OCCASION

This publication has been made available to the public on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation.

DISCLAIMER

This document has been produced without formal United Nations editing. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or its economic system or degree of development. Designations such as “developed”, “industrialized” and “developing” are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgment about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the development process. Mention of firm names or commercial products does not constitute an endorsement by UNIDO.

FAIR USE POLICY

Any part of this publication may be quoted and referenced for educational and research purposes without additional permission from UNIDO. However, those who make use of quoting and referencing this publication are requested to follow the Fair Use Policy of giving due credit to UNIDO.

CONTACT

Please contact [email protected] for further information concerning UNIDO publications.

For more information about UNIDO, please visit us at www.unido.org

UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION Vienna International Centre, P.O. Box 300, 1400 Vienna, Austria Tel: (+43-1) 26026-0 · www.unido.org · [email protected]

I I I L l * \ С Г Distr.: I I \ I ^ LIMITED 1 I -) I W UNIDO/IO.5O? 27 April 198? UNITED NATIONS HfDÜSTO’AL DEVELOPMENT ORGAFTZATION ENGLISH

REPORT OF THE WORKSHOP ON THE ESSENTIAL OIL INDUSTRY * ORGANISED -JOINTLY BY the UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION (UNIDO) and the GOVERNMENT OF INDIA (DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICALS AND FERTILIZERS / CSIR.New Delhi) with the COLLABORATION OF THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (ESCAP)

Lucknow,India 21 November - 3 December 1981

222-:

This document had been reproduced without formal editing. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

V.82-25080 1 2

THE FOLLOiTTHG ARE MAJOR COHTRIBUTORS TO THE COHTEHTS OF THE REPORT

C.K.Atel S .C.Bhattacharya Akhtar Husain A .L.Jayewardena A.P. Kahol G.D.Kelkar M.C.Nigsm J.R. Sharma I.Sundaresh

THE CQEI^IEUTIOWS FROM THE FOLLOWING HAVE BEES THE BASIS OF THE COUNTRY STATUS REPORTS

Afghanistem Ata Mohamed Nazaar Bangladesh Mujibur Rahman Cyprus Sophcclis K. Sophocleous Egypt Ahmed Mohamed Hassan Ethiopia Desta Hamito Guyana Brahmadea Dewprashad Indonesia Ghozali Bambang TJiptadi Malawi R.W.M. Cliapotela Pakistan A.R.Khan Philippines Ms.Therecita M.Valdez Sri Lanka E.R.Jansz Thailand Ms.Sasithorn Wasuwat

The Report has been compiled by R.O.B. Wijesekeva, Special Technical Adviser«Pharmaceutical Industries Unit, Chemical. Industries Branch, Division of Industrial Operations,UNIDO . The Director and staff of the Central Institute for Medicinal and Aromatic , where the Workshop va3 held, played i major role in the local organisation of the Workshop. 1

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1 . A diag: am of a percolator

Fig. 2 Goose-neck type distillation assembly + Field Distillation Unit

Fig.3 Modern distillation assanbly

Fig .1* Fire heated still system

Fig. 5 Diagram of a Shell-and-tube type condenser end a typical Coil Condenser

Fig.6a + 6h Diagram of a still suitacle for isolating fractions of essential oils

Fig. 7 Diagramatic representation of a gas liquid chromatography system

Fig. 8 Gas chromatograms of some veil known essential oils

LIST OF TABLES:

Ref. No. of Tafele Chapter Subject

1. Table 3a 3 Comparative fuel costs 2. Table 5a 5 Exports of Essential Oils - 1979

3. Table 5d 5 World Exports of Essential Oils Perfumes etc. and Essential Oils and Resinoids - 1978

U. Table ¿c_ 5 Leading exporting countries in Essential Oils and Resionoids - 1978

5. Table ¿d_ 5 World Imports of Essential Oils , Perfumes etc., and essential Oils and Resionoids - 1978

6. Tabic ¿e. 5 Trade statistics for the members of the EEC in Essential Oils

7. Ttfbie 5 Countrywise export and import figures for EEC countries in Essential Oils

8. Table 5 Estimated world exports of Individual Essential Oils

I . k

CONTENTS

I. Background to the Workshop

II. Overview of the Essential Oil Industry in Developing Countries

III. Technological Aspects in the Production of Essential Oils

IV. The Assessment of Quality in Essential Oils

V. Export Potential of Essential Oils in the Context of World Trade

VI. Role of Research and Development in the Essential Oil Inaustry

VII. Considerations for the Further Development of an Industry Dealing With Essential Oils and Aromatic Chemicals

VIII. Prospects for Development of Essential Oil Bearing Crops by Genetic Manipulation

IX. The Development of the Essential Oil Industry in Developing Countries; some concluding observations - Recommendations of the Workshop

X. Country Status Reports

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex I List of Participants

Annex II List of same Essential Oil Bearing Plants o£ the World

Annex III Industrial Uses of Essential Oils

Annex IV List of Major Essential Oil-bearing Plants Grown in Developing Countries (excluding China) 5

1. BACKGROUND TO THE WORKSHOP

1.1 The Workshop on Essential Oils was a follow-up of the two-man consultative mission sponsored Ъу ESCAF in 1976. This consultative mission visited six countries of the ESCAP region to study the essential oil industry in these countries .One of the main recommendations of this consultative mission * was that a Workshop should held annually- or once every two years in one of the countries of the region.The mission felt that such a Workshop should focus attention on all aspects of the essential oil industry in the region , and identify methods for a concerted approach to develop the industry.

1.2 The mission also made the following specific observations in regard to the Workshop:

(a) Discussions ehould centre around the following broad subject areas: R and D activities and technology; Marketing and export promotion. (b) Specialist invited speakers should be identified,tho could make the lead contributions towards each subject area. (c) The proceedings of the workshop could be printed. (d) A preliminary working group should be set up to organize anc plan the first regional workshop on the essential oil industry, and to decide on its detailed progrsmme.Thereafter,ei ch works лор could appoint the working group for the following year. (e) The mission strongly felt that the proposed workshop «нз an absolutely necessary preliminary to action towards improving the industry within the region beyond what has been indicated in the

report,It would also afford a valuable consensus of informal opinion on which future plans can be based.

* F.epprt of the EDCAP Consultative Mission on the Essential Oil Industry (1977) . ST ESCAP/25 6

1.3 UNUX), vfcile endorsing all these concepts, felt that its ovn long range objective would ultimately be to encourage and develop the essential oil industry in the developing countries, and to formulate strategies and mechanisms for UNIDO technical assistance programmes in this area. In con­ formity with these major concerns,the present Workshop was designed to accent the production aspects of essential oils and this included the following : - Cultivation of aromatic plants on a systematic basis for processing, and breeding methods; - Technology and quality assessment of essential oils and related products ; - Commercial and economic considerations; l.U UNTDO vas also interested that the Workshop serves as a means of planning and initiating programmes of technical co-operation amoig developing countries in the essential oils industry, as some countries had already made considerable progress in the development of the industry .It was therefore decided that the scope of the present Workshop be widened from the original concept to include seme observers from regions other than the ESCAP region, such as the African,Latin American and Car.vihtpji regions »which too in recent years have evinced considerable interest . developing Essertial Oils Industries based on their indigenous aromatic plants. During the past five years UNIDO has had considerable interests in the development of essential oils in several countries and active assistance has been rendered to five of than.UNIDO's intensive programmes in the area of plant-derived pharmaceuticals have been directed to enhance national capability in pharmaceutical production and it was considered that analogous programmes could be initiated to develop the essentiel oils industry in developing countries.The Workshop was therefore not only the initial step in the follow­ up of the ESCAP mission, but a necessary preliminary towards UNIDO's endeavours to assise all developing countries,within and outside the ESCAP region , in thi3 industry.

1.5 However, the present Workshop held during November 21 - December 3,196’ , though a sequel of the ESCAP mission report of 1976-77 took a long while in materialising, and the offer of the Government of India to host the Workshop was a major step towards the final staging of it. The contribution of the Government of India vas made through, two agencies : - the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Department of Chemicals and Fertilizers; and the Institution responsible for the organization of the Workshop sessions and formal activities :The Central Institute for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) at Lucknow.

In addition, India as the host government, and the country possessing the most developed industry in Essential Oils in the Asian Region, provided the experts, in several aspects, of this multi-faceted industry.India also hosted all the participants on a study-tour of the R and D facilities of India which took them to Institutions in Mysore, Bangalore, Bombay and Baroda.

1.6 A list of participants,experts and invited countries is in Annex I . UNIDO had notified the countries mentioned in Group A(Annex I ) of the Workshop and invited them to send participants. It was decided that since this was ah ESCAP collaborative workshop , it would direct major attention to this region.lt would however, in anticipation of future workshops in other r§gions such as the Caribbean»Africa and Latin America, entertain participants from these regions as well -provided the nominees were those likely to possess the necessary qualifications and be involved in the essential oils industry in their countries.The countries of Group B(Annex I Ï are those who responded and the countries in Group C (Annex I ) did not offer any response or the response was to late.and could not be accommodated. 8

2. OVERVIEW OF THE ESSEHTIAL OIL IHDUSTRY a DEVELOPING COUHTRIES

2.1 "Essential Oils" are the aroma-giving constitutents of aromatic plants and are not to be confused witn other oils such as "fixed oils"which are chemically different. Essential Oils are generally volatile in steam, a fact that is widely employed in their production from plant sources. Essential Oils are found in many types of plants and are formed within the plant in various locations such as flowers»leaves»roots»wood , bark, seeds etc. Each type of Essential Oil is generally a mixture of a variety of chanical compounds ranging from two or three components in rare cases, to over a hundred. Essential Oils bearing plants are also of wide geographic distribution and are found in temperate »moderate and tropical climes. A list of aromatic plants from which essential oils are produced is reproduced in Annex IT.

2.2 The Essential Oils are closely associated with the history of man's civilization. They were utilized in the ancient civilizations of Arabia, and Asia as perfumes, deodorants and strangely in the preservation of the remains o'.' the dead. Today we encounter products from essential oils in our daily life commencing vith bed tea/coffee, it proceed with using toileteries such as tooth pastes / ’powders, soaps, shampooB, pc^nV.es, cosmetics, and thence to breakfast comprising of fruitcakes, sandwiches etc. ,to lunch and dinner consisting of several flavoured food items like meat products, curries, pudding, cheeses, deserts and beverages . All these items carry pleasant aroma or flavour that is conferred on them by the many kinds of essential oils used. The Essential Oils, and aromatic isolates or their combinations cure widely employed in various industries associated with perfumes and toileteries, baking and confectionery , soaps detergents and deodorising agents, canning and preservation , soft drinks and chewing gums, condiments and food, ice-cream and tobacco, paint and petro-ckemical products,alcoholic beveraged and pharma­ ceuticals including dental preparations. The list is only illustrative , not exhaustive(Annex III) .Thus .even though the esnential oil industry, as such, 9

in a country may not be reckoned vith as a major contributor to the national economy, the number of '«^nsumer finished goods that are based on a small quantum of essential oils incorporated therein might contribute to a colossal turnover in terms of GNP, so crucial are the essential oils for an individual, for a nation and for the whole world.

2.3 In many ways the production of essential oils is an industry that blends wellwith the national development goals of many a developing country. It is p-lso an industry that is so much in accord with the ideals of development that are pursued by the United Nations agencies, having many components that contribute to these ideals.For instance the Essential Oil Industry is an agro-based industry and can utilize rural sector participation in the cultivation and harvesting of the raw material and tc some extend .ven in field distillation activities.lt has a component of technology diffusion where rural sector populations imbibe a technological input.The R and D activities concerned with all aspects:crop selection and improvement of agro-techniques; development of new technology;the use of instrumental and organoleptic analysis of a sophisticated na+ure; all of these tear a direct relevance to the improve­ ment of the products and thereby the increase of their market potential. So the R and D institutions have a great opportunity to derive the means of institution building by the very visibility of the application of their results . This is so vital a factor in many developing nations. All in all therefore, the Essential Oil Industry and its development bears considerable pertinence to global developmental stretegies, that have been evolved by the United Nations itself.

2.h The Essential Oils Industry is in its very nature dependent on collabo­ rative efforts of both developed and developing countries.Essential oil bearing plants ire s ’ll in a large measure grown in comparatively poor developing nations.More and more developing nations are interested in the Essential Oil Industry not only for their own use but also from the point of view of developing a diversity of export products.They are interested in the systematic cultivation of essential oil bearing crops and in developing the technologies for processing and production of finished products from them: as essences, perfumes, deodorants, cosmetic products and a variety of others. On the other hand,many developed nations and transnational corporations still depend on raw materials from the developing nations for servicing their own flaverr and cosmetic industries. So there is also in the Essential Oils Industry the attractive possibility for collaboration between North and South in the sharing of technology and assistance in the development efforts of the poorer nations, for the common benefit of both sides.

2.5 During the 1960-70 decade, the Essential Oil Industry - particularly in developing nations - did not appear to have very promising prospects. There were those who believed there was no hope at all for the industry. This was partly due to the fact that potential buyers of essential oils for perfumery and other needs were resorting , more and more, to substitution of natural products with synthetics.Inconsistencies in production in the developing nations, due ■‘•o such factors as natural disasters - hurricanes, crop failures due to pests or drought - or political upheavals , or simple negleo.t( accelerated the unrelenting search for synthetic substitutes for which there was no supply problem.

The situation changed somewhat in the decade of the seventies.The cost of .ynthetics in relation to Natural Products was no longer so idvantageous as it was before, due to factors such as the oil crisis and the general world wide inflation and in this context the Essential Oil Irdustry in the developing producer-countries has acquired added dimensions.Many producer countries are beginning to realise the immeasurable valueof R and D in the multidisciplinary activities concerning the industry,Several developing nations began to build up expertise in the agro-technological aspects of essential oil bearing crops like the technology of distillation and , most important of all, in the sophisticated methodology of quality assessment - both analytical and organoleptic.

Today, several developing countries are interested in the production of essential oils not only for the foregoing considerations, but also because there is an urge among peoples to produce for themselves the cosmetics and pharmaceuticals for their own use. Several countries such as India and Brazil have built up for themselves very flourishing industries based on the production of Essential Oils and related secondary products.Other countries too have developed the necessary technolo­ gies for production and quality assessment while there are many countries without such. There is considerable scope for tenhnical cooperation among 11

countries on aspects of the Essential Oil Industry. Basically there are several conditions or requirements for the initiation

and development of an Essential Oil Industry within a country.They are: (a) Availability of suitable plant material in quantity that is sufficient to warrant industrial production; (b) Availability of the relevant technology for distillation; (c) Availability of a facility for quality assessment of products both by means of instrumental analysis and by organoleptic methods; (d) Collaboration with other producer countries particularly in respect of the acquisition of suitable planting material, and know-how in terms of technology and marketing practices.

3. TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN THE PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS

3 _i Three basic methods are employed in obtaining essential oils from plant material . They are: (A) Cold Pressing (B) Steam or Water distillation (C) Solvent extraction

Cold Pressing is employed in restricted cases such as the production of Citrus oils from the rind of citrus fruit.

Ste^m or Water distillation is by far the most widely employed technique; it is dependent on the fact that Essential Oils are volatile in steam , and are generally insoluble in water. If the essential oil is not resistant towards prolonged exposure to heat and moisture then solvent extraction has to be employed. Generally the essential oils of flowers such as Roses, Jasmines and Violets are extracted in this fashion.Originally when the essences of flowers were processed in the traditional manner a process was employed which utilised parafin or cold fat as solvent.This process is now obsolete and m o d e m solvent extraction processes largely utilise low boiling hydrocarb one for extraction of flower essences. 12

The total extract after removal of the solvent is known as a "Concrete" and represents a mixture of the essential oil of the flowers together with other extractibles.The extraction is carried out in a " percolator"(Fig.l). Petroleum ether or hexane boiling in the range of 65 - TO°C is generally used.The purity of the solvent is crucial for the production of concretes of acceptable quality.The solvent is removed by distillation under educed pressure, and loss of solvent, generally in the range of 6 - 12% has to be minimal to render the cost of production as low as possible. Solvent traps of activated carbon, and cold traps utilising chilled brine are employed to minimise losses.

3.2 Steam distillation has many variations and these differ one from the other mainly in the degree of contact between the plant material and water.In the more commoner forms of steam distillation the basic units of a distillation assembly even now follows the traditional pattern.There is a heat source, an outlet for the distillate which is linked directly to the condenser system, and seperator vessels which collect the distillate and allow the oil and aqueous phases to separate out. The Traditional "Goose Neck" type of still (Fig. 2) is still in use in many areas of the world , and has been in use in Southern France since a couple of centuries ago.In more recent designs (Fig.3) the "Goose Neck" is eliminated to simplify fabrication without any effect on performance. M i M steel remains the most common material of construction of field stills utilising plant-material around 2000-300Gkg, per charge, and the commonest fuel used is wood. The simple field still which offers the advantages of low capital cost and simplicity of construction and operation nevertheless has some serious drawbacks, such as : - comparatively high fuel consumption - long time of distillation - possibility of charring of plant material The fire-heated still system (Fig. U ) is widely used and is ideal for rural areas where in general aromatic plants are grown.Although firewood as a heat source has become increasingly expensive considerable economy is generallly achievedby wciiising the spent raw material after distillation, as fuel. (Table 3a).Large producers of essential oils prefer the use of distil­ lation units where steam is generated by a separate boiler.This way the distiJlatior r - 13 1

time is considerably reduced, sometimes as much as 50i. Since the thermal efficiency of well designed boilers is around J0-&0% fuel consumption can be reduced. A modern still assembly (Fig.3 ) also depenses with the traditional coil-in-reservoir type of condensing system. A well-designed Shell- and-tube type of condenser for example can yield more efficient condensation and facility of operation ( Fig. 5 ) .

TABLE 3a COMPARATIVE FUEL COSTS

Type of Fuel Comparative Cost Kilo-Cals/kg Cost of 1000 ¿ilo-cals. Indian Rs/kg (Indian Rs)

Furnace Oil 3.3 10,600 0.31 Steam Coal 0.8 7,900 0.10 Fire Wood 0.6 U ,700 0.13 Rice Husk 0.1 3,300 0.03 Spent Grasses 0.0 3,300 0. GO

1 US $ = 8.95 Indian Rupees approximately

3.3 There are many variables that are known to effect both yield and quality of oil in steam distillation and these must have an important bearing on the designing of stills. For example: - Properties of the oil - The nature and condition of the raw material:chopped/unchopped; fresh/dry etc. - Material of construction of the still body and components; - Dimensions of still body; height to diameter ratio; - Steam pressure and rate of distillation ; - Temperature of condensate - Solubility of oil in water ; The properties of the oil dictate several considerations in the designing of stills.If the oil contains constituents that are acidic and thereby promote corrosion this factor will bear on the material employed for construction. Again the nature of the raw material needs to be considered. The growing and harvesting methods, and the post-harvest treatment required will dictate if the distillation is to be carried out in the field itself, or if the material may be transportable to a central distillery. - lU

Then, the extent to which the material has to be comminuted will have a direct bearing on the packing characteristics of the "bed” of material inside the still body.The physical nature of the material -if it. is chopped partially dried grass, semi-driei leaf dried root or bark - bears much on the size of the still body. In general however, the material of construction of tn? still body cofinonly employed is mild steel, or galvanized iron; this is due to factors such as low cost and facility of construction.Only expensive oils are distilled in stainless steel systems.For condensers,the older copoer coil condensers are giving way to shell-tod-tube type condensers , and the preferred metal is aluminium , or a combination of mild steel shells and aluminium tubes. Tuoular aluminium condensers also find preference to those of ccpper, although the shell-a^d-tube type has greater efficiency . Data on the physical characteristics of a given oil and its solubility in water at various temperatures is crucial for the design of efficient oil separators.These solubility characteristics can alter dramrtically with temperature and yields can fall considerably if due attention is not paid to this factor.The steam-pressure is crucial to the distillation of certain oils such as Oil of Vetivert (Vetiveria zizanoides) on account of the presence of high boiling constituents.Vetiver oil can only be successfully obtained by the use of high pressure steam. In the basic methodology therefore for the produciton of Essential Oils by steam distillation, the following areas need the attention of R and D. 1. Optimisation of the design of Still Bodies for various types of oil­ bearing raw materials . eg: effect on height to diameter ratio, packing methods on yield of oil. 2. Methods of construction and development of condensing systems. 3. Studies on variation of solubility in water, with temperature.Effects of cohobation on quality of oil. U. Effect of steam pressure on yield of oil and quality. 5. Effects of materials of construction on quality of oils and individual

constituents. - 15

Fig. 1

Percolation vessel with breather Secondary processing of essential oils is logically of interest to all producer countries. Once an essential oil is distilled and separation from the water phase is effected, the oil phase will undoubtedly contain traces of moisture and suspended impurities.Filtration through water absorbent material is generally used to separate the solid impurities and diminish the water content;further moisture may separate out on standing for some days.A drying agent like anhydrous sodium sulphate may be used for further drying.However, efficient removal of water and impurities may be effected by centrifugation -which may not always be available.

Pure isolates or fractionsfrom essential oils often connand a much greater value than the oils themselves. A fractionating column (Fig. 6 ) has to be employed for the purpose, the basic features of which are:

- Reboiler for Essential Oil - Packed column with reflux arrangement - Receivers for distillation products - Vacuum pump or ejector

Fractionation is based on the differences in boiling point between various constituents. Oftimes separation into pure single constituents becomes impractical and isolates or fractions enriched with a particular constituent results. Such products are marketable and have enhanced value in comparison to the total oil when the particular major constituent is in demand.Spinning - band columns are used when fine separations are required but here the initial investment is considerable.

The general technology for the production of essential oils is well established.However,the everchanging market conditions»patterns of consumption and energy considerations necessitate a sharp awareness of the tecnnological aspects of the production of essential oils .This is particularly emphasised in the case of developing - it - n countries who in general, lack in the area of R and D , and hence find it a handicap to compete in the international markets. The transfer of technology among developing countries themselves is a valuable mechanism in this respect and represents a cl ear role for agencies like UNIDO. 18 -

U. THE ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY IN ESSENTIAL OILS

U.l In general quality control of any product involves the assessment of certain characteristic and comparing them with veil defined standards set down for ear'i product. In any process where one set of materials is converted to a final product after passing through one or more intermediate stages, the technique of quality control can he applied at each stage and on the final product prior to the release of this from the manufacturing source.

Raw Material ◄ ----- Quality Control Step 1

____1l____ Processing "tage 1 Quality Control Step 2

Other Processing Stages Quality Control Steps 3 onwards

Final. Processing stagejl ■Quality Control

Final Product Quality Control Final step k.2 In the quality control of essential oils, the producer usually takes extreme care to see that the raw material he uses is authentic and represents the most suitable for the process and that he is using the most appropriate equipment and techniques of production.If these guidelines are followed the final product will invariably reach the required quality standards.For essential oils these standards are very carefully- formulated and laid down in a large number of national standard specifications said also in the International Standards (ISO).

H.3 There are tro categories of such standards: the first based on the older chemical parameters and the other dependent on modern techniques of instrumental analyses.Among the specifications are the following parameters: A. Appearance B. Aroma and Flavour C. Physical. Parameters (a) Specific Gravity (or mass/unit volumn) (b) Index of Refraction (c) Optical Rotation (d) Melting point (or Congealin'; point) (e) Solubility in Ethanol 19

U • l»llt-in U t i l ItUCttlCWClO

(a) Acid value (b) Total Esters (c) Total Esters after acetylation (d) Carbonyl content (e) Total Phenols (f) 1,8 Cineole content

E. Instrumental Techniques (a) Gas liquid chromatographic analysis (and combined GC-MS) (b) Ultraviolet /visible spectroscopy (c) Infra Red Spectroscopy

U.U Depending on the nature of essential oil to be assessed the steps required for assessment will vary.Seme oils can have high ester values such as Lavender and Bergamot then the parameter D (b) would be important. Others would have high alcoholic component such as Geraniol in Citronella Oil, in such case the parameter D(c) becomes important .Similarly oils of and leaf and contain high percentages of phenol therefore D(e) would be the most important test to check on their quality.

U .5 The modern chemical analytical instruments however, surpass all the previous physical and chemical quality control tests in accuracy sensitivity and reproducibility of analytical results .Accordingly the? modern techniques are entering the field of quality control of essential oils to an increasing extent.

k.6 Essential oils being highly volatile materials are ideal for analysis by gas liquid chromatography (g 1 c) .This is performed in an instrument called a gas chromatograph where an extremely small (Fig. 7) amount ( ^ 1 mg) of volatile material is injected on to a heated tubular column suitably packed with the requisite packing material. The vapours of the injected sample are carried along the tube by an inert

carrier gas(say Nitrogen)- During this passage the various components which were present in original sample are separated into individual fractions which then exit from the opposite end of the column and are monitored in a device called the detector.The electronic signal from this device is fed into a recorder which will draw out a set of peaks on a moving chart paper and under standard conditions the areas of the peaks correspond to the F

wSystem o Chromatography Gas-Liquid a of o Elements 7 ig. Recorder. Carrier gas supply. F: Gas filter V: Gas pressure metering device Ip: Injection port. Injection Ip: device metering pressure Gas V: filter Gas F: supply. gas Carrier Column GC: Column Chamber F: Cooling fan fan Cooling F: Chamber Column GC: Column :eetr E¡Electrometer D:Detector 21

quantitative percentages of each component present in the sample mixture. This technique has been very highly developed now and essential oils are routinely assessed for presence of adulteration using gas liquid chromatography in laboratories and industrial plants throughout the world. A further advantage of this technique is that fairly certain identifications of the individual comnonents in the essential oil can be carried out . More refined instrumentations such as combined gic and mass spectroscopy will provide unequivocal confirmation of these identifications.

U.7 Extensive scientific probing of the composition of essential oils by tne modern organic chemists through such instrumentâtional techniques as described, has led to increased information on the most highly prized essential oils.Many of these were known to contain a few compounds to be counted on the fingers but are now known to have as much a few hundred constituents. The determination of the composition of the essential oils of rose, jasmine, lavender, clary sage, Ylang ylang, pepper, ,mint, cinnamon, etc. are a few quotable examples (Fig. 8). Prior to the advent of modern instrumental techniques the composition of natural floral oils and perfumes was shrouded in comparative secrecy. Now with the available knowledge the compositions of many of the fragrances are being artificially put together but real duplication remains elusive because of the lack of the olfactory properties present in the natural oils , The trace constituents which often establish the perfumery value of many of those essential oils and which could be recognised by the perfumers,are beyond the sensitivity of even the best of instruments. It is therefore , in the final judgement , dependent on the assessment by the trained nose of a perfumer, and this assessment though subjective, can be improved by the involvement of statisitcal methods.lt is known then as "Organoleptic Analysis". In its simplest form this method of assessment is used in trade.The odour of an essential oil in question is mompared by a trained perfumer, with the odour of a standard reference sample of the same type of oil.Two strips of absorbant paper are dipped in the two samples and repeated smelling at intervals is used to compare the odours.The method is extended by the use of several odour assessors and statistical analyses are made of the results of several assessments performed on a given sample. 5. EXPORT POTENTIAL Of ESSENTIAL OILS IN THE CONTEXT OF WORID TRADE

The total export market for essential oils and perfumery compounds bad been documented * for 1978 and ¥"*9 as amounting to US$ 1323-5 million and 151^-5 million respectively. Similarly the total market in terms of imports for the same two years amounted to U3$ 1366-9 million and US$ 1522.6 million respectively. The volume of experts is not detailed.However, ten major exporting countries are responsible for approximately 82.5? of the world's exports for the year 1979, as indicated below. ( Table 5 )

TABLE 5a; EXPORTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS 1979 Country Value in US$ x 10 Percentage of Total Export ______Value

France 305511 20.2 USA-Puerto Rico 227058 15.0 Switzerland 195922 12.9 UK 162089 10.7 Netherlands 1361*37 9.0 F.R.G. 99281* 6.6 Italy 1*0712 2.7 Egypt 13307 0.9 Brazil 29096 1.9 Iceland 38755 Total - d f

The detailed break-up of exports for 1979 in respect of quantities is not available . However such break-up for the year 1978 is available** and is reproduced as Table 5b (The exports are recorded under the groups: " Essential Oils and terfumes" : SIIC No. 551; and"Essential Oils and Resionoids" : SIIC No. 551-1 or 551.3 )

* N.B. From the Year Book of International Trade Statistics: Vol.'ll for Standard International Trade Classification(SITC) No.551; published by the United Nations. ** Source:Commodity Trade Statistics:Published by the United Nations 1 23

TABLE 5 b

WORLD EXPORTS OF ESSEHTIAL OILS, PERFUMES etc. (SITC 551) AND ESSENTIAL OILS AND RESINOIDS ( SITO - 5511 or 551.3 ) 1978

Major Exporting countries Essential Oils and Perfumes Essential Oils and Resinoids Qty in Value $ Percentage Qty in Value tonnes '000 of total ex- tonnes $ '000 ports France 11*309 263238 19.89 58705 133391 United States— 37196 201*613 15-1*6 25319 10181*7 Puerto Rico Switzerland 7128 I8192U 13.75 716 12701 United Kingdom 15215 130571 9.87 2101 231*05 Netherlands 1088U 121892 9.21 596 10923 Germany Fed.Rep. 6716 83187 6.29 709 7923 Egypt 267 276UÓ 2.09 132 191*30 Ireland 192* 271*35 2.07 37 260 Italy 2111* 26320 1.99 876 16980 Hongkong 7 25600 1.93 ? 7208 Brazil 1206U 21*528 1.85 8896 21528 Japan 1790 21*300 1.81* 100 281*9 Spain 198** 15665 1.18 1316 10150 Haiti 7 7 1.12 7 ? India 7 7 1.07 7 ? Indonesia 2271 1191*5 0.90 2266 11916 Paraguay 7 81*97 0.61* — — Argentine 776 8393 0.63 \ 723 7769 Singapore ? 7755 0.59 ^83 61*37 Belg./Lux. il*63 7695 0.58 55 1971* Reunion 89 7**01 O .56 89 71*00 Mexico — — 0.U9 — —

91* .01

(World Exports in US$ '000 13231*5*0 - 2k

5.2 From the break-up,it is evident that France has been the world s leading exporter of both Essential Oils and Perfumes (its contribution during 1978 being 19.69%) and Essential Oils and Resinoids. France is closely followed by USA-Puerto Rico, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Netherlands,German Federal Republic, Egypt, Ireland, Italy, Hongkong, and Brazil in that order. As could be observed , the data in respect of the 22 countries make up 9U.OI % of the world total exports of Essential Oils and Perfumes. It is interesting to note that the leading exporters of Essential Oils

and Perfumes are not necessarily the leading exporters of Essential Oils and Resinoids. A further break-up in terms of leading exporting countries of Essential Oils and Resinoids for the year 1978 is avail­ able and is reproduced an Table is . From this, it could be observed that many of the developing countries like China, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, Indonesia, Reunion Islands as also India happen to be amongst the exporters of Essential Oils and Resinoids.

5.3 Details in respect of the world's leading importing countries of Essential Oils and Perfumes and Essential Oils and Resinoids are pre­ sented as from the same source in Table 5d . 25 1

TABLE 5c

LEADING EXPORTING COUNTRIES IN ESSENTIAL OILS AND RESINOIDS

Country Qty in tonnes Value in

France 5870 133391 USA , Puerto Rico 25319 10181*7 China — 27068 UK 2101 23U05 Brazil 8896 21528 Egypt 132 191*30 Italy 876 1698O Mexico * — 11*083 Switzerland 716 12701 Indonesia 2266 11916 Netherlands 596 10923 Spain 1316 10150 India * — 9137 German Fed.Rep. 709 7923 Argentina 726 7769 Reunion 89 71*00 Hongkong — 7208 Singapore 683 61*37 Madagascar 1086 6271* Marocco 221 55U8 USSR « — 5519 Bulgaria * — 4370 Japan 100 281*9 Tunisia 212 281*5 Ivory Coast 160 2317 Austria lUl 2281 Turkey 5 2211* Can.da 166 2126 Belg./Lux. 55 1971* Portugal b31 1615 Greece 290 1286 Denmark 71 813 Israel 1071 786 Ireland 37 260 Sweden 21 126

5U362 tons 1*921*99

• Computed fora Statistics in respect of supplies effected to the 2k OECD countries under the head 55191 i.e. Essential Oils, Resinoids, '-he figures in respect of s'lpply to USA itself being computed from the ’ Commodity Trade Statistics - 1978 ' . r 26

TAB L K 5 d WORLD PffSR'fc OF ESSENTIAL OILS , PERFUMES etc. (SITC 551) and ESSENTIAL OILS AMD RESINOIDS (SITC 551.1 or 531.3) in US $ x IQ3 - 197^

Major Importing Countries Essential Oils and Perfumes Per Cent Essential Oils and Qty.in tons Value $ *000 Resinoids Qxy in Value ______tons $ 'OOP

71*92 110220 USA - Puerto Rico 12kh2 173503 12.69 France 9376 132190 9.67 6719 92701 Germany Fed.Rep. 11785 128835 9.1+3 I+606 371+83 UK 8130 106625 7.80 5762 65911 Japan 6700 98220 7.19 +379 1+5799 Venezuela 25597 53076 3.88 — — Italy 50Ul 52235 3.82 2035 12907 Netherlands 5166 1+LU83 3.25 1956 20176 Switzerland 3U79 1+31+07 3.18 2071+ 26U97 Spain 1+lly 1+2375 3.10 181+0 13982 Canada 1885 25065 1.83 961 12131 Korea Rep. 1239 21893 1.60 280 51+92 9 9 Nigeria 9 9 1.1+1+ Belgium/Luxemburg 2039 19058 1.39 311+ 31+15 Australia ? 18819 1.33 — — 9 9 South Africa Rep. 9 18252 1 .31+ Hong Kong 9 182A3 1.33 51+1 631+0 Philippines 1886 16175 1.18 390 6050 Yugoslavia 1233 15537 l.lU 156 2059 Thailand — 11+578 1.13 2911+

77-78

(World imports $ '000 - 13669I+I) Here it may "be observed that the USA -Puerto Rico is the leading importer followed by France, Federal Rep. of Germany,United Kingdom,Japan, etc. in that order.Once again it is evident that leading importers of the category Essential Oils and Perfumes are not necessarily the major importers of the category Essential Oils and Resinoids.

However,world exports as depicted in the International Statistics in respect ofEssential Oils and Perfumes (SITC 551) do not include exports from the countries with centrally planned economies like China which are amongst the leading exporters of Essential Oils and Resinoids.But from the countrywise import statistics in the"Commodity Trade Statistics" under the group 551-1 with the break-up value in respect of supplying countries,one could have a rough indication of exports effected by countries like China, USSR etc. to each of the countries and adding the sum total of the exports one could get a rough indication of their exports. Similarly , this information could alsc be computed from the World Trade Annual which again gives a break-up in respect of sub-group 551.1 for the 2k OECD countries (Organization for Economic and Commercial Development) with details effected by supplying countries.The information pertaining to exports for the year 1978 given ill Tciuic 5 c for China, Mexico , USSR, Bulgaria as also India have been computed thus.

It can be deduced that the annual world exports of Essential Oils and Resinoids could be approximately 55,000 tons.In this context, details of the quantum of exports under 551-1 furnished in respect of USA which is of the order of 25319 tons apparently include exports of Pine Oil which forms a predominant share of the exports of Essential Oils from USA.The details of the break-up for the year 1978 , are not available.During the year 1979 , out of the total exports of 107.6 million lbs. of Essential Oils (approx. U881tO tons) valued at $ 109-55 million from USA exports of Pine Oil al-rework out to 8l.8 million lbs.(approx. 36ll+0 tons) valued at $ 10.5 million. The statistics depicted in Table 5 c does not include details pertaining to HAITI (1.12#) and PARAGUAY (0,6k%) from the 22 countries in Table 5 b, whose total percentage of the world exports amounts to 9^-01 % but they do include details pertaining to 15 additional countries,viz. China,Madagascar»Marocco, USSR, Bulgaria,Tunisia, Ivory Cost, Austria, Turkey , Canada, Portugal, Greece, Denmark, Israel and Sweden, which are known to export Essential Oils. 28

5.6 Hence, the figure of 55,000 tonscoul

5.7 The European Economic Community include some of most industrialised countries of the world and import and export statistics in respect of individual essential oils for this group of countries along with the imports and exports of Essential Oils and Resinoids as a group (SITC 551-1) for the individual countries is reproduced in Tables 5e and 5f The total exports of Essential Oils and Resinoids by the E.E.C.group of countries have been of the order of 10,300 tons but their imports have been more than double at 22,100 tons.From the details of import and export statistics of the individual essential oils given in Table 5 e some assessment of their export possibilities could be made. 29 TABLE 5 e

xy ie ESSENTIAL OILS

TRADE STATISTICS FOR THE MEMBERS OF EEC (EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY CONSISTING OF WEST GERMANY,FRANCE, ITALY, NETHERLANDS. BELGIUM „ UNITED KINGDOM, IRELAND and DENMARK?

QTY IN TONNES QTY IN TONNES IMPORTS DESCRIPTION EXPORTS

1*795 Essence of Orange lll*7 1360 Essence of Lemon 860 173 Bergamot Oil 160 955 Other Citrus Oil 1*38 193 Geranium Oil 200 919 Clove,Ylang-Ylang etc. 3U6 1735 Peppermint Oil 602 151 Vetiver Oil 51* 778 Citronella Oil 268 1050 Eucalyptus Oil 190 1*2 Jasmine Oil 8 61*5 Lavender Oil,Lavendin etc. 1258 r 15 Essence of Rose 1U6 Coniferous Oils 76 591*3 Other Essential Oils 321*1» 161 Terpenefree citrous oils 57 172 Other Terpenefree Essential Oils 158 356 Resinoids 52l* 33 Essential Oil Concentrates 1*6 2501* Terpene Residues 697

22126 10338 30 “ 1

TABLE 5 f

1978

COUNTRYWISE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS ASP RESIHOIDS MEMBERS OF THE E.E.C

VALUE $ 'OOP QTY IN TONS COUNTRY QTY IN TONS VALUE $ 'OOP 371*83 1*606 German Fed.Rep. 709 7923 92701 6719 France 5870 133391 12907 2035 Italy 876 I698O 20176 1956 Netherlands 596 IO923 31*15 311* Belgium/Luxemb. 55 I97I* 65911 5762 United Kingdom 2101 231*05 5670 333 Ireland 37 260 2585 339 Denmark 71 813

2U08U8 2206k 10315 I95669

An attempt has also been made Table 5 g to arrive at some idea of the exports of certain individual essential oils in terms of world trade.These are approximate estimates only and should only be regarded as such. However they are useful indications for trade considerations. TABLE 5 g

ESTIMATED WORLD EXPORT OF INDIVIDUAL ESSENTIAL OILS

1. Orange Oil 10 to 1 2 0 0 0 tons (Brazil 1*000 tons to 5500 tons, USA - UOOO to U200 tons Israel - 1*00 tons Italy.Spain.Marocco)

2. Citronella Oils 1*000 t o 5000 tons (Indonesia - 1 0 0 0 to 1750 tons China - 2 0 0 0 tons Argentina 200 tons Brazil 30 to 70 tons Guatemala 200 to 250 tons Sri Lanka 120 to 200 tons Taiwan 1*00 tons) 31 1

3. Mint Oils approx. UOOO tons Arvensis (Brazil 1000 to 1730 tons Paraguay .China,Taiwan) Mentha piperita - USA 1250 tons Spearmint Oil - USA 600 tons)

1*. Eucalyptus Oil 2500 tons (China 1^00 to 1500 tons Portugal 330 to 1+00 tons Spain - 220 tons Brazil - 170 tons)

5- Lemon Oil 1500 tons to 2000 tons (Italy - 500 tons USA - 600 tons.Brazil - 100 Ivory Coast 120 to 200 tons Greece - 100 tons)

6. Clove Oil (leaf, bud and stem)l500 to 2000 tons (Madagascar - 1000 tons Indonesia - 1+50 to 675 tons Zanzibar - 200 tons)

7 . Oil 1800 tons (Brazil 1000 - l800 -»-ons)

8. Lavender .Invendin and Spike Lavender 1500 tons (France - 600 to 1000 Spain - 100 tons Bulgaria - 50 to 80 tons Yugoslavia - 60 tons USSR 30 to 1+0 tons)

9. Camphor Oil 1500 tons (Taiwan - lUOO tons)

10. Lime Oil 800 tons ( Mexico - 330 to 570 tons Haiti - 100 tons South America and West Indies 100 tons)

11. ^.»uli Oil 1*00 to 550 tons (Indonesia - 5^0 tons)

11a .. to-* Oil 500 tons (USA - 500 tons)

12. Lej^-jgrass Oil 1*00 - 500 tons (Guatemala - 175 to 225 tons India - 100 -200 tons)

13. Oil 350 to U50 tons (Marocco - 50 to llU tons Spain 100 to 175 tons Tunisia - 135 to 11+5 tons) lU. Bergamot Oil 300 to 1*00 tons (Italy - 80 -100 tons Brazil , Ivory Coast 20 to 50 tons) 1 32

15. Petitgrain Oil 300 to U00 tons (Paraguay - 200 - 300 tons)

16. Vetiver Oil 300 tons (Haiti - 100 - 150 tons Indonesia - 100 tons Reunion - 25 tons .Brazil and China - 25 tons)

17. Geranium Oil 250 to 300 tons (Reunion - 130 tons Egypt - 50 to 100 tons Marocco - 10 to 15 tons China - 10-15 tons, Algeria - 10 tons)

18. Eucalyptus Citriodora 200 tons (Brazil 200 )

19. Guaivood Oil 100 to 150 tons (Paraguay and Argentina-100 tons

20. Rosewood Oil (tulip) 100 to 150 tons (Brazil 100 - 150 tons)

21. Mandarin Oil 100 to 150 tons (Italy - 50 Argentina , Brazil - 100 tons)

22. Ylang Ylang Oil 100 -120 tons (Comores and Madagascar)

23. Cinnamon Leaf Oil 100 tons (Sri Lanka - 100 tons , Sey- chelles) 23a Cinnamon Bark Oil 0.5-1 ton (Sri Lanka)

2k. Amyris Oil 70 tons (Haiti - 70 tons)

25. Canaga Oil 1*0 to 50 tons ( Indonesia 50)

26. Jasmine Oil/Concrete 15-20 tons (Egypt 8 to 10 tons Marocco - 2 tons .France - 0.5 to 1 ton, Itlay 2 to U tons Turkey - 1 ton,South Africa - 0.5 to 1 ton)

27- Rose Oil/Concrete lo - 15 tons (Marocco - 3 tons l ^ e y ~ - i i ° € S n ^ ° EEC) Bulgaria .France - 7 tons (to EEC) P.S. Exports do not include Pine Oil , the exports of which by USA alone in 1979 was of the order of 37000 tons. 33

6. ROLE OF RESEARCH M D DEVELOPMENT IN TEE ESSENTIAL OIL INDUSTRY

6.1 The developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America constitute a vast area»which has every type of agroclimatic condition capable of supporting growth of essential oil-bearing plants for almost all types of established use viz. in the perfumery, cosmetic and flavour industries of the world.Many of these countries also have vast forest resources , and if propery harnessed, wild plants can be used to generate useful products of a wide variety, including essential oils and oleoresins of industrial value. Some developing countries are already producing certain major essential oils and related products like lemongrass oil from flexuosus (Steud.) Wats., citronella oil from Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt palmarosa oil from Cymbopogon martini Stapf.var.motia . Japanese mint oil from Mentha arvensis Linn, peppermint oil from M.piperita L. patchouli oil from Pogostemon patchouli Hook. , geranium oil from Pelargonium graveolens L.Herit. , rose oil from Rosa damascena Mill, jasmine concrete Jasminum grandiflorum Linn, and a large number of other essential oils , oleoresins and .which include such important products like cinnamon leaf and bark oil and quills from Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume clove oi] and from Eugenia sp. , cardamom spice and oil from Ellettaria cardamomum Maton , ginger oil, andoleoresin Zingiber officinale Rose and pepper spice, oil and oleortsin from nigrum Linn., etc.

6.2 However, because of lack of sufficient scientific inputs, the yield of these crops has been in most instances static, or has improved only marginally, and the volume of products has lacked consistency . For these and otner reasons, the Western World has switched over to synthetic sources for their requirements of perfumery and flavour chemicals for the industry.The constituents for formulation of cosmetics and flavours can generally be pro­ duced more economically from synthetic sources , as compared to those from natural plant products. As a result of this competition from synthetic perfumery and flavour industries, the market potential of natural essential oils , specially those from grasses, has declined considerably during the last 20 yeprs.This has prompted some of the countries in the East to pay less attention ro Research and Development on these plants,and incertain cases, 3U

food and other cash crops have understarA ably replaced the essential oil bearing crops.

6.3 Fortuitously, due primarily to the recent energy crisis resulting in considerable escalation of prices of pfetroleum products and turpentine oil - basic raw materials for perfumery chemicals , the entire situation has changed.Once again a time has now cane when with acceptable Research and Development efforts, the developing countries have the opportunity to compete with synthetic perfumery and flavour industries,given that they are able to increase the production per unit area as well as cut down the cost of production.The Research and Development efforts of developing countries in this area should be directed in the following three lines:

I. SCREENING OF WILD FLORA

6.U Intensive surveys of the available wild flora in the various countries can still lead to discovery of : new sources of essential oils»which already have established use; new essential oils of considerable value in perfumery/ cosmetics industry , which have different notes or flavours not known at the present time. This kind of research has already yielded in Pers.- a competitor with lemongrass oil as a source of citral .Several new essential oils, although on a limited scale, have been introduced as a result of recent research efforts in India .These new oils include Skimmia laureola oil (Skimmia laureola Sieb. and 7,ucc.) , Ferrula oil (Ferrula jaeschkeana Uatke) and Artemisia oil (Artemisia vestita Wall.) .

Production of such essential oils from wild wources would not only provide renewable sources of cheaper raw material, but would also result in better job opportunities for the rural sector of society living near forests areas in the Third World.Such research efforts would yield tangible results only if there is a close collaboration between the scientists and the industrialists in bhe area of perfumery , cosmetics and flavouring compounds. No scientific inputs would yield commercial results unless the industrialists are involved at an early stage in collaboration in such research programmes. 35

II. IMPROVING YIELD POTENTIAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL CROP PLANTS OF ESTABLISHED VALUE

6.5 Most of the essential oil bearing plants grown in developing countries , whi$h include lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) , citro- nella (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt) , palmarosa oil (Cymbopogon martini Stapx.var.motia ) and a certain others»have originally been adapted from wild sources. Although a certain amount of agronomical experiments have been carried out in certain countries , resulting in marginal increases in yield these crops have not yet been subjected to intensive agricultural experiments similar to food and other cash crops, with the result that the yields of these crops per unit area have remained almost static. As a result of this, these essential oil bearing crops, specially grown in the developing countries, have failed to stand up to competition from synthetic perfumery chemicals ar as alternatives to other cash crops.

6.6 In order to break the so-called "yield - Barrier" , the developing countries would have to the at the essential oil bearing crops on par with other cash crops, and direct their agricultural research on the following lines:

6.7 - Development of improved agronomic practices : Modern agriculture can exist commercially only if it can breakaway from the past and develop new agronomic practices by carrying out intensive research on plant nutrition,crop husbandry, water management and weed control. In order to succeed in increasing the yield of essential oil bearing crops, there will have to be scientists and technologists involved in the area of soil-fertility,water-management, crop husbandry and weed control, all of which have become important (in the broad area of agronomy) as specialised sciences.If integrated properly, these efforts can easily result in increases of the present yields by 20 -25Jf . Ways to minimise cost inputs in cultivation of essential oil crops, which would mean finding out efficient use cf nitro­ gen, phosphorus, potash - the three major fertilizer inputs and 36 -

methods for economical use of water specially in those countries where irrigation is required for cultivation of these crops, will have to receive particular attention. Agronomists in the developing countries would have to strive to use marginal lands for cultivation of seme of these crops, which can he easily adapted to grow in the areas having lov rainfall or soils affected by high salt concentration.

Genetic Improvement of Varieties: Comparatively little attention had been paid to improvement of varieties of the essential oil bearing crops presently cultivated; in certain cases the developing countries are actually processing material from plants, obtained from the original habitat. Intensive plant-breeding programmes have to be undertaken for these crops,and is the only practical method to break the "yield-barrier" . On account of m o d e m methods of crop improvement some of the developing countries have succeeded in developing high-yielding varieties of major food ■**ops like wheat,rice, maiie and millets etc., as a result of which the yields have increased several fold. Similar increases can undoubtedly be obtained for essential oil bearing crops, if the developing countries decide to take up a planned scientific programme of breeding and intensive agricultural experiments.For this purpose, all interested countries must ensure a good collection of germplasms and a team of competent scientists in the field.There is a case here for free exchange of germplasms amoung countries interested in the development of the Essential Oil Industry.Special emphasis may be laid on crops like lemongrass, citronella and polmarosa as well as geranium, which have low oil contents and considerable potential for improvement . In addition to breeding for increase in yield, attention should be devoted to breeding for quality; specially when a particular constituent is of interest for example: like citral in the case of lemongrass or geraniol in the case of palmarosa oil. The plant breeding programms will also have to include the possibilities of developing varieties resistant to pests and diseases. 37

9 - Developing Integrated Pest - control Methods : Diseases and insect-pests do become a problem,when a particular essential oil bearing crop is grown in sizable areas.Such problems become more acute when new crops are introduced in a particular area .For instance a number of diseases have become prevalent, which are posing a major threat to plantations of citronalla, geranium ari patchouli in India. Even a crop like palmsrosa, which was basically exploited from wild sources in India, suffers from a number of diseases when cultivated on a crop basis. Any research programme will have to include studies on diseases and insect pests affecting these crops, as well as inquiry into economical and efficient methods for controlling them.While developing control measures , less emphasis should be laid or chemical control as a large number of these pesticides are imported into developing countries and can be prohibitive in costs. The development of an integrated pest-control methodology which should include manipulation of agronomic practices , developing resistant varieties and use of pesticides onlj where considered desirable would be the preferred strategy . In case of diseases caused by virus and nematodes, preference will be on a reliance on plant-breeding methods as against chemical control, as has been done in the case of food crops as well as horticultural crops in many parts of the world.

10 - Development of suitable agricultural machinery One of the most important methods for reducing the cost of essential oils production, ie partial or total mechanization of agricultural operations used in cultivation of such crops.Every country will have to find its own tools adaptable to a particular area, as in case of small farms, bullock-drawn implements may be more appropriate as compared to tractor-drawn equipment.An example of mechanization of agricultural operations in essential oil­ bearing crops, has been set by the USSR,where the entire operations right from planting to harvesting have been completely mechanised. 38

This becomes more important in those countries where there is shortage of labour and cost of labour is increasing. In most developing countries where the situation is reversed labour intensive methodology will have to be evolved so that the cost of pro­ duction remains competitive.

III. IMPROVEMENT OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

6.11 Although a few developing countries use sophisticated distillation equipment,in most of the countries distillation is still carried oùt by empiri- cal'methods. Rarely have any efforts been made to study the various parameters of distillation of different essential oil bearing crops. Distillation of lemongrass may be quite different to distillation of citronella, if studied carefully, and the requirements may be quite different to those methods used in the distillation of mint varieties.Post-harvest treatment of the crop also varies with each essential oil variety and needs research attention.

One of the most important areas is the development of modern efficient and cheap field distillation units,which can be used by small farmers and which lay major emphasis on fuel economy .All producer countries will have to seriously think of developing such field distillation stills which are characterised by mechanisms of re-cycling of energy.This means that such stills should whenever possible utilise the exhausted grass or marc as fuel , so that the use of costly fuel like wood, coal or furnace oils, can be minimised. Special emphasis should be laid on improving the distillation techniques »storage methods etc. to enable the essential oils to achieve market acceptability .

6.12 Another area for Research and Development in processing is secondary processing of essential oils or production of oleoresins from spices by solvent extraction. In a country like India, considerable progress has been made in this direction and there are a number of industries producing perfumery,cosmetics and flavour chemicals utilising turpentine oil, citronella oil , lemograss oil, palmarosa oil, ginger oil and oleoresin»pepper oleoresin etc. However, India still exports the bulk of the raw material in a crude form to several countries in the world. There are frequent complaints from the Western World that spice oils produced in the developing countries are substandard, or at least, not of international standard.This is a challenging area of research for these countries. There is no reason why every producer country should not strive to export natural perfumery chemicals, oleoresins and essential oils as well as spice products,in place of exude rav materials.

6.13 It is of interest that in a country like India, where considerable development has taken place, most of the seed (Apium graveolens) is exported in crude form.Although certain entrepreneurs have taken up the venture to export celery seed oil , they are faced with complaints that the Indian oil is not comparable to that produced by French or British manufacturers of this oil . A similar situation prevails in the case of patchouli oil, as the French patchouli oil is considered superior to Indonesian oil and sells at a premium price.

6.lU Whether these assertions are valid or otherwise, scientists in the developing countries should be in a position to solve such simple problems by experimentation, so that in the future their countries are able to earn more foreign exchange by exporting finished products, which can claim to satisfy the most stringent quality requirements.There is now a Justi­ fication for many of the developing countries to think in terms of R and D for production of perfumes»cosmetics and flavouring compounds based on indigenous raw materials from natural sources.

6.15 During the last few years certain industrial concerns in India have been able to market their own cosmetics,toiletries and perfumes,like creams anu tooth-pastes, in the face of great competition from the industrialised countries.The Indian experience should point a way to other developing countries as well. 7• CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF AW INDUSTRY DEALING WITH ESSENTIAL OILS AND AROMATIC CHEMICALS

The mein considerations for tne further development of an Industry dealing with Essential Oils and Aromatic Chemicals, can be categorised ar.d summarised in the following manner:

T .1 Selection of plant sne^ies for improvement of the essential oil content and quality : - Selection of the right plant, identification of the same by morphological, chemotaxononic and chromosomal examination; application of agronomic practices to increase the content of the essential oils and to generate the required quality of oil; mutagenic experiments to evolve improved varieties.

7• 2 Isolation procedures.: Steam and hydro-distillation : - introduction of improved techniques, creation of centralised facilities for such distillations , introduction of continuous distillation procedure where necessary ¡and appropriate. Solvent extraction :

- ttee cf petroleum ether/hexane; butane under pressure ; - development of the technologies for the latter two systems. - Application of solvent extraction techniques for isolation of aromatic principles from flowers.

7.3 Chemical composition of essential oils: Quality assessment methods: - Understanding of the total number of constituents present ‘n essential oils, and variations due to geographic, climatic and other factors . - Application of fractional distillation in the separation of the constituents of an oil:efficiency of a fractionating column; the use of spinning band columns ; packed columns ; other devices ; - Application of Chromatographic methods for separation of constituents Column chematography preparative, and analytical, thin layer chromatography.

- Application of analytical and preparative gas-liquid chromatography Iti _ 1

and identification of the constituents; - Combination of gas-liquid chromatography and column chromatography in the characterization of these constituents .Understanding of the principles behind this technique; - Detailed understanding of gas liquid chromatography, solid support, stationary phase and its nature , type of column ,length of column, nature of detector, plate efficiency of gas liquid .lrcmatography columns, as this technique is the basis of modern instrumental methods of quality assessment of essential oils and aromatic sub­ stances .

7•^ Application of spectoscopic techniques in analysis:

Application of infra-red,Raman, visible and ultra-violet spectra for determining the nature of compounds and their estimation; Application of NMR spectroscopy; Application of mass spectrometry, combination of mass spectrometry and gas liquid chromatography;

7•5 Organoleptic assessment of quality in Essential Oils and Trade requirements : - Establishing standards for essential oils and perfumery chemicals; - Inr ental and chemical methods for estimation of constituents; - M' j-ogy of organoleptic assessment , its strengths and limitations;

7 - 6 Large scale processing of essential oils and perfumery materials : - Selection of most appropriate technology and conditions; - Significance of temperature during processing; - Significance of conditions of purification;

7•7 Production of perfumery chemicals form Essential Oils : - Seltc+ion of suitable methods and equipment for preparation of semisynthetics via isolates obtained from natural sources; - Use of products from other sources if available; petiochemicals, coal-tar products ; - Evaluation of odour qualities of products vis-à-vis standard substances; -h2 -

8. PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING CROPS BY GENETIC MANIPULATION

8.1 All essential oils are naturally synthesized in plants as secondary metabolites. But not all the plant species are endowed with such products. All of than do not possess the same product either.Diversity in essential oils (with respect to their aroma specified by specific chemical constituents and their proportions) is indeed the consequence of diversity in natural flora occuring on this earth. Different countries of the world are gifted with considerable number of plant species that bear essential oils. The wide variety of agro-climatic types within the developing world would surely enable the production of almost every type of aromatic plant species from which essential oils are industrially produced today.

8.2 The emergence of synthetic substitutes for the naturally occuring perfumery products wfcs the natural consequence of several recent developments discussed in the foregoing chapters. Nevertheless, natural products firmly hold the promise for the future on two counts: firstly,the quality and aroma of natural products are more characteristic and stable than that of synthetic products , and secondly, natural products can be produced with concerted efforts to be economical enough to compete with synthetic substitutes.

8.3 Genetic manipulation affords a new and powerful tool by which natural essential oils may in future yearsbe produced both in quantity and quality. These two aspects may be discussed separately. The improvement of the yield of oil per unit area of crop coverage may be achieved by increasing the herbage , i.e. fresh green weight (or flower/root yield, as the case may be) of the plant and/or by enhancing the oil content {%); while quality of oil can be enriched by appropriate manipulation of the relative proportion of diverse chemical constituents which confer the requisite quality in a given oil. Though improvement of both these aspects may be possible by adopting suitable crop husbandry there is a threshold limit, imposed by the genetic potential of essential oil bearing plants. Beyond this limit, no amount of agronomic manoeuvring will help. Ch the contrary, in some cases, a negative return may be harvested. Thus, it is the generic potential - 1*3 -

of the crop that has to he elevated.Agronomy can help only to fully realize that potential.

8.U Genetic improvement of quality and quantity of essential oils in different plant species has so far been given comparatively little attention . In fact,the whole strategy has hitherto been confined to the exploitation of wild resources or devising suitable agro-technology for realization of exisiting potential of such crops, if domesticated.Obviously,these crops are, by and large , virgin insofar as their genetic manipulation for their betterment is concerned. Thus, there exist gi°at prospects for elevating their genetic potential through plant breeding .But, how can the plant breeder or geneticist achieve such pragmatic results?

8.5 There is what is now termed the "Ladder system approach" to plant breeding for crop improvement .This consists of the following steps: (a) Collection and maintenance of genetic stocks Diverse genotypes from wild sources or from places where they are grown are collected and maintained. This is,of course, the first requirement of a plant improvement scheme.

(d ) Evaluation of Genetic stocks Desirable or undesirable attributes of different genetic stocks so assembled are identified. Hence they are systematically evaluated for: (i) Basic information: - Mode of reproduction and breeding structure - Genetic diversity and nature of gene action.

(ii) Applied information: - Oil productivity (yield per unit area) - Oil content(%) - Oil quality - Disease / pest reaction - Other desirable features like plant-type (c) Increasing the productivity: productive breeding To increase the oil-yield per unit area, improvement either in the yield or oil content or in both is sought. This is achieved through : (i) Strain/clonal selection (ii) Hybridization , if possible, for (a) developing hybrids(heterosis breeding) (b) isolation of desirable recombinants (Recombination breeding) UU - 1 (iii) Population improvement (Synthetic/composite breeding)

iia u A v.»« luuiuid j i3u^.ii ao i u u u o v / x u u a u x j x i 1 ouiov/iuu/ breeding , polyploidy breeding,remote hybridization. (v) Non - conventional means, such as genetic engineering or bio-culture techniques including somatic cell hybridization,protoplast fusion etc. (d) Removal of bottleneck genes: protective breeding Though productive breeding does take into account the disease/ pest reaction of the chosen genotypes; protective breeding becomes expedient if the finally selected genotypes suffer from some newly evolved pathogenic races.Moreover, in some plant

species, breeding for disease resistance,is perhaps more con­ sequential than breeding for productivity as such.For instancethe nematode problem in pachouli endangers its commercialization. Selection of nematode resistant clones a priori ^ny increase

the possibility of its commercial cultivation. Protective breeding is accomplished through: (i) backcross breeding (ii) mutational rectification (e) Enhancing the quality components : Quality breeding Improvement in oil-quality is accomplished through changing the relative frquencies of genesis) responsible for specific chemical constituents conferring requisite quality. This is possible through : (i) Simple selection (ii) Judicious hybridization (iii) Adequate mutagenesis (f) Minikit and performance trials over environments : Adaptive breeding Once the final products of a plant breeding programme, namely variety, hybrid or population are identified,they are tested under diverse agro-ecological conditions for their suitability to cultivation and for grower's acceptance. (g) Release of the improved variety for general cultivation Finally, the variety (or hybrid/population) which has undergone such wide testing gradua+es to the farmer's field for commercial

exploitation, The main advantages lie in a permanent / stable

change in the plant for improved quality of oil.These im­

provements can be brought about by the above means »without hi 1 involving musch cost. Indeed, the output/input ratio is tremendously higher in case of the genetic improvement of aromatic plants than that in the artificial reconstitution of essential oils.Thus,by growing genetically improved varieties growers, mostly in rural areas, may augment their income to a large extent, and in turn,the essential oil industry might well he strengthened too. U6

9- THE DEVELOIMEHT OF THE jsssjmtjlAL OILS INDUSTRY 15 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: SOME CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

9.1 The deliberations of the Workshop revealed that the countries represented by the participants had considerable potential for the development of an Industry based on Essential Oils.The interest was intense,a featurenot difficult to comprehend. The nature of the industry is such that it would be an attractive proposition for countries planning their economies with factors such as: - rural sector development; - import-substitution and development of agro-*based industry; - achieving scientific and technological competence in selected areas as some of their desired goals. The industry is also attractive to agencies within the UN system as it lends itself to the global development objectives already enunciated by them. Further, the industry is ideally suited to be initiated into developing countries although the products are primarily utilized by the industrial nations. There are however a plethora of problems and concerns upon which future workshops of this kind could deliberate . Some of these problems are outlined below together with same proposals,all of which emerged during the workshop's activities.

Cultivation aspects of Aromatic Plants: 9.2 Although the spontaneous flora within the developing countries may yet contain a considerable number of unknown sources of perfumery and flavour materials, and the screening of the wild flora of a country for such, i® of prime importance , ideally aromatic plants for industrial use must also be systematically cultivated. Accordingly the following considerations bear relevance: - Selection of appropriate plant species and procurement of suitable planting material. Maintenance of herbarium vouchers of plant specimens for authentication. - Introduction of modern plant breeding techniques.Study of the special techniques applicable to aromatic plants. - Studies on plant diseases and plant pests and methods to combat such. - Studies on the most economic methods of maintaining the nutrients in the soil and its quality , with minimum use of fertilizer. - 1*7

- Problems of irrigation - Studies on the methods and conditions for harvesting each species of aromatic plant, and the optimum post-harvest preparation of rav material for distillation or extraction , in relation to both quality and yield of oil. - Genetic improvement of crop varieties

Technological aspects 9-3 The technology concerning the production of essential oils is veil known. In fact quite simple and elementary distillation outfits are knovn to produce. in capable hands > very acceptable products. However many countries attempting to initiate industrial utilization of aromatic crops could certainly benefit from the expertise of other countries who have longer experience with the technological needs. There are several factors here that merit consideration, such as the following: - Decisions regarding the appropriate type of distillation or extraction unit, aii location of such. - Methodology of procurement of technological expertise appropriate to a given situation. - Interlinks between the production process of the raw material, and the processing requirements, i.e. optimisation of the time and capacity of the distillation unit in relation to the available raw material. - Fabrication of still units in developing countries ; optimisation of conditions and operational parameters; - Central supporting R and D Services for quality control of.-.products.

Managerial Aspects 9.U The managerial aspects of the production of essential oils relate to management of farms, distilleries and the marketing process, within the country.The methods adopted will vary much with the country and its special features.In general terms al 1 or some of the following factors may need consideration in most instances. - Availability of adequate extension services as regards agronomic and technological needs.Methods by which such extension services are made to reach farmers.operators of field distillation units,and those who collect and transport essential oils to centres of marketing. _ Ufi _

- Measures to ensure adequate control of authenticity and quality of rav material used in distillations -, - Availability of prompt maintenance facilities for distillation assemblies

- Training of a. _ grades of personnel in the industry

Storage and Marketing of Produce 9.5 One of the most important needs is adequate storage and marketing systems for products.lt is established that market price fluctuations and variations in demands for products present considerable problems to pro­ ducers in developing countries. Hence the factors below emerge as some needing considerations depending again on the country and the circumstances: - Procurement of appropriate storage vessels and ensurement against contamination and adulteration; - Dissemination of information regarding market demands .quality , pricing factors, etc. - Organised systems of central collection and primary assessment of produce , to enable farmers to promptly dispose of their produce. - Creation of incentives such as capital support, pricing and marketing guarantees and means of transportation of products from remote field areas;

Support agencies and regulatory functions 9.6 It is true in practice that the essential oil industry in several countries where it has in recent times flourished has enjoyed the benefit of support agencies and several regulator' advantages .The factors below are some of tb°se considered very necessary for the development of the industry. - Creation of Agencies and practices to ensure the development of the Essential Oil Industry as an income generating operation for rural populations ; - Establishment of information centres for data on exports.imports, producers, wholesalers , cultivating agencies , distillers etc. and accessible extension services; - Regulatory assistance in the promotion of the use of naturally produced essential oils in preference to imported synthetic substances wherever possible. R and D services to assist such utilization. - Agencies capable of rendering capital support assistance to producers of essential oils. 1*9

Aspects pf CollguOratiOu ciuiOuft ucYclOpiiift COuutricS

9-7 The industry , as revealed by the sample of country status reports, is in various stages of developaent in the countries represented at the Workshop. There is unlimited scope for collaboration among the developing countrifs either on a bi-lateral basis or through the agency of UNIDO. The collaboration could take several forms some of which are outlined below:

- Interchange of planting material,of essential oil bearing crops; - Exchange of information on various crops,technology and methods of extraction , fractionation , purification, formulation of product^, marketing practices etc. - Exchange of personnel between R and D Institutions for training and gaining expertise. - Loan of experts from the countries where the industry is more developed to those where the industry is in the initial stages. - Information on best methods of procurement of suitable technology as regards cultivation and distillation . - Testing of products from developing countries at institutions in other developing countries.

9-7 In general there was felt a strong need to develop a form of Bulletin or other information source on a regular basis to developing countries which were interested in the Essential Oils Industry. No clear proposal vas forthcoming but the need for the information on Agronomic aspects, marketing, technology etc. was clearly there. The recommendations made in the following chapter by the participants give seme expression to this need,as well as the future follow-up activities to which they felt UNIDO should be committed. 1 - 50 -

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE WORKSHOP ON THE ESSENTIAL OIL INDUSTRY 51

The main single feature that seemed to surface at the Workshop was that there was both a dire need,as well as considerable scope for cooperation among developing countries interested in building up an essential oil industry. There were countries notablv India, and to a lesser extent Egyot.Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka who had developed some expertise in the industry.There were other countries which had recognised the potential for an indigenous essential oils industry but had yet to initiate concerted efforts towards it. It was clearly felt that UNIDO and other UN-agencies had a definite role to play in fostering such cooperation among countries interested in producing essential oils.Accordingly the following areas were identified for cooperative endeavour among the developing countries : (a) Exchange of planting material (b) Study of agronomical practice for each species of aromatic plants (c) Processing methodology (d) Organoleptic evaluation and standardisation of Essential Oils (e) Marketing

It was recognised that studies on the above mentioned areas could be carried out at one or more centres within the developing countries themselves.Information or training could be provided to any country interested in having such, and trained personnel could be provided to the countries interested in development of their essential oils industry. The following were the specific recommendations made by the participants of the Workshop and there was unanimous agreement on them:

Recommendation No. 1 : That as a follow-up activity to the current Work­ shop , a series of similar workshops be held during the coming years ccmmencing 1983 in the other geographical regions such as : S.E.Asia Africa, and Latin America/Caribbean. 52

That each workshop should review: (a) the progress made in essential oils technology and marketing and export in the developing countries ; and (b) the progress made in the implementation of the recommendations made in the workshops preceeding it.

Recommendation Ho. 2: That in order to facilitiate technical co­ operation among developing countries,two workshops of a specialised nature be staged, with the collaboration of an appropriate host country: one specialised workshop to deal with cultivation of aromatic plants, and another to deal with the technology of production of essential oils and marketing of its products.

Recommendation No. 3: That in view of importance of production as well as processing technology of ess- ,ial oils UNIDO consider commissioning a suitable authority to prepare a manual on these subjects for the benefit of developing countries.

Recommendation No.k: That UNIDO organise assistance in testing of raw materials and essential oils by identifying appropriate centres whose services could be made available to those countries without such services of their own.

Recommendation No.5- That UNIDO sponsor at a suitable institution(s) in a developing country a training centre for technologists of developing countries to gain experience on all aspects of the Essential Oils Industry. The training should cover:plant cultivation and breeding »chemical analysis and production of essential oils and formulation of perfumes, cosmetics , toileteries and related commercial products.

Recommendation No.6: That UNIDO should assist in carrying out feasibility studies for establishment of essential oils extracting plants.

Recommendation No.7 : That UNIDO should assist in exchange of germplasm and information relating to essential oil-bearing plants.

Recommendation No.3: That UNIDO should also assist in publications of marketing data and trade statistics. 53

Justification of «ec amendât ions

The following are the "briefly expressed justifications for the Recommendations above : Recommendation No. 1 : The present Workshop noted that in a number of countries essential oils industry is in a fairly early stage of development , therefore, the Workshop in the coming years could help in develop­ ment of the industry of those countries.

Recommendation No.2 : The two specialised Workshops will be for skilled/ specialised personnel in essential oil industry with the aim of upgrading their skills. Recommendation No.3: There are a number of countries lacking the know-how for the extracting of essential oil-bearing plants. A manual of this type will be considerable assistance to them. Recommendation No.U: This would help more countries which have available raw materials, but do not have convenient access to laboratories which are capable of doing analysis for them. Recommendation No. 5: The Workshop noted that some of the developing countries already possessed appropriate technology covering all aspects of essential oil industry,while others lacked them.It was felt that with the assistance of UNIDO suitable institutions in developing countries could be selected to train the personnel of those countries which were lacking in such facilities. Recommendation No.6 : The proposed feasibility studies would assist countries in the establishment of essential oils extraction plants. Recommendation No.7 : The Workshop felt that an exchange of germplasm will improve the yield and quality of essential oil-bearing plants in many of the developing countries. Recommendation No.8 : Such data would be a basis for trade promotion among developing countries and for trade promotion between developing and developed countries. - 51» - 1

Goose neck type distillation still with coil condenser

Field distillation unit with coil condenser 55 Fig. 3

O

Modern distillation still with shell and ivhe condenser A fire heated still system: (A) Front view (B) Section of still with chimney (C) Side view of still body (d ) Section of ¿oil condenser (E) Cross section of fire place (F) fire place structure

Ref : CISIR (Sri Lanka) Bulletin No l(l966) : LEMON GRASS OIL .CISIR Colombo - 57

* Fig. 5 Diagramatic representation of : (A) A shell-and-tube type condenser and (B) A conventional Coil-in-vater type condenser

OhIm

# Fig. 6a Diagram of a still for fractionating Essential Oils I J F g BA: ig.

Rnponic e: nls (98 Vl 13 380 103 Vol: (1978) Analyst Ref: the analytical procedures recommended by the Analytical Methods Committee Methods Analytical the by recommended procedures analytical the a-iudCrmtgas fppemn n itol () American (a) oils mint and peppermint cf Chromatograms Gas-Liquid (UK) (Sub-Committee or Essential Oils) of the Royal Society of Chemistry of Society Royal the of Oils) Essential or (Sub-Committee b Iain c Cieead d Baiin band by obtained Brazilian (d) and Chinese (c) Italian (b) - 59 - 59 -

1 m 1

Stem-bark oil

Fig. 8 B : Gas-Liquid Chromatogram of Cinnamon Oils obtained under the following conditions:

Columns Packed stainless stell columns as follows: 1 5% LAC-2 R 446 on firebrick acid-washed (3 m X 3.2 mm) 10%Carbowax® 20 M on Chromosorb® W (3 m X 3.2 mm) 1 i% St-30 on Chromosorb V’ (3 m X 3.2 mm) 10% FFAP on Chromosorb W (3 m x 3.2 mm) Column temperature Initial 60*C Final 220*C Profram rate 2*C/min linear

Ref : J .Nati.Sci.Counc.Sri Lanka 3(2) , 101, (1975) 61 п

n И ТЬц, » M

Fig. 8C CITROHELLA OILS

W - A * ажзнхташлм or Uu u n i оо. (Оппхм ty ï*) c x im m u a .

( b i G m omomatooram o r Ма н а п н о ш о о . (Java т у и ) o t m m iu a .

Ref: Phytochemistry: (197*0 2698 1 r -62-

Chapter 10: COUNTRY REPORTS IN SUMMARY

1 0 .1 Afghanistan 1 0 .2 Bangladesh 10.3 Cyprus 1 0 .U Egypt 10.5 Ethiopia 1 0 .6 Guyana 10.7 Indonesia 1 0 .8 India 1 0 .9 Pakistan 10.10 Philippines 10.11 Sri Lanka 10.12 Thailand 10.1 AFGHANISTAN

10.1.1 Aromatic plant resources of the country In Afghanistan there is currently hardly any production of Essential Oils on an industrial scale; However there is scope for an industry based on essential oils and the flora includes the following essential oil bearing plants (Table 10.la) Table 10.1a : List of essential oil bearing plants and spices growing in Afghanistan

Artemesia : Artemesia herba-alba L. Jasmine Jasminim grandi florum Rose : Rosa damascena imd other snpV*Rosa albaL. Juniper : Juniperus spp. : Ferula asafoetida Geranium : Pelargonium graveolois AIT Orange : Citrus aurantium L.var.dulcis Rosemary : Rosemarinus officinalis L* : Pimpinella anisum L. Orange- : Citrus aurantifolium Peppermint: Mentha oiperiata L. Spearmint : Mentha spicata L. : Ocimum basilicum L. Cedarwood : Cedrus deodara ROXB Lemon : Citrus limon (L) Burmann filius : Coriandrum sativum L. Lavender : Lavandula officinalis L.CHAIX Carum peitroselinum : Glycyrrhiza glabra

10.1.2 Trade figures The position in regard to Trade Figures reflects (Table 10.1b) the lack of organised production.However there is considerable export of raw plant material (mostly liquorice and asafoetida)that may well form the basis of a viable local industry. 1 - 6h -

Table 10.1b : Exports and Imports of Essential Oils and Aromatic Chemicals

Export of Essential Oil,Aromatic Import of Essential Oils and Chemicals Aromatic Chemicals

1975 1975 1976 1976 1977 1977 Negligible Nil 1978 1978 only for soap 1979 1979 industry 1980 1980

Export of Essential Oil bearing plants and spices

1975 1976 1977 valued at more than 10 million US Dollars 1978 1979 1980

10.1.3 Particulars of Industrial Production Negligible

10.1.H R and D Activities The Kabul University is the only centre for the present that may be considered for the development of basic R and D services for the future. A recent UNIDO mission has gathered preliminary data for the development of medicinal and aromatic plants in Afghanistan.

* 65

10.2 BANGLADESH

10.2.1 Aromatic plant resources in the country Bangladesh with a large area of cultivable land, has had to use this primarily for crops such as Rice,Jute, Tea, Sugar cane, Wheat , ètc. In the 15% of the country's area covered by forest lands and in other areas too,there may exist a variety of essential oil bearing plants growing in spontaneous fashion .This merits systematic evaluation. In additon there is scope for production of Essential Oils bearing crops such as Lemon grass, Citronella, Eucalyptus, Ginger and species of mentha . Sporadic growing of these crops is already prevalent, and needs to be placed on a systematic basis.

10.2.2 Trade figures In the absence of any canmercial production of Essential Oils in Bangladesh , the Government is compelled to utilize considerable foreign exchange in the importation of perfumery chemicals . (Table 10.2&)_

Table 10.2a Imports of major perfumery chemicals , yearly average

SI. Quantity in lbs. NAME Value in US Dollars No. m * Others

1. Musk Ambrette 520 150 3,115.50 2. Terpeneol 12,000 6,000 10,260.00 3. Geranium P 1,600 500 19,215.00 U. Vetiverol Std. UOO 100 10,150.00 5- Di-phenyl Methane 600 200 1,576.00 6. Bornyl Acetate Uoo 100 U55.00 7. Petitgrain Oil 300 100 1 .U16.00 8. Sandal Wood Oil 500 200 36,8U8.00 9. Phenyl Ethyl Alcohol 3,500 1,500 8,150.00 10. Rajani Gc iha 300 100 8,268.00 11. Menthol 1,300 6oo 9,823.00 12. Rhodinol 3,000 1,000 37»OUO.OO 13. Di-phenyl Oxide 20,000 10,000 12,600.00 lU. Cyclamen Aldehyde 500 100 3,270.00 15. Citronellol Extra 900 Uoo U,9U0.00 16. Benzyl /cetate 18,000 9,000 17,280.00 IT. Peppermint Oil 1,300 Uoo 5,117.00 18. Anethol i,Uoo Uoo 9,036.00 19. Clove Oil 1,000 500 u,290.00 20. Nerolin Yara Yara 6,000 3,000 22,860.00 21. Phenyl Acetic Acid 2,000 1,000 U, 530.00 22. Rosinol 3,500 1,0C0 ______37,7^-00.___ 267.99U .50 US Dollars * Information given is based on their local use. 66

iû.2.3 particulars of Industrial rroduction and Usage Negligible

10.2.4 R and D Activities The main R and D services sure provided by the Bangladesh Council of Scientific smd Industrial Resestrch, Dacca. The R smd D services were provided for production technology and assessment of Lemon grass oil. It is necessary to develop the agro-technologies required for the systematic cultivation of medicinsil and aromatic plants, as well as the technology of distillation of essential oils. _ 67 _

10.3______CYPRUS 10.3.1 Aromatic plant resources of the country The plants used for production of essential oils consist of small shrubs growing pure, or mixed with forest rrees or other shrubs but mainly growing as undercanopy to pine or plane alder forests. The most common grown in relative abundance in the state forests and in private lands are Origanum suriacum Laurus nobilis Myrtus communis Salvia cypria and Salvia grandiflora (Jistus villosus Very limited quantities of essential oils are produced in Cyprus . These oils are extracted by small cottage industries using mainly the leaves or leaves mixed with flowers and distilled with water. The oil produced is separated by decantdion and is sold locally for medicinal purposes i.e. for external use against cold or being primitively formulated are used for cosmetic purposes. Origanum leaves are extensively used as a flavouring material for barbecue and sometimes for roast meat. The laurel leaves are used as a flavouring for food, especially roast meat, and are also often boiled in bathwater to make it soft and aromatic. The salvia cypria leases are locally used for tea making but they are a]so exported to various countries. Myrtus communis leaves are sometimes put in bath water to make the water soft and aromatic.

At present no essential oil is extracted form Cistus villosus in Cyprus but in the past the secretion given out by the leaves and hairs of this species was collected from accretions on the hairs of goats grazing in the forests or other areas where cistus villosus grows, or by dragging over the bushes streamers of cloth or twine attached to a short whips handle. 1 - 68 -

The possibilities of extracting essential oils from other plants growing in Cyprus in addition to the five species dready mentioned needs to be explored. The following are some of he species that grow in Cyprus that may receive attention.

Eucalyptus spp. Juniperus spp. Pistacia spp. Thymus capitatus Inula viscosa Nerium oleander

Cedrus brevifolia Juglans regia Salix alba Citws vulgaris sylvestries Pinus malus Anethum graveolens Caucus carrota Rogmnrjpus officinalis L Mentha spp. Viola spp. CapseU.a burse-pastoris Rosa canina Malva sylvestris Foeniculum vulgare Sumbusus nigra Sinapis alba Hyssopos officinalis So Hanum nigrum

10.3.2 Trade figures The import-export data concerning essential oils and aromatic chemicals , for Cyprus is in Table 10.3a .It may be noted that a considerable quantity of rose water and raw aromatic constitute the exports . r _ 69 _ 1

'able 10.3a Import s/Export s

IMPORTS 1973-1980 EXPORTS 1975 - 1980

Essential Aromatic Essential Aromatic Rose water Aromatic Oils Chemicals Oils* Herbs in litres** ChemicpJ. ««* $ $ kg of dry leaves

* Most of the essential oils are used locally in food stuffs. ** About of the rose water is exported to Arab countries . *** Forty percent of the aromatic chemicals sure used for the demand of the local market, and 60Jf after being formulated by the cosmetic industries are exported to : severed Arab countries.

Small quantities of essentisil oil is extracted fircm the peel of the citrus fruits by the canning industries.These oils sure used in flavouring drinks.

IQ.3.3____ Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage

Production of Rose Water : - The main aromatic export product is Rose Water « In Cyprus roses for industrial purposes are mostly grown in three small villages of the Troodos southern rsuige. The altitude from sea level is about 1200 to 1300 meters.The yearly average rainfall is about 600-750 millimeters and the monthly average rainfall of the critical months March,April,May is 100 millimeters , 50 and 30. During this period the air temperature is uetveen 7,5° C - 17°C and relative humidity 65-95^ .The water supply for irrigation purposes is limited.

The rose bushes grow semi wild, appearing as hedges around small strips of land or along the roadside or on the edges of terraces of the cultivated areas. They are used as boundaries of the cultivated areas which may grow vines or fruit trees.At present there is no area systematically planted.No 'nprovcd horticultural practices are being followed by the growers and as a result the yields of flowers are poor. TO

The picking of the f¡hovers starts early in the morning before the sun rise and stops at 10 p.m. It is known by the growers that early picking produces a better quality of rose water. The picking is made by hand and the flowers are transported to the factory. For the distillation of the rose water, stills of copper with capacities up to 300 litre« are used. The type is an Alambic Burner of the Egrot System Paris and they are mounted on trunnions for ease of operation. The stills are heated by an open flame.Inside the still there is a copper perforated basket which fits inside the upper rim of the still and its base is 6 inches higher from the bottom of the still in which are loaded the flowers. The still is hermetically closed with the cover and then connected to a spiral condenser.

A 300 litres capacity still is loaded with 100 kg of flowers with their calyx and 125 It of water is added.The distillation is terminated when loo litres of distillate has been recovered.This takes about 8 hours. Agros Co-operative owns 5 stills for this purpose. The variety cultivated for the production of Rose Water is recognised to be Rosa damascena . The oil content is round to 0.030 - 0.035 %• The rose crop is a supplementary source of income to 300 families of the area.

R and P Activities

The Department of Agriculture will take over the study of improving Rose Water and the Essential Oil Industry.For this purpose a detailed soil survey with leaf analysis for macro and micro nutrients of the exist­ ing plantation will start in 1982. The extension services will give guidance to the growers on planting , fertilization pruning and on plant protection problems. It is estimated that with proper cultivation of the existing plantations the yield may be doubled. The Chenistry Section of the Department will, with the collaboration of the Department of Forests investigate the existing aromatic herbs with the aim of estimating the oil content during the development of the plant, and make an assessment of quality. In 1901 the laboratory or Tl

Department of Agriculture extracted from the variety Rosa damascene rose oil for assessment.

The laboratory of the Department is equipped for such analytical assessments .However they would welcome assistance in instrumental analyses of essential oils and advice on formulation and the production of perfumery materials. 72

10.U EGYPT

10.U.1 Aromatic Plants Resources of the Country

Many varieties of essential oil bearing plants abound in Egypt and form the basis of its present essential oil industry. The products in Table 10.Ua reflect the plants cultivated for the production of essential oils.

TABLE 10.Ua: List of Essential Oils produced in Egypt:

Jasmine concrete Rose concrete Cassia concrete Bitter orange concrete Neroli oil Petitgrain oil Baoil oil Majoram oil Peppermint oil Spearmint oil Rosemary oil Geranium oil Coriander oil oil I.'Tnongrass oil Citronella oil Vetiver concrete Tuberose concrete Carnation concrete Chamomile oil oil Anise oil Caraway oil

10.U.2 Trade figures 10.U.3 Particulars of Industrial Proauction ana Usage There are many volatile oils and concretes produced in Egypt such as the following: (i)_____ Jasmine concrete: In Egypt, Jasminum grandiflorum, is mainly cultivated .Jasmine was first planted in Egypt near Cairo in 1912 for perfumery purposes and now the plantations are distributed in Lower and Upper Egypt. The following data indicate the areas cultivated in Egypt with Jasmine, total production of concrete»exportation and the price average in the last five years: T3

Year Production Area Total production Exported quantities Price 1 ( feddan1* kg kg per kg

1976 1U00 6800 U700 650 1977 1500 8300 5800 700 1978 1300 67CO 6000 850 1979 1300 6750 7500 875 1980 1250 6500 8000 875

The annual yield of flowers ranged between 2.5 and 3 tons per fedd&n * producing approximately 6 to 7*5 kg concrete. The percentage yield of Jasmine concrete using hexane as a solvent fluctuated between 0.25 and 0.28 per hundred kg of flowers. The time of flower picking affected yield,the highest yield being obtained in flowers picked from 5 to 8 a.m. whereas the lowest yield ( 0.20<) was obtained from flowers collected after 12 p.m.

The Jasmine concrete (extracted by hexane ) contains 51* - 56J of oil (so called absolute oil) .The absolute is recovered from concrete by solvent extraction using ethanol (95/f) .Several washing processes must be carried out followed by cooling and filtration to separate the concrete into two fractions wax and the absolute oil.

(ii) Egyptian Rose Concrete : Rose oil is one of the oldest and most valuable perfumery materials In Egypt the rose variety, locally called "Ward Baladi" , Rosa gallica var. aegyptica is used on the industrial scale for the extraction of its concrete and absolute oil by volatile solvents. "Ward Baladi" is processed by hydrodistillation not to isolate the volatile oil but to prepare the fragrant rose water, so popular in Egypt. The following data indicate the areas cultivated in Egypt with rose total production of concrete , exportation and the price average in the last five years.

Year Total Production Exported quantities Price (US$) kg kg per kg 1976 100 It 00 it 00 U50 1977 120 U50 it 50 it 50 1978 100 it 00 Uoo 500 1979 110 it 20 it 20 550 1980 30 350 350 550

2 1 feddan = U .U20 m - 7 1* - 1

The percentage yield of rose concrete using hexane as a solvent is 2.2 kg per ton of flowers. The rose concrete (extracted by hexane) contains 51 - 52? of oil.

(iii) Egyptian Coriander and Cumin Oil: Many of the plants belonging to the umbelliferae family grow well in Egypt and produce crops, most of which are of economical utility.Among these important members are those of Coriander(çoriandrum sativum L. ) and Cumin (Cuminum cyminum ) . The volatile oils of Egyptian coriander and cumin fruits are prepared by steam distillation . The following data refer to total production exportation and price in the last five years.

Year Total Production(kg) Exported Quantities(kg)Price per kg(US $) Coriander Cumin Coriander Cumin Coriander Cumin Oil Oil Oil Oil______Oil_____ Oil

1976 t o o 700 1*0 1977 750 750 1*0 1978 800 500 1*5 1979 600 500 1*5 1980 600 500 1*5

Yield of volatile oil : Coriander fruits 0.1*? calculated on dry weight Cumin fruits 6.0? basis

(iv) Egyptian Geranium Oil: Geranium Oil is one of the main volatile oils produced in Egypt. The cultivated area in Egypt is more than 2500 feddan*yielded about 50 tons of geranium oil (1980), the price per kilo is 1*5 Dollars.

(v) Vetiver Oil: The vetiver grass Vetiveria zizanoides is cultivated in Egypt. The underground part of the plant consists of numerous fine roots. Vetiver oil is obtained by steam distillation of vetiver roots for ten hours and by solvent extraction. The percentage of vetiver oil using hexane as a solvent fluctuated between 2.2 to 2.5 (concrete vetiver) whereas using steam distillation,the percentage of vetiver oil was 0 - 2,2 (from fresh and dried roots respectively) .

* 1 feddan = U.l+20 m2 - 75 -

(vi) Egyptian Citronella Oil:

Citronella oil is one of the volatile oils produced in Egypt. The percentage of the volatile oil produced from the fresh nerb using steam distillation is 0.5 to 0.6 % (calculated vet weight basis).

(vii) Egyptian Spearmint and Peppermint Oils: The Essential Oils produced from Mentha pipertia afcd Mentha arylus are an important part of local stimulants»carminatives or parasiticides, while in food they may widely be used as spices and are flavouring agents. These oils used as antiseptic and bacteriostatic actions beside the forementioned purposes. Volatile oil content of the fresh herb prepared by steam distillation (calculated on wet weight basis ): - Herb Volatile Oil Content Peppermint 0,U> - 0,5 i Spearmint 0,6% - 0,7 % Total production at (1980) U50 kg approx.

10.U.U R and D Activities Not specified _ 76

10.^______ETHIOPIA

10 ■ 5.1____ Aromatic Plant resources of the country Ethiopia possesses a considerable number of aromatic plant species (Table 10.5a). Some members of the list are cultivated and others grov in the wild state. The botanical as well as the chemical properties of most of these species have not been investigated.

Table 10.3a Latin Names of Some Essential Oils ana Spice Plants which Grow in Ethiopia

Afromoanm korarima Afremomum sasquieneum Allium sativum Anacardium Occidentale Anethum graveolens Apium graveolens Bosvellia boranensis Boswellia carter! Bosvellia freereana Boswellia papyrifera Calaminta paradoxa Call'■tris endolioherl Chrysanthemum cineriarefolium Commiphora africana Commiphora drakebrock Commiphora erythraea Coamiphora opobalsamum Commiphora pilosa Commiphora playfairii Canarium schveinfurthii Capparis spinosa_____ Capsicum annua Capsicum microcarpum Carum carui Cassia arereh Cinnamon« zeylanicum Citrus aurantiun Citrus limon Coriandnm sativum Crocus sativus Cuminum cyminum Curcuma longa Cymbopogan nardus Eugenia caryophylla Eucalyptus citriodora Eucalyptus globulus Eucalyptus smithii -77 -

(cant'd Table 10.5a)

.Foeniculum vulgare Inpatiens tinctoria Jasminum abyssinica Jasminum grandiflorum Juniperus procera Lontana trifolia Maesa lancelota Mentha piperata Mentha spicata Moringa oleifera Mrristica fragrane Repata azuria Иigeila sativa Ocinun basiI^cum Peinan lamifolium Ocinun sauve Otstegin integrifolium Papaver scnmiferum Pelargonium spp. Pimpinella anisum Piper capense Piper nigrum Pistacia lentiscus Pittosporium virdiflorum Robinia pseudo acacia Вова damascena Rosmarinus officinalis Ruta chalpensis vai, fenuifolia Salvia nilotica Saturja sp. Sciismini indicum Schinus nolle Tricbilia roka Trigonella f.graceuc Taccaria pyramidata Tetivera zizanoides lemlnia americana Zingiber officinale

10.5.2____ Trade figures ■Hie export of aromatic products of plant origin comprises incense, resins, spices and snail quantities of essential oils. The most important item of export as is shown in Table 10.5b is spices. Under spices several products are grouped together for convenience. About 70 per cent of the group is made up of various fon s of pepper (whole, ground, etc.) .The rest is made up of ginger (lOJi) , , anise, , coriander and so on. The next most important item of ex­ port is incense. According to the planning department of the Forest Resources Marketing Corporation, the country has a potential for 500,000 quintals of incense per year, but the main bottleneck is the market outlet.Only a small percentage of the total produce is exported. 78

Most of it is consumed domestically burning during church ceremonies or in homes.

The country imports several tons of essential oils Table 10.5c and it is not certain what quantum of this could eventually be substituted

by local production.

TABLE 10.5b : Export of Essence Products in the Years 1972-1980 1

Incense Katural gur.s, resins, Essential oils & Other spices^ ______Balsams______Resinoids

Year Qty(kg) Price(USS) Qty. P ri ce Q'ty. P rice Qty. P rice

1972 :5,065,323 1 ,2 8 2 ,1 9 0 3 3 ,335 1 9 ,2 6 8 121 ,2 5 4 1 ,3 0 4 ,8 8 6 5 ,4 9 1 ,8 3 0 1 ,5 9 4 , 311 1973 1>,101,907 962 ,1 6 6 1 ,1 4 6 ,9 9 0 695 ,7 3 2 136,759 1 ,1 7 2 ,5 6 5 5 ,1 7 4 ,9 5 6 1 ,4 0 9 , 437 1974- 5 ,6 7 8 ,3 2 4 1 0 ,9 9 6 ,0 0 3 3 ,3 2 9 ,4 3 9 8 ,3 2 6 ,9 1 3 124,863 1 ,3 1 3 ,6 1 5 4 ,7 4 7 ,4 7 7 1 ,6 1 6 , 660 1975 954,978 629 ,9 1 5 - - 1 1 3 ,6 2 4 1 ,5 9 1 ,2 9 6 2 ,4 1 8 ,1 7 0 1 ,0 2 1 , 6 7: 1976 860,021 789 ,9 6 4 6 0 2 ,8 0 2 556 ,9 6 8 - - 2 ,3 0 2 ,7 0 8 761, 259 1977 966,222 1 ,2 8 3 ,8 8 6 - 1 7 ,5 3 0 493,353 1 ,5 9 1 ,0 6 5 3 ,3 3 2 , 336 1975 2 ,2 8 0 918 239 ,1 8 0 8 9 8 ,6 5 6 4 2 ,2 2 3 1 ,2 1 6 ,6 4 6 500,330 9C6, C9C 1979 187,889 656 ,1 0 1 1 3 ,2 6 7 285,431 6 ,2 4 0 167,563 1 ,9 1 1 ,7 9 6 1 ,6 0 7 , 079 1980 4 6 ,2 2 5 7 1 ,3 1 5 - - - • 643 ,9 1 9 1 ,6 5 7 , 212

"'"Source - Annual External Trade Statistics

20ther spices include pepper (70?) , saffron,fennel,anise.ginger {10 %)

TABLE 10.5c : Imports cf Essential Oils in the Years 1970 - 1980 *

Years Quantity (kilogrammes) Price (US$) 5887*10 1,188,651* 1970 366,607 1,1*11,829 1971 531,526 l,3o8,986 1972 91*0,632 1,1*16,925 1973 1,351,21*7 1,556,1*91 1974 713,180 1,977,696 1975 1,005,831 2 ,166,822 1976 353,038 1 ,9 8 2 ,1*02 1977 291,325 2,189,811* 1979 6:7,398 2,578,1*56 1979 1,916,286 I960 22U ,1*96 Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage At present there is no organisation engaged in the extraction of essential oils from plants.There is a unit which was once used to extract essential oils from fenon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) , geranium (Pelargonium sg) J and two kinds of eucalyptus (E.smithii and E. citriodora) . It has a capacity of about 35 tons per year. Because of socio-political reasons the plant has been shut down for almost eight years.A project to rehabilitate the plant has been completed by the National Chemical Corporation.

There is a small, privately-owned formulating unit which sells perfumes under various brand names.Information on its capacity, product types and quantities is not available.

There is a spice extracting unit in the country with an attainable capacity of about 300 tons of oleoresin per year. It extracts oleoresin from red pepper (capsicum )by solvent extraction .Becaus of market con­ straints , which are totally external, it has never exceeded a pro­ duction of 125 tons per year of oleoresin all of which is consumed by the United States for colouring food. Its average annual output is about 75 - 80 tons.

In general , traditional practitioners do not extract essential oils or aromatic chemicals from the odoriferous plants.Parts of the plant (roots , shoots, leaves, f3overs, etc.) are ground , squeezed in hands or chewed to be used as medicinals, for flavouring food or alcohol. The magnitude of such consumption cannot be quantified.Some of the common species of aromatic plants and the uses to which they are put are discussed below (Rutaceae). It is a cultigen and grown almost near every house.The mature fruits of this plant are ground with ripe chillies and used as spice. The leaves are crushed and the Juice mixed with water and given to babies for colic.The leaves are added to sour milk so that it can be used to make cottage cheese. Aframcmum korarima (Zingiberaceae). The wild cardamon is found in the heavy end wet forests of south west Ethiopia.lt is a perennial plant 80

cruucuiiu tu tiiè CO'uütï'ÿ.iütr setrù. . . a pôüs ... a oie______pivùuccu_ _ 3___ 3 ai oürer üdôe Ox eue pxaiil It bioans in June and July, and the fruits are collected in September and October. It is the third most important species in South Western Ethiopia.The pod, carpels and seeds of Afrsraomum kcrorima resemble grains - of - paradise of Uganda and West Coast of Africa. They have a strong aromatic, but slightly burning taste that resembles card moms.Aframomum species yield the rarer essential oils useful in the manufacture of perfumes. Pinpinella anisum (anise) jy^neeuinni vulgare (fennel)and Anetbum graveolens. All the three species are locally referred to as" instaf1 and all seem to be used much the same way. The stems are dried »ground and used to flavour an alcohol drinklareké'. The seeds are used to flavour stew.The roots of Eoeneculum vulgare are boiled or roasted and used for stomach

disorders. Salvia nilotica . It is an herb whose leaves and flowers are ground into a fine powder and used with water as aspirin.This is usually the first medicine taken for vomitting.The powder can be mixed into a paste and used to relieve sun-burns. Qcimiim 1 amifolium . The herb is very abundant in wet areas.The leaves are used in the treatments of headaches .The leaves may be crushed in the hands and the juice squeezed into a cup of water and the liquid inhaled. The vapours frem the boiling stems may be used in the same way; or,if one is travelling and has a headache, he might crush the leaves in his hands and put the pulp, which acts as an inhibitor, in his nostrils. The juice of leaves, crushed and place! in the nostrils, helps to stop nose bleeding. Ocimum suave (Labia+ae). It is a highly aromatic plantwhich is abundant in wast areas and overgrazed pastures.The leaves and stems are used to wash containers. Artemisia species (Compositae). It is a small shrub found growing around almost every dwelling. Artemisia rehan is an endemic plant to Ethiopia. It is used as medicine to relieve stomach pains . Maesa lanceolata (Myrsinaceae). The tree is abundant in most areas of South West Ethiopia.lt appears on sloping * cut over forests and wooded areas.The dry seeds of this tree can be found in most markets at all time during the year. 81

The mature , ripe fruits are crushed and spread on streams as fish poisons, however, the most important use of this plant is as oil.The dry fruits are crushed with cotton seeds, and the oil is rubbed on the mitad(a flat clay pan used to bake thin pancake like bread) to keep from sticking.

Plants which produce Oleoresins. Four genera of trees which produce oleoresins have been identified.These are: Commiphora, Boswellia , Eucalyptus and Pinus.The first two are indigenous to Ethiopia. Four species of Boswellia and six species of Ccmmiphora grow in several parts of the country, preferring dry stony regions and altitudes ranging from 500 to 3000 meters above sea level. The oleoresin, olibanum is obtained from Boswellia and myrrh occurs as an exudate of the genus Ccmmiphora. Both olibanum and myrrh are used mainly as constituents of church incense.

10.5»^ R and D Activities Research work on essential oils is conducted mainly by the staff members of the chemistry department of the Addis Ababa University.Complete studies were reported for three plants. These ar Cymbopogon citratus of the Ethiopian variety, Artemisia rehan and Aframanum korarina . Artemisia rehan contains Camphor (26 %) and Davanone (UUji) while Aramomum korarina ^ Pin^ne (21^) ar.d Cinaole (UojC) . Within the country there are several institutions which have seme laboratory facilities for extracting oils from aromatic plants.These are: the Nutrition Institute, the Central Laboratory , the Chemistry Department of the Addis Ababa University, the National Chemical Corporation and the Spice Extracting Plant. Many ofthem have facilities for solvent extraction. The Chemistry Department of the Addis Ababa University has an excellent laboratory facility to handle research on essential oils. 82 1

10.6 GUYANA

10.6.1 Aromatic Plants Resources of the Country A number of members of families of plants wellknown for essential oils are indigenous to Guyana.Several other plants known to contain essential oils grow spontaneously in the country (Tables 10.6a and 10.6b)

TABLE 10.6a : List of Plant families known to contain Essential Oils and grown spontaneously in Guyana

LATINNAME L0CALNAME

fam. LAURACEAE Aniba canelilla - Asbmud " excelsa - Greenheart Gale " firmula - Ginger Gale " kappleri " " Silverballi " ovalifolia - Yellow Silverballi " riraria - Ginger Gale " rosaeodora - Bois de rose " trinitatis - Almond Gale Beilscbmedia curviramea - Lanaballi Endlichera species Licaria canella - Brown Silverballi " cavannensis - Wabaima " vernicosa - Yekoro Meailaurus lindavic-na - Rukut Nectandra species - Shirua " grandis - Buradiye Ocatea acutangula - Pear Leaf Silverballi " canaliculate - White Silcerballi " caudata - Yekoro " punctata - Yekoro " rhynochonhylla - Yellow Silverballi - Determa " tcmantella - Baradan " spP - Silverballi Persea benthamiana Phoebe Cassvtha spP- fam. MYRTACEAE pRi’dium yue.,1ava - Guava " spfi • 7.y7.g-iiim cum in i - Jamoon An1 orayr cia citrio d o ra - Kakirio " 3pp. Oalycnlpua app. Pal yptrB.nt.hf>q f RR~i ciil nt.a - Ibibanaro EucalvntuB alba (Introduced) - Eucalyptus Eugenia b p p . Marlicrea schcmburglci^na ~ Akarako ff spp. - 8 3 -

Myrcia fallax - Ibibnaro ------______SEE-. ^yrci?ria vismeifolia - Taparau Myrtus roraimensis Plinia pinnata Kakirio fam. RUTACE/.E Citrus spp. - Orange,Lime,Lemon etc. Fagara apiculata - Sada •Jusparia fanshawei

Galipea davisii Hortia regia Warunana Monnieria trifolia Pilocarpus spp. Raua resinosa " ulei Rhabdodendron spp. Spiranthera spp.

fam. OLACACEAE L.iaunochiton kappleri -Hiwaradan Ximenia americana ~ Wild Lime

fam. MYRISTICACAE Iryanthera lancifolia - Kirikaua, swamp ”______paraensis " , hill Virola BUrinamersis — n---- —— ------Dalli - Dalli fam. COMPOSITAE - Konali Clibadium spp, - Sand Bitters Melampodiun c-omphoratum - Bitter Tally Mikania jpp. Oliganthes schomhurgkii - Wild Daisy Wedelia triloba - Warife Wulffia baccata fam. LAGIATEAE Hyptis lanceolata - Man-piaba 3PP- Ocimura sanctum - Tulsie fam. GRAMINEAE Andropogon bicornis - Cotton Grass Cymbopcgon ciiratus - Lemon Grass Vitivoria zizanioides - Lavender Grass f am.PAPILIOKACEAE Tonka Bepn Dipterys odorata If »T "unctata - 8U

TABLE 10.6b List of Aromatic Plants Growing Spontaneously in Guyana

LATIN NAME LOCAL NAME

fam. ANONACEAE Anaxogorea acuminata Black Yarriyarri -- fT ______SPP- Anona glabrata Monkey apple '* nutricata (cultivated ) Sour sap " haematantba Karampai symphyocarpa Duru spp. Duru Bocageopsis multiflora Ar ara Cynbopetalum brasiliensis Duguetia cuspidata Yeshidan ~ v neglecta Yarriyarri ___IT ___ spp. Yeshidan/Yeirriyarri Guattena atra Arara — n----- ______spp. Arara / Black Yarriyarri Malmea discclor Arara Rollinia exsucca Koyechi,Blk. Maho Unonopsis glaucopetala Arsura, Rough skin Unonopsis spp. Arsirà Xilopia aromatica Red Koyama ”” benthamii Weshi-raure — n----- rrr------______spp • Koyama

fam. MELI'.oEAE Cedrela odorata Red Cedar Cedrela fissilis Red Cedjr

SOURCE OF INFORMATION: Guyana Forestry Commission

10.6.2 Trade figures For 1981, imports of essential oils are expected to ue around US $ 100,000, the major ones being Lime Oil,Lemon Oil,Orange Oil, Clove Oil and Bay Oil. In suidition, the I98.L vsilue for imports of aromatic chemicals is expected to be around US$ 300,000 .These aromatic substances are used mainly for the formulation and production of soap,liquid detergent, cologne and deodorant by the Guyana Phsirmaneuticsil Corporation, which sells the products in local and overseas markets (to the value of about US$ 10 mixlion , annually). 10.6.3 Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage At the present time there is no industrial production of essential oils although such is contemplated. The activities of the Guyana Pharmaceutical Corporation as regards essential oils and perfumery substances is at present confined to formulation and use, as indicated above.

10.6.U __ ? and D Activities With the intention of initially reducing the importation of essential oils and also possibly producing products with a new range of perfumes acceptable to the regional markets, a programme for the production of essential oils locally was initiated by the Guyana Pharmacetuical Corporation. Loiongrass, which grows in abundance spontaneously was cultivated on a pilot settle and the oil extracted was used in a number of formulations. Market testing indicated a high sales potential for some of these products. The Guyana Pharmaceutical Corporation is about to attempt the production of Lemongrass oil for use in toilet soap.It is also planned to cultivate and extract Vetiver and Citronella on a pilot scale with a view of being able to produce these oils also. Guyana possesses several natural products chemists, cosmetic chemists, industrial engineers, agronomists and marketing personnel who have seme exposure to essential oil technology.Backup services are available from the Guyana Pharmaceutical Corporation, the Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology and the University of Guyana.The economy is largely agro-based with sugar and rice being the main exports.lt would seem logical that Guyana embarks into the production of essential oils. - 86 -

10.7_____ INDONESIA 10.7.3 Aromatic Plant Resources of the Country There are a variety of essential oil bearing plants growing in Indonesia; eight of them are a principle source of essential oils for export.Others are used domestically as traditional herb preparations and spices. The regionsthat produce the principal essential oils for export are as follows: -

Oil Regions

Citronella West Java (Tasikmalaya.Bandung,Banten, Subumi.Ciajur)

Vetiver West Java (Garut).Central Java(Wonosobo) Cananga West Java (Banten,Cirebon) Central Java (Solo) East Java(Blitar) Patchouly Aceh,North Sumatra, West Sumatra Sandalwood Timor Aceh,West Sumatra,Maluku.North Sulawesi Clove leaf Central Java(Purvokerto).West Java

The production of essential oil makes comaratively little contribution to the per capita income of Indonesia in strictly economic terms,yet it creates a lot of working opportunities in the rural areas throughout Indonesia since the essential oil plantations and distilleries are located

in the villages. The major aromatic plants growing in Indonesia are listed in the Table 10.7a 87

TABLE 10.7a - i.List of major essential oils bearing plants of Indonesia

English name Indonesian name Latin binomial

Patchouly Dilem.Nilam Pogostenon cablin BENTH Vetiver Akarvangi Vetiveria zizanoides STAPH Nutmeg Pala Myristica fragans HOUT Citronella Sereh vangi Andropogon nardus de JONG Sandalwood Cendana Santalum album L. Clove Cengkeh Eugenia caryophyllata Thurnb. Cananga Kenanga Canangaium odoratum BILL Cajeput Kayuputih Melaleuca leucodendra L.

2. Other aromatic plants available in Indonesia

English name Indonesian name Latin bioncmal

Anis Anis Clausena anisata WULD Basil Kemangi Ocimum basilicum LINN van. citratum Basil Selasih Ocimum basilicum LINN Camphor Hamper Cinnamonum Camphor NEES Cardamon Kopal Amcmum Cardamonum WIELD Chinise cinamon Lavang Cinamomun species C. javanicum (WTjava) C . cullelavan (Ambon) C. sinlök Tc and E Java) Cinnamon Kayumanis C innamorami burmani BL Eucaliptus Ekaliptus Eucalyptus rostrata Galanga Laja Alpina officinarum NANCE Ginger Jahe Zingiber officinale ROSE Gingergrass Sereh Andropogon martini ROXB var.sofia Lemongrass Sereh dapur Cymbopogon nardus var. flexousus HACK Jasmin Melati Jasmine grandiflorum Litsea Tranras Litsea odorifera BECC Palmarosa Palmarosa Cymbopogon martini ROXB var. motia Peppermint pepermer. Mentha piperita t,. Turpentine Terpentine Pinus merkusii Walang Walang Achasma valang VAC Wintergreen Gandapura Gaultheria fragantissima Ylang-Ylang ilang-ilang Canangium odoratum BAILL 88

10.7.2 Trade Figures

The export and import statistics of Indonesian essential oils for r the period 1975 - 1980 are recorded in Table 10.7b and 10.7c .

Table 10.7b - Export Volume and Value of Indonesia Essential Oils 1975 - 1930

0 r.» • * — *A VO «V c »: »> 4 ^ c Al r» l* t» O *- K> O* w : r> n A| ■j p - r»- \c « c !•«. 0 • « • • • í\i * * r r rj Al \ i

.4 *Á ir> ch 0 0 Ñ CN f ; O ’ ifV C i 1 r 1 : ...... l i l i l í • N 4 J O *• O (V 4 r. c 0 tfv ;• n «c vr r- 0 » r* O •A i 1 pe^Orjfs.iM IÍN O r. <£ ic « • ••••••••« •• «V -T f j C» O O »A -4 4\ ® X r- «A 1c i" o n ^ v: ia •: m 0 *- .4 3 «\ *■ fj VA S© ^ rv ^ «4 O •H O' •p fv O VT 0 «0 r>- C r\ IA 0 Al

r. — c c CN-K>om«Dirv r** sO CV4'J^\«A • • • • • 4> r- A\ Al f- *- «0 r* c ÍA IA O 4 O A* r »© Q « O « IA C K 4 *■ f ^ A O C 4 u ir p '- * '" » l A ,. 0 P . l A » A ^ 0 v «0 ? X » • • ■•••• • rH ^ O *A 4 N Al >C IA 1 r; I SO s IA 4 r P 4 r * r Al CÚ 0 u > -p Al tí t- .4 O *í O O « e- q P* *» p * 0 * » 03 1C A v© O IA N O «A o D »a K\ 4 AJ r ÍV r O r» > VA «o m fA « \Q • « * • • *• r IV r IA e* 03 p* 03 p. e> A A O O VN IA N •A o u w O N «0 4 SO r 1 | | | | | ?, Al X • • • • • • % A aj « N r *- s IA )A «O N N (A i r F\ »© « ry IA & g • IV

r A O 4 «1 P IA Sf u N \ 0 6 N A «) 00 IA A A f( A IV A 4 • 3 « • • • • • 1 t 1 * • 1 « «C P A N A A 0 4 № •ce­ -r <5 ái F* -ó p • • • • • IV co so IV N Al A© r P- a O' S & 8 § $ & oí 3 tí tí k) O (s N O C r « 0 Al X ¿ • • • • y 1 ...... •H 3 Á ^ ' «y 4P 03 SO '4 P A| 4- g « S tí e P UA O A A- «A 0 A’ 0 A A P O 3 O P 4 O A A «A > > 3 0 N P ^ O A Á < P O N A 4 N IA > r A r A r 4 IA • • •

r*. 0 «A M ? 2 $ r S * X • r P P A M 0 3 0 f 4 A Ps « 0 ► A r P» g •1

• * * * * 1 1 1

0 4 H H s s s S to »! (4 O M 4 0 *• 4 ^ *4to»4«4«'>4M *4 :~:3 :ss«lsss J I í l| H lililí! 0 o o p > 0 ^ ■ 0 0 ü 0 #

I 1 90

10.7.3______Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage

Five major essential oils are produced in Java viz. Cananga oil Citronella oil Vetiver oil Clove leaf oil Patchouly oil

There are no problems of transportation here as Java has a good network of roads. Extension services too are readily available to the growers.In other islands such as Sumatra-which is an important producer of Patchouli oil- the producing regions are widely scattered and not readily accessible. The distilleries are sometimes accessible only on foot and accordingly is a 12 hour Journey away from the nearest motor-bicycle roadway. In general farmers prefer to produce Patchouli oil instead of other farm products on account of its high value to volume ratio. The major essential oils produced and the particular production prac­ tices are described briefly below:

Patchouly (Pogostenon cablin BEHTH) Patchouly can be found in the regions of North Sumatra and Aceh. There are two groups of farmers dealing with Fatchouly planting: Farmers who permanently plant and cultivate patchouly fer oil production and seasonal patchouly farmers who do the planting of patchouly only when the price of patchouly oil is favourable. The planting is done traditionally, the farmers moving from one field to another field, by clearing busu and forest. The fields are left uncultivated for two or three years before replanting . A small area (0,J1<) is planted and fertilizers or pesticides are not used. Patchouly is harvested at 6-8 months and reharvested again after 5-6 months later. There are probably 500 to 1000 small scale distilleries in North Sumatra and Aceh. The still is a simple design made of used 200 litre drums and costs about Rp. 80.000 .Usually they operate a pcir of distilling units.The boiler generally last for cix months and the distilling unit after one year operation is replaced. The capacity of units is around Uo kg dried patchouly leases , the distillation time 8 hours and average yields are about 3 % (1,3 kg oil). 91

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) Nutmeg is still cultivated in th° traditional way, as homestead crops. The area plantes with nutmeg is increasing every year, especially in Aceh as shown in the table below:

Year Area (HA) Production

1975 U.U19 1,352,16 1976 U.696,7 1.687,52 1977 U.7^7,1 1.673,U 1978 ¡+.705 1.6o6,3

Indonesia is the largesc exporter of nutmeg products.There are tvo different classes of nutmeg product exported by Indonesia. (i) Nutmeg bean/mace (spices grade) This is derived from mature fruit and picked at 6 months old; the quality is dependent on the maturity of the fruit, prior processing,cleanliness and packaging.This grade is mainly produced in Maluku and North Sulawesi. (ii) Nutmeg/mace is produced from immature fruits.The quality depends on the oil content, which is closely related to the degree of maturity of the frui

Indonesia has developed s nutmeg oil industry by distilling oil from inferior grade nutmeg whifch could not be sold ar spice,or from immature . It is quite a common practice in Aceh, West and North Sumatra to pick immature nutmeg fruit which after drying, is &old for distillation p’irposes.Immature fruit contains more oil than the mature one.

The oil is distilled by water.steam distillation from finely ground material.The usual time of distillation is 8 - 12 hours. The yield depends cn the quality of the raw material : - mature seed U - 5Î oil - immature seed 10-12% oil A better yield is obtained from mace (17 - 19%) Distillation is carried out by small and/or medium sized distillery units. Some of the problems concerning the production of nutmeg merit mention: In the propagation of seedlings it is found that of 100 seeds planted, U0 grov as male trees, 55 female trees, while 5 are un­ certain (bisex).The male trees should be culled to the ideal number (lOj) and spread over the whole plantation.The technique of moving young plants from the nursery and replanting in the field is crucial to success and needs improving. The main diseases of nutmeg (locally called "Penyak.it Karang") which causes pods to open pranaturely needs further investigation. It was first reported by Little in 19^9. This disease causes the fruit to reach maturity rapidly and results in immature nutmeg/mace which could be used for distillation only.

Citronella The largest citronella producer is West Java.Citronella is culti­ vated both in plantations and in small holdings.Of the tvo varieties of citronella i.e. Lenabatu and Maha Pengiri, the latter is a better crop, both in oil content and quality.The Research Institut! of Industrial Plants hps succeeded in developing Mahapengiri into better varieties which are known as Gl, G2 and G3. These new varieties give higher yields and better oil quality. Most of the oil produced is for export .Bcmestic application is very small and mainly for soap industries. Oil is produced both by big distilleries and small cottage units.

Vetiver Most of vetiver oil exported from Indonesia is also produced in West Java . The production involves more than 3000 farmers in the Garut region.This plant has been cultivated for a long time in this area. Vetiver has to be cultivated on good soil, and as to compete vith food crops. Harvesting is done after the plants'18 - months old. Productif® and use of the essential oils

There are five essential oils produced and exported continually ( as seen on the export list) : Cananga oil with annual production U5 tons Citronella oil with annual production .. 1300 tons Patchouly oil with annual production 500 tons Yetiver oil with annual production 85 tons. , Clove leaf oil with annual production lUOO tous

Of the five mentioned above , Clove Leaf oil is used domestically to produce rectified Eugenol and iso-Eugenol which is exported to Netherlands and USA. Annual consumption of Clove Leaf Oil for this purpose is U00 tons. Cayeput oil is the only essential oil produced in large amounts and used domestically.Its annual production is around 150 tons The area planted with Cayeput (MalaTeuca leucodendra)is increasing continually, especially in Java,as it is one of the plants chosen in a rehabilitation project. There are two flavour and fragrance industries, both located in Jakarta.The formulation activity depends on imported essential oils and aromatic compounds .These two industries do isolation and pro­ cessing from locally produced essential oils.For example the isolation of eugenol from clove leaf oil ( - U00 tons yearly), for export as rectified eugenol and iso-eugenol. The other, actively processes citronella oil and exports both the raw citronella oil and the citronella isolates (+ Ul3 tons in 1980)

1 0 .7._____ R and D Activities

Only oils which conform to the standards for export quality are per mitted to leave the country.For this purpose all essential oils for export must pass chemical and physico-chemical examinations con ducted by the appointed laboratories. Nine laboratories have been authorised to conduct quality assessments .Shey are: - 9H

Government Laboratories - Chonical Research Institute Bogor now IRDABI Bogor - Chemical Research Institute Medan - Chemical Research Institute Semarang - Chemical Research Institute Surabaya - Chemical Research Institute ujung Pandang - Chemical Research Institute Menado - Plantation Research Institute Medan

Private Laboratories : - Laboratory Unit of Sucofindo Jakarta - Laboratory Unit of Sucofindo Semarang - Laboratory Unit of Sucofindo Medan

The contribution from essential oil export to the national income export activity was very small(0.Ilf) .So the development end technological improvement of this sector moves very slowly. Funds to launch an extensive effort in improwing essential oil bearing plants cultivation, for R and D efforts are limited. There are several institutes actively conducting R and D in Essential oil technology, these are: Institute Research and Development for Agrobased Industry,Bogor Institute Research and Development for Industrial Plants, Bogor 95 _

10.8______INDIA 10.8.1 Aromatic Plant Resources of the Country

Given the wide variations in soil, climate, altitude and other natural conditions and also its vast area, India is ideally suited for cultivation of a large number of essential oil-bearing plants.The forest areas in the country presents a considerable wild flora which could be exploited for production of essential oils. R and D for production of essential oil started in the 20th century and was confined to a limited number of essential oils like Rose (Rose damascene) , Sandalwood(Sartalum album), Lemongrass (Cymbopogon martini} Palmarosa (Cymbopogon flexuosus)and Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides) . Systematic scientific efforts for cultivation and processing of essential oil bearing plants were started in India with the establishment of Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and a number of Regional Research Laboratories under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, which are also working on essential oils.As a result of Research and Development during this period, India has a fairly well established essential oil industry today. The essential oil bearing plants presently cultivatedin India for the production of Essential Oils include the following: Mentha arvensis Linn.subsp. haplocalyx Briquet var. piperascens Holmes Mentha piperita L. var. officinalis Sole, subsp.rubescens Camus. Mentha citrata Ehrh. Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt Pelargonium graveolens L'Her Eucalyptus spp. . E. globulus , Labil fl. citriodora Hook Pogostemon patchouli Hook Bursera delpechiana Poiss ex Engl. Salvia selerea Linn Lavendula spp. L.officinalis Chaix, L.hybrida Reverchon Anthemis nomllis L Melissa officinalis Ocimum basilicum Linn Jasminum grandiflorunl Coriandrum sativum Linn vc ou ев

- 96 -

Cymhopogon flexuosus stapf Cymbopogon martini тай motla VetiTer zizanoides (Linn Nash) Santalum album Linn. Apium graveolens Linn

Artacesia pal '• ens Wall. Anethum sova Zingiber officinale Bosace. EHetaria cardamomum L. Curcuma longa L . Cedrus deodora (Roxb.)Lond. Skimmia laureola Sieb and Luce Ferula Jaeschkaena Vatke Artemisia vistata Cyperus scariostis R.Br. Trechyspermum spp, Cinnamomum spp,

The flora of the subcontinent being so vast there is no limit to the potential essential oil bearing plants that may exist in the wild flora.

10.8.2 Trade Figures

Table 10.8a gives the major exports of Essential Oils for the years 1975 - 1980

India also produces and exports aromatic chemicals (Table 10.8b) some of which are derived from essential oils. Indian imports of essential cils are considerable,»due to the require­ ments of the Indian Perfumery Industry. These and the Imports of aromatic Chemicals are in Tables 10.8c and 10.8d .

10.8.3 Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage In its region India is a major producer of essential oils and enjoys both a domestic market, as well as a considerable export market. The present Indian production figures are given in Table 10.8c . T A B U 10.8a EXPORTCtF - ESSENTIAL OILS FROM INDIA (Qty.in tonnes and Value in Rs.X 105 )

1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1973-79 1979-90 of the oil Cuantity Veluo Ouant tty Value Ouantlty Valua Quantity Value uuantity Value

Eucalyptus oil 3.680 1 e w42 51.897 16.238 12.964 6.745 1.734 1.205 8.80 3.72

Ginger oil 1.024 5.491 1.112 6.662 1.281 9.3 52 7.341 45.932 12.28 57.00

Lemongrass oil 373.25 201.814 714.415 110.603 149.024 99.496 71.578 50.114 249.28 172.66

Palmeroaa oil 9.238 13.474 56.370 44.594 21.650 28.637 15.764 32.970 14.96 29.23

Sandalwood oil 22.705 139.937 22.351 169.841 22.647 205.720 25.293 240.396 43.00 343.47

Vetlver oil 0.425 1.870 0.550 2.084 0.2U0 1.140 0.200 1.096 0.406 2.25

Others ee 1 .708 - 3.3C3 - 1.304 4Sfr 59.823 - 9.36

Total 365,936 353.590 532.594 431.5«6 617.69 TABLE 10.8b: EXPORT OP AROMATIC CHEMICALS PROM INDIA (Value in io5x Ra)

666 1975-76 3 376-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 < » B Earn« of the aro­ Oty.In Value Cty. In Value oty.m !■* Oty .In Value Oty.In Value matic chaiulcal tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes i i 1 1 c 1

Amyl Acetate • - e. - •e 0,715 0.015 -

•e ee Amyl Alcohol 0.120 0.043 - - m t am - -

Bsr.syl Bensoate «m - 1.04S 0.131 3.200 0.610 0.500 0.073 29.300 1.680

Beta lonone 32.200 46.480 173.210 244.820 281.48 300.80 262.30 353.70 236.93 363.10

« Camphor natural 0.096 0.039 0.630 n.lSl - - 0.083 0.032 6.320 1.240

VO Camphor synthetic 2.160 0.331 3.340 0.211 0.117 0.057 0.126 0.083 0.055 0.052 CD

Menthol - - 11.800 16.300 - t m «• - - -

- - MusX xylol - - - - - 5.000 2.690

Terpencc 7.680 0.000 0.025 0.090 ------

Vanllii.e - - 0.56C 0.560 - - 0 . 0 1 0 0.035 0.005 0.016

Total 47.693 162.212 381.467 356.628 366.080 TABLE 10.8c IMPORT OF ESSENTIAL OILS INTO INDIA (Oty.in tonnes A vfa lue in Rs X ]£r )

1976-77 1977-78 197 8-79 1979-80 Marne of the oil 1975-76 Quantity Va J uc Quantity Value Quantity Value Quant: ity Value Quantity Vtolue

Bergamot oil 3.302 4.3*4 3 1' 0 3.489 10.007 10.367 8.222 13.113 8.133 15.312

Cinnamon leaf oil 4.069 1.033 3.S41 1.391 10.165 6.056 5.944 3.458 15.235 6.754

Clova oil 16.310 6.669 33.334 15.972 53.956 33.304 55.34a 32.158 43.561 24.958

Geranium oil 7.917 13.979 r>.4e4 12.655 6.720 16.391 18.039 13.356 23 68 2 59.505

Lavender ell 3.654 5.813 8.212 9.722 ,15.279 19.121 28,675 28.955 20.974 20.632

Patchouli oil 25.295 11,90* 45.429 26.502 70.859 45.139 62.063 54.315 50.222 42.456

Peppermint oil ex Mentha 34.073 17.076 5.785 14.869 5.844 10. T?87 29.525 48.917 6.472 16.060 aEvensla

Peppermint oil ex M.pireflta 7.544 7.97.7 13.138 17.374 10.819 20.77« 14.239 28.521 4.684 18.507 Spearmint oil 6.329 13.087 0.036 0.044 5.057 5.622 11.932 11.510

Y 1ang Yltng oil 1.2 8 0.e56 2.131 4.551 1.2e2 2.464 1.370 2.995 1.540 4.238

Tthere - 8.534 - 7.479 • a 9.253 a » 73.205 -

Total 91.073 114.038 179.480 325.073 220.300 TABLE 10.8d IMPORT OP AROMATIC CHEMICALS IN INDIA (Quantity In tonne« Value In l«kh3 to.)

1976-76 1976-77 1977-78 197&-79 1979-80 Neme ot the Uk'oa»*- tic chemical Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Valúa Quantity Valúa Quantity Value ’ * i 3 5 Amyl alcohol 359.47 22.240 310.5» 20.30 44.00 22.44 2.35 0.242 045.25 78.64

•ansai ehlordide 0.115 0.042 1.5 0.197 8.30 0 . 9 l l ’ 41.66 4.48 10.00 1.12

•ansolc add ;.о ы 2.470 1.51 0.278 ’• 3.00 0.590 0.023 0.021 20.00 5.36

•ensyl »enaoate 3.00 С.Э60 1.00 0.143 2.00 0.40 - m - - Bensyl chloride 85.90 9.901' 111.77 10.34 810.00 45.45 24 ,00 5.03 32.44 3.55

Sernaol 0.662 0.19П 20.00 1.04 0.745 2.260 1.80 0.5*6 1.00 0.370 Butyl Acetate 161.37 14.510 21.7 3.10 67 ,.cC 6.10 16.84 2.33 ■* Ш w

Cinnamic Alcohol 12.32 5.690 5.25 2.40 2.58 1.51 8.90 4.10 Э. JÛ . 3.70

Citronallol 0.133 0.094 0.495 0.360 - - - m 0.693 0.720

Coumarin - - 20.18 18*. 70 .29.56 . 27.00 44.27 36.31 18.60 16.61 Ethyl vani.lln 12.27 11.15 5.56 8.30 5.01 10.35 - - . за. c: Э.20

Hellotroplna 3.35 4.21 4 50 . 5.15 5.9o 8.08 7.17 10.04 10.46 9.54 leoaugenol 1.75 1.82 2.75 2.83 5.80 0.60 0.005 0.007 . 3.60 4.81 Linalool 11.61 8.07 16.26 8.40 25.90 14.60 35.60 12. <2 40.3:3 23.22 2.66 Linalyl acatata 7.04 .. 4.90 . 23.50 12.50 . 12.50 6.45 10.80 12.52 4.52 6.00 Methyl Ar.thianllate 13*46 2.79 1.11 0 .9 0 0,084 0.046 0.844 0.569 16.55

(Contd.. .next sheet) TABLE 10.8d Import of Aromatic Chemicals in India (ccntd.)

1 «3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 U

Muok Ambretta 6.6Õ 6.0? 4 з,ч г 29.93 13.1« 12.64 12.60 14.03 52.30 51.14

Mubk Ketone I . <7 1 .49 2. SO 2.45 3.05 1.34 4.55 5.90 1.73 2, .65

Mu~\ Xylol 2.53 0.920 6.9 3.18 0.100 0.045 5.40 2.80 3.20 1..Э5

Rhodlnol 1.33 C.tlO 1.41 1.71 0.960 0.356 1.38 0.718 1.90 1.04

U'trplneol fc.59 1.12 e. 0 2 1.15 b.50 1.19 15.60 1.82 _ 20.74 4.15 TOT

Terpinyl Acetate V .Old 0.4Ö2 0.00 < 0.184 6.25 1.08 2.65 0.46U 2.04 C.3C6

Thymol 9.9Г. 6.53 39.20 23.66 24.134 20.76 43.23 27.65 30.88 22.42

Vanilin 8.003 7.42 47.69 41.45 38.82 44. (10 89.00 106.16 102.72 ICO.40 TABLE 10.8e: PRESENT ESTIMATED PRODUCTIOM OF MAJOR ESSENTIAL OILS IN INDIA AND THEIR ESTIMATED VALUES

NAME OF THE OIL QUANTITY IN TONNES VALUE IN R* x 105

CEOARWOOD OIL IS 4.50 CELERY SEED OIL 1 4.50

CINNAMOMUM TAMALA LEAF OIL 4 6.00

C .-EYLANJCUM LEAF OIL 5 5.00 CITRONELLA OIL (JAVA) 350-400 N 350.00-400.00 DAYANA OIL 1 13.00 EUCALYPTUS CITRICIDORA OIL 10 8. >0 E. GLOBULUS OIL 50 35.00 GERANIUM OIL 5 40.00 LINALOE OIL 50 120.00 LEMONGRASS OIL 000 560.00 MENTHA ARVENSIS OIL 350-400 350.00-400.00 1 o fc> in w MENTHA PIPERITA OIL 15-20 K) • 0 • o o MENTHA CITRATA OIL 1C-15 16.00-24.00 PALMAKOSA OIL SO 90.00 SANDALWOOD OIL 50-60 387.50-465.00 VETIVSR OIL *0 55.CO

1 Indian Rupee = 8.95 US$ approx r 103 -

10.8.U R and D Activities The Central Institute of Medicinal and Aranatic Plants (CDiAP) at Lucknow, is the main national institution devoted to research on cultivation and processing of essential oil-hearing plants. However, in addition to this Institute, there are a nunher of CSIR Laboratories which have facilities for research in limited areas pertaining to the Essential Oils Industry.The Regional Research Laboratory at Jammu and Kashmir for instance carries out research on the essential oils of industriel relevance to the region. In addition, it also carries out screening of wild flora for new essential oils, and developing better processing technology for production of perfumery cosmetics from essential oils. THe Regional Research Laboratory at Jorhat, has R and D facilities for cultivation and processing of essential oils bearing plants; especially aromatic grasses of regional importance in the North- Eastern areas of the country.T- : Central Food and Technological Research Institute in Mysore, has a Division of Spice Technology, which carries out research on processing and production of essential o Is and oleoresins, from plants usually used as spices.The Regional Research Centre at Kerala in Trivandrum, also has a Spice Division, which has R and D facilities on production of oleoresins and essential oils from spices; mainly ginger, , cinnamon, cardamom and food flavours. In addition, there are a large number of Univeristies where work on various aspects of essential oils is carried out on a limited scale.Research and Development facilities on production of perfumes and cosmetics exists only in yjrivate perfumery and cosmetic houses.The Laboratories of M/s S.H.Kelkar and Co. (Bombay) and M/s.Industrial Perfumes (Bombay) are important , in this respect. A number of Agricultural Universities in the various States of the country also carry out research on essential oil-bearing plants, mainly on agronomical aspects.The Department of Agronomy of Punjab Agricultural University,the Agronomy Department of G.B. Pant Agricultural University, the Kerala Agricultural University with its Research Station at Odakkeli and the Haryana Agricultural University are some of the Universities which have limited facilities for research oi essential oil-bearing plauts. f

10.9______PAKISTAN

10.9.1_____ Aromatic Plant Resources of the Country

Pakistan which lies between 2 k ° and 3T° latitude North, has low plains, pjiteaus and high mountains.The climate of the country varies from hot and dry to cold vith simmer and winter rains.As a result the country has more than 1*5 essential oil bearing plants that grow(Table 10.9a) spontaneously .In addition, sane essential oil bearing crops ^re cultivated (Table 10.9b) .There is much scope for distillation of oils and there is also a considerable market potential for finished pro­ ducts.

Table 10.9a : Major Essential Oil Bearing Plant Species found in Pakistan

Sotanical Name English Name

Acorus calamus Calamus Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Lemon grass Cynbopogon flexuo3us Stapf. " laniger m martini- ( Mot ia) PalKirosa -- [Sofia ) Ginger grass " micrenthum

Vetiveria zizanoides Vetiver (Khas) Cymbopogon nardus Citronella Anethum graveolens L. Anthémis nobills L . Chamcmil Boswellia seeata Indian olibanum ferula spp. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Fennel Hibiscus abelmoBChUB L. R Musk-mallow) *Abetmoschu8 moschatv.a Moench. \Ambroette Iris florentins~ Orris Juniperu8 communis L. Juniper (French) Cade. Lavendula stoechus L. Lavender ..officinalis Chaix Sweet basil Ocirnim basllicum l Sweet basil O.cannum Iamericannum )L. Pogostemon patchouli Pellet= P.cablin Benth - Patchouli Poodanus odoriti88imuBs ¿ИЗГТЭ*) - Anis seed L. Cubeba 8alvia officinalis L. Sage Isaissurla lappa Clarke Costus 105 -

(cont'd Table 10.9a)

Valeriana vallichii D.C. Valerian (Indian) Thymus serpyllum L . Mori, "Ban AJvain1 '.'.vulgaris L. - Juniperus macroponda L. Parovskie abrotanoides Shin

Vitex-agnus-castas - Salvia hydrangea Sursanda Artemisia brevifolia Afsantin

Blaholtzia patrinii - Origanum vulgare L. - Skiimtia laureola Ner Valeriana vallichii D.C. Mushk Bale Pinus logifolia L . Chir = P. roxburghli P. valichiana Kail = P.excelsa=P.griffithii Albies pindrov Pluar Cedrus deodara (Roxb.)Lond. Deodar Angelica glauca Chora

Elsholtozia patrinii - Senecio .lacquemontianus Poskhar Carum bulbocastanum Ziroh Siah Narcissus tazetta Nargis

Table 10.9b : Essential Oil Bearing Plant Species Cultivated ______in Pakistan______botanical Name English Name

Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Gnandi Buti Sieb. Camphor tree Coriandrum sativum L. Dhania Ocimum americanum

= G.canum - Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Sounf

Schinus molle - Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Lemon grass C.martini Stapf. Palmarosa g: Pistancia mustica - Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Eucalyptus

Elaeganus hortensis - Acacin farnesiana - Psoralca corylifolia Babehi Citrus limonum L. Lemon C ,auratifolia L. Orange Eucalyptus spp. Eucalyptus Rosa spp. Rose Narcissus tazetta Nargis

107 "

Table 10.9d : Trade Figures-' Imports and Exports of Essential Oils and Aromatic Chemicals

Imports (thousand dollars)

Period Value US $

Essential Oils 1977-78 2211.0 1978-79 2232.7 1979-80 11395.0 1980-81 13820.0

Aromatic Chemicals 1977-73 810.3 1978-79 836.8 1979-80 68U .0 1980-81 695.O

Export (thousand dollars)

Essential Oils 1977-78 1U6.2 I973-79 205.8 1979-80 U6H I98O-8I 6883

Major Essential Oils produced for Export

1. Artemisia Oil 1977- 78 and U620 kg 1978- 79 2 . " 1979-80 990 kg 3. I98O-8I 705 kg

10.9.3 Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage The major essential oils produced in Pakistan and locally used are the following:- Major Essential Oils and Related Products produced f^r local use : Lemon Oil Lime Oil Orange Oil Attar ( Oil) Skimmia Laureola Oil jurpentine Oil Synthetic Pine Oil Juniper Berries Oil Terpine Hydrate and Terpinsol Oil Camphene and Camphor Terpinyl and Bomyl acetate Basil Oil - 108

In addition to these there are isolated instances of the production of oils from Artemesia spp.

Several other oils are imported into the country and used locally for compounding various cosmetic products (Table 10.9c) .There axe a number of units compounding flavours and fragrances primarily for use in soaps and cosmetics.

Table 10.9e: The list- of Major Essential Oils utilized in the country

Citronella Oil Cedar Oil Clove Oil Coriander Oil Eucalyptus Oil Lavender Oil Lemon Oil Orange Oil Peppermint Oil Rose Oil Sandalwood Oil Lime Oil Attar Skimmia laureola Oil Turpentine Oil Synthetic Pine Oil Juniper Berries Oil Artemisia Oil Terpine Hydrate and Terpineol Oil

The de ’lopment of the Essential Oil Industry in Pakistan is only in a preliminary stage, as most of the production of essential oils in the country is on a cottage scale.One sizeable unit produces Artemesia oil as a by-product while manufacturing the drug santonin.Two fruit products manufacturing units produce citrus oils for their own consumption.In addition to these, four units for manufacturing essential oils have been installed with a total capacity of about l6U ,000 kg per annum whereas one more with 8,000 kg capacity has been recently sanctioned.The unit with the largest installed capacity (110,000 kg per annum) had been lying closed for want of sufficient naturally occuring raw materials whereas the others have been working at about 50j£ capacity. 109 ~

10.9.^_____ R and D Activities

The main R and D activities concerning essential oils are conducted in the following institutes: PCSIR Laboratories at Lahore Forest Research Institute at Peshawar.

Under a US-aided project the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Laboratories at Lahore undertook physicochemical investigations of essential oils from plants of the family Umbelliferae in Pakistan to obtain basic information for use in developing new sources of such oils. With this end in view, more than 50 cultivated as well as wild species of Pakistan were chemically in­ vestigated. There appears good potential for the Citrus and Juniper Berries oils as well as oils from grasses, herbs and seeds of plants such as Cymbopogon , , Artemisia, Skimmia Laureola, Pinus longlfolia etc.

The PCSIR has also developed processes for extraction and treatment of essential oils of the more premising plants. Some attempts have been made by the Pakistan Forest Department to collect and analyse data on

natural essential oil plants.

Morework needs to be done:on a detailed survey of the essential oil bearing plants; development of processes up to the pilot plant stage for extraction of oils; feasibility studies and evolving of processes for products suitable for industrial and general use. Similar work needs to be done on cultivated plants. Particular emphasis would have to be laid on the development of plant resources (both natural and cultivated) so as to provide adequate quantities of raw materials for extraction and processing in industrial units.This would also involve research on adoption of spontaneous plants to cultivation, improvement of breeds. Perhaps establislunent of an Institute for Research and Development for Essential Oils with branches in different parts of the country would go a long way towards establishing a progressive essential oil industry. The 110

laboratories of PCSIR and Lahore have been associated vith this hind of work and the Organisation has also developed and leased out processes for production of oil from Skiumir. laureola and also for production of terpene hydrate, terpineol and synthetic pine oil. 10.10 PHILIPPINES

10.10.1 Aromatic Plant Resources ol the country The essential oil production in the Philippines is on its early stage of development.However, the potential is considerable. Local market potential too exists.Essential oils are in great demand as they are used in the manufacture of perfumes, soaps, detergents and cosmetics, in medicinal preparations as deodorants,for flavouring ice cream, confectionary, beverages and liquors .Most of the con­ suming local industries import the essential oils they use. The raw material requirements for the production of essential oils are indigenous to the country. A number of plants growing in the Philippines have been knows to yield essential oils.Some of the commonly known sources of essential oils in the Philippines are in Table 10.10a.

Table 10.10a : Commonly known sources of Essential Oils in the Philippines

Scientific Name and Common Name Parts Uses of Oil Family Utilized

Acacia famesian wild Aroma or Flowers Mixed with other leguminesae Cassia flower substances and sold as perfumes, fixed oils pomades as extracts r-f cassie

Acorus calamus L. Lubigan or Rhizomes In the - ion Araceae sweet flat of art .j.quor, for flavoring heers in making perfumes

Andropogon citratus DG Tanglad or Leaves in the preparation Graminae lemon gras.5 of perfumes; as flavoring A.nardus var.hamatulus Citronella Leaves For perfuming soap Hack Graminae

A. zisanoides (L) urb. Vetiver or Roots As perfume fixative Graminae moras Canangium adoratum(Lam.) llang-ilang Flower In the preparation Baill. of high grade perfume _ 112

(Cont'd Table 10.10a)

Scientific Name and Parts Uses of Oil Family Common Name used

Cinnamomum Dervadoi Vid. Kaligag Bark Should make a good ingredient Lauraoeae of root beers because of the strong sassafras odor and taste C. mindanenae Kim. Mindanao Bark As flavoring Lauraceae Cinnamon Citrus auratium Elco. Cajel Rind As flavoring fiutaceae C. macrantha var. Samuy Rind Should be as a perfumery oil microscopra

Citrus microcorpa Bunge Kalamansi As flavoring

C . reticulata Blco. NarangJ ita Ping As flavoring Rutaceae Claucena anesum-Lens Kaycmanis, Leaves Alcoholic extracts for the (Blco)Meer dayap-dayapan preparation of liquors Rutaceae Curcuma longa L. Delau or Roots As seasoning Zingiberaceae tumeric

C.zedoaria Base. Larak or Roots In the preparation of perfume Zingiberac eae Zedoary

Michelia champaka L. Champaka Flowers As perfume Magnoliaceae

M.longiflora Blume Champakaputi Flowers In the preparation of grade Magnoluceae perfume

Ocimum sanctum L. Sulasi or holy Leaves As seasoning Labiatae basil Pagostemom cablin Benth. Potchouli or Leaves For perfumes,toilet waters Labiatae Kablin and scented soaps

Persia americana Mill Avocado Fruit For cosmetics Pipernigrum Linn. Paminte Leaves For pharmaceutical prepa­ ration Toddalia asiatica (L.) Dauag Leaves As low-grade perfume Kurz. Rutaceae п

10.10.2 Trade figures

The Philippines produce тегу little essential oils in comparison to its vast potential. The staggering import statistics (Table : 10.10b) reveals this potential and the need to develop an essential oil industry in the Philippines is further accentuated by the enormity of the likely internal market. TABLE 10.10b Data on Importation and Exportation of Essential Oils

1 9 7 6 i i ? 7 5 t IMPORT 1 EXPORT t IMPORT t ESSENTIAL 0114 s Q u a n tity V alu e Q u a n tity V alu e Q u a n tity V alu e , Quantity t Volt ‘Net Kilogram % »Nst K ilo g ra m * 1 Net Kilogram * S * Not Kilogruui i

■ 1 . Aaiue O il for ' th'a"Hanù-' fucture of Medicine *♦0 5 9 3 5 9 1 7083

2. Citrus Oil for the Manu­ facture of Medicine 2 0 2 7 1 0 4 3 9 5 1 7 3 1 8 6 7 4

3. Peppermint and Spearmint for the Manuluoture of tiw d io iu e 5 2 6 3 7 1 9 3 1 8 0 7 9 917Ö 3

4 . Oil of Eucalyptus 6 4 6 4 5 3 3 2 6 9 2 0 6 2 9 9 1 8 C t> 7 14024 i>. Bergamot Oil 369 4 3 2 6 81 1 6 4 1

Ó. Other Essentiul Oils for the Manufacture of Medicine IO 35O 1 9 3 4 7 8 3 7 1 7 1 2 3 7 1 4

?. Aniue Oil other than for the Manufuoture of M ed icin e 1200 1 3 5 1 8 5 3 5 5 9 1 8 a . Citrus Oil other than for the Manufacture of Hudicine 2?? 2? 4 3 1 8 7 2 1 7 5 0 8196 1 7 2 3 9 4 5 2 8 9 3 5 7 6 7 19898 2 TABLE 10.10b

1 9 7 5 ______» 1 9 7 6

: IMPORT t EXPORT 1 IMPORT 1 F.XItUT ESiEHTIAL OILS t Q u a n tity t , Quantity t V alu e ( Quantity Q u a n t it y . V.»lue V alu e , V alu e , e Net Kilogram S Net Kilogram f Net Kilogram ? Nat Kilocrtu i

9 . Peppermint & Spearmint other than for the Manufacture of Medicine 150100 2 5 2 3 V 3 * 2 7 1 3 3 1» *»136696

1 0 . Other Essential Oils other than for the manufacture of medicine 5 W 1 2 9 7 9 6 8 659 5538 *»2959 3 3 7 0 7 7 60? 3802

1 1 . Terpenic By-Products of the Deterpenation of Essential Oils • me «•

1 2 . Mixtures of essential oils, resinoids or synthetic aromatic 5H 01 56360*» 8 9 3 1 3 9 9 9 8 7 5

TOTAL * 312690 »*»191709 t 2*»09 t 136*»*» t *»5*»2*»9 t 620527'» * 7 0 3 1 1 y / E o ’-t

r 0\ TABLE V0.10b Data on Importation and Exportation of Kaaontial Olla I

a 1 9 7 7 1 1 9 ? 8 • ESSENTIAL OILS J IMPOHT < EXPORT 1 IMPOKT i HXi-O.;':' Quuntity Valua Quantity1 Vaiua Quantity Valuo Quantity Va'.. :Nat Kilogram 1 f (Nat Kilogram 1 « iNat Kilogram » i »Not Kilo^ruutt w

1. Aniaa Oil for tha Hanu- facura of Hadicina 1006 3266 66 7 2 3 2. Citrua Oil for th« Manu­ facture of Hadicina 1 3 2 9 1 1 3 0 1 3 3 9 3 1 9 6 7 1 7

3 . 1’epparmibt and Spourmint for tlia Hunufactura of Hadicina 16261 203112 3 9 8 9 90318 k . Oil of Eucalyptuo 1 5 5 ^ 3 607**2 10666 *»7036

5 . bergumot Oil 161 3©3*» 1 2 k 2*»23 ¿« Othar Euuantiul Oila for the Hunufactura of Hadicina 1 3 0 6 9 1 6 0 3 9 2 1 0 6 9 3 1323*»6

7 . Anise Oil other than for the Manufacture of Nadiciaa 7 d0 7 0 8 6 - -

Ó. Citrua Oil other than for tha munufucture <~i uedicina 1 3 9 3 1 30ÔV6 14Ô 76 6 6 2 7 9 TABLE 10.1QL 2

t 1 9 7 7 t 1 9?D

ESSENTIAL OILS j IMPORT j EXPORT t IMPORT j t:XH-:iV Quuntity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Vux..„ 'Not Kilogram S 'Net Kilogram • 'Net Kilogram 8 *Ni t K ilo g ra m *

9 - Peppermint & Speuriain$ other than for the Manufacture of ueriicine 2 9 0 1 1 2 4 4 1 2 4 7 5 1080 7 2 7 7 2 8 9 7 9 8 4 8 2 0 2 6 4

1 0 . Othor Essential Oils other thun lor the manufacture of medicine 2 7 5 5 42

1 1 . Terpenic oy-Producta of the Deterpcnution of Eoaautiul Olid 7 5 1 8 8 7 5 3 4 9 9 6 4 8 3 3 7 4 8 4 0 0

12. Mixtures of ooaential oils, rediaoidd or synthetic aromatic - - a* -

TOTAL « ^ 5 9 6 9 7 * > '? 0 d 0 9 » 1080 i 7 2 7 7 t 4 0 1 1 7 8 < ¿004556 > 1 •118- I

TABLE 1 0 .1 0 b Data on laportation ami Exportation of Eesentiul Oils

1 9 7 9 ESSENTIAL OILS t IMPORT l EXFONT Q u a n tity Valua Q u a n tity V ain « Nat KilOKfum S 1 1 Nat KlloKraa 1 _ l ______

1 . Aniaa Oil for tho Manufacture of M e d icin e _ 5 3 5 6922

2 . Citruo Oil for tha Hanufoctura of M e d icin e 2 6 5 0 1 1 5 * 9

3 . Pupparnint and Spearnint for tha Nanufaoture of Medicine *»925 503 5 9

Oil of EucalyptuA 2 1 0 3 9 5 5 7 1 2

- 5 . Bergamot O il -

6 . Othar Euuentiul Oila l'or tho Manufacture of Medicine 10358 I 88306

7 . Aniea Oil other than for tha Manufacture of Medicine 51 1 7 3 5

6 . Oitruu Oil othar than for tha manufacture of Medicine 2 9 3 0 1 2 1 9 9 2 7 2

TABLE 10.10b

. i 1 9 7 9

ESSENTIAL OILS 1 IMPOST t EXPOUT Q u a n tity V alu e Q u a n tity V alue 1 Net Kilogram 1 Net Kilogram 3

9 . Peppermint & Spearmint other than for the manufacture of. M e d icin e 3 2 6 1 6 3 5 5 7 7 8 2 2

1 0 . Other Essential Oila other than for the manufacture of medicine - ee

1 1 . Terpenio dy-Products of the Deterpanut ion of Essential Oila 54111'* 5 8 7 6 4 2 9 6 6 l40

1 2 . Mixtures of essential oils, reaiuoida or synthetic uroiuutic - -

TOTAL i 9 3 6 6 8 6 1 6 6 9 9 9 7 4 1 9 6 6 ; l4o<>

Source* Foreign Trade Statistics of tbo Philippine« prepared by National Coneua and Statiatica Offico (NCSO) i 119

i

_ l - 120 -

10.10.3 Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage_

The industrial production of essential oils iu the Philippines is negligible.But as revealed in the trade figures, there is much utilization of essential oils in compounding of flavours and cosmetic preparations.

10.10.it R and D Activities

Researches have been conducted with the aim of providing among other data, the method of extraction for each particular plant material which will give maximum yield and best quality oil.Sane of this work and the agencies involved are described below:

- The National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) an agency of the National Science Development Board conducted a study on the extraction of essential oils from Citrus

microcarpa } Bunge (Kalamansi) leaves. The method of extraction used was hydro-steam distillation.Thin-layer chromatography showed the presence of Nerol and B-pinene and terpinene. Another plant studied was Piper nigrum, Linn(Paminta) leaves.

- A prototype of a pilot scale model for avocado ( Persia America Mill) oil extraction unit had been developed in a study con­ ducted by the University of the Philippines.The completed ex­ traction unit can be developed into a regular pilot scale model for actual feasibility study.

The physical properties of sane Philippine oils were studied at the Philippine tfcmen's University. Commercial scale production of raw material requirements could be developed in the country. This could be single-scale ventures.Cooperative family ventures could also be explored.In this system, a group of families in the rural areas could be organized into a cooperative with ea n family assigned to raise a specified number of plants.The plants 121 1

may be grown in homesteads.In support of the commercial scale production the method of propagation , spacing, site preparation, fertilization and method of haiwesting to obtain the best oil yield would be studied. This information is essential to determine the economic size of plantation suited for oil extraction. Considering the resources available and the demand, there is a future for essential oil production in the Philippines. 122 -

10.11. SEI LANKA

10.11.1_____Aromatic Plant Resources of the country The main essential oil tearing plants cultivated in Sri Lanka continue to be cinnamon and citronella whose leaf oils account for more than three-fourth the total essential oil production in the island (approx. 300 metric tons )j he work done on cinnamon is well documented , and has been the subject of several recent reviews.(Refer Natural Products Section ,CSIR , Colombo). The other essential oil bearing plants cultivated in Sri Lanka are mainly the spices, from which the main commercial product for export is the dried whole spice (essential oil production in each of these cases accounts for only 1-5% of total spice production). The major essential oil producing plants cultivated and other aromatic plants available in this country appear in Table 10.11a. As a result of R and D inputs and plantation subsidies there has been an increase in cinnamon, ginger, turmeric and pepper cultivation in the country.Private sector interest has resulted in new plantations of lemongrass, mint, eucalyptus (E.citrodora) and citronella (C.».niterinus) . Similar interest is expected to result in large scale cultivation of Capsicum spp. for oleoresin production. However, the cultivation of the other traditional essential oil bearing plants (cloves, cardamom and nutmeg) have not developed in the past five years.There has been a distinct decline in potential essential oil production from Eucalyptus globulus (mainly due conservation policy) and Cymbopogon nardus due to neglect of plantations as a result of adverse economic conditions.Little progress has been made on the furtherance of the idea to cultivate aromatic plants that originate ip tewperate climates in the higher elevations of Sri Lanka. The only relatively new large plantations of essential oil bearing plants have resulted from ventures directed towards other end products which could result in potential for essential oil production as a by­ product of the major industry. These plants are E. cameldulensis and Pinus caribaea (cultivated primarily for fuel wood and long fibre respectively). 123

TABLE 10.11a : Main Aranatic Plants of Sri Lanka

m a j o r e j s r r TILL OIL BEARING PLANT!

All cul-tivated

Cardamon (Ellctarin csrdomcmmi) 4,600 hectares

Cinnamon (Cinr.-.-roruin zevlanicua) 15,000 hectares

Citrcnella fCvr.boooi'-on nardus) 3,000 hectares

Cloves (Eurenia carvoDhvllata) 1,600 hectares •

Eucalyptus i’E. erlobvlus) 2 , 0 0 0 hectares

Ginger (Sinftiber officinale) 2 , 0 0 0 hectares

Lenongrass (Cvr.boooron flexuosus) 1000 hectares

Nutmeg (Kvrislica fra?.rans) 1 , 8 0 0 hectares

Pepper (piosr niETm) 2 , 2 0 0 hectares

Turpentine tpinus ccribeea) 1 0 , 0 0 0 hectares

T u m e r i c (Curcuma domestic“) 2 , 8 0 0 hectares

** Essential oil not produced ct- current tine.

(ii) OTHER AROMATIC PLANTS AVAILABLE

Cultivated

Camphor tree (Cirr.er.jr.ir^ c^nr-hora) Not confercial scale

Capsicum (Ceos: cun so) Cultivated for whole spice

Citrcnella (CvT.ironcron ;;ii*.terr.r.us) Serai-commercial (100 hectares)

Coriander (Corirr.irum sativum) Experimental

Cur'iin (Cur-inure cvminun) Experimental

Cypress (C v-' ores s os serr>srvcr.s) 1 0 0 hectares

Eucalyptus (E . c- an c l d u i c ~ J s ) 2,030 hectares (for fuel wood)

E u c s ly p tu s (". citriclore) Experimental (20 hectares)

E u c c ly p tu c c y n - r ia ) Experimental

('’-v.;.:-cv"' r-!:l Vi? '••-ire) (Table 10.11a cont'd) - 12h

Geranium iPeiaeonim «rraveoicns) Hot for essential oil

Hops (Humid us luoulus)

Lime (Citrus r.urnntifolin) Not for essential oil

Mandarin. (Citrus reticulata) Not for essential oil

Mint (Mentha avensis) Experimental

Onion (Allinurj sativum) Not for essential oil

Peppermint (Mentha oioerita) Experimental

Sandalwood (Santalun albus) Experimental

Spearmint (Monilia soicatn) Experimental

Vanilla ( nlanifolia) Serai-commercial

Vetivert (Vetivaria zizanioides ) Experimental

Soontr-. neous

Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Camaga (Cann.'ia odorata)

Cvoeres rc*-undue

Patchouli * (Po^oster-on cablin) r - 125 1

10.11.2_____ Trade figures Import of Essential Oil and Perfumery Material Unfortunately it has not been possible to provide detailed figures - However , a very rough approximation of figures for the import of Essential Oils and resins and mixed perfumery material for the

period 1975 - 1980 had been calculated tc be in the order of US $ 200,000 and 5oo.000 respectively (Table 10.11b). Table 10.11b Imports of Essential oils and resionoids

In 1000 's of US$ I98O 1979 1978 1977 1976 France 25 21 21 7 15 FDR 60 65 20 32 2 Italy 30 25 — — 1 P.R. of China 5 8 7 - 6 Switzerland — 13 10 18 — UK 25 85 37 10 3 U.S.A. 2 lU 1 — 1

TOTAL 181 270 120 8U 36

Other sources: Algeria,lidia Indonesia, Japan,The Netherlands

Imports of mixed Essential Oils and Perfumes In 1000' s of US$

1980 1979 1978 1977 1976 France 350 I60 1*52 1 1 FDR 60 U2 31 112 2l*l The Netherlands 120 2 73 7 3 U.K. 600 1*50 369 11 5I* U.S.A. 85 1*8 119 11 10 Switzerland 11 50 11 10 1

TOTAL 1700 900 1219 207 UlU

Other sources: Australia, Belgium,Canada,Denmark,Hongkong,India,Japan,Hew Caledonia,P.R.of China,Saudi Arabia,S.Africa,U.S.A. , Spain,Zambia

à r 126- - 1

of EsScii^io^ __ The essential oil export trade has not shown significant improvement over the past five years.The main problem has highly unpredictable markets with respect to both, volume of demand and prices.Frequently distillation is only undertaken only after exporters receive firm orders as the prospect of holding unsold stocks of this costly product is, as expected, avoided.Seme export statistics appear in Table 10.11c ; the major sources of income being cinnamon leaf, citronella and cardamom oil.

The only nev export is the sporadic export of ginger oil and clove stem and leaf oil.

Total exports are calculated to be of the value of US$ 1 - 1.5 H for the period 1975-1980,rather less than the US$ 3.2 M set down in the FAO data bank.

Table 10.11c Export figures on Essential oils

CTniOilKI.iA O H kg kg kg kg

Australia - 726 900 11,288 900 Belgium 5,257 1,080 - ' 6,216 franc* 7,107 20,035 18,961 2,681 FDR . 1,066 5,588 1,107 726 Italy . 7,010 9,036 . ; 1,016 1,540 Netherlands 2,016 5,258 1,080 2,600 New Zealand S60 6,050 5,400 1,620 Spain 560 6,480 . 5,220

Switzerland 5,602 1,060 5,400 2,700 60,558 U.K. 55,567 115,985 16,811

U.S.A. 56,905 55,224 75,478 32,190

Total (nt) 102(UBO 0.25M) 227(»35 0.4M) 13l(U35 0.251) 127(US$0

Source: Sri Lunka Customs

i 127 1 Table 10.11c (cont'd)

CIHHAMQP J-V-AF o tt. : (Source : Sri Lanka Custcna)

1976 1977 1976 ml txt a t 35.2 u .s.;. 35.4 37.2 15.0 26.7 Ü.K. 34.5 20.8 France 23.1 14.2

Singapore 2.3 2 .1 3.3 2 .0 FDR 2.7 2,5 2.2 y.ustralia 1.3 0.7

Tot jl 0.5K-I) 69.5('JS3 0.5 M]I io i (rec? o

CINNAMOH BARK OIL (ii.J . Curtor.o)

inyr. (•dr. 0. i îO •

10.11.3____ Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage

Sri T-ankw has the technology for essential oil production.In the current situation Materials for construction and Maintenance of distillation units is readily available.However, surreys hare shown that little new construction is in progress and that utilisation of existing production capacity is as low as 20 - Uof.This is mainly due to the problem the industry faces in marketing essential oils. Production data has been suwariBed in Table 10.lid . Except in the casé of Eucalyptus , lemongrass and citronella oil, local utilization is insignificant. 128 -

Table 10.lid - Summary of data on industrial production

(a) Production for export APPROXIMATE ANNUAL PRODUCTION MEAN 1975 - 1980 Cinnamon leaf oil 110 metric tons Cinnamon bark oil 1. 5 metric tons Citronella oil 150 metric tons Eucalyptus oil 2 metric tons Cardamom oil 2 metric tons

Clove stem oil 75 kg Pepper oil 1 metric ton Nutmeg oil 8 metric tons Ginger oil 1

(b) Oils produced mainly for local use

Lemon grass oil h metric tons per annum (1975 - 1980) (Approximately Uoi is exported)

(c) Oils Imported No data.

10.11.U_____ R and D Activities The main centre of R and D continues to be the Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (CISIR) whose Natural Products Section has for the past 15 years served the industry with Analytical services, trouble shooting and technology support. The following represents a brief summary of the institutions involved in R and D services to the indust y . (a) Laboratories for quality assessment: (i) Ceylon Insitute of Scientific and Industrial Research(CISIR) (ii) Bureau of Ceylon Standards (iii) Department of Minor Export Crops

(b) Technology support: (i ) CISIR (ii) Industrial Development Board

(c) Formulation and production of perfumery and cosmetic products

(i) CISIR 129

The major R and D advances made in the past five years have been the following: - (i) A varietal study on the cinnamon germ plasm and the selection of planting material which is expected to foim the basis for future commercial plantations (joint project involving the CISIR and the Department of Minor Export Crops). (ii) A study on the commercial feasibility of setting up a turpentine production industry based on plantations of Pinus caribaea . (iii) Local utilization of Ceylon citronella oil for manufacture of inexpensive perfumes. (iv) Improved design of distillation units (leaf essential oils and cinnamon bark oil).

Ongoing projects in the field of essential oils include: (a) An indepth study on the storage and packing of essential oils. (b) Detailed studies directed towards improving yield and quality of pepper and ginger oil.

Although knowhow is established for the fractionation of essential oils there seem to be little prospect of its use industrially in the near future as the enterpreneur has shown little interest in fractionation of essential oils and their use for the synthesis of perfumery material.A few attempts have been made to aid local industrialists at compounding of simple perfumery preparations.However, analytical and other quality control facilities have been routinely provided for the industries involved in packaging these materiali. 130 -

10.12.______THAILAND

10.12.1______Ar»n*tic Plant Resources of the Country The major essential oil bearing plants growing in the country are listed in Table 10.12a .

10.12.2 ______Trade Figures Thailand is both an importer and exporter of essential oils perfumery materials and the detailed figures for the years 1975 to 1980 appear in Table 10.12b .

10.12.3 ______Particulars of Industrial Production and Usage There are several indigenous and non-indigenous essential oil bearing plants growing in Thailand. Attempts to cauence an essential oil industry hare been made since 1937 .with Citronella oil in 1937* Lemon grass oil in I960, Sweet Basil oil in 1969 and Japanese Mint oil in 1973, without ccntinously successful results.

The three main obstacles causing the breakdown of the essential oil industry as in the past, remain as follows: Lack of technology and skill for industrial scale production; Lack of quality control; - High competition from other economic crops cultivation, given better income to the farmers.

In order to overcame the above problems,several reports on the essential oil industry have beep rbevaluated.lt was found that forty candidate species had been screened, since 1965;fourteen essential oil bearing plants had been recommended for essential oil industrial development*.Most of the reports dealt with cultivation techniques and laboratory research, none had been devoted to marketing and economic feasibility studies some were of academic research rather than industrial research. In 1980 TIS1R had strongly emphasised industrial research and development policy especially the agro-industry for rural develop- rsnt, and the essential oil programme»thus had been reviaed in order to become integrated projects.

* Refer Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research(TISTR) LIST OF ESSlvTIAL OIL ГЕЛШ.ГС ILi.’TS TABLE 10.12a

.>pon- Го. Thai Nane Botanical Wane English Name Port used ;Uva

1. B u n m k Mesua t'errea Indian rose chestnut Flowers X

2 Chnnjxi Micholia clo.npaca Chanpacn Flowers Л

3 . Chaupi Michelia alba - Scented white l’lowors X

Л* Clip! pun Anaxagorou scortechnii - Flowers X 5. Chankrr.pho Vatica diospyroides - Flowers beautiful, frangrance. X 6 . Chanmnat Vajlaris glabra _ % Flowers X

7 . Chantnana Taronna hor.onsis - Wood X

В. Chan-chuuot Aglaia pyranidute - Wood X X 9 . Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Sp . Eucalyptus Leaver. 131 10. Hoc seau Coleus ar-boinicus - Leaves 11. Krodar.j-n^i Conanga odorata Cananea, ylnng-ylang Flowers X

12. Kaeo Muiiaya pniiicuLata - Flowers A

V 13. K)ïi Alpinia go.lnnga Ginger fanily Root 4 к 14. Khing Zingiber officinule Ginger Uhizone X 15. KhuLiin-khao Curcui.}a lon^p Turnorie Rhi zone Л X 16, Krnçhai lincnpforia pandurata White gingor Uhizone X X

17. Kaphrao 0cinun sanctum - Leaves X 18. Kaphrao-pa Ocinun grattissinun - Loaves 19. Krownn Anmonun cardanonun Cardamon Fruits X 2 0 . Kulap Rosa domascom Rose Flowors X 2 1 . Khicokratac Coffca benjplensis Flowers X J 1

---ХАЛ IA ni \*ш------Cui- ( Spen­ Но. Thai К м kJ Botanical Mane r.nclish tono Part used |tivi.; ted tunoous

1 Clov... Buds ¿?.9 Konphlu Sur-pnia caryophyllota * ! J 3 . Karlan, t u p kl iron*; Detulu alnoidcs - Park 1 A X 2А. Ko to c> tu J о la npa Artemisin vul.Tvris - Plant

' **'r J » Li 1 nu'nanr Quisqunlis indica lìnnfoon Creeper Flowers. X .'0. La: ithon Fluì.ieri-; acuti folia To ripie-tre о FI ow. -rs X '■»1 1 • Lanehink Fandanus tectorius - Flower X î ici к rut Citrus l\¡,^trxX Kaffir line Fruits, Leaves X 29. fiali or Jaraainui.i sai,ihn с Jasr.iin Flowers X Mali-son

30. Hanijlnk Ooinun bas ili curi var. - Leaves X • pxlosurì 132 1J U> X X 31. Mok Wrì ¡jhtia rol i ¡;iosa - Flowers 1 X 32. Ma Ич>ю П(7 Hodychimn e eroi va ri ui ; - Flov/vrs X 33. 4>rna;;o Rauwenhoffin r. ia г rena is - Flowers X 3/«. Nier, i Fo, posteriori rp. - Le VOS X J5 • Opehoei Cianai ■oriiun sp. Cinnai -on Dar!: w зь. Pr ayo nr; Aglaia odorata - Flowers X X X 37. Fradu Fterocarpus mcrocarpus - Flowers X 38. Fhutthachiit Jasi ìinui.i auriculajun - Flowers Minusops ulenfd Piovre rs X 39. ! Fhikun i ” X AO. j Feop j Millmptonin hortonsis 1 Indian cork-tree j Flowers X A1. 1 Fhlu j Pipoг botle Fio tel-leaf 1 Leaves X A2. Fhakchi . Coriandrun sativum Coriander Leaves, Seed

J TABLE 10.12a Cul­ Spn ri­ Ho. Thu i Nano Potnnical Nano Enplish Hai.ie Part used ti va tal fa neo u

Loaves X X 43. PI r.kchi- fr.ranp Potrosolinun sativun X Aa * Flr.i 2i;i: ibor casui.iunar Patchouli Hill20: ie AV 43. Patri Costruì nocturnun Queen-o f-tho-nipht Flowers X A6. Siriino Mentila viridis Mint LrtjwlV'-"! eJ Flowers X X 47. Sun*, pili Ochroearuus sianonsis - Leaves X 48. Sap sauau Eupatoriun odovatum - Rosin, oil X 49. Son Sar Bai P. racrkusii - X 50. Son-klin Polyantlius tuberosa Tuberose Flowers I,el..on pries IStm, leaves X 51. Takhrsi Cyr:bopo;:on c j.trr.tus Leaves X 5-3. Takhrai-hon Ojaibopocon nardus Citronelln - Wood X 53. Takhrui-ton Cinnar.ionun sianiunsno Loi'VcS X X 54. T o à - h o n Farida nus odorus - 1 y 1 Calamus Root X A H 5 5. Vfcin nan Aeorus colanus U> U- Perini ! ir.d i C U M - Flowers X 1 5&. Y itlio « Fo. nicului.i vul| p ro Fennel 1 So 0 d ! x 57. iiir. seed 1 1 1 1 IMPORT-EXPORT ?I® JR fc.ig73 OP ESSENTIAL OILS, fE R F W m Aid OOOMFEMOUS Source t Depart» >eufc of Güsioat Annual ötatoronti of Foreign Tmdo of Thailand I In p o rt Ejq*>rt R s-o x p crt j ' ! >

Eucalyptus o il ( l i t r e ) I5,«i50 1 4 4 ,0 2 6 .7 0 «• - - - Ulntc-r^neon o il ( fc ) 88 LÜ Ü .5 5 - * « - C-.j’-rut Kel'-leuca ( ’• ) 550 3 ,5 0 3 .3 » - - - 0 *,l> r c-c::«.ntin.l o ils and rusinoids fo r Uv.rap'.utio use ( ■ ) 523 7 ,2 0 2 .6 5 10 229.1 14 6 7 6 .5 Foppernint o il ( 1 ) 2 2 ,4 )9 3 2 5 ,4 6 2 .9 5 4 ,7 6 6 82, 264.55 - V'.rJllr extract ( “ ) 3 ,3 5 0 1 6 ,7 o 6 - - - • - Citrcnellr. o il ( •• ) 4*3 1 ,6 0 4 .4 5 - - - - A';i::u O il ( " ) 1,040 5 ,1 1 1 .1 5 - - - ” Otir.-r essential o ils and Rosinoids nos ( N ) 5 5 ,1 4 4 4 9 7 ,0 9 2 .2 1 ,4 7 6 1 8 ,0 4 5 .1 5 - r - 5'.ntiiil o il concentrates in flit* fix.d oils waxes o r / tlw li k <**> 131 9VC.15 - - Mixtures of two or noru odoriferous substances fis rnw nnterials In food drirV pcrAno or ctiwr industries (Kg) 5 4 5 ,1 9 6 5 9 5 ,1 4 3 .0 5 S21 8 ,2 1 0 .4 1,265 1 3 ,0 3 0 .0 5 Aqueous d istillates and solutions of essential oils including proiuc to for r.otiicinr.l uses (Kg) 1,935 5,630.2 m - - - Fe»*t\-] xry (Kd) 60,849 116,997.65 1,974 9,926.9 334 13,634.1 TABLE 10.12b

lnjx.'rt-Exi>ort-l o-ox;.ort 1976

Inpoi't Export H-ilanco O d : Description Q V (C) Q v (0 Q V C ) * 330111 Eucalyptus Oil (Litro) 32,0-37 282,533.45 3 53.5 32,094 282,/.79.95 330112 Wintern-. on Oil 5U 11,355.95 330113 Cr-.loput Meloloucu 50 41.3.45 330119 Other Essential Oils und Ilo r. ino ids for 2,967- 29,437.7 3,019 3,209 - 26,228.7 T!u rcua-utic Use l * 330i : i Fepr-.n.-.ini Oil 67,275 827,899.2 33012?. Vanilla Extrvtt 1*456 * 5,650./, 1

330123 Ci trenail-: Oil 1,152 3 ,65 8.0 33C12Ì Aniiv Oil 563 3,292.35 * 3J0129 Other Essential Oils and Rtsinoida H03 . 78,022 571,096.6 353 4,994.1 74,669 566,102.5 330200 Tcrp^nic by products of th*.* Dotorponntion 2,035 12,564.05 of Sssjnti.il Oils (Kfj. ) 339300 S3r..;nti.-.l oil Conconttratoa in fata Fixed 26 1,059.2 e b b w.'-x..-3 o r Lb.- like (j',;. )

* 330/.C0 liixt. oi two or ; « odoriferous substances 827,860 6,960,437.85 1,525 12,005.3 826,335 6,940,432.55 as raw MaterialJ in food drink p-rl'unor or ' * other Ir.Jus trict (K^;. ) 135 33050c j\q. die till »t.-.o r.'.d i j.utions of Essential 683,307 1,557.081.35 14 29.3 683,293 1,557,052.05 oils itici, frotuots for li'.'!i 0 invi Usua (Kj*. )

* 339621 P<_rfnr!ury (Kt‘. ) 6 9 , 5 0 6 103,796.3 597 8 ,912.7 68.909 94,883.6 TABLE 10.12b Iir.^rt-F.xport - Re-export 1977 1 Inport Export Ro c If D. rcription r Q v ( 0 _____s____ V ( 0 Q v ( 0 1 « Eucalyptus oil (litru) 37,576 2 6 0 , 2 6 6 . 9 5 ! - - C:;jcr.ut K-.-lalcnea (litro) 1,752 11,410 - - -

« t .¡'jvmint oil (litro) 3 48,350 1,737,675-35 27,731 302,720.75 - - •■ii (lltlV ) - - 208 2,524.5 - Vvrill” extract (li Lru) 2,554 11,587.7 . - - - - Cilr-.in ell1; oil (litro) 2,114 5, <">97.3 - - - -

.■■JfliSe oil (litn.) 961 7 , 0 6 0 . 8 5 - - - * 'ith.r esruntial oil and resinoidi; nes.( " ) 121,413 836,256.25 4 , 6 3 9 3 , 516.3 6 0 464. Turjxnic b>-r.roducts of tho Do terricola tion of er.i'onti'il oils ('’<;/) 9 0 403.4 • T^a-oil concv ntrates in fata flxod oi.l:; vxixes or 140 2,184.7 *■ U.. like (K,;)

* i i; xt'UVE 'll' two or n o TV odoriforoua :;ubstmicus ns rr.w matorials 9 2 6 , 8 4 0 9,705,428.5 . 382 1 ,861.55 692 12,006. in food drink jHjriYino or otlior Industries (Kg) Hqwoui. <3i3tilL'.VjS and aolutiona of _ stentini. oils includine 7,551 29,12/*. 5 “ *• products for rv-dictnnl uses (K^) j •ft ForfUivry 26,832 15,574.75 2 , 0 0 5 13, 507.95 • • TABLE 10.12b Irport-Export - Re-export 1978 > Inport-Export - Re-export 1979 IfiJJOrt Export Description Re-export Import Export Re-export Q v(C) Q V (£) Q v ( 0 q V (C) Q v a ) Q v (0

* Eucalyptus oil(li*io) AS,897 A57,657.A5 50 690.1 - - A2,0ic 285,6A6.A 11,3A0 a b ,i3( a ; • • Cajeput nolaleuca 1,660 9,636.9 - - - - • . * A, 915 33,326.25 - - - (litro) OUvsr essential 5,71/ 29,192.05 - - - - * A3ó 6,651.5 - - - - oils and re si no ids for Therapeutic use (litre)

* F-pp-jraint oil(M) 129,608 1,398,201.5 A0,A89 503,619.55 - ’ - 237,668 2,576,2A8.95 78,978 9A2.597.; - - 137 V.-millr extr-ct(:') 10,126 38,872.9 - - - - 5,A9A 29,A56.25 - - t _ - Feltro nella oil ('•') 2,673 11,839.75 - - - - 3,236 10,239.9 . - - Aj ü s . oil ("> 5A6 A,212.A5 - - - - 607 3,928.25 - - - - * 0t)»_r essential olii and rasino ids nos 132,716 1,010,153.A5 8 A0.35 * - 155,200 1,277.955 77 i,o«a : 30 ' 619.8 (litr.) Terrenie by-products 85 1,518.7 *■ • • 10 66A. 1 • of th.- det'.rpcnatio« of ..ss.nti.nl oils(kjj) Eer..ntinl oil conce r>- tr:.t_r. in b t fixed oils yroo or tho lik- (kji 35 1,306.35 1,520 1,A8A.3 58 1,A8A.3, 1,520 1,M0.y • Kiitt. of two or uoro • odorif.rous subs. ns r.w .i-.t. in food drink pc.'fune or otltcr industrie; (k»jJ 1,35A»615 C,7A8,272.65 3.A65 11,379.5 200 1,191.95 1,51A,596 **989,09A.65 1,321 35,112 925 29,9*1.9 Aq. distillates and* eolations of essential oils incl. products for Medicinal Uses (kc) A,067 2A,565.7 2,055 3,635.A5 2,926 17,502.6 3,053 3,275.6

• *?.■rfuriory (kn) 18,997 927,067 5,218 33,711.4 I- - 19,091 1,172,001.05 6,292 40,945.95 1 ... TABLE 10.12b Ii.port-Export-rfo-oxport 1980 (Jon.-Sop.)

Im port Export R e-exp o rt Description Q v (C ) Q V ( O v V.) 4 • £uc.-.l>i'tua o il ( l i t r o ) 1 3, Ю 4. 1 3 1 ,2 5 0 ;9 5 1 ¿0 2 ,2 0 3 .1 5 Cn j.put Melaleuca ( " ' ) 1 ,130 7 ,0 5 3 .9 5 - - - - Other essential oila and roslruids for th.rrj>outic изо ( •* ) - - 423 423 - - F..p|>:n-.int O il ( * ) 200,033 2,099,710.2 114,629 1,351,624.55 f - Vanilla oxtract ( " ) 5,202 2 7 ,0 2 1 .0 5 - - - - Cil.r'-rk.-lla o il ( '' ) 2 ,0 3 7 5 ,4 7 7 .2 5 - - - - .-*iise o il ( " ) 1 ,3 1 6 1 7 ,0 3 9 .9 5 - - - - 0 tih.r essential oils and Rosinoids пев ( H ) 105,636 9 7 9 ,1 9 2 .6 1,525 2 ,0 4 9 .2 5 110 2 ,5 0 6 .2 ^■scential o il concentrates in fbts fixod oils vhxbs o r th e li k e (Kg) 9 94 2 2 ,7 7 7 .1 1,520 1 ,6 4 3 .5 • Mixtures о Г two or noro odoriferous substances iis raw materials in food drink purfure or other industries (Kg) 902,270 6,67c,571.5 510 6 , 91в 6 ,9 3 1 .5 i.qu oui d j. tilH tes and solutions of essential oiln including products for ncdicinsl uses (K,;) 1 ,9 9 9 1 0 ,3 5 3 .3 • '5 5 9 0 3 .6 67 459 P erГипсry (Kg) 2 3 ,1 7 9 1,023,467.35 4,251 3 1 ,0 0 1 .7

I r 139 n

10.12.U R and D Activities In the Department of Royal Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Pinus Khasya and P. merkusii are cultivated for re- forestration purposes. The oleoresin is utilised.to produce turpentine oil, 5-8 tons per month capacity,for local use only. A Highland Agricultural Inter-Institute Joint-Project , is concerned vith experimental cultivation of various economic crops including essential oil bearing plants vhich aims to replace the opium cultivation habit of the hilltribes. Chrysanthemum molifolium was found to be a successful crop.

The Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture is res­ ponsible for experimental cultivation of seme spices e.g. Cinnamonrum sp. »Pepper nigrum, P.logum and etc.

There are some essential oil research groups in Universities they are primarily concerned vith chemical studies.

TISTR is responsible authority for coordination of projects in accordance with the availability of personnel of facilities in various different fields.The work includes essential oil bearing plants cultivation, pilot scale essential oil production, formulation of products , and economic feasibility study.

The R and D Activities of TISTR are represented schematically in Fig 10.12(i) . RESEARCH AMD DEV2L0H-EOT ACTIVITIES IN TISTR Fig. 10.12 (i)

* H6D Ci i i a. r : j '.I E.O. utilization I M Special Tests Cxnlv-r-.t-'ry ir. E.O. Industry • i IVu.¿‘.'tit (.

- Ctixly or. Haw ¡v-.terial - Cultivation technique« E.O. production for - A L-int; test Cj t,rn:i !.y.;t_rl_x jV. : ib i lity local uses• - Performance e o w v n trate - Extraction, fractionc.- - Esrcri.i'-r.t.al tion and purification'* Formulation Products - ncccjjtaoiiity Ki.k ll’V'.y T'.i'l -Rx>d fla v o u r Cone, Ussenti-».! oil techniques. (! .nrk.it trio]) ( Cliryf,arit1. ; -anal,.,us ie Craon m xlil'oli'uu Y~ extrae lion - Quality control -Porfunu Preiwrationt -taisquito RéjulLant and ote. - Quality Study toohniqiaus Crema - Mark--tin,: study - Flant Dusi.jniiv, at the -S a c h e t -O th ers - Fvcli: .ir.ary ocoimnic op tie an oí 2" end beat feasibility study lo c a tio n . - Thoroujhly r-arico tin g S tu d y .

- Final .coronio feasibility study.

T clirical Assistance Technical assistance was obtained fror. wan obtained from tits UiriEX); French G iv erm o n t, and TFI London; thu P ilo t equipr.vont S tan ju Canada L td . was obtained fron Ita l Thai Holding CoupQfty. I - iUi - ANNEX i

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS / EXPERTS INVITED COUNTRIES

The following participants finally attended the Workshop

Country Participant Institution

1. Afghanistan Mr.A.K.Nazaar Afghan National Pet.Co. Ministry of Mines and Industries

2. Bangladesh Mr.A.K.MuJibur Rahman Kohinoor Group of Industries Dacca

3. Cyprus Mr.S.K .Sophocleous Department of Agriculture (Chemistry Section)

1». Egypt Mr.A.M.Hassan Cairo Food Flavours and Essences Corp. National Chemical Corporatiot 5. Ethiopia Mr.Desta Hamito Addis Ababa

6. Guyana Mr.B.Devprashad Research and Development Department .Guyana Pharma­ ceutical Corp.Ltd.

7. Indonesia Mr.G.B. TJiptadi Institute for Development of Chemurgy and Miscellan­ eous Industry.Mayor R and D Inst.of Agrobased Industry

8. Malawi M r .F.W.M.Chapoteia Malavi Development Corp.

9. Pakistan Mr.A.R.Khan Ministry of Industries 10. Philippines Mrs.T.Valdez National Science Development Board .Bicutan.Tagig,Manila

11. Suriname Mr. R.B.Kalloe L.M.Pafeamaeca N.V. 12. Sri Lanka Mr ,E.R.Jansz Ceylon Institute of Scien­ tific and Industrial Research 13. Sri Lanka Mr. A.Jayawardene Ceylon Institute of Scien­ tific and Industrial Research lU. Tanzania Mr.J.T.LuJuo Keko Pharmaceutical Indus­ tries Limited

15. Thailand Mrs.S .Wasuwat Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research 16. Thailand Mrs-. K.Wichapan Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research 17. Mexico Mr.F.V.Fermin Ram6n Secretaria de Patrimonio y Fcmento Industrial

i _ 11*2 ANNEX I Approved & Signed:

GH- i q c d ^ 1. A.R.Khan (Chairmen Drafting Connittee) t'aiti scan

2. M. Hesar (Afghanistan)

3. A.K.Muj ibur Rahman (Bangladesh^ ^

4* Sofoe11s Sofocleoua (Cyprus)

5« A.H.Hassan (Egypt)

6. Desta Hand to (Ethiopia)

'‘7. B.Dewprasad (Guyana)

8. *’ Leroy Cort (Guyana)

9« G.B.Tjiptadi (Indonesia),

10« F.w.M*C!]potela (Malawi)

11. T.Valdez (Philippines) fuJi b.VJty'

12. R.Kalloe (Suriname) -1U3 AiïîiEX I 1

U ^ 7 1 3 . E.R.Jansz (Sri Lanka)

14. A.L.Jayrvmrdmn« (Sri Lanka)

1 5 . J.T.Lujuo (Tanzania)

1 6 . K.tfichapan (Thailand) № * * ^ f * * -

1 7 . S.Wasuwat (Thailand) ¿a / — < « iv a / *

1 8 . BJcht^r Husain - Host Govt, of India.

Table Group A Afghanistan »Bahamas and Jamaica Papua New Guinea«Philippines, Bangladesh «Barbados «Bhutan «Botswana, Saint Lucia«Saint Vincent and Brazil «Burma,Cyprus «Dominica «Domini?*n the Grenadines«Seychelles«Sierra Republic «Egypt «Ethiopia,Fiji «Gambia,Ghana« Leone «Singapore «Solmon Islands, Grenada «Guatemala «Guyana «Honduras, India, Sri Lanka,Suriname«Thailand, Indonesia, Jamaica,Kenya,Leshotho «Malavi «Malaysia, Trinidad and Tobago«Uganda, Maldives «Mauritius «Mexico «Nepal «Nigeria,Pakistan, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia «Zimbabwe Group B Afghanistan,Bahamas,Bangladesh,Cyprus «Egypt, Ethiopia, Fiji ,Botsvana,Guyana, Indonesia «Malavi, Malay sia,Maldives «Mauritius «Mexico,Nepal,Pakistan, Papua Nev Guinea,Philippines «Sirra Leone, Trinidad and Tobago, Sri Lanka.Suriname .Tanzania .Thailand «Zimbabwe. group c Barbados «Bhutan «Brazil «Burma «Dominica «Dominican Republic, Gambia, Ghana,Grenada,Guatemala,Honduras «Jamaica,Kenya, Lesotho,Nigeria,Papua Nev Guinea,Singapore, Solmon Islands, Uganda,Zambia. ANNEX II ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING PLANTS OF THE WORLH Name oi' Essential Oil Botanical Source Production Major producix.g regions of (commercial or cosnonly used the World nomenclature) Botanical name*synonym Family Plant parts uaad Methods of Production

Abies alba Oil Abies alba Mill. PINACEAE leedles and twigs 8.D. Europe (Tyrol ) (Oil of European Silver Fir) ilso cones

Abies balsaaea oil Abies balsamea (L),Mill If Oleoresin S.D. North America (Canada terpentine,Canada bal sam oil)

Abies sibirica oil Abies sibirica Lecleb. II Needles and twigs S.D. USSR (Oil of Siberian Fir Needles)

Absinthe oil (see Artemesia Europe t !l,Africa oil) H p -

Achillea moschata oil Achillea moschata L COMPOSITAE Dried flowering S.D. Alpine regions 1 (Iva oil) tops

AJowan oil Cfirum aJovan=C.copticum UMBELLIFERA] Benth et Hook Seeds S.D. N.Asia , India

All-spice oil (Oil of pimento berries , se« pimento) Caribbean

Almond oil Prunus armeniaca L ROSACEAE Ripe kernels S.D. S.Europe, N.Africa Almond oil (Bitter) Prunus amygdalis Batsch.var.amara (De Candoll p) Focke

••• Code: SD:Steaa-distil] ation I EX:Solvent Extrc ction CP:Meohanical E>pression ] t ANNEX h 1B81NTIAL OIL M A B HO RLABTB OF CT» WOULD Rame of Essential Oil Botanical Source 1 Production Major producing regions of (comercial or con»only used tbe World nomenclature) Botanical name~synonym FAMILY Plant parts used Methods of Production

Ambrette seed oil Abelmoschus noachatua Moench MALVABCEAE Seed S.D. India,Indian Ocean Is., * Hibiscus abelJBOschus L. rectificat Caribbean,8.America

American sagebush oil Artemesia tridentata Nuit. COMPOSITAE Leaves and twigs S.D. USA

Aamcmum oils (not yet Amomum spp. and Aframomua ZINGIBERACEi E Seed S.D. S.E.Aaia/Africe comercial) spp.

Amyris oil AmyriB baissaifera L. RUTACEAE Chipped wood or S.D. Caribbean region sawdust (Oil of West Indian Sandal­ N wood)

Aniseed oil Pimpinella an i sua L IMBELLIFERAE Dried seeds S.D.,EX Egypt,8.Europe.Middle i East,India h

Angelica root oil Archangelica officinalis UMBELLIFERAE Dried slender root- g tD g Europe Hoffto.« Angelica archangelic« lets L.

Angelica seed oil - 11 - - 11 - II Seeds S.D. Europe

Angostura bark oil Cusparía trifoliata Engl. RUTACEAE Bark S.D. Venezuela = Galipea cusparia St.Hil* G. officinalis Hancock

Arnica oil Arnica montana L. COMPOSITAE Flowers, leaves,roo' s S.D. Central Europe,N.India , A.fulgens Purah Scandinavia A.cordifolia Hook.

/ ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING PLANTS OF THE WORLD ANNEX II

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions cf (commercial or commonly used nomenclature) Botanical name»aynonya FAMILY Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Artemisia oil /oil absinthe Artemesia absinthium L. COMPOSITAE Mature plant S.D. N.America,S.Europe,N.A fri« ( o i l wormwood) S .A s ia

Artemesia pad lens o il Artemesia pallens wall COMPOSITAE Flowering tops S.D. In d ia (Davana o il)

Asafoetida oil Ferula asafoetida L. IMBELLIFERAE Gum,dried exudate S.D. Iran.Afghanistan F.foetida (Bunge) Regel from rhizomes

Balsam copaiba vide copaiba

1 Balsam oil(Peru) Myroxylon pereirae(Rovle) LEGUMINOSAE Balsam EX ,S .D . S.A m erica £ K lo tzsch e as i

Balsamite oil Balsamita ma.1or(L)Desf .= S.A m erica Chrysanthemum balsamika vaj balsamita L.

Balsam oil (Tolu) Myroxylon balsamum (L) LEGUMINOSAE EX S.A m erica Harms.

Balm o i l Melissa officinalis L. LABIATAE Flowering tops S.D. Europe

B a s il o i l Ocimum b a silicu m L. LABIATAE Flowering tops/ whole plants S.D. Reunion Is,Comoros

Basil oil (Dwarf variety) Ocimum minimum L LABIATAE Flowering tops S.D. Reunion Is ., Comores

f ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING PLANTS OF THE WORLD ANNEX II hat of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of (commercial or coomonly used th e World nomenclature) Botanical name*synonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

B a s il o i l Ocimum b a silicu m L. 1ABIATAE Flowering tops S.D. Europe.Indian Ocean Islands USSR

Bay o i l Pimenta racemosa (M iller) «YRTa JE Leaves S.D. W.Indies (Tobago) J.W .M oore

b e t e l O il Piper betle L Leaves S.D. Malaysia/Sri Lanka

Bergamot o il Citrus bergamia RUTACEAE Rind of fresh frui t CP . S. Europe (mainly) Risso et Poiteau J

Bluaea balsam o il Blumea balsamifera DC COMPOSITAE Stalks and leaves S.D. Himalayan region .India, i (Ngai-camphor) S and SE Asia.Chine.

Birch tar oil Betula pendula Roth BETULACEAE Bark and wood afte r S .D . dry distillation

Bois de Rose oil indefinite:possibly LAURACEAE Aniba rosaeodora var Amazoni :a Wood S.D. S.A m erica (Ducke) A.parviflora (Mez) LAURACEAE Wood S.D. S . America Ocotea caudafta(Mez)=Licoria LAURACEAE Wood S.D. 3 . America g u ia n e n s is (A ubl) t c r Protium altissimum March. BURSERACEAE Wood S.D. S . America

Borneocamphor o il Dryobalanops arcnatica Gartn DIPTEROCARP CEAE Wpodshavings S.D. Indonesia,Oceania =D.camphors C a l e b J ■B8HTIAL OIL BEARD» FLA»TB OP IB* W»U) ANNEX II

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source Production Major producing regions of (commercial or cosmonly used the World nomenclature) Botanical name»=synonyin Plant parts used Methods of Production

Cabreuva oil Hyrocarpus frondoBUs Fr.All e lLEGUMINOSAE Heartvood shaving i S.D 8 Anerica M.fastigiatus Fr.Allen

Buchu leaf oil Barosaia betulina Berti RUTAECEAE Leaves 8.D Southern Africa, + other spp. Europe

Cad« oil ( Juniper tar) J»n'iperus oxycedrvs L CUPRESSACEAE Wood Dist Mediteranean

Boldo ojI Paemus boldus Mol. MONIMIACEAE Leaves S.D. Italy, 8.America I

\ H Boronia concrete and absolute Boronia megastigma Nees RUTACEAE Plovers EX Australia ë I

Cajeput oil Melaleuca leucadendron Linn MYRTACEAE Leaves and tvigs S.D. Australia,Indonesia, and other spp. Malaysia

Calanus oil Acorus calamus L. ARACEAE Fresh or dried S.D. Europe,8.Asia (India) rhizomes N.America

Cs~avay oil Carum carvi L UMBELLIFERA! Seed S.D. Europe,Asia,USA

Canphor oil Cinnamcmum camphors Sieb. LAURACEAE Woody parts S.D. Japan,8.E.Asia

Cananga oil (see also Ylang Ylang) Cananga odorata (macrophylla ANNONACEAE Fresh flovers S.D. Indian Ocen Is.,Indo­ Hook.f.et Thcsison~Canangium nesia,S + SE Asia, odcratup Baill. « ■ r u é . an. m s n » r u m or ra maw annex ii

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used th e World nomenclature) Botanical name*synonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Cardamom o i l E l e t t a r i a cardamamum (L in n 6 ) ZINGIBERACEA S 8eed S.D. S .China.Guatemala Mat on S .A sia

Capsicum Oleoresin Capsicum anv.iim L. o r SOLAHACEAE Ripe fruits E x t. U biquitou s (Oleoresin ) C.fruteBcens

California Bay Laurel.Oil Ltabellularia caLifornica Hut LAURACEA Leaves S.D. N.America ^Mountain Laurel Oil

Carrot seed oil Daucus carota L. UMHiRiXIFERAI Crushed seeds S.D. Europe, USA N

Cascarilla oil Croton eluteria Bennett EUPHORBIACEA E Dried bark S.D. Caribbean region 1 (O il sw eet wood b ark ) VO » Cassia oil - bark oil and leaf Cinnamrmun c a s s ia Blume. LAURACEAS Stem bark S.D. o i l C.burmanni Blume.C.laureiri ! Leaves S.D. China,SE Asia,Indonesia dees and others

Cedar leaf oil Thu.1a o c c id e n t a lis Linne CUPRESSACRAI Fresh branch ends S.D. USA, Canada (Oil Thuja) and le a v e s

Cedarwooa o il - Atlas Cedrus atlantica Manelli PINACEAE Chipped wood 8 .D. Marocco (Atlas)

Cedarvood o il - Texas Juniperus mexicana Schelde CUPRE8SACIA] Chipped wood 8 .D. USA

Cedarvood o il - Red Indian Juniperus virginiana L CUPRE88ACEA] Chipped wood S.D. U8A

Cedaivcod oil-Indian Cedrus deodars (Roxb) Lond PINACEAE Chipped wood S.D. In d ia Cedarvood oil-Himalayan (Def/dar o i l )

Cedervood o i l - T-eherv^n Cedrus libani B a rr PINACEAE Chipped wood S.D. Asia minor »Syria KMibanotica, ... Lk ANNEX II

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used th e World nomenclature) Botanical name*ayuonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Cedarvood o il - E.African Juniperua procera Hochst. CUPRESSACEAÏ F resh wood shaving B S.D. E.A frica,Ethiopia,Kenya, Tanzania

Celery seed oil Akium g ra v eo le n s L. UMBELLIFERA] Dried ripe seeds S.D. 8 .France, India, USA

Chamcmille o i l (XJerman) M atricaria chamomilla L COMPOSITAE Dried flowers and Europe,USSR s t a lk s S.D. Chamomille oil tEnglisli or Anthemis nobilis L. C0MP08ITAE Dried flowers and Reman) s t a lk s S.D. Europe 1 Champaca o i l M ichaelia champaca L MAGNOLIACEA ! F lo y e rs EX Tropical Asia H i Chenopodium O il Chenopodium ambrosiodes L. o

Cinmamcm bark o i l Cinnamamum zeylanicum ,N eea 1 LAURACEAE C.verum Preal. Soaked dry stem S.D. Sri Lanka, Seychelles , bark M adagascar

Cinnamon l e a f o i l _ II _ Fresh/partially dried leaves S.D. Sri Lanka, Seychelles, India.Madagascar

Citronella oil (Java) Andropogon nardus Java.de J< ng Partialley dried S.D. 8 and SE ASia Cymbopogon n ard u s(R en d le)» GRAMINAE g ra s s

C.winterianua Jovitt 4

Citronella oil (Ceylon) Andropogon nardua Ceylon, GRAMINAE Partially dried S.D. 8 and SE Asia de Jong.CyUbopoKon nardus g ra ss Rendle Lena batu.

i ■

4 * 4 _] î 1

naarriAL oil m m m nurc or n t homi» ANNEX II

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source Production Major producing regions of (commercial or com&only used the World nomenclature) Botanical name^synonym Family Plant parts used Methods of Production

Citronella (Kenya) Cymbopogon afronardus Stapf. GRAMINAE Leaves S.D. Kenya

Citronella (Burma ) Cymbopogon clandestinus Star f. GRAMINAE Leaves S.D. Burma

Clary sage oil Salvia sclarea L LABIATAE Flovering top6 + S.D. France,US8R,Italy, leaves E,Europe

Clove leaf oil Eugenia carvophyllus (Sprens el) Leaves S.D. Madagascar,E.Africp, Bullock et Harrison » MYRTACEAE Zanzibar.Malaysia Eugenia carvophyllata Thubn Clove stem + bud oil S.D. iCaryophylluB aromaticus Lim Stems and buds n - 11 - _ It _ Clove Oleoresin Dried flower budi EX 151 Qiieua benedictus oil Qsicus benedictus L COMPOSITAE Leaves and flower B S.D. ii tr (Blessed Thistle) I

Copaiba oil African Qxystigma mannii Horms LEGUMÏNOSAE Exudate S.D. W.Africa

Copaiba oil Copaifera L.bpp. LEGUMINOSAE ■sudate S.D. Brazil, 8,America =Copaiba balsam oil

Cornmint oil (see oil mentha arvensis)

Coriander oil Coi iandrum sativum Dried seeds S.D. Guatemala,Mex(co, E. Europe, Indili

I ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING PLANTS OF THE WORLD ANNEX u

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source Production Major producing regions of (commercial or cueeonly used the World nomenclature) Botanical name“synonym FAMILY Plant parts used Methods of Production

Costus root oil Sausurea lappa Clarke COMPOSITAE Dried soaked root S.D. Himalayan region, =Aplataxis lappa Dec. India “A.auriculata D.C.

Cubeb oil Piper cubeba L. PÌPERACEAE Mature unripe sun- S.D. Malaysia,Indonesia iried berries(fruit . after crushing

Cumin seed oil Cuminum cyminum L. UMBELLIFERA! Crushed dried seeds S.D. Mediteranean region.India and the US8R

Cypress Lavender-cotton oil Santolina cbamaecyperissus COMPOSITAE Leaves and twigs S.D. S.Europe I и Vfl fC Curcuma oils Curcuma longa L ZINQIBERACEi E Dried rhizomes S.D. 8.Asia,India I

Curcuma arcmatica Salisb. ZINBIBEPACEi E Moifctened rhizome 1 S.D. India

Curcuna domestics Valeton ZINGIBERACEJ E Rhizomes S.D. Indonesia

Cyperus rotundus L Cyperus rotundus CYPERACEAE Dried tubers S.D. India,E and W Africii Oil of SE Asia

Cypress oil Cupressus sempervirens L. CYPERES8ACE lE Terminal branches S.D. N. Africa,8 Europe, (Italian cypress) var.stricta Ait Mediteranean

Dill Seed Oil (European) Anelhum graveolens L JMBELLIFERAE Seeds S.D. Europe

Dill Seed Oil (Indian) Anethum aova D.C.= A.sowa JMBELLIFERAE Seeds S.D. India noxb.

, * / i ESSENTIAL OIL BEARINO PLANTS CT TBK VORID ANNEX II

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source Production Major producing regions of (commercial or connonly used the World nomenclature) Botanical name*synonym Family Plant parta uaed Methods of Production

Dillweed oil (American) Anethim nr aveoiena L - UMBELLIFERAE Stalks,leaves and B.D. USA Peucedanum graveolens Benthu , aceda

Espartillo oil Elyonurus latiflorus neea CRAMINAE Leavea 8.D. 8 Aaerica

Elecamphane oil Inula halenium L COMPOSITAE Dried.triturated 8.D. 8 Asia roota

Erigeron oil Erigaron canad «naia L COMPOSITAE Aerial parts 8 .1). Canada (B. America

Estragon oil Art emesia dracunculus L COMPOSITAE Leavea and stasa 8.D. 8 France(USA 153 (Oil of ) an d' fiovera i Eucalyptus oil (Citriodora) Eucalyptus citriodora Hook MIRTACEAS Leaves 8.D. Australia

Fennel oil (camon) Foeniculun vulvare Mill UMBELLIFERA! Seeds, aerial paria 8.D. UBA .Europe, Asili ,8 . Fennel oil (sweet) Foeniculun vulgare Mill. var UMBELLIFERA! of roota 8.D. America .Meditei-aneen dulc e

Fenugreek oil Trigonella foenuagraecum L LEGUMINOSEA Seeds 8.D. Asia.Europe.Medlteranean

Fir needle oil(Canadian) Abies balaanea L Mill PINACEAS Needles and tvigs S.D. N America Frankincense oil «A.balsami fera Mich. (see oil olibanum) =Pinua balsames L

Galanga! oil Hance ZINJIBERACE £ Rhiscaies S.D. China (Chinese ginger oil ; non- Willd ZINGIBERAEC £ Fresh roots S.D. India .Malaysia ccHercial) - Galanga officinalis salib Kaeapfera galanga L ZINGIBERAEC. iE Dry rhisemes S.D. Malaysia ANNEX XX

Neae of Essential Oil Botanical Source Production Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used the World nomenclature) Botanical name«synonya Family Plant parts usad Methods of Production

Galbanua oil Penila galbaniflua Boisa et UMBELLIFERA!! Dried resinous gum Bulis e exudate (gun galba turn) S.D. Middle Bast F.rubricaulis Boisa Garlic oil Allium sativum L LILIACEAE Crushed bulbs S.D. Middle East, Ubiquitous

Geranium oil Pelargonium graveolens Ait.GERANIACEAE Leaves of fresh pi int S.D. Middle Bast (Mediterranean, Algerian B.Africa, UB8R - Moroccan Pelargonium roseum uud othe: ■ GERANIACEAE Leaves and stems S.D. Pelargonium spp. - " - Reunion Oil of Geranium Bourbon i \n Geranium oil (Bulgarian) Geranium macrorrhitum L GERANIACEAE Fresh leaves S.D. Bulgaria , France, * G. lugubre Saliab. Italy ■ Robertium macrorrhitum Pic ird.

Ginger Oleoresin Zingiber officinalis Roscoe ZINGIBERACE/ E Dried rhizomes EX Generally produced in: Caribbean, Europe,Asia and Ginger oil Zingiber officinalis. Roscoe ZINGIBERACEJE Dried coarsely S.D China ground rhizome

Grape fruit oil Citrus paradisi Macfayden RUTACEAE ■ C.decumana fresh peel of frui ■ C.P. USA, Europe

Goldenrod oil Solidago odora Ait COMPOSITAE Top aerial parts S.D. USA (Sweet Goldenrod) during flowering

Guai&c Wood Oil Bulnesia sarmienti Lorentz ZYGOPHYLLAC! AE Chipped wood o: • S.D. Paraguay.Argentina,Gran Cheun pac a Wood Oil sawdust Chaco area =Oil Pokewood Guava Paidium guadava L (MYRTACEAE Leaves, Fruit S.D. All Tropical Climates ANNEX il

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source 1 Production Major producing regions of (commercial or ccmonly used nomenclature) B o ta n ic a l name“ synonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Helichryaum o il Helichrysum angoatifolium DC COMPOSITAE Flowering tops + S.D. 8 Europe Hemlock Oil “ H.ito licum G.Don.and le a v e s (vide Oil Spruce) H.stoccbas DC

Hope o i l Humulus lu p u lu s L MORACEAE Dried cones of fe- S.D. USA«Europe,UK,India “o il hunulua or H.americanus Nutt. s a le p la n t •

Huan pinevood o il Dacrydium frank1 in i Hook 30D0CARPACEA1 Wastevood and saw- S.D. Malaysia.Oceania, Borneo, dust C h ile

Huan pineleaf o il Dacrydium frank 1 in i Hook ’ODOCARPACEAI Leaves S.D. H II >

Jaborandi leaf oil Pilocarpus Jaborandi Holmes ÎUTACEAE Leaves S.D. *8 America 1 + other species H V/l 1 Hinoki oil (Japanese) Chemaecyparis obtusa (Sieb 2UPRES8ACEAE Wood and leaves S.D. Japan »Taiwan »China et Zuce) Endl. ro o t

Jasm ine Jasminium grandiflorum r OLEACEAE Flow ers EX India,Italy ,E . Europe concrete and essence J.officinale L. Juniper Berries oil JuniperUS ¿iNBUhis L var. XJPRESSACEAE Dried ripe fruits S.D. N .A sia erecta Pursh

Labdanum o i l Cistus ldbdmniferus 3ISTACEAE Crude gun exudate S.D. Mediteranean ,8. Iturope gum labdanum

Laurel leaf oil Laurus nobilia L LAURACEAS Leaves S.D. Mediteranean region

Lav^ndin o il Lavandula hybrida (Heverchon LABIATAE Flowering stalks S.D. S.Europe “Wild lavender

t 1 ESSHTHAL OIL BEHRING PLANTS OF THE WORLD ANNEX n

Nane o f E s s e n t ia l O il Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producine regions of (com ercial or ccm*only used the World nomenclature) B o ta n ic a l name^synonym Plant parts usad Methods of Fam ily Production

Lavander o il Lavandula officinalis Chaix LABIATAE Flowering stalks S.D. France .US8R.E Europe USA,I.A frica

Lavandin abrialis oil Lavandula abrialis L. LABIATAE Flow ering p a rts S.D. USA

Lemon o il (expressed) Citrus limon RUTACEAE F resh rin d C.P. USA (Linné) Burmann filiu s.

Lemon oil (distilled) Citrus limon RUTACEAE Fresh rind or Juic i S.D USA,8 Burope (Linné) Burmann filiu s

vn Lemon leaf oil (oil of Citrus limon (Linn ) RUTACEAE Leaves.petioles, S.D. 8 . Europe O s P e t itg r a in Lemon) B u rm .f. tw igs

Levant vormseed o il Artemisia cina Berg :om positae Whole plant S.D. Mongolia.China.Europe and A.maritima L

Lemon g ra s s o i l : - East Indian Cymbopogon flexu osu B (S t a p f ) GRAHINAE Fresnly cut grass S.D. 8 and SE Asia,Curibbean, = Andropogon nardus var. 8 Tropics generally hexuosus Hack. - West Indian Cymbopogon c i t r a t u s ( S t a p f ) GRAMINAE Freshly cut grass S.D. • Andropogon nardus var. ceriferus Hack.

Lime o i l Citrus aurantifolia Swingle RUTACEAE Juice or whole crus ted U biquitou s ■ C«medica L. var.acida Bran Ii s f r u i t S.D. or fresh rind CP Karo, oil of ; concrete Leptochtina senegambica Hook f . RUBIACEAS Flow ers EX West Africa,(Guinea) (Karo Karounde) OIL m w o o d ANNEX ix

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of (commercial or ccmonly used UamI A naaenclature) Botanical name-synonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Linaloe Wood oil Bursera delpechiana Poise et BURSERÀCEÂE Shipped wood 8.D . Central America Oil of Linaloe Hexican E n g l. B. aloexylon.B.glabrifolia and B.fagaroides var.ventric >aa

Lovage n i l Levisticua officinal* (L) IMBELLI FERAE Fresh roots S.D. S . E u rop e,E . Europe,USA Koch - Angelica levisticum Baillo i

H&ce o i l

- East Indian Myristica fragrana Houtt. IYRISTICACEAI Ground.dried a rill >de 1 of the ripe seed S.D. Indonesian region - West Indian » Myristica fragrana Houtt. IYRI8TICACEAI S.D. Grenada -4 i

! Mandarin o il Citrus reticulata Blanco Rrosh ripe rind of var. mandarin f r u i t C.P. Brazil,Italy and 8.E.Asia - C.nobilis var.deliclosa Swingle var.mandarin

Majoram , seeet , o i l Majoram hortensis Mnch. LABIATAE Dried aerial parts S.D. Europe,N.Africa and Origanum majorana L. USA

4 Majoram,Spanish,oil of wild Thymus m a stic h in a L. LABIAT AE 8pain,S.Europe Majoram aerial parts S.D.

l

M astic o i l Pistacia lentiscus L ARAB CARDIAC] AE Exudate oleoresi ) S.D. B.Europe

Massoi bark o il Cryptocaria massoia LAURACEAE " Bark ch ip s S.D. New Guinea OIL BEARING AMREX XX

Hame of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used th e Morid nomenclature) Botanical name-synonym Fam ily Plant parts used Method* of P ro d u ctio n

Mavah o i l »Geranium o il PelarKonivm graveolens Ait iERabIACEAE Fresh leaves S.D. E .A fr ic a (East African) z P.radula or P.radula var.guercifolium

Mentha arvensis o il Mentha arvensis var. piperaa • LABIATA! (Coraaint ,Fiel£aint, cens Holmes. Aerial parts of S.D. Japan.Korea.Taiwan, Japanese mint ) flowering plant Brazil.Argentina,India

Mentha piperita o il (peppermint o il) Mentha piperiata L LABIATA! Fireslr aerial parts >f S .D . g e n t’■ ally produced: * Oil Peppermint var.officinalis flowering plant Europe .USA M £ 1 Mentha citrata oil (Bergamot mint) Mentha citrata Ehrh.

Mill foil oil (see Yarrov oi 1)

Brasica nigra (L) Koch CRUCIFERAS Seeds S.D. Central and S.Europe, Mustard o il B .Ju n ic e a ( l ) Czerniaew Temperate Asia (oil of black mustard seed)

• Mustard o il Brasica alba Boiss. CRUCIFERAE Pressed fermented EX S.E urope ( seed o il seed -cak e yellow mustard seed o il)

M yrtle o i l Myrtua ccmunis L MYRTACEAE Leaves S.D. S . Europt ,Mediteraj>ean

• • 4 BEARIHG annex ::i

Naae of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of th e World nonenclature) Botanical nane«synonyn E a s ily P la n t p a r ta usOd Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Myrrh o i l Ccniphora sun.! «JR8ERACEAE Oun anúdate (Qun S .D .o r EX HE Africa,Arabia,Scealiland = o il Uurabol-Myrrh C.myrrha. C.abyssinica and ■ y rrh ) C.schinperi

Nigel la dMMscena o il Nigella damascene L RANUNCULACEI B Seeds S.D. USA (Love-in-a-vist)

Neroli o il, Citrus aurantium Linn. tUTACEAE Flow ers S.D.,EX France,Italy,N Africa Neroli bigarde=bitter orange blosson oil

Nutneg o i l Myristica fragrans Houtt (YRISTICACEA1 Fruit kernel (dri sd) S .D . _ II East Indian var. _tt_ M 159 West Indian var. _ »1 _ — M — (see also Mace oil)

Ocotea Cyebariun o il Ocotea cynbarum H.B.K. LAURACEAE Chipped wood o r = oil sassafras - Brasilia lOcotea pretiosa Benth. sawdust S.D. B r a z il

Olibanun o il Bosvellia carterii Birde. LURSERACEAE Oun exudate S.D. Sonai. Hand, S . E. Arabia = oil of Frankincense

Onion o i l Alliiai cepa L LILIACEAS B u lbs S.D. Many varieties cultiva a l l over

Opopanax o il CcMiiphora erythreae var. IURSERACEAE Sun dried gun «oil of sweet ayrrh glabrescens exudate S.D. S o n a iiland «oil of bisabot ayrrh MSDTU1. OIL BEARING rU R I 0T TOT MSOD ANNEX II — — Name of Essential Oil )tanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of (commercial or c cam» only used th e V orld nomenclature) Botanical name-synonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Orange , bitter oil = Citrus aurantium Linnaeus. RUTACEAE F resh p e e l C.P. USA , Europe Oil Orange Peel Bitter subsp. amara Linn

Orange, distilled oil of sveel Citrus sinensis L Osbeck RUTACEAE Fresh peel + Juice S.D. USA,W Africa,Europe orange C.P.

Orange Blossom Oil (sweet oral ge) Citrus sinensis (Linn) RUTACEAE Flow ers S •D•|RX Portugal/Spain = oil of Neroli (Portugal) Osbeck ____ 1 4Ì. w 1 Origanum,Spaniteh o il Thymus c a p ita tu s H o ffte « . e Flowering plant S.D. N. A frica tAaia Minor, ft = Oil origanum Link 0 1

Origanum: (Mexican sex ge) Origanum vulgare L LABIATAE Flowering tops S.D. Mediteranean,W.Asia

Orris root oil Iris pallida Lam TRIDACEAE Dried and aged ■ Oil orris,concrete.liquid rh iz a n e S .D .o r EX I t a ly

Osyris o il: African sandalwood Osyris tenuifolia Engl. 3ANTALACEAE D ried wood ch ip s S.D. A fric a o i l

Palaaroaa oil -oil of Gingergrass Cymbopogon m a rtin i S ta p f vs GERMINAE G rass S.D. India, Indonesia (Geraniua oil:East Indian ) M otia - Andropogon martini Roxb

Parsley seed oil Petroselinum sativum Hoffte. - Apium petroselinum L. dm belifera E R ipe seed S.D. Europe - Carum p etro selin u m Benth e t Hook

« • • à ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING PLANTS OF THE WORLD ANNEX II

Наше of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of 1 commercial or commonly used th e World nomenclature) B o ta n ic a l nane“ 8ynonym Fam ily Plant parts uaad Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Parsley Herb o il Petroselinum sativtm Hoff. UMBELIFERAE Aerial parts S.D. Europe

Patchouli oil Pogostemon cablin Benth. LABIATAE Dried leaves S.D. Malaysia.Madagascar,India = P.patchouli Pellet, var. suavis book. ,

Penny Royal o il Mentha pulegium L. LABIATAE Whole plant S.D. Europe

Pepper (Red) oleoresin Capsicum annum L v a r . Longum sen d t. PIPERACEAE Dried mature fruit EX USA,E Europe , H Pepper (Black) oil Piper nigrum L. PIPERACEAE Dried mature berri ss S.D . A sia

Pepper (Black) oleoresin Piper nigrum L. PIPERACEAE Dried unripe berri ss EX A sia

Pep±*ermint natural o il isee oil mentha piperita)

Perilla oil frutescens Brit. LABIATAE Leaves+f lowering S.D. Japan to p s

Petitgrain , Paraguay oil Citrus aurantium L. subsp. RUTAECEAE Leaves + twigs S.D. S.A m erica (Bitter orange) amara

Petitgrain, oil of sweet orang sCitrus sineusis (Linn)Osbec t RUTACEÆ Leaves + twigs CP S.D .

Petitgrain bergamot oil Citrus aurantium L. RUTAC2AE Leaves + twigs S.D. I t a ly = Bergamot leaf oil subsp.bergamia Risso and Poi -a n rr

ANNEX I I K8KRXAL OIL BEARIK PUÜfTS OT THE WORLD

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source P ro d u ctio n Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used th e World nomenclature) B o ta n ic a l nameKsyr.onym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Pimenta berries oil Pimenta officinalis Lindley MYRTACEAE Dried berries 8.D. Carribean region North coast of South *» Eugenia pimentaiD.C.) MYRTACEAE = oil America = o il pimento =Myrtus pimenta L

Pimento leaf oil Pimenta officinalis (Lindi) MYRTACEAE Leaves S.D. Caribbean region. = myrtus pimenta L N coast of 6 America = oil pimenta leaf = eugenia pimenta (Da Candol Le)

Pine needle oil F in u s muge Tussa PINACEAE B ran ch es + le a v e s S.D. Alpine regions (SviBS pine.dwarf pine) v a r .P u n ito I a P . puntilo H&enke K-* = O n P.montana H ill. 1 ro

Pinus sylvestris oil Pinus sylvestris L PINACEAE Twigs + n eed les S.D. Scandinavia,E.Europe U83R - o il scotch pine.Noway pin 5 , o il Terpentine,Russian •

Root S.D. Europe, Asia R adish o i l Raphanus Bâtivus L var .ait 1BCRUCIFERAE DC and var.niger DC 1

Rose o i l Rosa a lb a L = Rosa damascec ÌRDSAPRAIì M ill and other roda spp. Flower petals S .D . EX Europe

Rosemary o il Rosemarinus officinalis Linn i LABI AT AE Flowering tops S.D. Europe,Tunisia,USSR

1 ANNEX I I SB 8B R IA I. OIL HUBHQ PLAVTS QT THF WORLD

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source P rod u ction Major producing regions of (ccuuncrcial or commonly used th e World nomenclature) B o ta n ic a l name=£ ynonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P rod u ction

Rosewood , Brasilian oil Aniba rosaeodora var.Amazon .ca (Ducke) LAURACEAE Water-soaked wood S.D. S America = oil bois de rose,Brazil ian Aniba parviflora (Mez) i^AURACEAE Ocotea claudata Mz Rosewood, Peruvian o il ayn.Licaria guianensis Aubl. LAURACEAE Protium (ic it) altiasimum BURSETt/ s;a S America (March)

Rue o i l .Ruta graveolens L RUTACEAE Fresh blossoming R.montana I. whole plant s.r>. Italy .France,Spa:.n, R.bracteosa L N.A fr ic a i H ON Sage, Dalmatian o il Salvia officinaliB L LAB I AT AE partially dried U! le a v e s S.D. Eure«.. .Adriatic uea coast •

Sage, Spanish oil Salvia lavendulaefolia Vahl. LABIATAE Whole plant S.D. Europe, USA S.. h i apanorum Lag.

Sandalwood , (Australian oil Santalum spicatum (R.Br.) SANTALACEAE Ground wood EX S.D . A u s tra lia (A.D.C.) = Eucarya spicatum (R.Br.) Sprag.et Sunn. ,

Sandalwood (East Tr.iic.) o il Santalum album Linné SANTALACEAE Dried wood chips S.D. India and S.Asia = oil santal

Sandalwood (West Indian)oil Amyrib b a ls a m ife ra L RUTACEAE Chopped wood S.D. C aribbean = oil amyris

Sassafras oil (N.American) Sassafras albidium (Nutt) LAURACEAE Root-bark,root- 3.D . N. America Nees wood chips«leaves

Ocotea cybarum H.B.K. Sassafras oil (Brazilian) LAURACEAE Root-bark.ground = O.pretiosa Benth wood o r ch ip s S.D. S.A m erica K88EHTIAL OIL BEARUfO PLAETB OF THE WORLD ANNEX I I

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source 1 Production Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used th e World nomenclature) Botanical name»synonym Fam ily Plant parts used Methods of P rod u ction

Savory (Sumer variety oil) Satureia hortensis L LABIATAE Flovering tops 8.D . S.Europe, USA Savory (Winter variety oil) Satureia montana L JVBIATAE ft S.D. S.Europe,USA

Scotch pine oil Pinus sylvestris PINACENAE UK

Schinus molle oil Schinus molle L ANACARDIACEA 2 USA = California pepper oil

Snakerjot (Canadian oil) Asarum canadeu&e L ARISTOLOCHIA IEAE Soaked rhiza ies S.D . N America

Snakeroot oil : Serpentaria Aristolochia serpentaria L ARISTOLOCHIA CEAE Roots S.D. H America , (vide oil wild ginger) H C\ 1 Snakeroot (European) Asaruc europeaum L ARISTOLOCHIA CEAE Dried roots S.D. E.Europe

Spearmint o il Mentha apicata L Huds LABIATAE Fresh aerial parts S.D. Generally cultivated » M.viridis L cf flovering plant Mentha cardiaca Gerard ex Baker t

Sp ike o i l Lavendula latifblia V ili LABIATAE Sun-dried flowers S.D. Mediteranean region, (vide oil spike lavender * L. Bpica O.C. Spain o il lavender Spanish oil Spanish spike o i l a s p ic ) ANNEX II SBSXMAL on. m m « n «ano

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Source Production Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used the World nomenclature) Botanical nameEsynonym Family Plant parts used Methods of Production

Spruce oil (Norway spruce) Picea exeelsa Lk PINACEAE Fresh braches + S.D. Tyrol, E Europe, » P.abiea (L) Karst. needles North America Tauga canadensis (L) Carr PINCEAE Spruce oil (Hemlock spruce) Needles and branches S.D Picea glanca (Mcench)Voss.By i P.alba Lk..P.canadensis

Styrax oil (American) Liquidaabar atyraciflua L. HAMAMELIDAC1 AE Liquid balsam S.D. N and Central America

Styrax oil (Levant or Asian) L.orientalis Mill HAtyAMELIDACI AE Balsam S.D. Asia minor

ON Star anise oil Illiciua verum Hook. 4AGN0LIACEAE Dried fruits S.D. SE Asia W)

Sweet wood bark oil (vide oil casacarilla)

Sumbul oil = Muskroot Ferula sumbul (Kaufm)Hook.f . UMBELIFERA ) Boot S.D.

Tangerine oil Citrus reticulata Blanco.var RUTACEAE fresh rind of ripe C.P. SAmerica,Brazil,USAI. Florida) "Tangerine” ’ruit Japan,Taiwan,8E Asia =C.nobilis var deliciosa Swingle var."Tangerine"

Tansy oil Tenacetum vulgare L COMPOSITAE Whole plant S.D. Europe,USA

Tagetes oil Tagetes gianduiifera Schrani COMPOSITAE Whole plant S.D. S America,Africa, *= T .minuta L Austrialia

Tarragon oil (vide oil estragon) ESSENTIAL OIL BEARING PLANTS OF THE WORLD ANNEX II

Name of Essential Oil Botanical Sourer Production Major producing regions of (commercial or commonly used the World nomenclature) Botanical naK.a>synonym Fam ily Plant parts usad Methods of Production

Tea tree oil Melaleuca alter*--folia L MYRTACEAE Leaves + terminal = oil melaleuca alternifolia branchlets S.D. Australia

Thuja oil Thuja occidentalia L CUPRE88ACEAE Leaves + terminal S.D N America = oil cedar leaf iranches

Thyme oil (Spanish * Marocean varieties Ttomus vulgaris L LABIATA! «Thymus ligis L var.grácil: s Boissier Flowering plant S.D Mediteracean,N Africa H R Thyme oil (wild thyme) Thymus serqyllua L LABIATA! Flowering tops S.D S Europe, Central Asia, ■ USSR

Tolu oil = oil balsam tolu

Turmeric : Oleoresin Curcuma longa L CINGIBERACEA] IDried* rhizomes EX India,S Asia,S America Caribbean /

Turpentine (Russian ) oil Pinua sylvestris L PINACEAS Leaves + twigs S.D. USSR, E.Europe

Valerian oil Valeriana officinalis L VALER I ANACE lE Soaked dried S.D. H,Central Burope,E Europe, = oil, Valerian root root USSR,N Asia.Japan Valerian oil (Indian) Valeriana vallichi D.C VALERIANACELE Soaked,drled roct S.D S Asia

Valerian oil (Japanese) Valeriana officinalis var VALERIANACK IE Soaked,drled root S.D S Asia Kesso root oil latifolia ANNEX II ESSENTIAL OIL W i»nB R W I OS' WE MUD

Nome of Essential Oil Botanical Source P rod u ction Major producing regions of (commercial or conmonly used th e World nomenclature) Botanical name»aynonym Family Plant parta used Methods of P ro d u ctio n

Verbena o il Lippia citrio d o r' (Laa)Kunth VERBENACEAS Flowering tops S.D. S Europe

Verbena o il (Spanish)»Thyme Thymus haem al i s Lange LABIATAE Flowering tops S.D. 8 Europe Lemon o i l S.D. S .E u ro p e ,, S and SE A sia , Vetiver oil Vetiveria tizanioidea Stapf □RAMIMAE Partially dried S America and Caribbean » Andrcpogon murlcatua Rets ro o ts » Anatherum zizanioidea (L) Hitchc and Chase Oil Vetiver Java Oil Vetiver Reunion Oil Vetiver Haiti Oil Vetiver Brazil Oil Vetiver India

i Wintergreen , oil of Qaultheria procumbens L ERICACEAE Leaves S.D. USA,S Asia,temperate zones ON and 0 .fragrantiasima L I Wormseed o i l (Am erican) Chenopodium ambrosoides Linr6 Freeh aer: parti S.D. USA = o il chtnopodium v a r. anthelainticum(Linné) CHENOPODIACE^Eof flo w erin g and A.Grey fruiting plant

Wormwood o i l Art emesia abBinthium L COMPOSITAE Fresh aerial parti = oil absinthe jf the mature plant S.D. N Aaerica,S Europe, N A frica,N Asia

Yarrow oil=M ilfoil oil Achillea millefolium L COMPOSITAE Fresh aerial parts S.D. S Europe, Caribbean and Ind Indian Ocean islands,Mada- la a ca r

Ylang Ylang oil Cananga odorata Baili ANNONACEAE Flow ers S .D .o r EX = Cananga oil' and forma genuina

Zedoary o il Curcuma zerumbeo Roxb, ZINGIBERACEAE Dry rhizomes S.D. S India and Philippines

► - 168 -

. | | | | y | w H i ANNEX ANNEX III. SOME INDUSTRIAL USES OF ESSENTIAL OILS

ABhesives: Co«etics and Toiletries -Cements -Perftaees and Spray: -Pastes and -Creams Glues -Deodorants -Tapes -Colognes -Sharing preparation: -Powders Medical and - Soaps and detergents Veterinary prepa- rations PHARMACEUTICALS

Paints Industry Paper and Printing - Faints industry - Distempers - Diluents - Carbon paper - Crayons - Paint removers ESSENTIAL OILS - Air fresheners - Tnkg - Cleansing fluids - Labels.Wrappers - Writing paper - Ribbons

insecticide preparations Motor Industry - Sprays - Polishes,cleaners - Repellents - Seat upholstery - Attractants Other plastic goods - Deainfectants

Petroleum industries - Cream deodorants - Solvents - Lubricating oils/Waii

Rubber and Plastics Textile industry Foods and Beverages - Surgical gloves - Deodorants -Liquors - Rubber toys -Convenience foods - Upholstery materials - Vater proofing com­ - Finishing materials -Flavouring agents pounds -Preservatives - General plastics -Sauces

-J AIIH EX TV

List of major essential oil-bearing plants grown in developing countries *« (excluding Chine} Latin name of Common name Countries or regions in Use of oll/major constituents of oil the plant of the plant which plant is cultivated in industry 1 2 3 4

1. Cymboooqon Lemongrasa Bangladesh, Egypt (species l The oil ia mainly confined to the flexuosus not Indicated)»Guyana*« India« I isolation of citral for flavour and Sri Lanka*« Malawi*« Thailand I perfumery application». The oil la I also used for production of /j-ionon* 2. C. citratue Guyana*» Pakistan# Philippines*« I and Vltaatin-A. Tansania. Thailand 1 3* C. martinll Palraarosa India,Indonesia« Pakistan Oil of palmarosa contains high geranio]. content (75—90%). It is used in perfu­ mery, particularly for flavouring tobacco and for blending of soaps due to the lasting rose odour it imparts to the blend. In soap perfunes« it ha3 a special Importance by virtue of geranio1 being stable in contact with alkali. It al.jo serves as a source of very high grade geranlol. Gtraniol is highly valued as a perfume and as a starting material for a large number of synthetic aroma chemi­ cals* namely, geranyl eaters. 4. C. wlnterlanua Citronella Java Egypt* India* Indonesia. Java type ia superior and ia a source of Sri Lanka widely used aroma chemical» such as citronellal* geranlol. citranellol* hydroxy' cotr«nellal» etc Tha oil aa such is also used in the perfumery industry. *# Grows in abundance Compiled by O.P.Virmani, CIMAP Lucknow AMEX IV

1 2 3 4 5. Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Ethiopia* India* Pakistan The oil holds a prominent position in cltriodora cltrlodora oil Sri Lanka. Tansania (Eucalyptus the perfuswry Industry for having high sp.)* Thailand (Eucalyptus ay.) percentage of citronellal* used exten­ sively in the high grade perfumes. 6. E. globulus Eucalyptus Ethiopia* India* 5rl Lanka The oil contains chiefly cincol* used globulus oil for medicinal purposes and also fcr removing k Incrustations in boilers and locomotives.

7. Ja«minum Jasmins Egypt, Ethiopia* Indonesia* India Jasmine flowers mainly used for making officinalis Jasmine concrete and absolute, which are var. qrandl- natural flower perfumes. The chief florum constituents of oil are benzyl acetate, linalool, benzyl alcohol, benzyl bensoate. The most important aroma compounds in oil arei r-eresol, linalool* indole* cis- jasmine, methyl jasmorv. 6-cis-butenylacarpoiactone. 8. Mentha arvensls Japanese mint India* Sri Lanka The oil is the best source of natural menthol which finds wide use in pharma- ceutlcal and flavouring industries 9. M. dtrata Bergamot mint India The oil is rich in linalool and linalyl acetate and is highly valued in the perfume, cosmetic and flavour industries. Llnolool and linalyl acetate are important perfumery chemicals.

> 1 l — 3 1 10. m . piptrit« Peppermint *WP*# Ethiopia. India. Indonesia, Tha chia£ conatituant la menthol. The Sri Lanka. Tansania oil la uaad aa a flavouring material. 11. Pelargonium Geranium Egypt. Ethiopia. India. Sri Lanka Tha oil finda application in soap. qriveolm perfumery and cosmetic industries. It contains citronellol and garamol free and as tiglatas. together with some linalool. 12. Poooatemon Patchouli India. Indonesia, Pakistan. This is one of tha most important ar.J Philippines. Thailand (P. species) valuable raw material for perfumery — Industry.

13. Rose damascene R o a m Ethiopia. Cyperus. India. Pakistan * Oil of rosa finda usa in high grade (Rosa ap.). Thailand 1 perfumes. The concrete and absolute, 1 which have characteristic rose odour but I more mellow and stable, are more iqr:^rtant 14. R. calllea Rosa Egypt j and are produced in great quantities. Rose water also finds much use in perfu­ mery. In medicine, it gives an agreable vehicle much used in lotions and eye­ washes. Chief constituents of rose oil ere citronellol. paraffins, geranlcl and nerol. "’here are 5 minor constituents - rose oxide, carvone, rose furan, h -dama- scenor.e and H -ionone constitute together about 1.2% of the total oil and possesses half the odour value of all the main components put together. Rose oxide coutri butes to the geranium-like odour, ro.«;e furan gives characteristic citrus note, tv-ionone reproduces the typical scent, of violets. 1 2 3

IS. Santaium album Sandalwood India« Sri Lanka* Indonnala

16. Vetiveria Vatiaar Bthiopla* Sty«»« India* ziaanloldaa Zndonaaia* Sri Lanka* Philippin«« I

AI.'VEX IV

4 The oil 1* highly prized in the cosmetic industry due to its chara- cteristic woody notes. The chief constituent of oil is santalol (90-97*).

The oil is used extensively in perfu-v.ery as a fixative and also as an odour con­ tributing in basis as rose basis. T!.e major derivative of the oil is the highly prized vetiver acetate. The value of the oil is in general directly related to the total ester content s. ch that a virtual sesquiterpeneless pro luct is preferred. There are those who consider that ketones contribute signi­ ficant factor to the odour profile. 172

i

\ • ANìiEX__ IV List of lesser known essentiel oil bearing plants Latin name of Commun name of Countriea or ragiona in Use of oil/major constituents of the plant the plant which plant is cultivated oil in industry 1 2 3 4

1. Adìurn craveolens Oelery Indi* The main constituents of the seed oil are d-1imonene and aelinena. Odour and flavour determining consti­ tuents are sedanolide and sedanolic acid anhydride, although present, to the extent of lH or less of the oil. 2. Artemisia r*aliens Pavana India The oil finds use in high class perfumes and flavours. The main coetponents of the essential oil are cis-davanone, linalool, dehydro-

I 173

I AKHEX IV

1 2 3 4

4. Bursera Linaloa India The oil is rich in linalool and delDechlana linalyl acetate and is used extensively in perfumery industry. 5. Cananaium Cananga Indonesia« .’Philippines« The oil serves in the scenting of odoratum Sri Lanka*. Thailand soaps and in all kinds of technical preparations vhre highly priced ylang oil can not be employed. The cananga oil is rich in sesquiter­ penes« chiefly cadlnene. 6. Cedrus deodora Cedarwood India« Pakistan It is an excellent fixative and diluent« in sanitary supplies and polishes and form making odour in other industrial products. Special gradss are use

* .spontaneous

'vj> 1 2 9. Curainum cvminua Cumin

10. Suqenla Cl ova oil carvophvllat»

11. Mentha »plot« Spearmint

12. Mvrlstica fraarana Nutmeg 1

AKNEX TV -

3 4

Egypt# Ethiopia# India# It contains 25-31% aldehydes as Sri Lanka cuminic aldehyde Ethiopia# India# Indonesia# The chief constituents is eugenol, Sri Lanka# Tanzania# Thailand Gil of clove bud and leaf are suitable for use in perfumery and flavours; while oil of clove st

Egypt# Ethiopia, India# Use in flavouring industry. The Sri Lanka# Thailand chief constituent is carvone. (M. viridis) India# Indonesia# Sri Lanka The main use is in flavouring processed food and soft drinks. It is also employed in pharmacTU- tlcal au.d perfumery applications. The major components are 61-flS;'» 1 monoterpene hydrocarbons {chief constituents areiC-and/l-pinene and sabinene). ■- 5-15% of i oxygenated monoterpenes end 2-10% of aromatic ethers (myristicin is the major constituent;. A.'.'I.’HX IV

1 2 3 4

13. Pelmum baa1Ileum French basil Egypt, Ethiopia, indie* The oil Is used in flavouring an.4 Indonesia# Sri Lanka perfumery Industries. The main constituents are methyl chavicoj. and linalool, but no camphor. 14. Ploer nlarum Pepper Indie# Sri Lanka, Tansania The chief constituent which possesses pdngehcy Is plperine. a :::j k x i v STATISTICS; Production of major essential oils In the developing countries

Name of the plant from ' • Quantum produced , Annual Common name of oil which oil is produced 1 % 1 t ' Name of the Year | in tonnes I 1 i 1 «

k • • i i i 1

1 1 1 1 lr* i i i 1 ' country 1 i , — t 4 — •— 2 - - Malor plants 1. Cvmboooaon flexuosus Lemongrass India Present production 800 Sri Lanka Average 1975-80 4 2. C. martini! Pa-marrosa India Present production 60 3. C. winterianus Citronella Java India Present production 350-400 Indonesia Present production 1300 Sri Lanka Average 1975-80 150* 4. Eucalyptus citriodora Eucalyptus India Present production 10 citriodora oil 5. E. qlobulus Eucalyptus India Present production 50 globulus oil Sri Lanka 1975-80 2 6. Jasminum qrandifloruro Jasmine concrete Egypt Average 1976-80 6.5-8.3 7. Mentha arvenais Japanese mint India Present production 350-400 ITT 8. M. citrate Bergamot mint India Present production 10-15 9. M. piperita Peppermint Egypt 1980 0.45 India Present production 15-20 10. Pelaraonium q-aveolens Geranium India Present production 5-10 Egypt 1900 50 11 . Poaostemon patchouli Patchouli Indonesia Present production 5C0 12. Rosa qallica Rose concrete Egypt 1976-80 0.35-0.45 13. Santalum album Sandalwood India Present production 50-60 14. Vetiveria zizanioides Vetiver India Present production 10 Indonesia Present production 85 • May be C. n ardu a or Ç. wlnterlanus АН.ЧЕХ IV STATISTICS: Production of minor essential oils in the dcveloylno countries

1 2 3 4 5

1. Aoium oraveolens Celery seed India Present production 1 2. Artemisia oaliens Davana India Present production 1 3. A. vestita Artemisia vestIta India Present production Stall quantities 4 . 3ursera deloechiana Linaloe India Preeent production 50

5. C a n anna odnratum Cananga Indonesia Present production 45 6. Cedrus deodara Cedarvuod India Present production 15

7. C i n n a ”.r:"un zelanicura Cinnamoraum leaf India Present production 5 Sri Lanka Average 1975-80 110

8л Cumimum cvminum Cumin Egypt Average 19'/ 6-80 C . 5 0 - 0 . £ 0 9. Eugenia carvoohvllata Clove leaf India Present production * Indonesia Present production 1*100

10. Mvristica fragrane Nutmeg India Present production * Indonesia 1975-78 1 . 3 5 2 - 1 . £G Sri Lanka Average 1975-80 8 11. Pioer nigrum Pepper oil Sri Lanka Mean 1975-80 1

b* i .'i obtained «