9780521584609 Index.Pdf

Cambridge University Press 0521584604 - An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles John Holm Index More information

Index



Page numbers in italics refer to maps; headings in bold are languages (or varieties). The following abbreviations are used: def., deﬁned; P/C, pidgin and/or creole; see also key to maps 1 and 2.

abbreviations and symbols, xvii–xviii, 107 phonological influence of, 26, 31, 63, abolition of slavery, 22, 83, 88, 94 137–70 passim abrupt creolization, 8 (def.), 68 retention in New World, 114 acrolect, 10 (def.), 19, 20, 51, 140, 212 syntactic influence of, 171–236 passim Adam, L., 15, 28–31 Afrikaans, xix, 35, 65–6, 70, 81, 84, 108, 197, adjectival verbs, 118, 179, 200–1, 211–12 202, 213, 215, 219–20, 233 and ‘be’, 118, 200–1, 204–5 Afro-Asiatic languages, 14, 216 and preverbal markers, 118, 182, 187, 212 Afro-Seminole CE, 92 comparison, 32, 210–12 agglutination, 128–9 fronting, 202, 212 Aitchison, J., 101 with completive, 187 Akan languages, 63, 160–1, 208, 225, 231 with progressive, 182 Alaska, 102 adjective-forming suffix, 100 al-BakrC, A., 15 adjectives, 179 alienable/inalienable, 219 comparison, 32, 210–12 Alleyne, M., 47, 62 position in NP, 217 allomorphs, 63, 89 versus verbs, 118–19, 200–1, 211–12 allophones, 59 adstrate, 12 (def.), 122–6, 137, 238 palatals as, 158 adults and creolization, 8 Allsopp, R., 45 adult second-language acquisition, American Black English, see African American see second-language acquisition Vernacular English adverbs as tense markers, 80, 101 American Indian English/PE, 30, 93 affinities among creoles Amerindian languages, 125–6 lexicosemantic, 106–36 pidgins based on, xx, 69 phonological, 137–70 analytic structure, 50 syntactic, 58, 61–2, 171–237 anaphors, 193 Africa, 71–2 Anderson, R., 4 African American Vernacular English, 3, 10, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 103 27, 33, 38, 41, 50, 52, 54, 56–7, 66, 70, Anglo-Romani, 11 92, 148, 151, 185, 188, 195, 198, 204, Anglo-Saxon, 15, 16 208–9, 217, 226, 235–6 Angola, 71, 73–4, 172 Africanists, 64, 164 Angolar CP, xix, 12, 67, 72–5 African languages adjectives, 212, 217 lexical influence on creoles, 26, 113–22; anterior, 179 calques, 119–21; lexical items, 113–16; complementizer, 193–4 reduplication, 121–2; semantic influence, completive, 186–7 116–19; syntactic influence on creole forms of ‘be’, 198, 202, 205 lexicons, 188–90 habitual, 184–5 P/Cs based on, xx, 101 irrealis, 188–90



Index

lexicon, 74 Atlantic creoles, 12 (def.), 32, 58, 61–2, 68, 71, negation, 196–7 171, 174, 193, 224, 233, 238–40 noun phrase, 216–17 attrition, 11 (def.) phonological features, 74–5 Aub-Buscher, G., 111 possession, 221 Australia, 4, 96–9 prepositions, 232 Australian CE, xx, 69, 92, 95 progressive, 182 Austronesian languages, 95, 100, 182, 187, pronouns, 225 215, 222–3 serial verbs, 207, 211 P/Cs based on, xx sociolinguistic history, 72–5 autonomy of P/Cs, 17, 19, 22, 97, 197 text, 75 auxiliary verbs and preverbal markers, 172, unmarked verbs, 177 174, 180, 185, 190 word order, 236 Azores, 71, 125 Anguila, xxii animate/inanimate, 215–16, 218 /b/, /v/ alternation, 162–3 Annamese, see Vietnamese Baba Malay, xx Annobón CP, xix, 30, 41, 73 babu language, 41 (def.) anterior tense, 17, 28, 49, 118–19, 175–6, baby talk theory, 33 178–9, 181, 191, 201 Bahamian CE, xxi, 110, 126, 185, 215, 224, plus completive, 186–7 226, 236 plus habitual, 183, 186 Bailey, B., 45, 51, 55, 93 plus irrealis, 189–90 Bailey, C., 55 plus progressive, 182 baixo português, 9 Antigua, xxii Baker, P., 56 aphasics, 2 Bakker, P., 66 aphesis, 141 (def.) Baltic German, 102 apicals, 161 (def.), 162 Bambara, 87, 124, 145, 161, 172, 174, 176, apocope, 141 (def.) 179, 181, 183, 187–8, 200, 223, 227 apport, 115 (def.) Bantu languages, 11, 31, 73, 117, 144–5, 147, Arabic, 102–3 152, 154, 173, 200, 209–10, 218, 224 dialects, 103, 216 Barbadian CE, xxii, 93, 224 P/Cs based on, xx, 12, 14–15, 39, 60, base language, 1 (def.) 101–5, 140, 240; see also Nubi Creole basilect, 10 (def.), 51, 93–4, 140, 200, 212, Arabic 216, 222, 226, 236 Arawakan languages, 76, 86, 93, 125 Basque, Pidgin, xx, 102 archaic features, 37, 106, 108–10, 119, 146, Baugh, J., 57 154, 197 Bay Islands English, xxi and regionalisms, 91, 108, 110, 129, 131, Bazaar Malay, 69, 238 135, 143, 160–1, 181, 192 ‘be’, 55, 61, 79, 95, 119, 178, 197–205, 239 areal phenomena, 50 before adjectives, 57–8, 95, 118–19, 179, articles, 32, 61, 128 198–201 deﬁnite versus demonstrative, 32, 213–14, before locatives, 49, 95, 179, 198–201, 205 216 before nouns, 197–99, 205 indeﬁnite, 214, 216 before verbs, 181 zero for generic, 61, 214 etymon of anterior marker, 178 Aruba, xxii, 76–9 highlighter, 95, 198, 201–5 Ashanti, 82, 208, 227 patterns, 204–5 Asian languages Beach-la-mar PE, 95, 97 P/Cs based on, xx Belizean CE, xxi Asian varieties of CP, 220 Benin, 73 asiento, 77 (def.) Benue-Congo languages, 233 aspect, 101, 174 (def.), 180 Berbice CD, xxi, 49, 80, 84, 113, 128, 173, Assamese, 102 196, 198, 201, 208–9, 217, 219–20, 225, assimilation 230, 233 of nasality, 149 Bhojpuri, 11 of vowel height, 151–3 Bible, translation into P/Cs, 19, 20 associative plural, 215, 217 bibliographies of P/Cs, 38



Index

Bickerton, D., 4, 41, 55–6, 58, 60, 100, 138, Central American CE, 92, 126 171–3, 184, 188–91, 231–2 and Spanish, 126 bilingualism, 40, 78, 88, 90, 94 certain/uncertain future, 189, 191 bilingual mixtures, 11 (def.) Chabacano CS, 76 bimorphemic question words, 84, 226 Chadic languages, 216 Bini, 75, 145, 152, 188 Chagos Archipelago CF, xx bioprogram, 60 (def.), 61, 63 Chapuis, D., 70 Bismarck Archipelago, 96 Chaudenson, R., 41, 65–6 Black English, American, see African Chickasaw, 102 American Vernacular English child language, 2, 58–9 Bloomfield, L., 1, 33, 38, 52 children and creolization, 8 Boas, F., 30 China, 18, 97 ‘body’ as quasi-reflexive, 25, 29, 225 China Coast Pidgin, see Chinese PE Bombo, 104 Chinese, 28 Bonaire, xxii, 76–9 Chinese PE, xix, 18, 46, 69, 95, 97 Boretzky, N., 62–3, 228–30 Chinese Pidgin Russian, xx, 102, 108 borrowing, 10, 31 Chinook, 102 of creole features, 10 Chinook Jargon, xx, 36, 39, 102 Bosnian Pidgin German, 102 Choctaw, 102 Bougainville, 96 Chomsky, N., 54, 58, 171 bound morphemes, 128, 130 circumlocution, 5, 108 (def.) Brandenburg-Prussia, 82 classification of P/Cs, 50 Brazil, 4, 27, 41, 72–3, 76, 81, 84–5 class prefixes, 113, 216 Brazilian Vernacular Portuguese, 10, 27, 41, clitics, 127–8 65–6, 70, 72, 76, 149, 164, 196, 200, 202 co-articulated stops, 139–40, 153–5 British empire, 91–2 nasal, 155 Brown, P., 6 Coastal Malay, see Malay (restructured) buccaneers, 86–7 Cockney, 110 Bundu, see KiMbundu code-switching, 100 ’buttocks’ as quasi-reflexive, 226 Coelho, F., 27, 30 cognition, 59, 138 Cajun French, 86 coining, 312 calquing, 37, 47, 107, 119 (def.), 120–1, 131, Colombia, 124 133, 209, 238 Spanish in, 197 Cameroonian PE, xix, 92, 107–8, 232 colonial dialects, 41 (def.), 111 Canada, 102 colonial English and creoles, 111 Canton, 95 colonialism, 69–70, 100, 238 Cape of Good Hope, 71 combining preverbal markers, 190–2 Cape Verde CP, xix, 4, 27, 30, 31, 71–2, 76, Comité‚ International des Études Créoles, 57, 176, 198, 201, 211, 213, 225 66 Cape Verde Islands, xix, 27, 71, 74 common features, see affinities among creoles Cape York CE, see Torres Strait CE Commonwealth Antillean CF, 85 Carib, 125 Commonwealth Windward Islands CE, xxi jargon, 17 comparative studies of creoles Caribbean CE, xxi–xxii, 188, 209, 221–2, 226 across lexical boundaries, 44, 177 in Britain, 93, 209 and substrate languages, 62 Caribbean CF, xxi–xxii, 222 English-based, 37 palatalization, 159–60 French-based, 37 Caribbean creoles, xxi–xxii, 36, 60, 92, 201 Portuguese-based, 37 Caribbean nonstandard Spanish, 66, 76, 197, 200 comparison of adjectives, 32, 210–12 Carrier Pidgin, 57 complementary distribution, 158 Carter, H., 164–5, 167–9 complementizers, 55, 61, 192–4, 207, 240 case marking, 193, 222, 226 and unrealized actions, 61, 194 Cassidy, F., 45, 53, 67, 93, 124 desiderative, 192 Cayenne CF, see Guyanais CF inceptive, 192 Caymanian English, xxi purposive, 192 Central African Republic, 101 serial ‘say’, 194



Index

complements, 135 Cuba, 41, 93 completive aspect, 29, 124, 175–6, 186–7, Spanish in, 41 191, 201, 207 Curaçao, xxii, 76–9, 83 complexity, structural, 197, 205, 214, 237, 240 Danish, 19, 81–2, 84, 126 compound words, 104, 130–2 Danish West Indies, 18, 81–3 conditional, 187, 189, 190–1 DeCamp, D., 45, 48, 52–4, 93 conferences on P/Cs, 45, 47, 57, 66 decreolization, 10 (def.), 33, 38, 49, 50, 52, conjunctions, 223, 227–8 78, 115, 135, 140, 145, 151, 181, 191, connotation, loss of, 112 195, 213, 225, 236 conservative creoles, 84, 140, 142, 144, 191, deep structure, 55 212, 230, 239 definite articles, 213–14, 216–17 consonant clusters, 84, 90, 140, 144 definiteness, 214–15 final, 129 definitions, problems with, 4ff., 68–71, initial, 144 237–8 consonants, 153–63 DeGraff, M., 90, 174, 240 contact jargons, 96, 106 deixis, 204, 213 contact linguistics, 13, 66 de Josselin de Jong, J., 36, 84 continuative, see progressive aspect de Kleine, C., 174, 210 continuity and genetic relatedness, 42–4, 137 Delaware Jargon, xx, 17, 102 continuum, creole, 3, 10 (def.), 33, 45, 49–57, deletion of ‘be’, see ‘be’, before adjectives and 100, 108, 212, 223 before locatives continuum, dialect, 52–3 demonstratives 32, 212, 214–15, 217 contractions, see elision of vowels denasalization, 151 convergence, 12 (def.), 137, 139, 169, 185, Denmark, 81–2 188, 209, 217, 224 depalatalization, 159 conversion rules, 53–4 derivational morphemes, 60, 100, 127 copula, see ‘be’ as distinct elements, 130 Corne, C., 85 determiners, 212–14, 240 Costa Rican CE, xxi devoicing of final stops, 100 counterfactual, 179 dialect leveling, 10, 11, 65 count nouns, 135 primary versus secondary, 10 Cree, 11 dialects, P/Cs as, 43, 51 creole features, 10 (def.), 50 dialects of P/Cs, 40, 67, 78–9, 223 creole prototype, 66 dialect studies, 2, 29, 110–11 creoles, 6–9 (def.), 31, 68–71, 237–8 dictionaries, see lexicography influence on superstrates, 52, 120 Diego Garcia CF, xx origin of term, 9 diffusion, 31, 47, 49, 50–60, 63, 96, 173, 209, systematicity, 214, 240 220, 225–6, 238–9 validity of term, 66 diglossia, 45, 88, 108 versus non-creoles, 174 Dillard, J., 23, 52 créoles endogènes, see fort creoles diphthongs, 95, 148 créoles exogènes, see plantation creoles displacement of speakers, 7, 40, 61 CreoLIST, 65 distance, social, 6 Creolist Archives website, 64 domains of use, 5, 11, 68, 98–9, 100, 108 creolistics (see also pidgin and creole studies), Dominica CF, xxii, 85, 198 9 (def.), 14–67 Dominican Republic, xxii, 86 and general linguistics, 3–4, 34, 42 English in, 92 creolists Haitian CF in, 90 addresses, 65 Spanish in, 66, 70 and language planning, 4 Doppelzugehörigkeit, see double identity in the Caribbean, 46 do support, 234 creolization, 6–9 (def.), 25, 68–71, 135 double identity, 239 of cultures, 37 downstep, 167 (def.) creolizing languages, 51 Dravidian languages, 220 creoloid, 10 (def.) dual (versus singular), 100, 223–4 cross-lexical-base comparison, 31–2, 44 Duke of York Island, 98



Index

durative, see progressive aspect, and habitual expansion (linguistic), 7 Dutch, 19, 22–3, 173, 217, 233 extended pidgin, see expanded pidgin in Ceylon, 35 extension of rules, 141 in the Netherlands Antilles, 76, 78 external influence, see substrate; adstrate in New Jersey, 41 in Suriname, 126, 209 fá d’Ambo, see Annobón CP Dutch-based P/Cs, xix, 80–1 Faine, J., 38 Dutch Brazil, 77, 81, 92 family tree model, 29, 49 Dutch Brazilian Jews, 48, 77–8, 92, 124 Fanakalo or Fanagalo, xx, 39, 69, 101, 238 Dutch empire, 81 Fante, 63, 152, 160–1, 229, 231 Dutch Leeward Islands, 76 Faraclas, N., 96, 174 Dutch Windward Islands CE, xxi Ferguson, C., 58–9, 88 Dutton, T., 98–9 Fernandino CE, xix, 233 Dyula or Dioula, 87, 145, 172 Ferraz, L. (see also Ivens Ferraz, L.), 74 Fiji Hindustani, 102 early creolization, see abrupt creolization Fijian, Pidgin, xx, 102 early pidgin, 5 (def.) first known Eastern Caribbean CE, 92, 184–5, 225 comparative study, 22 Eastern Ijo (see also Ijo), 113, 128, 173, 231 Creole English text, 18 East Indians, 94 Creole Portuguese text, 17 educational problems of P/C speakers, 4, 39, creole study, 19 52 creole text, 17 Efik, 115, 233 pidgin text, 15 Egyptian, ancient, 14 use of ‘creole’, 16 electronic mail, 64 use of ‘pidgin’, 25 Creolist discussion group, 65 first-language acquisition, 2, 7, 8, 58–61, Elgibali, A., 15 68 elision of vowels, 143–5 Fly Taal, 81 embedding, 6, 9, 101 focused speech communities, 2, 64 (def.) of questions, 235–6 Fon or Fon-Gbe, 49, 87, 172 emphatic particle, see highlighter ‘for’ enclave varieties, 11, 41 as complementizer, 192–4 England, regional dialects of, 109–11, 147, as modal, 194 185, 188, 192 as possessive marker, 221 English, 65, 76, 100, 180, 187, 217 as preposition, 108, 192 creolist literature in, 65 foreigner talk, 2, 7, 33, 58–9 in the Caribbean, 83, 91–2 Forros, 72, 75 English-based P/Cs, xix, xxi fort creoles, 40–1 Atlantic group, 91–3 fossilized inflections, 128–9, 215 Pacific group, 95–6 français avancé, 65 (def.) epenthesis, 19, 84, 142–4, 152–3 free morphemes, 12, 32, 128, 130, 171, 215 equative ‘be’, 197–9, 204–5 French, 11, 15, 187 Equatoria, 103 archaic and regional, 65, 91 ergative constructions, 117 (def.) creolist literature in, 65 Eritrean Pidgin Italian, xx, 102 in Réunion, 65, 86 Eskimo Trade Jargon, xx, 39, 102 in the Caribbean area, 86 ethnic reference, language of, 7, 8 French, Pidgin, 17, 85, 145 Études Créoles, 57 French Antillean CF, 85, 228 euphemisms and semantic shift, 134 French-based P/Cs, xix, xx, 37, 47, 57, European-based P/Cs, 39 85–6 Ewe, 37, 44, 87, 140, 145, 152, 155, 172, 188, French empire, 85–6 196, 208, 210, 213, 223, 227, 231, 236 French Guiana, xxii, 28, 85 exclusive/inclusive pronouns, 100, 223–4 French Guiana CF, see Guyanais CF existential constructions, 25, 61, 200, 205 French revolution, 88 expanded pidgin, 5 (def.), 6–8, 41, 68, 95–6, French West Africa, 85 101, 107 French West India Company, 87 expansion (European), 16ff. Frisian, 215



Index

fronting, 234 Gurenne, 225 of nouns, 61, 201–3 Guyana, xxii, 80–1 of verbs, 32, 201–2, 211–12 Guyanais CF, xxi, 24, 28, 62, 142, 200, 203, front rounded vowels, 15, 90, 145 216, 218, 228 Fula, 164 Guyanese CE, xxi, 49, 56, 84, 92, 125, 192, function words, miscellaneous, 227–33, 240 198 functional load, 146, 165 Gypsy, see Romani future (see also irrealis), 80, 84, 101, 124, 187–8, 190 /h/~ 0⁄ before initial vowel, 109–10 certain versus uncertain, 189 habitans, 87 (def.) immediate, 182, 184, 189 habitual aspect, 84, 101, 175–6, 180–6, 188 with anterior, 189–90 habitual be, 185 Haitian CF, xxi, 4, 12, 20, 28, 37–8, 42, 49, Gã, 208 62, 108, 115, 130, 140, 178, 181, 188 Galician, 77, 80 adjectives, 211–12 Gambian Krio CE, xix anterior, 179 Gaulish, 34 complementizer, 192–4 gemengde taal, 35 completive, 186–7 gender, 216–17 conjunctions, 227 in pronouns, 216–17, 222 determiners, 212, 214 natural, 119–20, 212, 216 emigrant communities, 90 generative grammar, 45, 49, 54–5 forms of ‘be’, 198, 200, 202–5 genetic linguistics, 65 habitual, 184–5 genetic relatedness, 3, 26, 34, 43, 239 irrealis, 188–90 German, 98, 100, 214 lexicon, 90–1 creolist literature in, 65 negation, 194 influence on Tok Pisin, 98, 100 noun phrase, 216–17 restructured, 102 orthography, 89 German colonies, 96–7, 102 phonological features, 90–1, 147–8, 150, 152 Germanic languages, 15, 217 plural, 212, 215 of the second generation, 239 possession, 221 Germany, 96–7 prepositions, 229–32 Ghana, 82 progressive, 182 Givón, T., 60 pronouns, 224–6 glottochronology, 3, 42 (def.), 43 regional varieties, 90 Goa, 27 sentence-final -o, 232–3 Göbl-Gáldi, L., 37 serial verbs, 206–7, 210–11 Goodman, M., 37–8, 45, 47–8, 64, 76–7, 82, sociolinguistic history, 85–90 84 substrate, 172 gradience in creolization, 66, 70 texts, 91 gradual creolization, 8 (def.), 68 unmarked verbs, 177 gradualist model of creolization, 64 verbal markers, 175–6 Grebo, 188 word order, 235–6 Greek, 14 Hall, R., 37, 42, 45, 48, 58, 61, 90 koine, 35 Hancock, I., 37, 110–11 Green, K., 66, 70 Handelssprache, see trade language Greenberg, J., 171–2, 240 Hausa, 216 Greenfield, W., 22 Hawaiian CE, xix, 38, 60, 64, 95, 125 Grenada, xxi, 85 ‘head’ as quasi-reflexive, 225 Guadeloupe CF, xxii, 85 Hebrew, 67, 209 Guiné-Bissau CP, xix, 4, 8, 30, 72, 107, 198, Heine, B., 102 211, 229 Herlein, J., 18 Gulf of Guinea CP, xix, 72, 76, 152, 157, 184, Hesseling, D., 35–6, 82, 84 196 highlighter, 201 (def.) – 205, 234 Gullah CE, xix, 92, 115, 155, 157, 176, 188, and equative ‘be’, 204 208, 224 in verb fronting, 201–2 Gur languages, 154, 173, 206 with question words, 95, 202–3, 205



Index

Hindi, 21 in creoles, 127–8 Hindustani (see also Bhojpuri), 11 in non-creoles, 50 Hindustani, Pidgin (see also Fiji Hindustani), in semi-creoles, 10 xx, 102 loss of, 59, 65, 104 Hiri Motu, xx, 99, 102 innate language ability, 58, 60 Hispaniola, 86 inner form, 23, 32, 37 historical linguistics, 3, 21, 25, 45, 65, 137 innovation in creoles, 12, 26, 37, 185 Holm, J., 57, 62–3, 65–6, 96, 110, 174, 198 interdentals /f, j/, 74–5 Honduras, xxi, 126 interference, see transfer of features Hudson, R., 2 interlanguage, 10–11 (def.), 75 Huguenots, 86 intermarriage, 73, 78 Hull, A., 70 internal developments, 3, 12, 127, 132, 134, Hymes, D., 47 137, 171, 180, 185, 219 hypercorrection, 91, 141–3, 151, 195 Internet, 64 hypocorism, 121 (def.) interrogatives, phrasal, 61, 120, 226 intimate pronouns, 222 Ibibio, 115 intonation, 138, 163 Ibo or Igbo, 108, 115, 120, 145, 152, 188, 224, connotations, 168 227, 230–1 patterns, 165, 168 Iceland, 102 signalling questions, 234 identity, see social identity intonational languages, 164–5 idioms, substrate influence on, 32, 37, 120, inversion of subject/verb (or auxiliary), 234–6 238 Ireland, regional English of, 111, 129, 185, idiosyncratic factors, 35, 120, 223 235 Igbo, see Ibo Irish Gaelic, 185 Ijo (see also Eastern Ijo), 115, 152 irrealis (see also future; conditional), 175–6, immediate future, 182, 184, 189 184, 187–91, 207 immigrant koines, 11, 66 and anterior, 189–90 immigration and habitual, 84, 184 and language retention, 113, 116 and progressive, 191 and regionalisms, 110, 238 Islam, 103– 4 imperative as source of P/C verb, 59 Island Carib, 125 implicational scaling, 3, 54, 56, 192 Isle de France CF, 85 implosives, 154 Italian, 158 inalienable, 219 Italian, Pidgin, xx, 102 inanimate, 2l5–16, 218 iteration, 121 (def.), 167 inceptive completive, 187 iterative, see habitual aspect inchoative progressive, 182, 201 Ivens Ferraz, L. (see also Ferraz, L.), 37, inclusive/exclusive pronouns, 100, 223–4 73–4 indefinite articles, 214, 216 indefinites, negation of, 195 Jamaican CE, xxi, 12, 24, 63, 92, 115, 124, indentured labourers, 11, 74, 94, 96–8, 240 173 India, 21, 72, 81, 85, 102 adjectives, 211–12 Indian Ocean CF, 85 anterior, 179 indigenized varieties, 10 (def.), 67 complementizer, 194 Indo-European languages, 220, 226, 233 completive, 187 Indonesia, 81, 97, 102 determiners, 212 Indo-Portuguese CP, xix, 21, 27–8, 30, 40, 46, forms of ‘be’, 198–9, 200, 202–5 72, 84, 125, 219, 233 habitual, 184–5 infinitive marker, see complementizers influence on Haitian CF, 87 infinitives, 59, 180, 192, 233 irrealis, 188, 190 personal, 193 noun phrase, 216–17 inflections, 10, 12, 15, 21, 23, 32, 59, 65–6, phonological features, 94–5, 161, 168–9 104, 127–8, 171, 174, 177, 190, 216, possession, 221 218 prepositions, 232 borrowing of, 79, 127–8, 181 progressive, 182 fossilized, 128–9, 215 pronouns, 226



Index

serial verbs, 206, 211 labio-velar co-articulated stops, 154–5 sociolinguistic history, 93–4 Labov, W., 3, 54, 56–7, 195, 198 text, 95 Labrador, 102 unmarked verbs, 177 language acquisition, see ﬁrst-language verbal markers, 176 acquisition; second-language acquisition word order, 235–6 language bioprogram hypothesis, 60 (def.), Jamaican Maroons, 41, 93 61, 63 Japanese, 99, 100 language change, 2, 3, 56, 137, 214 Japanese, Pidgin, xx, 39, 102 contact-induced, 3 jargons, 5 (def.), 8, 11, 42, 69, 96, 237 rapid, 3, 25 Jesperson, O., 36 language contact, 2, 3, 20–1, 65, 125, 138 Jews (see also Dutch Brazilian Jews), 10, 15 and phonological change, 138 in Curaçao, 77–8, 124 non-intimate, 6, 7, 68, 12 in São Tomé, 73 language death/attrition, 11 (def.), 59, 81 in Suriname, 48, 92, 124 language drift, 10 (def.), 65 Jones, Sir William, 21 language-internal processes, see internal Journal of Creole Studies, 57 developments Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 57 language intertwining, 11 (def.), 66 Juba Pidgin Arabic, xx, 103 language mixture, 2, 11, 34–6 Judeo-Portuguese, 77, 80 language planning, 4, 99 Judeo-Spanish, 77, 80 language shift, 65, 75 imperfect, 10 (def.) Kaiser Wilhelmsland, 97 language transmission Kampala, 103–4 interrupted, 66 Kannada, 220 normal, 69, 238 Karipuna CF, 85 language universals, see universals Kaufman, T., 65 Latin, 2, 158, 214 Kay, P., 4, 59 of Jewish traders, 15 Kenya, 102–4 pidginized, 14 Kepiou, C., 96 Laubach, F., 89 Khamis, C. 174 Lawton, D., 45 Khartoum, 102 lax/tense vowels, 151–3 Khoekhoe or Khoi, 197, 220 League of Nations, 98 Khoisan languages, 220 Leeward Islands, 93 Kibera, 103–4 Leeward Islands CE (Commonwealth, see also Kikongo, see Kongo Dutch Leeward Islands), xxi kiMbundu (see also Bundu, Mbundu), 74, 116, Lefebvre, C., 49, 90 150, 210, 225 Lenape, 102 Ki-Nubi, see Nubi Creole Arabic length, 164–5 Kisetla Swahili, 69, 238 Leonese, 111 Kisi, 233 Le Page, R., 2, 45, 56, 64, 93 Kituba, xx, 69, 101, 113 Lesser Antillean CE, 92 Klao, 155, 233 Lesser Antillean CF, xxi, 43–4, 62, 85, 176 koineization, 6, 10 (def.), 11, 77 lexical gaps, 132 Kongo, 101, 145, 152, 157, 165, 196, 224 lexical groupings, 13 Koopman, H., 193 lexical properties (see also subcategorizational Kpelle, 233 rules), 122, 135, 236 Krapp, G., 52 lexicalization, 171 (def.) Krio CE, xix, 39, 92, 108, 142, 155, 198, 203, lexical source language (see also superstrate), 207–8, 210, 219–20, 224, 233 1 (def.), 4, 69, 96, 106, 135, 237–40 Kru, 119, 154–5, 233 lexicography, 4, 19, 24, 79 Kuanua, 98 lexicons of pidgins, 107–8, 133 Kwa languages, 62–3, 87, 144–5, 152, 154, lexicosemantics, 106–36, 172 172, 174, 206, 210–11, 218, 233 lexiﬁer, see lexical source language Liberian (Creole) English, xix, 92, 155, 232 /l/, /r/ alternation, 32, 161–2 Lichtveld, L., 37 labials, 162–3 life-cycle of P/Cs, 32–3, 42



Index

Lingala, xx, 39, 69, 101, 113 Mbundu, see kiMbundu Lingua Franca, xx, 14–16, 30, 46, 102 McConnell, O., 89 lingua francas, 41, 83, 96, 103 McWhorter, J., 49, 66 Língua Geral, xx, 39, 102 Mead, M., 6, 99 literacy and P/C speakers, 4, 19, 89 Meillet, A., 34 literature in creoles, 19, 21, 24, 89 Melanesian PE, 6, 30, 42, 96 liturgical languages, 20, 114 Mello, H., 4, 66, 70 loan translations, see calquing Mende, 157, 188, 233 locative ‘be’, 179, 199–200, 205 mengeltaal, 35–6 (def.) and progressive aspect, 180–1, 199–200 mesolect, 10 (def.), 51, 140, 185, 204, 209, 236 locative preposition, general, 108, 123 and zero copulas, 199 meaning ‘from’, 229 metaphor and semantic shift, 134 Lorenzino, G., 66, 75, 174, 223 metathesis, 143 (def.) Louisiana, 102 Michel, A., 174 Louisiana CF, xix, 24, 28, 85 Michif, 11, 66 Middle English, 15 Ma’a (see also Mbugu), 11 a creole? 15–16, 22 Macanese CP, xix, 27–8, 72 Miskito, 126, 135 Macao, 27 Miskito Coast CE, xxi, 135, 192, 194, 204, Macro-Chibchan languages, 125 214–15, 217, 221, 230, 234, 236 Madagascar, 85 preceding pidgin, 135 Madeira, 71, 125 missionaries, 17–19, 21, 83, 88, 97, 99 Magens, J., 19, 83 Missouri French, 11 Mahdist revolt, 103 mixed languages, 2, 11, 34–6 Makhudu, D., 66 mixing slaves by language, 113–14 Makista or Macaísta, see Macanese CP mnemonic devices, 131 Malacca, 72, 102 Mobilian Jargon, xx, 39, 102 Malagasy, 28–9, 215, 224 modality, 188 Malay, 215 Mongolia, 102 Malay, restructured (see also Baba Malay, monogenesis of creoles, 32, 35, 44–9, 58, 61, Coastal Malay), xx, 97–8, 102 106, 123 Malayo-Portuguese, xix, 20, 30, 35, 46, 213, of all languages, 21 215 monophthongization, 148 Malaysia, 81 Montserrat, xxii Malinke, 87, 172 Moravians, 18–22, 83 Manchuria, 102 morpheme boundary reanalysis, 107, 127–30, Mande languages, 87, 144–5, 154–5, 172–3, 239 206, 233 morphemes, new combinations, 79 Mandinka, 157, 181, 192–3, 198–200, 218, morphological changes, 127–32, 238 230–1 morphophonemic rules, 59 Mano, 233 Motu, 102 map of Caribbean area, xxi–xxii Mozambique, 74 map of world, xix–xx Mufwene, S., 63, 65 Marathi, 220 Mühlhäusler, P., 5, 96–9, 101, 107 marginal languages, 38 multidimensional continuum, 54, 56 Maridi Arabic, 14, 15 multifunctionality, 108 (def.), 135 markedness, 59–60, 139 multilingualism, 40, 54, 56, 79 maroon creoles, 41, 92, 114 Muslims, 103–4 Maroons, 73–4, 76, 92–4, 114 (def.) mutual intelligibility, 47, 54, 85, 104 Martinique, 17, 18, 87 of French-based creoles, 47, 85 Martinique CF, xxii, 17, 24, 85 of Jamaican E/CE, 54 masking, 115 (def.) of Juba and Nubi Arabic, 104 mass nouns, 135 Muysken, P., 66 Maurer, P., 67, 74, 76, 78, 164 Mauritania, 15 Nagamese, xx, 39, 102, 198, 204, 228, 233, Mauritian CF, xx, 24, 29, 38, 63, 85, 219, 224 235 Mbugu (see also Ma’a), 11 Nahuatl, 126



Index

Nairobi, 103 Netherlands Antilles, 4, 76, 81 Nama, 215 Nevis, xxii, 93 nasal consonants, 144, 153 New Britain, 96, 98 reconstruction of, 151 New Caledonian PF, xx, 85 nasalization of vowels, 26, 80, 140, 148–51, New Guinea (see also Papua New Guinea), 239 96–7, 102 phonetic versus phonemic, 149–51 New Hebrides (see also Vanuatu), 96 versus oral vowels before nasal consonants, New Ireland, 96–8 150 New Jersey, 80 nasal palatal consonant, 139, 153 new morpheme combinations, 130–2 nasal palatal glide, 80, 151 New York, 80–1 nativization 1, 7 (def.), 8, 68, 107, 138, 237 New York City, 90–1 nativization 2, 98 (def.) Nicaragua, xxi, 112, 126 natural evolutionary tendencies (see also Niger-Congo languages, 113, 147, 154, 172, language drift), 65 174, 183, 190, 200, 220, 233, 240 natural gender, 119–20, 212, 216 some subfamilies, 233 natural semantax, 60 typological similarity, 91, 172 nautical speech, 38, 65, 112, 160 Nigeria, 73 Ndingi, 75 Nigerian PE, xix, 92, 155, 225, 232 Ndyuka CE, xxi, 41, 92, 154, 157, 168, 224, Nilotic languages, 102 233 non-Atlantic creoles, 63, 71, 171, 174, 240 text, 8 non-intimate language contact, 6, 7, 68 Ndyuka-Trio Pidgin, 102 non-punctual aspect (see also habitual aspect; negation, 59, 61, 194–7 progressive aspect), 183 (def.) – 185, 191 discontinuous double negators, 196–7 nonstandard Brazilian Portuguese, see negative concord, 195–7 Brazilian Vernacular Portuguese utterance-ﬁnal, 195 Nootka, 102 verbal, 194–5 Norfolk Island CE, xix, 95 word order, 194–5, 234 Norman French, 15, 38 Negerhollands CD, xxi, 19, 22, 30, 35–6, 67, norms in pidgins, 5, 11 70, 110, 124, 143, 179, 181, 236 North American Indian English, 93 adjectives, 212, 217 North American varieties of CE, 92–3 anterior, 179 Norway, 102 complementizer, 193–4 notation, phonetic, 139, 146, 157–8 completive, 186–7 notional equivalents, 134–5 conjunctions, 227–8 noun adjuncts, 218 forms of ‘be’, 198, 201–3, 205 noun classes, see class preﬁxes habitual, 184–5 noun phrase, 212–26 irrealis, 188–90 Nuba Mountains, 102 lexicon, 84 Nubi Creole Arabic, xx, 12, 60, 140, 240 negation, 194 adjectives, 212 noun phrase, 216–17 anterior, 179 phonological features, 84, 159 complementizer, 193–4 plural, 84 completive, 187 possession, 84, 217–21 conjunctions, 227–8 prepositions, 230–2 determiners, 212 progressive, 182 forms of ‘be’, 198, 202–5 pronouns, 224, 226 habitual, 184–5 serial verbs, 206–9, 211 irrealis, 188–90 sociolinguistic history, 80–4 lexicon, 104 text, 85 negation, 195 unmarked verbs, 177 noun phrase, 216–17 verbal markers, 176 possession, 221 word order, 233, 235–6 prepositions, 232 Neogrammarians, 29 progressive, 182 Neo-Melanesian, see Melanesian PE; Tok Pisin pronouns, 222, 226 PE serial verbs, 206–11



Index

sociolinguistic history, 102–4 serial verbs, 206–7, 211 text, 104–5 sociolinguistic history, 76–9 unmarked verbs, 177 text, 80 word order, 234, 236 unmarked verbs, 177 number, 212, 215–16, 222–4 word order, 236 dual, trial, 223–4 Papua, 97–8 Nuyorican, 10 Papua New Guinea, 4, 96–102 paragogue, 84, 142 (def.), 152–3 -o, sentence-final, 232–3 parallel development, 32, 239 objects, 135 parameters of language, 58, 60 off-glides, 95, 147 Parkvall, M., 65 Oldendorp, C., 19–21, 83 Parsons, E., 36 on-glides, 95, 147 partial restructuring (see also semi- onomatopoeia, 122, 132 creolization), 41, 65–6, 72, 76, 236 oral versus nasal vowels before nasal passive constructions or equivalents, 25, 61, consonants, 150 79, 83, 104, 117 Orange River Afrikaans, 220 passivization, 117, 127 ordering of preverbal markers, 179, 190–2 ‘they’ passive, 117 origin of creoles, 27, 30, 36, 58 past participles, 127, 129, 178 orthography for P/Cs, 80, 89 past perfect, 178 outer form, 32 past tense, 101, 118–19, 175, 177–8 overdifferentiation of sounds, 138 (def.) forms as etyma, 129, 178 overseas regional varieties, 86, 91, 137 versus anterior, 178 Owens, J., 174 Patrick, P., 95, 177 perfect tenses, 128, 178, 186, 190 Pacific PE/CE, 57, 95–7, 222–4 perfective, see completive aspect palatal, 158 peripheral forms, 90 (def.), 91 affricates, 139 personal infinitive, 193 glide, 139 Petit-Goâve, 87 palatalization, 139, 157–61, 239 Philippine CS, xix, 30, 46, 69, 76 Palenquero CS, xxi, 76, 124, 164, 176, 196, phonaesthetic words 198, 201, 211, 215, 218, 224, 235 descriptive words, 200 Panamanian CE, xxi reduplication, 122 PAn.ini, 21 phonetics, 138–9 Papia, 58 notational system, 139, 146, 157–8 Papia Kristang CP, xix, 72, 225 phonology, 137–69 Papiamentu CS, xxi, 12, 21, 24–5, 28, 35, 62, of pidgins, 59 70, 84, 109–10, 124, 143, 178 phonotactics, 84, 110, 138, 140–5, 239 adjectives, 212 phrasal interrogatives, 84, 226 complementizer, 193–4 phrasal prepositions, 230–1, 240 completive, 186–7 phrasal verbs, 131 conjunctions, 227–8 pidgin, 4–6 (def.), 31, 61, 66, 68–71, 189, determiners, 212–13 237–8 forms of ‘be’, 198, 202–3 origin of term, 9, 25 habitual, 184–5 pidgin and creole studies irrealis, 188–90 eighteenth century, 18–21 lexicon, 79–80 nineteenth century, 21–34 negation, 194–7 early twentieth century, 35–42 noun phrase, 216–17 1950s, 42–4 past marker, 179 1960s, 44–9 phonological features, 80, 147, 152, 159, 1970s, 49–58 166 since 1980, 58–67 possession, 218–19, 221 pidginization, 4–6 (def.), 25, 34–5, 68–71, prepositions, 230–2 135, 214 progressive, 182 and second-language acquisition, 138 pronouns, 222, 225–6 and the lexicon, 107–8 sentence-final -o, 232–3, 236 Pitcairnese/Norfolk CE, 95, 223



Index

pitch, 164–5 preverbal markers, 17, 19, 32, 50, 79, 104, pitch-accent languages, 165 (def.), 169 117, 174–97, 239 pitch polarity, 169 ordering, 179, 190–2 plantation creoles, 40, 91–2 previous creolization, 3 playforms, 134 primary language, 7 pleonastic pronouns, 121 Príncipe CP, xix, 30, 73, 154, 166, 210, 212, plosives, 154 215, 223, 227, 229–32, 235 plural forms, 28, 215–16 private domains, 116 as etyma, 128–9, 215 progressive aspect, 28, 84, 101, 123, 129, plural marker, 19, 24, 28, 79, 84, 214–17, 240 175–6, 179–84, 186, 188, 197, 201 polygenesis, 47–9, 58, 61, 106 and habitual, 183 polylectal grammars, 55, 192 and locatives, 180 polysemy, 108 (def.) in superstrates, 180–1 Pompilus, M., 45, 88 progressive nasalization, 149 (def.), 150 Popular Brazilian Portuguese, see Brazilian pronouns, 222–6 Vernacular Portuguese case, 222 Portugal, 71–2 gender, 216 Portuguese, 77–8, 80, 125, 180, 193, 201, 238 inclusiveness, 223–4 creolist literature in, 65 interrogative, 226 influence on Atlantic creoles, 123–4 number, 222 Portuguese, Pidgin, 16, 46, 71, 77, 218 personal, 222–6 Portuguese-based P/Cs, xix, 27–8, 30, 37, 57, possessive, 220–1 71–2, 86, 123–4 quasi-reflexive, 225–6 Portuguese empire, 71–2, 81 relative, 226 possession, 212, 217–22 variation, 55 possessive adjectives, 90, 218, 221–2, 226, prostitutes, 112 240 prothesis, 142 (def.) with phrasal prepositions, 231 proto-creole, 49, 51 possessive particle, 80, 84, 90, 219–20 Providencia CE, xxi possessive pronouns, 90, 220–1 punctual, 183 (def.) as emphatic possessive adjectives, 220–1, 240 quantification of variables, 27 post-clitics, 127 quantifiers, 129 post-creoles, 4, 10 (def.), 33, 50, 51, 55, 92, quasi-modal, 194 235, 239 quasi-reflexives, 25, 29, 225–6 post-nominal determiners, 17, 28 Queensland, 96, 98 postpositions, 128, 231–2 question markers, 59, 234–5 postverbal markers, 128, 176 questions, 234–6 power relationships, 6, 68–70, 106, 237 embedded, 235–6 predicate clefting, 32, 201–2, 211–12, 240 question words, 234 predicate marker, 211–12 bimorphemic structure, 61, 120, 226 prefix, 127 with highlighter, 202–3 prenasalized stops, 100, 139, 153, 155–7, 239 pre-pidgin, 8, 42, 68–9, 95, 107, 237 /r/, /l/ alternation, 32, 161–2 prepositions, 79, 240 Rabaul, 97–8 general locative, 123, 229; meaning ‘from’, racism, 22–3 229 ‘radical’ creoles, 62–3, 140 indicating possession, 218 Rastafarians, 94 omission of, 218, 230 ratio of native to non-native speakers, 238 phrasal, 230–1 reanalysis, 107, 115, 117 versus postpositions, 231 recopying, 32, 201–2, 211–12, 234 present participle, 180 reduced pidgin, see early pidgin as etymon, 129 redundancy present tense, 175, 177 in compounds, 131 ‘historical present’, 177 in pidgins, 59 Pressoir, C., 89 redundancy convention, 54 prestige, 69, 76, 79, 89, 90, 98, 100, 144, 237 reduplication, 28, 59, 101, 104, 107, 121, 238



Index

and intonation, 167 San Andrés CE, xxi and semantic shift, 121 Sandalwood English, 95, 97 to indicate durative, 101 sandhi phenomena, 80 (def.) to indicate plural, 28 tone sandhi, 165 reflexes, 137–8 Sango, xx, 69, 101, 233 reflexives (see also quasi-reflexives), 117, 222 Sankoff, G., 4, 6, 56, 59 refrancisation (or re-Frenchification), 148 Sanskrit, 21 regional English Santo Domingo, 93 of England, 109–11, 147, 185, 188, 192 São Tomé CP, xix, 27, 30–2, 62, 72–5, 124, of Ireland, 111, 129, 185, 235 140, 158–9, 176, 224, 232 of Scotland, 111, 120, 129, 147, 187 Saramaccan CE, xxi, 20, 30, 46, 48, 62, 84, regional features, 37, 106, 110–11, 131, 142, 92, 124, 154, 157,167, 206, 209, 212, 214, 152, 225, 238 217, 223–4, 230–2 and archaic, 91, 108, 110, 135 scalability indices, 55 (def.) phonological, 111, 146 Schleicher, A., 2, 29 regressive nasalization, 25, 149 (def.), 150 Schmidt, J., 29 Reinecke, J., 3, 36, 38–42, 64 Schneider, G., 107 reiteration, 122 Schuchardt, H., 3, 23, 27–34, 52, 76, 138 relative clauses, 6, 61, 101, 213, 226 Schultze, E., 39 relexification, 31, 46 (def.), 48, 62, 65, 74, 78, Scotland, regional English of, 111, 120, 129, 119, 123 147, 187 religious languages, secret, 20, 114 Sea Islands, 37 repidginization, 99 second-language acquisition, 4, 8, 12, 26–7, restructuring, see pidginization and/or 35–6, 58–9, 91, 137–8, 240 creolization secondary leveling, 10 (def.) retentions versus loans, 114 secret languages, 114 Réunionnais, xx, 70, 86, 125 semantic broadening, 108, 116–18, 133 creole? 65, 86 semantic narrowing, 134 Rickford, J., 3, 57 semantic shifts, 107, 132–4, 238 Rodrigues CF, xx, 85 via reduplication, 121–2 Romaine, S., 4 semi-creoles, 3, 4, 10, 41, 51, 65–6, 70, 76, 81, Romance languages, 15, 173, 214, 218, 233 86, 92, 235, 238–9 of the second generation, 239 semi-creolization, 10 (def.), 35, 41, 70, 72 Romance linguistics, 29 Senegal, 16, 30, 145, 172 Romani, 11 sentence connectors, 223, 227–8 Russenorsk, xx, 69, 102, 108 sentence-final -o, 232–3 Russian, Pidgin, xx serial verbs, 24, 32, 79, 101, 187, 205 (def.) – Russo-Chinese Pidgin (see also Chinese Pidgin 212, 239–40 Russian), xx, 102, 108 directional, 206 ‘give’ meaning ‘for’, 24, 207–8, 211 Saba, xxii instrumental, 206 Sabino, R., 84 ‘pass’ meaning ‘than’, 210–11 St. Barthélemy (or St. Barts) French or CF, 86 ‘say’ meaning ‘that’, 208–10, 211 St. Christopher (later St. Kitts), xxii, 86 settlers’ creoles (see also fort creoles), 40–1 St. Croix, 82 Seychellois CF, xx, 85, 108, 198, 204, 209, St. Domingue (later Haiti), 86 212–15, 221, 227–30, 233 St. Eustatius, 82 Siegel, J., 66 St. John, 82 Sierra Leone CE, see Krio CE St. Kitts (earlier St. Christopher), xxii, 86 simple past tense, 175 St. Lucia, xxii, 85 simple present tense, 175, 180, 183, 185 St. Martin, xxii, 82 simplification, 10, 11, 27, 58–9, 99, 223 Saint-Quentin, A. de, 23 simplified registers, 58–9, 99 St. Thomas, 18, 82 Singapore English, 67 St. Thomas French or CF, 86 Sinhala, 28, 40 St. Vincent, xxii Skepi CD, xxi, 80, 84 Samaná English, xxi, 92 ‘skin’ as quasi-reflexive, 225–6 Samoa, 97–8 slang, 112



Index

slave revolts, 73–4 100, 107, 122, 135, 169, 171–3, 178–85, slavery and creolization, 6, 69–70, 106, 238 188, 192, 198, 205–12, 214, 217, 223, slave trade, 73, 77, 87, 92, 102, 123, 240 225, 229, 231, 236, 238–40 social engineering, 70, 238 influence on pidgins, 61, 108 social factors lexical influence, 113–22 in creolization, 6–8, 22, 26, 68–71, 237–9 phonological influence, 137ff. in decreolization, 53–4 substratists, 12, 27, 30–1, 63, 106 in language change, 2, 29 substratomaniacs, 43 in pidginization, 5–6, 22, 68–71, 138, 237–8 substratophobes, 43 in semi-creolization, 10, 70, 238 Sudan, 102 social identity, 7, 39, 40, 64, 88 Sudanic languages, 102 Society for Caribbean Linguistics, 57 sugar plantations, 6, 73, 87 Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, 57, Sumatra, 102 66 superlative meaning, 122 sociolects, 79, 89, 112, 146, 148, 215, 238 superstrate (see also lexical source language), sociolinguistic history, 32, 39, 68, 173–4, 5 (def.), 12, 126, 137ff., 197, 201, 233 237–8, 240 influence on creoles, 32, 40, 70, 108–13, sociolinguistics, 3, 29, 39, 42, 237–8 122, 169, 171–3, 178, 184–5, 188, 210, Solomon Islands PE, xix, 96 214, 217, 229 sound changes, 108, 137–8 suprasegmentals, 163–9 South Africa, 81, 101 Suriname, xxii, 18, 37, 93–4 South Seas Jargon, 95, 107 Surinamese Creoles, 50, 92, 96, 126, 152–5, SOV word order, 173, 231–6 157, 160, 203, 221 Spain, 72 Susu, 145, 223 Spanish, 125–6, 180, 201 Sutcliffe, D., 169 creolist literature in, 65 SVO word order, 173, 231–6 influence on Papiamentu, 75–8, 80 Swahili, 104, 164 in the Caribbean, 66, 76, 197, 200 Swahili, restructured, xx, 69, 101 Spanish-based P/Cs, xix, 75–6 Sweden, 82 Sprachinseln, see enclave varieties syllable structure, see phonotactics Sprauve, G., 84 syllable-timing, 164 Sranan CE, xxi, 18, 22, 24, 32, 42, 44, 46, 48, Sylvain, S., 37, 43, 90 62, 76, 84, 92, 94, 111, 124, 140, 154, syncope, 141 (def.), 144 157, 175–6, 191, 198, 208–9, 212, 214, synecdoche, 225 (def.), 226 219, 224, 227–31, 236 syntactic function, change of, 118–19, 134–5 Sri Lanka CP, xix, 40, 72 systematicity, 214, 240 stability of pidgins, 5, 8, 11, 68–9, 97, 107, 237 Tabouret-Keller, A., 2, 56, 64 Stammbaum theory, see family tree model Tamil, 28, 40 standardization, 4, 79, 89, 99 target language, 138 stative/non-stative, 177–9 Taylor, D., 42–7 passim, 61–2, 183–4 Stevens, A., 84 Tayo CF, xx, 85, 224 Stewart, W., 46–7, 51 tense, 59, 174 (def.), 177, 180 stigma, 115, 141–2 tense/lax vowels, 151–3 Stolz, T., 84, 110 tense-mode-aspect system, 59–61, 101, 104, stress, 139, 164–5 117, 174–97, 200 stress-timing, 164 in pidgins, 59, 101, 104 subcategorizational rules (see also lexical ordering of markers, 179, 190–2 properties), 122, 135, 236 table of markers, 176 subject copying, 61 tripartite model, 188 subject/verb inversion, 234–6 tensed verbs, 192–3 subordination (see also embedding), 192–4, texts of P/Cs, 15, 17, 18, 65, 67 233 Angolar CP, 75 substitution of phonemes, 138 (def.) Haitian CF, 91 substrate, 5 (def.), 12, 233 Jamaican CE, 95 influence on creoles, 26, 32, 35, 37, 40, 43, Ndyuka CE, 8 58, 60, 61, 63, 70, 72, 82, 87, 91, 95, 98, Negerhollands CD, 85



Index

Nubi CA, 104–5 Uganda, 102–3 Papiamentu CS, 80 uncertain future, 189, 191 Tok Pisin PE, 6, 101 underdifferentiation of sounds, 138 theory, 12, 14–67, 68–71, 237–40 unidimensional continuum, 56 ‘they’ pluralizer, 24, 28, 84, 214–16 uninﬂected be, 186 Thomason, S., 15, 56, 65, 66 United Nations, 100 Thompson, R., 45 United States of America, 4, 83, 88, 102 time reference, 177 universalists, 12, 27, 30–1, 58–61, 63, 106, 138 time in focus or time-line, 175, 178, 186 universals, 4, 8, 32, 35–6, 58–60, 91, 137–8, Todd, L., 59 169, 171, 188–9, 196, 200, 209, 213–14, Todd Dandare, R., 76 220, 225, 239–40 Tok Masta, 99 unmarked parameters, 58 Tok Pisin PE, xix, 4, 8, 12, 107–8, 130, 233, unmarked verb, 175–8 240 unrounding of vowels, 147–8 adjectives, 212 Unserdeutsch, xx, 69 anterior, 179 Upper Guinea CP, 72 complementizer, 193–4 urban/rural varieties, 78, 83, 90, 100 completive, 186–7 US Black English, see African American conjunctions, 228 Vernacular English determiners, 212 forms of ‘be’, 198, 202–5 /v/, /β/, /w/ alternation, 155 habitual, 184–5 Vai, 155 irrealis, 188–90 Valdman, A., 88–91 lexicon, 98 Valkhoff, M., 74, 76 morphology, 100 van der Merwe, E., 66 negation, 195 Van Name, A., 15, 24–7, 31, 76, 138 noun phrase, 216–17 Vanuatu Bislama, xix, 96 phonological features, 100 variable, 54–5 possession, 219, 221 versus categorical, 55, 192 prepositions, 230–32 variation, 7, 29, 49–57, 148, 192, 198 progressive, 182 verbal system, see tense-mode-aspect pronouns, 223–4, 226 verb fronting, see predicate clefting serial verbs, 206–7, 209–11 Vietnamese PF, xx, 30, 85 sociolinguistic history, 96–100 Virgin Islands, US, 80–5 texts, 6, 101 Virgin Islands CE, xxi unmarked verbs, 177 Visayan, 223 word order, 233–6 Voorhoeve, J., 44–6, 48, 190–1 Tolai, see Kuanua vowel copying, 152–3 Tonga, 74 (def.) vowel harmony, 26, 142–3, 151–3 topicalization, 234 vowel height, 146, 151 Torres Strait CE, xix, 96, 98 vowel length, 146–7 Tortuga, 86 VSO word order, 234–5 trade language, 40, 68, 102 vulgar usages, 112 transfer of features, 138 transformational grammar, 54–5 Waher, H., 66 transitivizing particle, 100 Washabaugh, W., 50, 192 trial (number), 100, 223–4 wave theory, 29, 55, 192 Trinidad and Tobago CE, xxi, 92 Weinreich, U., 138 Trinidadian CF, xxi, 24, 28, 85 Wellentheorie, see wave theory tripartite verbal system, 188 West African PE, xix, 18, 27, 107–8 Tshiluba, 157 West African PF, xx Tupi, 102 West Atlantic languages, 31, 144–5, 154, 206, Turco-Egyptian Sudan, 102–3 233 Turner, L., 43 Western Caribbean CE, 92–3 Twi, 82, 116, 120, 159, 173, 181, 208, 225, 233 whalers, 95 typology, 91, 173, 239 wh-extraction, 193 of Niger-Congo languages, 91, 172 Whinnom, K., 5, 46–7



Index

whites’ creole, 19, 20, 70, 78, 83, 88, 238 Yansi, 147 Whydah, 145 Yiddish, 10 Willaims, J., 70 Yokohama, 102 Winford, D., 70 Yoruba, 62, 75, 80, 108, 115–16, 120, 145, ‘with’ meaning ‘and’, 228 152, 161, 174, 179, 188, 206, 208, 212, Wobe, 232 215, 218, 220, 223–5, 227, 229–34, 236 Wolof, 140, 164, 224–5, 227 determiners, 212 word-formation rules, 101, 119–20 forms of ‘be’, 119, 198–201 productivity, 122, 130 survival in New World, 114 word order, 212, 231, 233–6 verbal markers, 176–8, 183 in verb phrase, 179, 190–2 you all, 224–5 negation, 194–5, 234 questions, 234–6 Zamboangueño CS, 76, 198, 207, 223–5, 229, World War I, 98 234–5 World War II, 42, 99–100 Zeelandish, 111 Wullschlägel, H., 23–4 zero copula, see ‘be’, before adjectives and Wurm, S., 100, 101 before locatives Zinzendorf, N. von, 18, 19 xenolect, 10 (def.) Zulu, 101

