Cracking the Glass Ceiling: Keeping It Broken Author(s): Kristen Renwick Monroe Source: PS: and , Vol. 35, No. 2 (Jun., 2002), pp. 237-242 Published by: American Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1554726 Accessed: 24-01-2017 18:52 UTC

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This content downloaded from 130.132.173.39 on Tue, 24 Jan 2017 18:52:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms THE PROFESSION

Cracking the Glass Ceiling-Keeping It Broken

Kristen Renwick Monroe, University of California, Irvine

"Ginger Rogers didn't do anything Fred (WCPS) was founded in 1969 and pas. Effectively, the president-elect is Astaire didn't do. She just did it back- women and minorities now routinely chosen using a closed system that many wards and in high heels."1 serve on the APSA Council, commit- find more appropriate for a Byzantine tees, and as section heads. In January 2001, the APSA Nominat- autocracy than a democratic country's Actual statistical data documenting ing Committee designated Theda premier professional society dedicated to this general impression, however, are Skocpol as president-elect of APSA, the study of politics.7 neither as accessible nor as complete as making Skocpol only the third women The Nominating Committee consists I had believed, making it difficult to of six members, each chosen for a ever to hold this office. In April of the arrive at a reliable, objective assess- same year, the APSA Council passed a two-year term. The president-elect ment of the situation for women. The nonbinding resolution encouraging fu- presents the three names of his nomi- APSA staff performed yeoman service ture APSA Nominating Committees to nees to the Council at the September in digging into files to provide data on avoid choosing presidents-elect of the meeting. If the Council approves these women's official participation in same gender for more than two years in three names, they will be added to APSA's power structure since 1950, the names of the three members who a row. In February 2002, the APSA Nominating Committee shattered tradi- although the data series I eventually are serving the second year of their pieced together is incomplete and may tion by selecting Susanne Rudolph as two-year term, and who were chosen not be fully accurate. Overall, these president-elect, thus promising the first by the sitting president. Although the data reveal a slow rate of inclusion, instance of two women-given a normal president-elect's choices for the Nomi- with the list of "firsts" for women course of events-consecutively assum- nating Committee are presented to the beginning with Gwendolen Carter, the ing the APSA presidency. These actions Council for approval, at least during first woman elected to the APSA Coun- hold tremendous value, both symbolic my term on Council (1997-99), the cil (1955) and the first vice president choice was not even discussed, let and substantive, in widening the cracks (1964). Gladys Kammerer was the first in the glass ceiling for female profes- alone debated or challenged. There is sional political scientists. In this article, female secretary (1957) and Betty no election, then, for what is an all- Nesvold the first woman treasurer I describe how many people, together, powerful Nominating Committee of six (1975). Between 1950 and 2001, 30 out worked to break the glass ceiling. I then people who choose future officers. And of 153 vice presidents have been propose a program designed to increase these six people are chosen in secret women, six of these serving in the last by two officers who were themselves gender equality within APSA as a pro- fessional association.2 five years. Eleven secretaries out of 51 selected in the same process and, in have been women, five elected during the case of the president-elect, by the last five years. And seven out of three of the same people. Not surpris- APSA: Bastion of Male the 25 treasurers have been women. ingly, this process favors the status Privilege? Of the 400 Council members elected quo, even though anyone within the since 1950, 76 have been women.4 Association has the right to submit APSA was a bastion of male privi- There has been some progress, then, names to the Nominating Committee lege well into the 1960s. In 1969, agita- and the progress has accelerated in re- for its consideration.8 tion from the ranks and the receptive cent years. Nonetheless, the post of APSA presidency of David Easton com- president rarely left male hands. Until bined to propel APSA to do more to 2001, only two women-Judith Shklar Failing to Crack the bring women into the power structure and -had served as pres- of the Association.3 At some level, the ident in the Association's nearly hun- Glass Ceiling progress has been remarkable. The dred-year existence.5 And the WCPS In 1999-2000, the Women's Caucus Women's Caucus for Political Science had to mount an extraordinary and con- decided to make a concerted effort to troversial effort to secure the nomina- crack APSA's glass ceiling. We put tion of the third. Why? forward Susanne Rudolph, a woman of Kristen Monroe is professor of political One reason may be the process by extraordinary credentials from the gen- science and philosophy at the University of California, Irvine, where she serves as as- which the president is chosen.6 Despite eration of women who deserve special its commitment to democratic gover- sociate director of the Program in Political honor because they came up the hard Psychology and as head of the Informal nance, the APSA presidential election is way.9 A member of the American Interdisciplinary Center for the Study ofrarely contested, with the annual busi- Academy of Arts and Sciences, a Morality. Vice president of APSA and pres- ness meeting more pro forma than an chaired professor and former chair of ident of the Organized Section on Political open election. Indeed, within APSA's one of the nation's top departments, Psychology, Monroe's most recent book political culture, even the threat of past president of the major profes- is on moral choice during the Holocaust. contesting the official nominee would be sional association in her specialized She can be reached at [email protected]. interpreted as a rather graceless faux field, and recipient of many prestigious

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This content downloaded from 130.132.173.39 on Tue, 24 Jan 2017 18:52:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms grants (e.g., Guggenheim, Rockefeller, women, especially those in leadership for APSA president. It is the subtle ap- and three Fulbrights), she has pub- positions, to recognize that expecting plication of shifting but differential lished more than nine books and women to do more to prove their standards that gives the Ginger Rogers numerous articles in the major profes- worth is no longer a healthy response syndrome its power. A woman who sional and scholarly journals and to a chilly climate; such an attitude is expresses her views forcefully is too received one of the Women's pushy; a man is dynamic. A woman is Caucus's Mentor of Distinc- too strident; a man is forceful. A tion Awards. Rudolph had A woman from an institution that is not been active in APSA, won its 5 the situation for prestigious has that held against her. Best Paper Award for an Yet a man who succeeds in producing APSA conference paper, and WO men improves, it is first-rate work while teaching more served as one of its first fe- n students, with less resources and fewer male vice presidents and on w necessary for helpful colleagues would be given many of its committees. Our VO extra points, and might be selected pre- nominee thus possessed im- men, especially those cisely because he would provide an peccable professional and in important symbolic bond with the scholarly credentials and had leadership positions, many APSA members who are not at well-honed administrative to prestigious research universities. A skills. recognize that ex- woman who is devoted to her family Her field, university, and pe( has her professional commitment ques- geographic region had not :ting women to do tioned; a man is praised for his hu- been over-sampled in recent re moto prove their manity and family values. A man is a years, so these points also quiet, dedicated, dispassionate scholar; should have worked in her rthfa- WO is no longer a a woman with the same personality is vor. In addition to all of this, criticized because her reserved, profes- APSA's Committee on the heC l3thy response to a sional demeanor lacks warmth, or Status of Women in the Pro- h because she is not nurturing enough. I fession enthusiastically joined C l Ily climate. have carefully avoided using names in the WCPS nomination, and order to depersonalize the discussion, members of APSA's Nominat- but I could provide examples for each ing Committee told me later that our now outdated and counterproductive. It of these differential standards, all of nominee received far more letters of is sometimes difficult to make these which have been leveled at one time or support than did any other candidate. psychological shifts, and I have another against well-known female Yet she was passed over in favor of a watched many feminists, for whom I scholars the WCPS has suggested as man who, although also superbly quali- have deep respect and affection, as president. The standards shift, and shift fied, was much younger and whose they slowly extricate themselves from in a way that privileges men. nomination could easily have been the implicit assumption that women Forget blame; let's fix a situation no deferred another year. need to do more to be accepted. I in- one really wants to continue. I must make it abundantly clear that tend no criticism here; indeed, I had I am not questioning the qualifications to go through some of the same or the worthiness of the person chosen process myself. Working to Crack the Glass as president-elect in 2000. Indeed, I find I believe this particular part of the Ceiling in 2001 it divisive to cast the debate in terms of Ginger Rogers syndrome worked who was the "best" choice. Doing so against the WCPS candidate in 2000; After our unhappy experience in also distracts us from a deeper and for example, one of the objections 2000, the president of the WCPS and I more important issue: Why are female against her candidacy concerned the talked with the continuing members of candidates subject to harsher scrutiny? spotty record of her department in hir- the APSA Nominating Committee to see The evidence supporting this claim ing women. But the man ultimately what we could do to make sure a is subtle but striking. Furthermore, it chosen came from a department whose woman was chosen at the next opportu- suggests the extent to which under- record was arguably no better in this nity (2001). One of our main concerns stated inequalities stem from the un- regard. While feminists might reason- was to avoid the psychology of demo- conscious attitudes of both men and ably ask what another woman has nization or confrontation, since we be- women. It is not only men who partic- done for the cause, holding a lieved there was goodwill on all parts. ipate in creating and enforcing what I woman-but not a man-accountable We found this assumption justified, for call the Ginger Rogers syndrome, the for departmental colleagues is how theall the APSA Nominating Committee psychological acceptance and internal- Ginger Rogers syndrome keeps women members seemed receptive to our con- ization of differential standards for down. If a man does not have to an- cerns. They suggested we provide a men and women, and I am certainly swer for his peers' behavior, why broader selection of women scholars not lodging a blanket indictment of should the woman? from which they might choose next male colleagues. Instead, the syndrome The subtle differential standard year. We recognized that such a strategy spreads and is nurtured across gender. was not unique to the nominating has advantages-e.g., it increases the Indeed, it is ironic that women may be process in 2000. Confidential conversa- degrees of freedom, as one Nominating more effective at enforcing the syn- tions with past members of the WCPS Committee member put it-but also drome than men, and may frequently and with former members of past carries the risk of not uniting behind step forward to do so. APSA Nominating Committees revealed one person. In the spring and summer of As the situation for women im- similar differential standards at work 2000, Georgia Duerst-Lahti and Martha proves, it is now necessary for whenever women have been suggested Ackelsburg, as the current and future

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This content downloaded from 130.132.173.39 on Tue, 24 Jan 2017 18:52:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms WCPS presidents, joined the WCPS By this time, and despite the prior telling me she had been nominated presi- Nominating Committee in compiling an request to provide a list of candidates, dent-elect. Theda sent a gracious note to initial list of potential candidates to be some members of the APSA Nominat- the other women on our list and to the presented to the WCPS at its September ing Committee had asked me to rank- WCPS, and Martha Ackelsburg informed meeting. This list comprised top scholars order the candidates; I did not do so, the entire WCPS in the next WCPS with proven commitment to ending although I did write a short memo newsletter. Rodney Hero, Chair of the discrimination and differential treatment about the respective advantages of each 2001 APSA Nominating Committee, also of women. Each had extensive APSA nominee. (For example, we argued that called to tell me of the outcome, and I service and superb intellectual creden- Graber's selection would send a power- would like to take this opportunity to tials. In assembling these names, we ful symbolic message that the APSA congratulate him and the other APSA were struck by just how much talent is presidency was not restricted to elite Nominating Committee members on their out there. We omitted several obvious institutions, something that we thought excellent choice in and to choices because they felt it was not the was of particular value, given the ex- thank them for their continuing willing- right time for them; others were not yet tensive numbers of APSA members at ness to remain open and receptive to the 50 years old, a kind of minimum age nonresearch institutions.) We sent this WCPS's ideas and suggestions. for APSA presidents, we were told by material, along with the WCPS nomina- Why were we successful this year the members of the APSA Nominating tions for other Council offices, to and not in prior years? I would like to Committee. A few women who might APSA in early January. think that by working together, civilly have had the scholarly credentials were My sense is that the 2000-2001 cycle but with determination and focus, and not included on our list because we felt was a particularly active year in terms with the APSA hierarchy, we all helped they had not worked to increase op- of APSA nominations, with many make it happen. To ensure that this is a portunities for other women, a require- groups who usually are outside the de- permanent shattering of the glass ceil- ment that was critical for the WCPS. cision-making process working hard to ing, however, and not just one more We presented this final list to the have influence. The Perestroika move- tiny crack, the WCPS asked the APSA WCPS at its September 2000 meeting. ment was especially vocal and raised Council to institute a structural change The list included a superb group of myriad issues that needed to be ad- necessary to make sure women more diverse scholars: Jean Bethke Elshtain, dressed but which, I gather, also engen- routinely become serious contenders for Doris Graber, Mary Ellen Guy, dered a defensive response because of the APSA presidency. , Susanne Rudolph, the confrontational tone in some of the and Theda Skocpol.'1 We asked the Perestroika communiques. I suspect this WCPS to pass two resolutions. The hurt one of our nominees-Susanne Council Resolution first authorized the WCPS Nominating Rudolph-who was endorsed by over Committee to present these names with two hundred Perestroika members. I We asked the APSA Council to pass a the full endorsement of the entire thought that such an endorsement would nonbinding resolution strongly encourag- WCPS, thus demonstrating that support ensure Rudolph's election, naively as- ing the APSA Nominating Committee to for these candidates was both united suming that the APSA Nominating avoid designating presidents-elect of the and broadly based. The second resolu- Committee would bow to such an over- same gender for more than two years in tion authorized the WCPS president, whelming demonstration of grass roots a row. While this resolution is not president-elect, past-president, and support. My sense now is that this sup- mandatory, the WCPS felt it nonetheless chair of the Nominating Committee to port may have proved a mixed blessing would send a powerful signal that the nominate an alternative candidate for for Rudolph, with some members of the APSA Council encourages gender equity. president-elect at the APSA business APSA Nominating Committee interpret- We chose this route, instead of contested meeting if one of our nominees were ing it not as democracy at work but elections, because we recognize that the not chosen as the official candidate. rather as excessive pressure-but I have existing process of nominating APSA of- According to APSA by-laws, a second no solid evidence of this, and my con- ficers, for all its flaws, is one way in nomination, if supported by sufficient clusion is based only on conjecture. which underrepresented groups may gain APSA members at the business meet- Once I submitted the WCPS material, I access they might not otherwise receive ing, necessitates a contested election, felt my job was done, and I have if they were dependent solely upon win- with a mail ballot required of all scrupulously avoided asking about how ning electoral contests. Thus, we felt it APSA members. No one wanted to the deliberations were conducted or made sense for the APSA Council to have to follow this route, which would what transpired behind the scenes. arm the Nominating Committee with a be expensive and polarizing, but it was After I submitted the WCPS's formal mandate to do even more to factor gen- an option we were prepared to con- nominations, I emailed all the women der into their decision-making calculus. sider if necessary. on our list to thank them for their will- There was some concern during During the fall, the WCPS asked ingness to help the cause and to ask Council discussions that the resolution each of our six nominees to send us each of them to contact me if she heard advocated a kind of quota system, and her vita, along with a brief description from the APSA Nominating Committee. this was not the WCPS's intent. A more of her major scholarly contributions Only then did I realize that my joy at apt metaphor is the college admissions and her APSA service. We also asked the election of any one of these superb process, in which the relative qualifica- each nominee to ask someone in her nominees would be tinged with sadness tions of all candidates are recognized field to organize a small letter-writing that the others were not chosen, an odd but in which it is also acknowledged campaign, to make sure each nominee psychological phenomenon that I would that in any given year there are many had at least five letters highlighting herguess might affect the members of the who are eminently qualified to be admit- various contributions. I wrote a de- APSA Nominating Committee as well. ted to the class. Once we conceptualize tailed memo to the APSA Nominating Shortly after the APSA Nominating APSA presidents as a class and narrow Committee describing the specifics of Committee concluded its deliberations, I our pool of nominees to the many who each nominee. received an email from Theda Skocpol, are qualified for admission, it becomes

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This content downloaded from 130.132.173.39 on Tue, 24 Jan 2017 18:52:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms counterproductive and perhaps even the selection process, not the outcome bold step forward. Timing is all, and in damaging to cast the debate in terms of in terms of gender. (The process of se- February 2002, the woman who had "the best" or "better than." Doing so lecting APSA officers is currently under twice been denied the presidency, leads to unnecessary divisiveness. review; the committee in charge, how- despite more nominations than anyone It is well accepted that after we nar- ever, had not submitted its report at the else in APSA history, was selected on row the field to those scholars the strength of only one letter. eligible by virtue of superior Does "two-in-a-row" prove that the scholarship, then the particular glass ceiling is broken? Is it a large combination of qualifications A nnentoring program crack, or is the ceiling truly gone? Only desired in a president-elect will time will tell. Certainly this particular vary from year to year. The COU lid combat the subtle nominating committee deserves congrat- APSA Nominating Committee p i ulations, as do all involved in this thus routinely shifts its emphasis Pr Ychological phenom- excellent move toward greater equality to reflect different methodologi- ena within APSA. I hope APSA will con- cal orientations, substantive area i that work against tinue the momentum in this direction of concentration, and other f II and will institute additional institutional diverse constituency considera- gender equality or structural changes that could help tions, such as ethnicity and uni- Wit further open its power structure to versity affiliation. Such factors hin political science women, and to other minorities. I con- are widely accepted as valid as i clude by suggesting one such proposal, reasons for deviating from the a profession. in outline form. single-best criterion. (We would not choose for five years in a row politi- time this article went to press.) On the cal scientists teaching constitutional law whole, my sense is that WCPS mem- Mentor Program at Yale, for example, even if these five bers ended by feeling ambivalent about were, by some measure, the five "best" the selection process. Members felt the A mentoring program could combat political scientists in the world.) My existing system carried the potential for the subtle psychological phenomena that sense is that many of the slate-making replicating existing power structures, work against full gender equality within requirements (gender, race, field, geo- but they feared that a move to competi- political science as a profession. To graphical, and institutional diversity) are tive elections would jeopardize the attack the underlying psychological fac- now conveyed informally. It might serve access to APSA power of women and tors that may act as choke points early a useful purpose to have the Council go other minorities. in a woman's career, choke points that on record as favoring these and other Fall 2001 found little political activity prevent women from achieving their full qualities in nominees. in terms of APSA elections. Since I no professional and intellectual potential WCPS members spoke with APSA longer chaired the WCPS Nominating and which cheat APSA of their full officers and Council members before the Committee, my information is second- contribution, I encourage APSA to April 2001 Council meeting, asking hand, but my sense is that the WCPS consider institutionalizing a mentor pro- them to make a more determined insti- believed it unlikely that it would be suc- gram. Doing so would help increase the tutionalized effort to enter gender into cessful with a second female president pool of available talent by attacking the the equation by which presidents-elect so it was content to rest on its laurels. Ginger Rogers syndrome in its early are chosen. We noted that the Western Ironically, the events of September 11 stages. Political Science Association does this provided an unexpected rekindling of There are many choke points in ca- with no difficulty, just as it has insti- interest in Rudolph, as APSA-along reer growth and advancement, but only tuted a nonbinding and informal process with the rest of the United States- some occur in the form of outright in which the presidency rotates each realized the importance of having at its discrimination prohibited by law. For year between someone from California helm someone who had spent her entire example, many women become dis- and someone from the other states. We professional life trying to understand the couraged by the complexities of bal- were fortunate that one of the recom- problems of communication when East ancing family life with careers, and mendations of the Strategic Planning meets West. In a further irony, the inter- drop out or curtail their professional Report, presented at the April 2001 est in Rudolph emanated not from Pere- activities early in their professional Council meetings, contained a provision stroikans or the WCPS but from within lives. Role models help tremendously- similar to this recommendation. the APSA power structure. Private con- hence the need for more female APSA Despite reservations expressed by a versations with several members of the officers-but so do explicit encourage- few Council members, the resolution 2002 APSA Nominating Committee-a ment and personal advice. The kind of passed and should encourage the future committee distinguished by particularly mentor program I propose would pro- selection of female APSA presidents- strong women-suggested a Rudolph vide guidance on scholarship and ca- elect in a far less politicized context nomination might be well received. reer development, and thus help with than the one that existed in 2001. Rudolph herself expressed reluctance to the prerequisites for APSA executive be nominated again and the WCPS felt positions. But mentoring should not be bound to respect her wishes. In order to viewed only as a tool to widen the Shattering the Ceiling? keep her candidacy alive, the decision road to APSA offices. Suggestions on was made to have a private member how others have "done it" also will be Given the above, the mood at the submit her name to the Nominating invaluable in helping people conceptu- 2001 APSA meeting was one of cele- Committee. The argument was made that alize their way out of situations that bration for WCPS members. Any con- the moment was right for this particular initially seem to be irreconcilable con- tentious issues concerning APSA offices presidency and that "two in a row" flicts. It is important to remember that were focused on general concerns with would shatter the glass ceiling and be a not all of us will be Elinor Ostroms,

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This content downloaded from 130.132.173.39 on Tue, 24 Jan 2017 18:52:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Susanne Rudolphs, Judith Shklars, or Nor do we want to establish a pattern of importance of internalized psychological Theda Skocpols. Simply providing an only men mentoring women (somewhat forces that influence our behavior. To il- understanding of how people carve out patronizing) or of only women mentoring lustrate the importance of others in com- a meaningful personal and productive women (too exclusionary). Much of the bating the Ginger Rogers syndrome, let professional life would be a valuable matching of mentors should be dictated me conclude by noting a variant on a service. by specialization and substantive knowl- famous set of cognitive psychology ex- Though smaller mentor programs al- edge. This is fine tuning; a committee periments. The particular experiment that ready exist," a national mentor program can address such issues once a mentor- intrigued me is a variant on a set of could draw on the tremendous untapped ing program is put into place. well-known experiments dealing with vi- talent of senior scholars who have suc- 2. The Association could provide staff sual perception. This modification deals ceeded in the profession and who would necessary to organize the communication with visual cliffs and suggests that peo- be willing to provide advice, entree, and and set up the initial contacts. External ple will attempt to overcome seemingly encouragement to others. Such a pro- funding, such as that provided through insurmountable obstacles if given the gram would encourage women to take the NSF Advance Programs, might be necessary encouragement of those they the risks necessary to grow, profession- applied for by APSA in the initial stages. trust. ally and intellectually, and to open But the costs of this program are not ex- Traditional experimental work on doors they never knew existed. cessive, and could be covered by APSA perception has long determined that Mentoring is a complex phenomenon money and by asking each young scholar infants-baby lambs as well as human and there will be many issues to resolve to contribute a small fee (say $5) and babies-can visually recognize drops as a mentor program is instituted. Cer- each of the senior participants to con- into space, referred to as visual cliffs. tainly, we need intellectual mentoring, tribute a larger fee (say $25-$50). A There seems to be an inborn protective in which ideas are discussed and nur- reception should be held each year to mechanism that allows infants to tured and in which an older generation honor the participants, much as the Inter- perceive and hence avoid the dangers of shows newcomers what a scholar is and national Society for Political Psychology these visual cliffs. These experiments does. We also need institutionalized holds young scholars' reception at its usually are interpreted as evidence of mentoring as socialization within the annual meetings. the hardwiring or biological underpin- profession and mentoring for executive 3. The Council could designate at nings of certain behaviors. positions within APSA as an associa- least one Council member each year to I was told of one variation of these tion. Such mentoring should stress early be in charge of the mentor program. experiments, however, in which babies professional socialization in a more self- This person should have a high profile- were placed on one countertop and the conscious manner designed to make it perhaps a past president or vice presi- babies' mothers stood beside a second more likely that women get the prepara- dent. This person would establish ties to countertop. Although the two counter- tion many-although certainly not all- the WCPS and, eventually, to the other tops were connected by a piece of clear men have typically received. In doing groups that deal with the problems of but firm plexiglass, the visual appear- so, we must remember how subtle and minorities, since mentoring could prof- ance was of a cliff. Since the infants mindlessly any network functions-be it itably be expanded to include not only lacked the knowledge and the cognitive of the "old boy" or the "ageless women but also other minorities.13 ability to distinguish between the plexi- woman" variety-not in any conspirato- Ironically, a mentor program also glass and a cliff, the covering that to rial or malicious fashion but through a would provide a valuable service to the adults was easily and reliably thoughtless process in which men "natu- senior scholars. Many seniors often feel traversed appeared to the infants as a rally" speak with other men about how passed by at the Annual Meetings. visual cliff, a dangerous drop forming to write an article, where to submit Mentoring would be a valuable way to an insurmountable barrier between the grants, or how to muster resources so as draw on their store of knowledge and infant and the mother. To reach the to put their best foot forward.'2 remind them that they still have an mother, then, the baby had to crawl To initiate a mentor program, APSA important function to play in the asso- across what looked like empty space. could establish a committee, consisting ciation, even if their days of active Remarkably, some babies were willing of the current associational officers who scholarship are in the past. Mentoring to do so, but only if the mother showed hold honorific titles (vice presidents and may counteract some of the isolation encouragement by her facial gestures. secretaries) to work out the details and that may occur as a result of fame, as Babies whose mothers smiled at them, to decide which aspects of mentoring well as age. And, of course, we all babies who were encouraged by those APSA may reasonably hope to influence. know that teachers often learn as much they loved and trusted, would crawl out It is premature, and would be presump- as the students do from the teaching over the visual cliff. Minus such tuous of me to offer any one solution to experience. So it is with mentoring. encouragement, if the mother remained this complex problem. But to encourage passive or showed fear, babies would such discussion, I offer three opening not risk venturing the danger. They suggestions. stayed where they were. 1. Each Council member could be re- From Glass Ceiling to Glass Bridge The political science community sponsible for involving five senior schol- could help shatter the glass ceiling if ars in the mentor program each year. Why should APSA do all this? To en- we would establish institutionalized Past APSA presidents could form part of sure equity, to create goodwill, to avoid mechanisms to encourage women-and this group, as could former APSA offi- wasting valuable talent, and because a other minorities-to find ways to tra- cers and Council members and volun- vast body of scholarly work tells us how verse professional hurdles that can feel teers. Senior women should be active important others are in creating both our as threatening as crossing a visual participants, but should not be the only own sense of self and our subsequent cliff. Doing so would help turn the mentors, for many reasons, e.g., there are behavior.'4 As a scholar concerned with glass ceiling into a glass bridge, and too few of them, they are already over- identity's tremendous power to shape would enrich everyone in the loaded with professional activities, etc. our acts, I am continually struck by the profession.

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1. I have found this phrase attributed to vari- elected in 1996. Skocpol's term as president be- 11. I have participated in the Mentor Pro- ous people, from Ronald Reagan to Ann gins in September 2002, and Rudolph's in 2003. gram sponsored by the Women's Caucus of the Richards. 6. The same selection system supplies the MPSA for several years and it is highly 2. In this analysis, I do not address questions other officers and Council members. The prob- successful, although small. of salary, initial discrimination in hiring and lem is that the norms of presidential selection 12. When I began my career, the NSF officer promoting women within universities and col- tend toward the "best," while the selection of came to speak with the young scholars about leges, choke points in career paths, or the situa- Council members and other officers is more grant opportunities. I later learned that some of tion for women outside the Association itself, self-consciously representative of the Associa- the best advice happened to be dispensed in the although all of these factors are related. I focus tion membership as a whole. men's bathroom. There was no malice afore- on two closely related phenomena, which I find 7. APSA's electoral system is currently under thought, but I certainly wasn't privy to this critical to attaining gender equality in political examination and proposals for reform may have conversation. science as a profession: institutional reforms to been made public by the time this article goes 13. Special attention might be paid to ensure equal access to women and the underly- to press. women-of color, lesbian, Latino, Asian, ing psychological factors that inhibit women in 8. Terminology becomes confusing here since etc.-who may be subject to more than one their move toward full equality. the person who is president-elect when his (I form of discrimination. Mentoring also should 3. I ignore the situation for minorities be- choose the pronoun deliberately) choices for the be sure to include some provision for those cause of space constraints. Nominating Committee are given to the Council who choose to work in nonacademic settings. 4. Council statistics are current as of 2000 for approval becomes president at the business 14. I draw on clinical work in psycho- and were provided by Theresa Gubicza of the meeting the next day. So by the time the Nom- analysis, developmental psychology, and experi- APSA Staff. I am grateful to Sue Davis, Rob inating Committee actually meets, the people mental cognitive science that focuses on the Hauck, and Sean Twombly for sending me ear- who have selected them are the president and prelanguage perceptual memory and the impor- lier pieces of raw data, and to Rob Hauck and the past-president. tance of affect in recognition memory and a Catherine Rudder for their helpful comments. 9. Our nominee resembled many other creation of the core self and others. This is a Rebecca Segrest compiled the statistical infor- female scholars of her generation who did not vast literature and is perhaps best summarized mation. David Easton provided research assis- seek attention or controversy because of their in Ster 1985. Although Stern alludes to the tance necessary to fill in some of the missing gender yet found themselves being trail-blazers, experiment I describe below, I have been un- data points in the data set supplied me by the first to challenge a male taboo or infiltrate able to locate the precise article reproducing the APSA. I have not updated these statistics to a male establishment. It requires a particular particular experiment I refer to in the text. (I factor in the most recent set of nominations. courage and dignity for a gentle scholar to be hope this particular finding is more than an Martha Ackelsberg, Judith Baer, Gayle Binion, put on the frontline of a political movement, expression of optimism on the part of the psy- and Georgia Duerst-Lahti generously provided and I am grateful to her, and to all the women choanalytic community!) I believe the experi- comments on early drafts of this article, as did of her generation, for their inspirational efforts. ment may have been conducted by Eleanor J. Laura Scalia. 10. A seventh of our original nominees, Gibson, and am grateful to Dr. Robert Keller 5. The first woman president was Judith Arlene Saxonhouse, later asked to be dropped for drawing it to my attention. See also Pick Shklar, chosen in 1989. Elinor Ostrom was from the list for personal reasons. 1979 and Gibson 1969.

References

Gibson, Eleanor J. 1969. Principles of Percep- Stern, Daniel N. 1985. The Interpersonal World tual Learning and Development. New York: of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis Appleton-Century-Crofts. and Development Psychology. New York: Pick, Ann D., ed. Perception and Its Develop- Basic Books. ment: A Tribute to Eleanor J. Gibson. 1979. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

242 PS June 2002

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