveal text unique insights into ecclesiastical, political unseen for hundreds of years. and cultural history over a period that witnessed the Black Death, the Wars of the Professor Mark Ormrod, the University of Roses, the Reformation and the English Civil York’s Dean of Arts and Humanities, said, “The War. Among the the topics that can be launch of the Archbishops’ Registers website researched: brings to fruition a major project in the Digital Humanities, its content and method being of - The appointment of parish and diocesan truly international importance. Bringing clergy; and the management of parishes together the very best of modern and parish clergy technologies with the highest traditions of - Wills and probate, dating from early as academic research, the continuing work on 1267 the Archbishops’ Registers will ensure free - Church taxation, rates and payments for and remote access to the wealth of church upkeep information and interest contained in these - Mandates demanding an action by the priceless historical documents.” Archbishop issued by the Monarch or Pope Interesting cases found within the York Registers

The case of Thomas de Whalley: 1280

Thomas de Whalley was the Abbot of Selby Abbey. Selby was visited by Archbishop Wickwane around the 8th January 1280. De Whalley was a known troublemaker, and had actually been removed as Abbot of Selby in 1264. On this occasion, Wickwane found that de Whalley “does not preach...does not teach...does not correct faults [in others]...never sleeps in the dormitory...does not visit the sick...is rarely out of bed to hear matins (a service ending at dawn)....eats meat with laymen in his manor...ignores the orders of the holy father and his archbishop...has negligent and bad habits and is, overall, incorrigible.”

The Visitation also found that de Whalley had managed to lose money by not collecting local taxes due to the monastery; was ‘noted for incontinence’ with two local women - one of whom had apparently borne him a child. Finally, it was found that de Whalley had procured at great expense the services of one Elyam Fanuelle, a ‘sorcerer and fortune-teller’ in the search for the body of his brother, who had drowned in the river Ouse. Unsurprisingly, de Whalley was excommunicated. Little more is heard of Thomas de Whalley, save the fact that in 1281 he was reported to have renounced his orders and had, effectively, gone on the run.

Impact of the Black Death: 1349

The Register for Archbishop Zouche contains thousands of entries relating to men becoming clergy in the Diocese at various levels - acolyte being the lowest, priests being the highest.

Archbishop Zouche issued a warning throughout the Diocese in July 1348 (when the Black Death was raging further south) of “great mortalities, pestilences and infections of the air”. The ‘Great Mortality’, as it was then known, entered Yorkshire in February 1349, and quickly spread through the Diocese. The clergy were on the front line of the disease, bringing comfort to the dying, hearing final confessions and organising burials. This put them at a greater risk of infection.

It’s no surprise to find that Zouche’s Register shows a massive rise in new clergy over the period - some being recruited before the arrival of plague in a clerical recruitment drive, but many once plague had arrived, replacing those who had been killed by it. In 1346, 111 priests and 337 acolytes were recruited. In 1349, 299 priests and 683 acolytes are named, with 166 priests being created in one session alone in February 1350. Estimates suggest that the death rate of clergy in some parts of the Archdiocese could have been as high as 48%.

Please visit York’s Archbishops Registers Revealed at https://archbishopsregisters.york.ac.uk/ Battle site shows the Norman Conquest took years longer than 1066 and all that By Helen Birkett

The possible discovery of the site of a 1069 “sequel” to the Battle of Hastings is a reminder that the Norman Conquest wasn’t just a case of 1066 and all that. In fact William the Conqueror faced repeated threats to his power from both inside and outside the kingdom during his reign.

Writer Nick Arnold claims to have identified Challenges to William’s rule the site of a battle in 1069 which marked the last major attempt of Godwine and Edmund, Admittedly, in the history of medieval military the sons of the Anglo-Saxon king Harold encounters, the Battle of Hastings was Godwinson, to regain power following their unusually decisive. This hard-fought battle father’s defeat at the Battle of Hastings in resulted in the deaths of King Harold and a 1066. Historical sources tell us that the 1069 large portion of the English aristocracy. With encounter took place at the mouth of the the removal of much of the ruling elite, River Taw in North Devon and, by combining William the Conqueror and his Norman allies this with scientific data, Arnold has narrowed (in reality a mixture of men drawn from down the location to a spot between various regions of France and Flanders) took Appledore and Northam. While an interesting over the controls of a remarkably centralised piece of historical detective work in its own Anglo-Saxon state. right, the potential identification of this site is a reminder that the Norman Conquest took But it would be wrong to think that the Norman years, not days. Conquest ended there. While much of the population probably accepted that the country was, in effect, under new Bayeux Tapestry management, not everyone welcomed the Harrying of the North’ngdom in mind change. The late 1060s and 1070s saw when significant challenges to William’s rule in England, of which the attempted invasion by The brief return of the Godwinsons in 1069, King Harold’s sons in 1069 was just one. however, was a mere sideshow compared to the full-scale rebellion in the north later that Our most reliable witness to events at this year. This was led by English earls in support time, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tells us that of Edgar the Ætheling, who claimed the throne in 1069 “Harold’s sons came from Ireland at as the closest male relative of William and midsummer with sixty-four ships into the Harold’s predecessor, Edward the Confessor. mouth of the Taw”. The naval force Like the attempted invasion by Harold’s sons, mentioned was almost certainly supplied by this rebellion was made possible through an the Norse kingdom of Dublin and reflects alliance with a foreign power: in this case, previous ties between King Harold and King Sweyn of Denmark, who provided a fleet Dublin’s overlord, King Diarmait of Leinster. of 240-300 ships. William’s response was to gather his army and “utterly ravage and lay This was the second attempt by Harold’s sons waste” to the region in what became known to mount an invasion and the second time as the Harrying of the North, forcing the that they had targeted the south-west. In northern earls into a truce. 1068 they had attacked Bristol and ravaged Somerset, before being seen off by English The Danes, meanwhile, remained a disruptive forces under Eadnoth the Staller, who was force in England until the following summer, killed in the encounter. They were repelled when they left laden with plunder largely again in 1069, this time by a Breton lord, taken from the abbey at Peterborough. All of Count Brian, who seems to have taken over which underlines that the events playing out responsibility for defence of the area. in England were part of political struggles in the context of her European neighbours. For ‘ the Normans conquest was an ongoing campaign that seemed as if Hastings' immediate legacy had lasted years, not something that was handed been to turn England itself into a to them by virtue of Harold’s death at battleground. Hastings.

Battleground England Helen Birkett is Although Arnold’s purported discovery of the a Lecturer in Medieval History at 1069 battle site can be admired as an University of Exeter ingenious piece of detective work, only archaeologists will be able to prove his This article was first published in claims. In reality, this announcement adds The Conversation only a limited amount to our current knowledge of historical events, which means any identification of the site in which the Godwinsons made their last great bid for power is probably of more significance to a local audience than to a national or academic one.

But if anything it should remind us of the turbulent years after 1066, when the Norman conquest was by no means assured – and it

Friars, Physicists and Natural Philosophers in Medieval Oxford Paper given by Allan Chapman at the Medieval Physics Conference at St Cross College, Unieristy of Oxford, on February 26, 2016 A Medieval Fixer-Upper: 15th-century Shop for Sale in France l’Echoppe, Quimperlé Asking price 42 000 €

While you can buy this 15th century building for just 42 000 euros, it will require much more money for repairs and restoration.

Known as l’Echoppe, this late-15th century building is located in Quimperlé, a French town on the coast of Brittany. It is believed to be the oldest house in the town, and is considered to be in virtually its original condition. The timber-framed house is about 100 square-meters in size, and consists of two floors, plus an attic and cellar. The ground floor has been used as a shop for centuries, while the second floor is divided into three rooms.

This official historical site is currently owned by the town of Quimperlé who, while selling it for a relatively low-price, will require the new owners to undertake extensive emergency repairs and restoration. It is estimated that this will cost more than 530,000 euros.

Located at 9 rue Dom-Morice, the building is set on a pedestrian road known as La Maison des Archers, which is home to artists and local groups. Quimperlé developed around an abbey in the 12th century, and now is home to just over 11,000 inhabitants.

The property is being sold by Patrice Besse, who offer this analysis of the site:

The miracle of its preservation for more than five centuries will not continue without major works, necessary now to restore its touching original appearance, both inside and out. A survey has already been carried out for this purpose. The future investment will be high in comparison to its low purchase price, but it will enable an enthusiast to blend a beneficial project with one that is pleasant. Beneficial because it would contribute to the preservation of a listed building that is both unique and irreplaceable and pleasant because it would breathe new life into a symbol of Quimperlé’s rich past. The worksite will, inevitably, be exciting and its costs tax deductible, courtesy of provisions linked to its French Historic Monument status.

To see more pictures and learn about l’Echoppe, please visit the Patrice Besse website

The 15th century city of Nieszawa, known by Vistula river – an important trade route two names Nowa Nieszawa (New Nieszawa) connecting the Poland with the Baltic Sea. or Dybów was a prosperous urban centre on Nieszawa was deliberately located opposite the border of the Polish Kingdom and the to Teutonic Torun in order to become an Teutonic Order. In nearly 40 years of its economic and political weapon in this existence the city became the main rival of conflict. Nowa Nieszawa’s dynamic the Order’s city of Torun (Thorn), a member development could not be stopped neither of the Hanseatic League. The circumstances by Teutonic Order’s political demands, of the town’s founding as well as destruction neither by its armed assaults, yet the city’s and translocation to the place where it is successful competition was in the end located today were inseparably connected awarded by destruction and translocation. with the history of Polish-Teutonic struggle Due to very fortunate coincidences the relicts for domination in the region and profit from of the city remained largely undisturbed for trade in the middle and upper course of the five and half centuries until Photo by Libre à Quimperlé / Wikimedia Commons

Some highlights from the business meeting of the Medieval Academy of America, which was held during the conference:

Membership is now up to over 3650, with a very good gender balance and increasing numbers of younger scholars. Lisa Davis Fagin, Executive Director of the Medieval Academy, points out that ideas about the organization being male-dominated, stodgy and conservative, are disappearing. “This is not your grandfather’s Medieval Academy,” she told the audience.

Future meetings of the Medieval Academy will be held in Toronto (2017), Atlanta (2018) and Boulder (2019). They are looking to have the 2020 meeting to be held in Northern California. With the centennial anniversary of the organization taking place in 2025, plans are now underway to launch a capital campaign to promote itself and raise funds to support its endeavours.

The Medieval Academy will also soon be launching a Medieval Digital Resource to offer scholars a peer-reviewed guide to websites and useful online resources for medievalists.

Twelve medievalists were added to the Medieval Academy of America’s List of Fellows and Corresponding Fellows: Lisa Bitel, Theodore Evergates, Dorothy Glass, Richard Kaeuper, Joel Kaye, Conrad Rudolph, Alison Stones, Nicholas Watson, Anders Winroth, Paul Brand, Constant Mews, and Susan Rankin

The Academy also passed this statement on diversity and academic freedom:

Membership in the Medieval Academy is open to all persons concerned with the study and teaching of the Middle Ages, including, but not limited to, independent scholars, secondary teachers, graduate students, curators, librarians, and college and university professors of all ranks and at all types of institutions. We aim to foster an environment of diversity, inclusion, and academic freedom for all medievalists. Further, we affirm the right of students and junior faculty to receive supportive, professional mentoring that respects their intellectual freedom and personal integrity.

To learn more about the Medieval Academy of America, please visit their website at www. medievalacademy.org Reports from the Medieval Academy of America Annual Meeting Rivalries in Sound: Bishops, Monks and Hierarchy in Canterbury, c.1000-1300

One would think that priests and monks could 1120 got a Papal Bull allowing them the get along, but when it came to bell ringing in freedom to ring their bells when they wanted Canterbury, the squabble between the two to. These rights would be confirmed by sides seems to have gone on for hundreds of successive pontiffs. years. In his paper at the Medieval Academy of America meeting, Paul Antony Hayward One should not assume that this was a right details how within the English city of to ring the bells on occasion. Hayward notes Canterbury, the local cathedral and abbey that by the mid-13th century the abbey had had ongoing dispute over the ringing of bells. developed an extensive set of rules and instructions for bell ringing, enough to fill 20 Local bishops were usually in charge of folios in a manuscript. They had developed regulating the ringing of church bells, and various routines for feast days with the most this could be an important duty, especially in elaborate being for the the Feast of St. urban areas where multiple churches were Augustine - the intensive bell ringing would close enough together that one could hear start two days before the feast day and bells from around the neighbourhood. One continue on for eight days afterwards. could imagine the chaos and noise if there was no coordination and order in how church The abbey also had a diverse collection of bells were rung. bells, which included four large bells housed in their main church. These bells were so large It seems that by the late eleventh-century the and loud that the abbey had rules to prevent Archbishop of Canterbury was ordering the all of them from being rung at the same time monks at St Augustine's Abbey to curtail their - otherwise the church would shake. church bell-ringing, and follow the lead of the cathedral. However, the monks did not take these orders quietly, and in the year Monks ringing church bells - from British Library MS Royal 6 E VI f. 232

Meanwhile, Canterbury Cathedral was also have created feasts for the sake of trumping building its own collection of bells along with the other’s observance, although he is not their own detailed procedures on how they sure which side was trying to interfere with should be rung. Hayward notes that the the other. cathedral employed four full time bell- ringers, and would hire many more for special One does not know what the local residents occasions. Some of the bells they had were of Canterbury thought of this bell ringing huge - one from the 12th century needed 32 rivalry, but they must have found it very noisy. men to operate it.

Hayward, a senior lecture at Lancaster University, finds that the cathedral and the abbey carried on their rivalry and looked for ways to out-do each other. He notes that on two occasions during the year they seem to Reports from the Medieval Academy of America Annual Meeting Written in the Stars: Medieval Astrology between Magic and Science Throughout the Middle Ages one could find came from heaven or from demons. While a long-running debate within European some would call the use of this sign as society over whether or not astrology was a superstitious and evil, others defended it as good thing. Laura Smoller examined this topic completely natural. as part of her talk during ‘The Parameters of Pre-Modern Magic’ session at the Medieval Smoller finds that by the late Middle Ages Academy of America meeting. astrologers were promoting the Christian connections to their profession. One can see Smoller, a Professor at the University of this in how images of astrological symbols Rochester, noted that medieval astrologers started to be drawn - representations of Mars had to deal with charges that their predictions would show Jesus as a warrior, while Saturn were the work of demons, and had been would be depicted as an old-looking God. condemned by some Christian thinkers. But Moreover, medieval astrologers would they also could look back upon on a long explain how the conjunctions of Saturn and scholarly tradition that supported astrology, Jupiter had forecasted major religious events going back to classical writers such as in the past, including the birth of Jesus and Aristotle. the beginning of Islam.

One can see a long-lasting divide over the Annius of Viterbo (c.1432-1502), an Italian use of astrology. For example, it was well Dominican scholar, was one of those who known that the zodiac image of Leo provided worked in astrology and tried to connect with protection against kidney stones, and one can his own Christian beliefs. When he made a set find that people were adding the image to of predictions while working in Genoa in talismans. The debate was not over whether 1471, he noted that astrological knowledge or not this was effective, but rather if this cure had been give to Adam directly by God, and Detail of the signs Leo, Cancer, and Gemini, from a wheel-shaped diagram of the twelve signs of the zodiac, with legends describing when the sun enters each, in Matfré Ermengau of Béziers's Breviari d'Amour. - from British Library MS Yates Thompson 31 f. 48v claimed that Moses was a great astrologer. predictions coincided with crusading plans Moreover, Annius’ predictions were centred that the Papacy was making at the time. on the promotion of Christianity - his calculations foretold that by the year 1480 As Smoller concludes, “astrology sat an an the Turks would be defeated in battle and an intersection of magic, science and religion.” angelic Pope would usher in a millennium of peace. One historian has noted that these The Funeral of Queen Elizabeth of York The First Tudor Queen of England By Susan Abernethy Elizabeth of York, Queen to King Henry VII of England, died in the Tower of London on February 11, 1503. She had given birth to a daughter Katherine on February 2 and never recovered. The death was a shock to her husband, her children and to the nation. Due to detailed accounts, most likely composed by a herald, we have a narration of the funeral as well as financial account records. The king ordered two council members to arrange the funeral; his treasurer, the Earl of Surrey and the comptroller of his household, Sir Richard Guildford. The citizens of London had substantial input as well. Upon her death, the bells of St. Paul’s made of holly wood and the coffin was Cathedral rang out and soon all the other covered in black velvet with a cross of white churches rang their bells. Elizabeth’s body damask. was washed and dressed in her estate robes and laid out on her bed. Her children were The coffin was carried by persons ofthe brought in to say their goodbyes and pay their highest rank with a canopy held over it by respects. four knights as it was taken to the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula within the confines of the The same day, her body was embalmed by Tower on February 12th. Following the casket the sergeant of the Chandlery. He was given was Lady Elizabeth Stafford, first lady of the many ells of cerecloth, gums, balms, spices, bedchamber, the ladies and maids of honor sweet wine and many pounds of wax. Her then all the rest of the Queen’s household, body was washed with wine and rosewater marching side by side. The chapel was lit by and rubbed with balm and perfumed spices. five hundred tall candles with the windows Next, the body was wrapped in the cerecloth being lined with black crepe and the walls with had been broken down into strips and hung with black damask. dipped in molten wax. The King’s plumber then enclosed the body in lead and marked The coffin was positioned on a bier in front it with a lead epitaph with her name and who of the altar. Elizabeth’s sister Katherine, she was. The lead case was enclosed in a coffin Countess of Devon arrived and took her place Effigy of Elizabeth of York used at her funeral at the head of Elizabeth’s body where she palfreys saddled with black velvet bearing stayed while mass was celebrated and ladies of honor riding in single file. Each horse offerings made. She then retired. The coffin was led by a man in a black gown. Among remained in state while six ladies kept vigil these ladies were the four sisters of the at all times. Katherine attended most of this queen. There were other noblewomen in vigil as the Queen’s chief mourner. Masses carriages followed by representatives of the were said for three consecutive days. At night, city of London and the royal households. the Lord’s Prayer was recited for the Queen’s soul. The coffin remained in the chapel until Many guilds provided mourning clothes for the day of the funeral procession which was their members. Some of their representatives February 22nd. dressed in white and stood holding torches before the monument to Elizabeth’s On that day, mass was said at St. Peter ad predecessor Eleanor of Castile (first wife of Vincula. At noon the coffin was put ona King Edward I) at Charing Cross as the carriage which was lined with cushions made procession passed by. The lady mayoress of of black velvet and blue cloth of gold. Placed London arranged for thirty-seven virgins, one on top of the coffin was a lifelike effigy for each year of Elizabeth’s life, to hold clothed in the robes of the estate of a queen burning tapers and stand in Cheapside in the with a crown on her head. Her hair flowed queen’s honor. These women wore white down to her shoulders and she held a scepter linen and had wreaths on their heads in the in her right hand. Her fingers had gold and colors of the royal Tudor livery. precious stones on them. The procession for the funeral took the same route to Parish churches along the route contributed Westminster Abbey that was taken for her torches and their choirs stood outside, singing coronation because Elizabeth died in the anthems. All the City churches were draped Tower which is where queens stayed the in black. As the cortege passed each church, night before their crowning. Many a curate would come forward and cense the commoners lined the streets to witness the coffin and the bells would peal. There was a cortege. delegation of foreign funeral-goers which included French, Spanish, Venetian and The procession was led by two hundred poor Portuguese and others who carried torches folk carrying torches who had been dressed decorated with their country’s arms. Their in black cloth from the great wardrobe of the presence signified European acceptance of king himself. Behind them came numerous the Tudor dynasty. Along the route there were household members, clerics, the Mayor of five thousand torches carried by citizens London and then the Queen’s coffin. The wearing white woolen gowns and hoods. The carriage was drawn by six horses trapped in procession made its way to St. Margaret’s black velvet. Beside the coffin rode many churchyard at Westminster where it was met knights who carried banners representing by eight bishops. royal arms, royal saints (Edward and Edmund), the Virgin Mary, other saints and The coffin and effigy were placed on a hearse the parents of the queen. Hundreds of which was hung with black cloth of gold and escutcheons had been made with the arms ornamented with her motto “humble and of the king and queen and these probably reverent” in gold. Four white banners were hung around the coffin and were among the draped over the corners of the coffin, procession as it made its way through torchlit supposedly to signify she died in childbirth. streets. There were other emblems of Tudor

Behind the carriage of the queen were eight queenship displayed such as gold roses, The effigy was removed from the coffin. The portcullises, fleur-de-lys and her coat of arms Bishop of London sanctified the grave before entwined with the king’s beneath crowns. the coffin was lowered. Elizabeth’s chamberlain and gentlemen ushers tearfully The coffin on the hearse spent the night in broke their staffs of office and threw them in the Abbey surrounded by torchbearers and the grave. Because construction of the Tudor other observers, mostly ladies and tomb in the Lady Chapel had only just begun, gentlewomen. As the coffin lay in state in the Elizabeth was buried in a vault specifically Abbey the night before the burial, Elizabeth’s made for her in the crossing of the Abbey, sister Katherine, along with her nephew the between the high altar and the choir. She marquis of Dorset and the Earl of Derby would be re-interred in the magnificent new presided over a supper of fish in the queen’s tomb after the death of King Henry in 1509. chamber at Westminster. During the supper, in the Abbey, knights, ladies, squires and Henry had been generous in his expenditure heralds kept vigil over the body all night while for Elizabeth’s funeral. In April of 1502, when over one thousand candles burned. his eldest son Arthur died, Henry paid £600 to bury him. For Elizabeth’s ceremony, he had On the final day of the funeral, candles flamed spent £3000. In today’s equivalent, that around the coffin and two hundred and amounts to £1,381,000. Clearly this funeral seventy-three tapers decorated with had more significance to the Tudor dynasty escutcheons burned above black cloths than Arthur’s. The design and execution of the hanging from the roof. There were two procession was meant to be dramatic, masses and then the Bishop of Lincoln spectacular and memorable for the royal officiated the final requiem mass. Women household, the nobility, and the citizens of were the first to give their offerings and they London and for all who witnessed it. The were led by Katherine as the chief mourner. entire ceremony was an opportunity to have After the offerings, the women presented a huge public display to denote the wealth, palls of blue and green cloth of gold which prestige and substance of the Tudor dynasty were laid over the effigy. The Bishop of and to allow the public to participate and Rochester gave a sermon. After the sermon, grieve for their queen. The numbers of the palls were removed and the ladies exited citizens who appeared to witness her coffin after symbolically burying the Queen with pass by were a tribute to Elizabeth’s role and their palls. The prelates and the king’s chapel status as queen as well denoting their love were left to perform the actual interment. for her.

Further Reading:

Elizabeth of York: A Tudor Queen and Her World, by Alison Weir,

Blood Sisters: The Women Behind the War of the Roses, by Sarah Gristwood

The Last Medieval Queens, by J.L. Laynesmith Susan Abernethy is the writer of The Freelance History Writer and a contributor to Saints, Sisters, and Sluts. You can follow Susan on Twitter @SusanAbernethy2 Saint Aldhelm’s Riddles God’s holy words now fill my inner part And bear the sacred books with all my heart, And yet from them I’m not much edified. By fate this gift has sadly been denied As fierce Fates steal the light that books provide.

What is being described here? The answer can be found in the new book Saint Aldhelm’s Riddles, edited and translated by A.M. Juster (it also can be found at the end of this article). Known as the Aenigmata, this text from the late seventh-century offers 100 riddles that would have challenged and delighted medieval readers, and will now be doing so with modern ones.

Anglo-Saxon England was a kind of hotspot for riddle creation, and Aldhelm (c. 639 – 709), who served as the Abbot of Malmesbury Abbey and the Bishop of Sherborne, was one of the forebearers of this genre. Juster offers this assessment of his contribution:

Aldhelm's genius was his decision to transform a "low" genre (much like bawdy limericks today) by elevating it to literature as well as a tool for spreading and reinforcing Christianity. In this regard he was successful and widely imitated. The Exeter Riddles include many loose translations of Aldhelm's Aenigmata, and Eusebius, Tatwine, Alcuin, Boniface and others published riddles that strongly reflect Aldhelm's influence.

His riddles cover a wide variety of subjects, from things you would see in nature like clouds or the moon, to everyday objects, such as a loaf of bread or a pillow.

Animals were also a favourite topic of his, such as this one:

I’m living on the steep river banks, and yet, Armed to the my teeth for war, I don’t relax. In fact, I make a living through my sweat And quickly fell big trees with my curved axe. In murky depths of water where fish swim, I often dive through currents, my head wet. I heal both injured bowel and sickened limb, And ward off plague and other grave disease. I eat chewed rind and bitter bark of trees.

The answer to this riddle is the beaver.

“I think Aldhelm had a common problem of poets--he didn't have as much lyrical inspiration as he wanted,” Juster explains. “The opening six riddles are very striking and very "modern" in a way--they are lyrical, almost mystical, experiences of the poet. I think he would have liked to have had 94 more in the same vein, but couldn't do it. Accordingly, the Aenigmata became a little more a project of the head than the heart--you can tell by parallels in subject matter and language that he would rummage through his arca libraria to find subjects for riddles. It's clear he relied on many of the less-read classical texts, bestiaries (including parts of Basil's Hexaemeron), almanac-like texts, travel poems and the like. Plus, people just like animals and Aldhelm wanted people to enjoy his riddles so that they would listen to his messages.”

Besides a distinguished ecclesiastical career, which led to him be venerated as a saint, Aldhelm was well known for his literary works, prose and poetry written in Latin. He had many admirers, with one possible exception being the Venerable Bede. In Historia ecclesiatica, the Anglo-Saxon historian calls Aldhelm “adequately learned,” which sounds like faint praise. Juster offers some thoughts on why the two contemporaries may not have gotten along:

I love Bede, and I suspect his cheap shot at Aldhelm resulted mostly from disagreements about the political and religious issues in which both men were immersed. It's hard to tell which issues they were. We also tend to overlook the possibility that the divide was very human--perhaps they just didn't like each other. They were in some sense competitors; the fact that Bede wrote a treatise on prosody tends to suggest that he didn't view Aldhelm's treatise on the same subject as adequate for the monks.

Others will appreciate Aldhelm’s wit, and this book of riddles, which includes the edited Latin text, English translation, and detailed commentary on the riddles. Saint Aldhelm’s Riddles is published by the University of Toronto Press - you can learn more at: http:// www.utppublishing.com/Saint-Aldhelms-Riddles.html

You can also watch A.M. Juster talk about his new book on Vimeo at https://vimeo. com/153870627 and follow him on Twitter @amjuster

The answer to the riddle at the beginning of this article: a bookcase.

Andy Orchard on the Anglo-Saxon Riddle Tradition Book Excerpt The Tudor Cook Book: From Gilded Peacock to Calves Feet Pie By Terry Breverton

Amberley Publishing, 2016 ISBN: 9781445649023

Have you ever wondered what the Tudors ate? What was served at the courtly feasts of Henry VIII, or what kept peasants alive through the harsh winters of the sixteenth century?

The Tudor Cookbook provides over 250 recipes from authentic period manuals for starters, mains, desserts and drinks, from chicken blancmange to white pease pottage with seal and porpoise. It even covers vegetarian dishes – the Tudors designed dishes of vegetables to look like meat to be cooked during religious festivals when abstinence from meat was required. A few of the more outlandish ingredients and methods of cooking are now illegal, but the rest of the recipes have been trialled; many are delicious and surprising.

Read an excerpt: What the Tudors Ate

Many Tudor dishes were served on sops (or soppes, or sippets), pieces of bread or toast, necessary carbohydrates before the later adoption of potatoes. The Tudors had some wonderful flavour combinations which are only now being appreciated, especially the mixing of sweet and savoury. Of course, nearly all these surviving recipes were for the richer classes – the poor had a monotonous diet of pottages or gruel with little meat. There are relatively few dishes for beef – it was a rich man’s dish, generally roasted, and thus needing no recipes. Mutton was only eaten at the end of the sheep’s useful life bearing lambs and supplying wool, and Tudor sheep were about a third of today’s size. Veal, venison and wild boar were the most prized meats, but the rich also ate pork, lamb, mutton, beef and game, such as hare or rabbit. A wide range of wildfowl was eaten, along with pigeon and, at feasts,pheasant, partridge and even peacock and swan.

Fresh meat was hung in cool larders. It cost too much to feed animals other than sheep in winter, so most were killed in the autumn and their meat put in salt barrels, which removed the moisture and prevented bacterial growth. Before cooking, this salted meat was soaked many times but it never completely lost its saltiness. If soaked for a long time then most of the salt would be removed, but so would the flavour of the meat, making it almost tasteless. Fish was preserved in the same way. Foods were cooked by boiling, roasting or baking. Meat was boiled or cooked on a spit over fire. Soup, broth or pottage was cooked over an open fire and bread, pies and pastries were baked in simple brick ovens. Fires were lit in the ovens and, when the temperature was right, the ashes were raked out, the food placed in and the oven sealed.

Food was a status symbol, and the rich often ate three good meals a day, each made up of a number of courses. During the period there was a gradual change from serving meals in trenchers – dishes made of bread – to serving in wooden bowls. Each course contained a variety of dishes from which the guests could choose. They were all placed on the table at the same time. People ate with knives, spoons or their fingers. You had to bring your own cutlery, as this was not provided. Spoons, in particular, were highly prized status symbols. Indeed, the more expensive the spoon, the higher up in society you were. Forks were introduced from Italy during Henry VIII’s reign but they were used mainly for serving rather than eating. The usual practice was to pick a little of each dish, for instance lifting a piece of meat onto your trencher. In essence, the rich man’s table was a little like today’s dim sum, tapas or thali meals, picking little bits of what you fancy over an extended period. Any unwanted parts of bone or gristle were cut away and placed in a ‘voider’, probably to be used as a stock base. The meat was then dipped into a relevant sauce. Leftovers were given to servants or the poor – nothing was wasted.

A common misconception is that spices were used to disguise the taste of meat that had gone off, but nothing can be further from the truth. Spices were incredibly expensive, and sauces were important not only to complement the taste of salted or bland meat or fish but to demonstrate how rich and important people were. A common saying was ‘dear as pepper’. The quest for exotic spices drove the early explorers to cross the Atlantic, and later the Pacific, in search of a direct sea route to the Spice Islands, now known as the Maluku Islands, near Indonesia. During the reign of Elizabeth I, pepper was imported from India, cinnamon from Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and nutmeg, mace and cloves from the Spice Islands. They were used to make spiced wines and to flavour fish, jam, soup and, particularly, meat dishes. The popularity of these spices saw European empires develop in India and Asia.

Another misconception until recent times was that the Tudors ate few vegetables, but this stems from the fact that few account books of the nobility feature their purchase. Instead they usually grew their own, and vegetables and fruit feature strongly in the recipes. However, people avoided uncooked vegetables and fruit, believing them to carry disease, and during a 1569 plague it became illegal to sell fresh fruit. Vegetables could only be eaten when they were in season as there was no way of storing food other than pickling. Typical vegetables were turnips, beans and cabbage. Fruit was cooked to make jam, preserves or fillings for pies. Common fruits were pears, apples, plums, damsons, cherries and strawberries. Some fruit was dried to use later in the year – dried apple rings, for example, were popular. If a family could afford luxuries, they might be able to buy oranges or lemons imported from Spain to make preserve and marmalades.

Visit https://www.amberley-books.com/the-tudor-cookbook.html to learn more about this book Tales from Sacchetti Checkmate

We bring you another tale from a work called Novelle by Franco Sacchetti. Sacchetti was a 14th-century Italian novelist and poet, who spent most of his life in Florence. He wrote various works, but is most remembered for the about 300 short stories he made. It is difficult to know which tales are real and which parts are fictitious, but often they are very funny and offer a look at the daily lives of medieval people that we rarely see.

A parish priest, when playing chess, rings the bell to show to all persons who run there that he had checkmated his adversary; and when his house is on fire nobody comes.

At San Giovanni in Soana in Valdipesa there formerly lived a parish priest who was a very merry man and a great chess-player, and he often played to pass the time with a gentleman of the Giandonati family. And many words passed between them over the chessboard, as is always the case with chess-players, and at last they quarrelled.

" I shall give thee checkmate."

" You will not!"

" Yes, but I shall!"

The priest, either because he was the better player, or however it might be, gave his adversary checkmate five times out of six; abd the Giandonati, far from confessing that he was beaten, frequently declared that it was he who had checkmated the priest. It happened one day when they were playing and were about to terminate the game, that the priest made a move to checkmate the other, who opposed it, and the priest said:

"I will give you checkmate in the middle of the chessboard." "You say so? You will not do it but I will checkmate you!" cried the Giandonati.

And behold, he was checkmated by the priest in the middle of the board, and yet he refused to acknowledge it. Seeing this, the priest ran to the bell and began to ring it.

When the people heard the bell they all hastened to the presbytery, and when they got there they cried out to the priest: "What is it? What is it?"

The priest replied, "I desire that you should see and witness that I have given my adversary checkmate in middle of the chessboard."

The peasants began to laugh, and said, “Master Priest, you do but make us waste our time," and they went their ways. And about the space of a month afterwards it chanced that the same thing happened again, and again the priest rang the bell. The people came hastening up, but not so many as came the first time. And the priest showed them how that he had given checkmate in the middle of the chessboard. The peasants began to deride him and to grumble, saying, "You may ring as much as you like, but we shall come here no more."

And some maintain that this matter gave rise to the saying, “You may ring as much as thou will." The priest bade them have patience, because they did a good deed in coming to convince a man of his errors. The peasants answered: "We know nothing of his errors; we only know that between the first time and this we have each of us lost a day's work."

And the priest said, "You know that at the death Christ Caiphas said, ‘It is better that one man should die for the people, than that the whole multitude should perish,' and say to you that it was needful that you should all be put to a little trouble in order that this man might be turned away from his error. But now no more words, if you desire to come, then come; but if not, then remain away.”

So they departed grumbling. Now it chanced, as often happens and is the will of God, that, two months after this, the priest's servant was preparing to wash linen in the kitchen when she set fire to the house. It was towards the evening and the priest immediately began to ring the bell.

The peasants were in the fields, some digging and and some hoeing, and it was already the hour to leave off work, some threw down their spades and others flung their hoes over their shoulders, and they all went their ways to their own homes, saying, “The priest may ring as long as he chooses; if he be playing chess, why then, let him play! He would do far better did he devote himself to saying the hours and other offices."

So they paid no attention to the ringing of the bell and the house was almost burned down. The next morning, when it was told among the people that the priest's house had been burned, some lamented and some said, "It serves him rightly!” A great company then went to the church, where they found the priest sad and afflicted, and he said to them:

"I may well ring, even to pull the bell down! Now you may ring for yourselves when you need the help of God, for l am undone, thanks to you who never came to succour me!"

Then those who were there cried with one voice: "We thought you were playing chess!”

“I was playing chess with the fire," answered the priest, "but it gave me checkmate and ruined me.”

Certain of the peasants then said: "The other day you did cite unto us Caiphas, who said that it was better that one man should die for the people rather than than all humanity should perish. Acknowledge now that we have followed this teaching; not that you have died for the people, but you have had a good discipline and chastisement instead of your people perishing, for you made us run here every day as though we had lost our wits."

"I think you speak the truth and cite an excellent example," answered the priest; “my laughter over the chess has now been turned into tears. Henceforth I shall know what to do, and now that my oxen are stolen I will lock the stable door."

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